Methods of

Algorithm Description
Second Edition

to accompany the
2 Unit (General)
2/3 Unit (Common)
3 Unit (Additional)
Computing Studies Syllabuses
Republished as a second edition with permission of the Director-General,
Department of School Education.
The original Methods of Algorithm Description document was developed at a
Computer Education Unit, Department of School Education writing workshop.

© Board of Studies NSW 1995

Published by
Board of Studies NSW
PO Box 460
North Sydney NSW 2059
Australia

Tel: (02) 9927 8111

ISBN 0 7310 3365 5
March 1995
95010
Table of Contents
Introduction 5
Structure of the Document 6
What is Programming? (OHT original) 7
What is an Algorithm? (OHT original) 8
Overview of Two Methods 10
Programming Structures 12
Sequence 13
Selection 15
Repetition 20
Subprograms 24
Solved Problems 29
Lift 31
Solution 1 31
Solution 2 32
Temperature Control 33
Toll Gate 35
‘Squash’ Scoring 38
Record Separation 41
Solution 1 42
Solution 2 44
Solution 3 46
Guess the Number 48
Income Tax 52
Telephone Dialler 54
Auto Teller 58
Algorithms for Searching and Sorting 71
Linear Search 72
Binary Search 75
Bubble Sort 77
Selection Sort 79
Insertion Sort 82
A Collection of Problems with No Solutions Given 85
Introduction
This revised document was written in conjunction with
the Board of Studies Information and Communication
Technologies Syllabus Committee. It contains suitable
methods of algorithm description for use in the
implementation of the following courses in Computing
Studies:
2 Unit (General) Computing Studies
2/3 Unit (Common) Computing Studies
3 Unit (Additional) Computing Studies.
This document presents two methods for describing
algorithms for use in Computing Studies courses in NSW
schools. It shows, through the use of examples, how the
methods of algorithm description of pseudocode and
flowcharts can be used to describe solutions to problems.
There are many definitions of methods of algorithm
description in existence, some with many special symbols
and keywords defined for special purposes. This
document attempts to define a minimum set that will be
useful in terms of the syllabuses in Computing Studies.
In assessing the quality of algorithm descriptions, general
criteria such as the correctness of the algorithm, the clarity
of the description, the use of appropriate control
structures and the embodiment of structured methods,
rather than the specific features of any method, should be
taken into consideration.
Clarity of description and consistency in the use of the
components of the method chosen are of far more
importance than the actual shape of a flowchart element
or the specific wording of a pseudocode statement.
The document presents standards that students should
aim for in publishing solutions to problems. The same
standards should be used by teachers when presenting
algorithms to students. In many cases there are
alternatives that could be used and it should be noted that
students can expect to see methods of algorithm
description with many differences in detail published in
books and magazines. Teachers should ensure that the
approach presented in textbooks, worksheets and
examinations does not contradict the standards that
students use.

5
Structure of the Document
The preliminary section consists of a description of the
programming process and some definitions of an algorithm
presented in the form of overhead transparency originals.
In the following section are descriptions of the main
features of two methods of algorithm description:
pseudocode and flowcharts. Descriptions and specific
examples of the programming structures of sequence,
selection, repetition and subprograms (procedures or
subroutines) are given.
The most substantial section of the document contains
sample problems and worked solutions that show the use
of each of the methods of algorithm description. The
solutions do not purport to describe the ‘ultimate’
solution, but rather one (or more) possible solutions to the
problem.
It will become obvious from reading the document that
not all solutions are directly suited to implementation on a
computer. The reason for this is that an aim of the
document is to show how solutions to problems can be
expressed through the use of sample problems to which
most people already know some solution.
There is a new section in this edition which provides
possible descriptions of the searching and sorting
algorithms required by Core Topic 2: Algorithm Design in
the 2/3 Unit (Common) Computing Studies course.
It must be noted that alternative solutions are possible. In
some cases different solutions are provided expressed in
each of the two prescribed methods. These can be used as
models for expressing the same solution in the other
method and should extend the reader’s understanding of
the topic.
The final section has a collection of problems for which no
solutions are given. These are provided to give you some
practice using the methods of algorithm description.

