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LECTURER: Mr. Noel S. Quiming HISTORY Walter Sutton proved that chromosomes the cells units of inheritance and that it follows the Mendellian Law in 1902. Chromosomes highly folded, long strand of DNA molecules associated with proteins. *different organisms can be differentiated by their number of chromosomal pairs. e.g Humans 23 pairs Dogs 39 pairs Tomato - 12 pairs *1 fragment of a chromosome represents a gene, and a gene corresponds to particular protein/s. Prokaryotes - 1 gene = several proteins Eukaryotes 1 gene = 1 protein Frederick Griffith demonstrated the transforming factors of bacterial cells in 1928. Griffith Experiment concludes that heatkilled S-strain can transform the R-strain.
Martha Chase and Alfred Hershey proved that the DNA is the substance that transmits genetic information in 1952.
Note: Proteins undergo denaturation. AveryMacLeodMcCarty Experiment (1944) Proved that DNA is the substance that causes bacterial transformation and that it carries the hereditary traits.
*bacteriophages- virus that is parasitic (reproduces itself) in bacteria. Conclusion: Bacteriophages infect using their DNA and not with their proteins, hence, DNA are the genetic materials. UPCD 2017 |Amiel Apostol, Rogielyn Bandoja 1
Erwin Chargaff - Discovered the key facts needed to determine the structure of DNA by measuring the 4 nitrogenous bases in DNA molecules of different species.
Franklin and Wilkins - their detailed measurements using x-ray gave the key to Watson and Crick to determine that the shape of the DNA molecule was a double helix in 1952. * Both sugars are pentoses NUCLEIC ACIDS Polymers of nucleotides (building blocks) 1'C Nitrogenous bases is attached 3'C free hydroxyl group (OH) 5'C connects to phosphate group
Determination of the Structure of Nucleotides 1. Use detergent to separate protein from nucleic acid components from nucleoproteins. 2. Nucleic acid was subjected to nuclease (enzyme that hydrolyzes nucleic acids). *Nucleic acids degraded into nucleotides. 3. Using Phosphatase or Nucleotidase, nucleotides are separated into phosphate group and nucleoside. 4. Nucleosides upon the action of nucelosidase are degrade into sugar component and nitrogenous bases. As a result we should know that nucleotides are compose of: 1. Sugar Component (Ribose or Deoxyribose)
CONFORMATION 1) Syn- ring of nitrogenous base and ring of sugar are in the same plane 2) Anti- ring of nitrogenous base and ring of sugar are in opposite planes -nucleosides and nucleotides are usually found in this conformation 2 TYPES OF NUCLEIC ACIDS BASED ON NITROGENOUS BASES 1. Purines (A, G) 2. Pyrimidines (C, T, U)
Structures of Ribonucleotides (Sugar: Ribose) - building blocks of RNA Molecules 1. 2. 3. 4. Adenosine Guanosine Uridine Cytidine
Forms of DNA
Structures of Deoxyribonucleotides (Sugar: Deoxyribose) - building blocks of DNA Molecules 1. 2. 3. 4. Deoxyadenosine (adenine) Deoxyguanosine (guanine) Deoxythymidine (thymine) Deoxycytidine (cytosine)
* Phosphodiester Bond binds the structure of DNA; sugar-phosphate backbone; formed through the reaction of 3C OH of one nucleotide to 5C PO43- of another nucleotide
1. aDNA 2. zDNA 3. bDNA (most common form of DNA) *aDNA can be obtained from bDNA through dehydration
*zDNA is irregular and seem to zigzag because the purine bases are in the syn conformation while the pyrimidine bases are in the anti conformation Form Helical twist Base pairs per turn Occurrence A Right 11 RNA, DNA B Right 10 DNA Z Left 12 DNA
Remember: 1. Prokaryotes - Double stranded Circular DNA 2. One Single unit = Plasmid = Encode Several Proteins 3. Eukaryotes = Double Stranded Linear DNA 4. Chromatin = DNA Molecules associated with proteins and RNA.
Notes: 1. Chromatin - DNA Molecules associated with proteins and RNA. 2. Several Nucleosomes joined together by linker DNA strand into a solenoid and folded into nuclear scaffold folded into chromosome. 3. Chromosome = Histone Octamer Proteins + Nucleosome + Double Stranded DNA Histone Octamer - Compose of 8 Proteins; Cylindrical Part where the DNA is coiled Total of 8 Proteins UPCD 2017 |Amiel Apostol, Rogielyn Bandoja 4
*Histone Octamer is basic therefore positively charged in order for the negatively charged DNA molecule to coil around it. CENTRAL DOGMA OF GENETICS 3 processes: 1) Replication- DNA produce DNA 2) Transcription- DNA template produce RNA *reverse transcription- RNA template produce DNA 3) Translation- RNA produce protein Characteristics of DNA Replication 1) DNA replication is semiconservative -one strand is used as template; complementary strand as newly synthesized template -newly synthesized strand has lighter isotope of nitrogen * conservative- product of 1st generation double sided DNA with 2 newly synthesized strands with a parent strand -DNA strands with heavy nitrogen isotope 2) DNA replication begins at an origin 3) DNA replication is bidirectional -two replication forks are made which move in opposite directions Ex. Formation of Okazaki fragments *replication bubble 4) DNA replication proceeds in a 5 -> 3 direction and is semidiscontinuous
1) 5->3 polymerase activity- can synthesized from 5 to 3 direction; meaning it starts at 3 end -both strands used as template *perfect template is strand running from 3 to 5 2) 3->5 exonuclease activity - they can remove nucleotide from 3 to 5 direction -proofreading ability= removal of mismatched pair 3) 5->3 exonuclease activitynucleotide from 5 to 3 direction removal of
- remove RNA primer and replace it by newly synthesized DNA fragment Replication of E. Coli 1) Initiation 2) Elongation 3) Termination- once replication bubble is formed, at some point, both ends will meet (when entire bacterial gene has been replicated) causing termination