6
 Methods of Algorithm Description

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What is Programming?
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7
Methods of Algorithm Description

@@@@@@@@e? @@@@@@@@e?@@@@@@@@?e@@@@@@@@e?@@@@@@@@?e@@@@@@@@e?@@@@@@@@?e@@@@@@@@e?@@@@@@@@?e@@@@@@@@e?@@@@@@@@?e@@@@@@@@e?@@@@@@@@?e
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What is an Algorithm? @@
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An algorithm consists of a set of explicit and @@
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corresponding output and terminate in finite time. @@
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How to Solve it by Computer, RG Dromey, Prentice Hall UK, 1982 @@
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Computer Science, D Woodhouse et al, Jacaranda Wiley, 1984 @@
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Understanding Information Technology, K Behan and D Holmes, @@
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Prentice Hall Australia, 1986 @@
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Reprinted with the permission of Prentice Hall Australia Pty Ltd. @@
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8
 Methods of Algorithm Description

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Algorithm: a step-by-step procedure for solving a @@
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problem; programming languages are essentially a @@
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Understanding Computers: Computer Languages, @@
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a method or technique for the task must be @@
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described very precisely in terms of the different @@
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steps. An algorithm is a description of the steps of @@
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Computing Science, Peter Bishop, Thomas Nelson UK, 1982 @@
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9
Overview of Two Methods
Pseudocode Pseudocode essentially is English with some defined
rules of structure and some keywords that make it appear
a bit like program code. Some guidelines for writing
pseudocode are as follows.

Pseudocode Guidelines
• The keywords used for pseudocode in this document
are:
for start and finish
BEGIN MAINPROGRAM, END MAINPROGRAM

for initialisation
INITIALISATION, END INITIALISATION

for subprogram
BEGIN SUBPROGRAM, END SUBPROGRAM

for selection
IF, THEN, ELSE, ENDIF

for multi-way selection

CASEWHERE, OTHERWISE, ENDCASE

for pre-test repetition

WHILE, ENDWHILE

for post-test repetition

REPEAT, UNTIL

• Keywords are written in capitals.

• Structural elements come in pairs, eg for every BEGIN
there is an END, for every IF there is an ENDIF, etc.
• Indenting is used to show structure in the algorithm.
• The names of subprograms are underlined. This means
that when refining the solution to a problem, a word in
an algorithm can be underlined and a subprogram
developed. This feature is to assist the use of the ‘top-
down’ development concept.

10
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowcharts Flowcharts are a diagrammatic method of representing

algorithms. They use an intuitive scheme of showing
operations in boxes connected by lines and arrows that
graphically show the flow of control in an algorithm. The
Australian Standards for flowcharting indicate that the
main direction of flow is accepted as being top to bottom
and left to right.

Flowchart Elements
Flowcharts are made up of the following box types
connected by lines with arrowheads indicating the flow. It
is common practice only to show arrowheads where the
flow is counter to that stated above.

terminator process

subprogram decision

These should be thought of as the characters of flowcharts.

Just as ordinary characters must be put together in certain
ways to produce well-formed words, and words must be
put together in certain ways to produce well-structured
sentences, these flowchart elements must be connected in
certain ways to form accepted structures and the
structures connected in certain ways to form well-
structured algorithms. The flowcharting structures for
sequence, selection and repetition are given in the next
section of this document.
It is considered good practice for a single flowchart never
to exceed the bounds of one page. If a flowchart does not
fit on one page, this is one instance in which the better
solution is to use refinement which results in the creation
of subprograms. Subprograms on separate pages are more
desirable than using a connector to join flowcharts over
more than one page. A flowchart expressing the solution
to an involved problem may have the main program
flowchart on one page with subprograms continuing the
problem solution on subsequent pages. An example of this
situation is given in the last solved problem in this
document — the Auto Teller problem on page 54.
11
Programming Structures
The Computing Studies syllabuses mention the
programming structures of sequence, selection, repetition
and subprograms. A description of each of these structures,
together with examples of their use, follows.

The Structures Each of the five acceptable structures can be built from the
basic elements as shown below.

Sequence Binary Selection

Multi-way selection

Repetition (Pre-test) Repetition (Post-test)

12
 Methods of Algorithm Description

In all cases note there is only one entry point to the

structure and one exit point as indicated by the dashed
boxes.
Since each structure can be thought of as a process (as
shown by the dashed boxes containing the structure),
more complex algorithms can be constructed by replacing
any single process by one or other of the structures.

Sequence In a computer program or an algorithm, sequence involves

simple steps which are to be executed one after the other.
The steps are executed in the same order in which they are
written.
In pseudocode, sequence is expressed as:
process 1

process 2
…
…

process n

In a flowchart, sequence is expressed as:

(The arrowheads are optional if the flow is top-to-bottom.)

process 1

process 2

process n

13
Methods of Algorithm Description

An Example Using Sequence

Problem: Write a set of instructions that describe how to
make a pot of tea.

Pseudocode
BEGIN
fill a kettle with water
boil the water in the kettle
put the tea leaves in the pot
pour boiling water in the pot
END

Flowchart

begin

fill a kettle
with water

boil the water

in the kettle

put the tea

leaves in the pot

pour boiling
water in the pot

end

14
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Selection Selection is used in a computer program or algorithm to

determine which particular step or set of steps is to be
executed. A selection statement can be used to choose a
specific path dependent on a condition. There are two
types of selection: binary (two-way branching) selection
and multi-way (many way branching) selection. Following
is a description of each.

Binary Selection
As the name implies, binary selection allows the choice
between two possible paths. If the condition is met then
one path is taken, otherwise the second possible path is
followed. In each of the examples below, the first case
described requires a process to be completed only if the
condition is true. The process is ignored if the condition is
false. In other words there is only one path that requires
processing to be done, so the processing free path is left
out rather than included saying ‘do nothing’.
In pseudocode, binary selection is expressed in the
following ways:
1. IF condition THEN
process 1
ENDIF

2. IF condition THEN
process 1
ELSE
process 2
ENDIF

In flowcharts, binary selection is expressed in the

following ways:

1.

False True
condition

process 1

15
Methods of Algorithm Description

2.

False True
condition

process 2 process 1

Note: In a flowchart it is most important to indicate which

path is to be followed when the condition is true,
and which path to follow when the condition is
false. Without these indications the flowchart is
open to more than one interpretation.
Note: There are two acceptable ways to represent a decision
in all of the structures.
1. The condition is expressed as a statement and the two
possible outcomes are indicated by True, False.

False True
A>0

2. The condition is expressed as a question and the two

possible outcomes are indicated by Yes, No.

No Is Yes
A>0?

Either method is acceptable. For consistency, the former

method is used throughout the document.

16
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Multi-way Selection
Multi-way selection allows for any number of possible
choices, or cases. The path taken is determined by the
selection of the choice which is true. Multi-way selection is
often referred to as a case structure.
In pseudocode, multiple selection is expressed as:
CASEWHERE expression evaluates to
choice a : process a
choice b : process b
. .
. .
. .
OTHERWISE : default process
ENDCASE

Note: As the flowchart version of the multi-way selection

indicates, only one process on each pass is executed
as a result of the implementation of the multi-way
selection.
In a flowchart, multi-way selection is expressed as:

expression

choice a choice b otherwise

process a process b default process

17
Methods of Algorithm Description

Examples Using Binary Selection

Problem 1: Write a set of instructions to describe when to
answer the phone.

Pseudocode
IF the telephone is ringing THEN
answer the telephone
ENDIF

Flowchart

False the True

telephone
is ringing

answer the
telephone

Problem 2: Write a set of instructions to follow when

approaching a set of traffic control lights.

Pseudocode
IF the signal is green THEN
proceed through the intersection
ELSE
stop the vehicle
ENDIF

Flowchart

False the True

signal is
green

proceed through
stop the vehicle the intersection

18
 Methods of Algorithm Description

An Example Using Multi-way Selection

Problem: Write a set of instructions that describes how to
respond to all possible signals at a set of traffic
control lights.

Pseudocode
CASEWHERE signal is
red : stop the vehicle
amber : stop the vehicle
green : proceed through the intersection
OTHERWISE : proceed with caution
ENDCASE

Flowchart

signal is

red amber green otherwise

stop the vehicle proceed through proceed

stop the vehicle with caution
the intersection

19
Methods of Algorithm Description

Repetition Repetition allows for a portion of an algorithm or

computer program to be done any number of times
dependent on some condition being met. An occurrence of
repetition is usually known as a loop.
An essential feature of repetition is that each loop has a
termination condition to stop the repetition, or the obvious
outcome is that the loop never completes execution (an
infinite loop). The termination condition can be checked or
tested at the beginning or end of the loop, and is known as
a pre-test or post-test respectively. Following is a
description of each of these types of loop.

Repetition: Pre-Test
A pre-tested loop is so named because the condition has to
be met at the very beginning of the loop or the body of the
loop is not executed. This construct is often called a
guarded loop. The body of the loop is executed repeatedly
while the termination condition is true.
In pseudocode pre-test repetition is expressed as:
WHILE condition is true
process(es)
ENDWHILE

In flowcharting pre-test repetition is expressed as:

condition False condition True

True False

process process

Although these two flowcharts are topologically the same

and represent the same programming structure, the left-
hand example above is used throughout this document.

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 Methods of Algorithm Description

Repetition: Post-Test
A post-tested loop executes the body of the loop before
testing the termination condition. This construct is often
referred to as an unguarded loop. The body of the loop is
repeatedly executed until the termination condition is
true.
An important difference between a pre-test and post-test
loop is that the statements of a post-test loop are executed
at least once even if the condition is originally true,
whereas the body of the pre-test loop may never be
executed if the termination condition is originally true. A
close look at the representations of the two loop types
makes this point apparent.
In pseudocode, post-test is expressed as:
REPEAT
process
UNTIL condition is true

In a flowchart, post-test is expressed as:

process

condition
False

True

21
Methods of Algorithm Description

An Example Using Pre-Test Repetition

Problem: Determine a safety procedure for travelling in a
carriage on a moving train.

Pseudocode
WHILE the train is moving
keep wholly within the carriage
ENDWHILE

Flowchart

the train False

is moving

True

keep wholly
within the car

22
 Methods of Algorithm Description

An Example Using Post-Test Repetition

Problem: Determine a procedure to beat egg whites until
fluffy.

Pseudocode
REPEAT
beat the egg whites
UNTIL fluffy

Flowchart

beat the
egg whites

False egg whites

fluffy

True

23
Methods of Algorithm Description

Subprograms Subprograms, as the name implies, are complete part-

programs that are used from within the main program
section. They allow the process of refinement to be used to
develop solutions to problems that are easy to follow.
Sections of the solution are developed and presented in
understandable chunks, and because of this, subprograms
are particularly useful when using the top-down method
of solution development.
When using subprograms it is important that the solution
expression indicates where the main program branches to
a subprogram. It is equally important to indicate exactly
where the subprogram begins. In pseudocode, the
statement in the main program that is expanded in a
subprogram is underlined to indicate that further
explanation follows. The expanded subprogram section
should be identified by using the keywords BEGIN
SUBPROGRAM followed by the underlined title used in the
main program. The end of the subprogram is marked by
the keywords END SUBPROGRAM and the underlined title
used in the main program.
When using flowcharts, a subprogram is shown by an
additional vertical line on each side of the process box.
This indicates that the subprogram is expanded elsewhere.
The start and end of the subprogram flowchart uses the
name of the subprogram in the termination boxes.

Example of Using Subprograms in Pseudocode

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
process l
process 2
process 3
process 4
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM process 2

do this
do that
END SUBPROGRAM process 2

24
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Example of Using Subprograms in Flowcharts

begin

process 1

process 2

process 3

process 4

end

begin process 2

do this

do that

end process 2

25
Methods of Algorithm Description

In many cases a subprogram can be written to do the same

task at two or more points in an algorithm. Each time the
subprogram is called, it may operate on different data. To
indicate the data to be used one or more parameters are
used. The parameters allow the author to write a general
algorithm using the formal parameters. When the
subprogram is executed, the algorithm carries out its task
on the actual parameters given at the call.
The parameters to be used by a subprogram are provided
as a list in parentheses after the name of the subprogram.
There is no need to include them at the end of the algorithm.

Example of Using Subprograms with one

Parameter in Pseudocode

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
read (name)
read (address)
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM read (array)

set pointer to first position
get a character
WHILE character is not the end of data AND there is room in the array
store character in the array at the position given by the pointer
increment the pointer
get a character
ENDWHILE
END SUBPROGRAM read

At the first call of this subprogram the characters are read

into the array called ‘name’, at the second call the characters
are read into the array called ‘address’.

26
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Example of Using Subprograms with one

Parameter in Flowcharts

begin

read
(name)

read
(address)

end

begin read
(array)

set pointer to
first position

get a character

character ≠
end of data False
and room in
the array

True

store character in
array at position
given by the pointer

increment pointer

get a character

end read

27
Solved Problems
Methods of Algorithm Description

Table Indicating Programming Structures

Used in the Sample Problems

Binary Multiple
Problem Sequence Selection Selection Repetition: Repetition:
Subprogram
( if-then) ( case) ( while) ( repeat-until)

Lift
✓ ✓
Solution 1

Lift
✓ ✓
Solution 2

Temperature
✓ ✓ ✓
Control

Toll Gate ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

Squash
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Scoring

Record
Separation ✓ ✓ ✓
Solution 1

Record
Separation ✓ ✓ ✓
Solution 2

Record
Separation ✓ ✓
Solution 3

Guess the
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Number

Income Tax ✓ ✓

Telephone
✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓
Dialler

Auto-Teller ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓ ✓

30
Lift Problem
Problem A lift remains positioned at the ground floor level of a
building with the doors shut whenever it is not in use.
When a call button is pressed on any floor, the lift moves
to the required floor and the lift doors open. Write an
algorithm to express the logic of controlling the lift.

Solution 1 This solution uses sequence and repeat-until structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to express the logic of controlling a lift
BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
REPEAT
check all buttons
UNTIL a button is pressed
move to the required floor
open the doors
END MAINPROGRAM

Flowchart
An algorithm to express the logic of controlling a lift

begin

check all buttons

False button is
pressed

True

move to the
required floor

open the doors

end

31
Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution 2 This solution uses sequence and while structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to express the logic of controlling a lift
BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
check all buttons
WHILE no button has been pressed
check all buttons
ENDWHILE
move to the required floor
open the doors
END MAINPROGRAM

Flowchart
An algorithm to express the logic of controlling a lift

begin

check all buttons

no button False
is pressed

True

check all buttons

move to the
required floor

open the doors

end

32
Temperature Control Problem
Problem At a NSW coastal town the maximum annual temperature
range is typically 12–34 degrees Celsius. An air
conditioning company is installing a heating/cooling
system in a new shopping centre in that town. The system
checks the temperature every five minutes and adjusts the
air temperature by using a combination of two heating
and two cooling units. These units operate according to
these temperature ranges:
0–15 degrees C – 2 heating units
16–20 degrees C – 1 heating unit
21–28 degrees C – 1 cooling unit
> 29 degrees C – 2 cooling units
Write an algorithm that could be used to control the air
conditioning system.

Solution This solution uses sequence, while and case structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe the control of an air conditioning
system. The input comes from sensors in the shopping
centre.
BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
read the temperature
WHILE the system is turned on
CASEWHERE temperature
< 16 : run two heating units
16 to 20 : run one heating unit
21 to 28 : run one cooling unit
OTHERWISE : run two cooling units
ENDCASE
wait five minutes
read the temperature
ENDWHILE
END MAINPROGRAM

33
Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe the control of an air conditioning
system. The input comes from sensors in the shopping
centre.

begin

read the
temperature

system False
turned on

True

temperature
range is

less than 16 16–20 21–28 otherwise

run two run one run one run two

heating units heating unit cooling unit cooling units

wait five
minutes

read the
temperature

end

34
Toll Gate Problem
Problem When operational a toll gate operates by having a boom
gate obstructing the road, and a sensor detecting when a
vehicle is present. After coins to the value of $1.00 have
been deposited in the basket, the boom gate opens and
stays open until a vehicle has gone through. Amounts
greater than $1.00 are accepted but no change is given.
Individual coins less than 10 cents are ignored.
Write an algorithm to describe the control of the toll gate.

Solution This solution uses sequence, if-then, repeat-until, while, and

subprogram structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm used to describe the operation of a toll gate
that has a boom gate, a vehicle sensor, and a coin
collection basket.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
REPEAT
REPEAT
wait
UNTIL car has arrived
get the money
open boom gate
REPEAT
wait
UNTIL car has passed
close boom gate
UNTIL toll gate is not operational
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM get the money

INITIALISATION
money collected is set to 0
END INITIALISATION
WHILE money collected is less than $1
receive coin
IF coin is less than 10 cents THEN
ignore coin
ELSE
add the value of the coin to the money collected
ENDIF
ENDWHILE
END SUBPROGRAM get the money

35
Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm used to describe the operation of a toll gate
that has a boom gate, a vehicle sensor, and a coin collection
basket.

begin

wait

False car has

arrived

True

get the money

open boom gate

wait

False car has

passed

True

close boom gate

False toll gate not

operational

True

end

36
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Subprogram

begin
get the money

set money
collected to zero

money False
collected less
than $1

True

receive a coin

False coin True

smaller
than 10c

add value of
coin to money ignore coin
collected

end
get the money

37
‘Squash’ Scoring Problem
Problem Write an algorithm to describe how to score a ball game,
which is similar to squash. This ball game is scored as
follows: the server gets one point for winning a rally. If
the server loses the rally they lose the right to serve the
next ball, but lose no points. The receiver gains the right
to serve (but no point) if they win a rally. To win the game
a player must win nine points.

Solution This solution uses sequence, repeat-until, if-then and subprogram

structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe the logic for scoring a ball game
similar to squash.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
set RequiredPoints to 9
set each player’s points to 0
END INITIALISATION
toss and decide the server
REPEAT
server serves the ball
REPEAT
play the rally
UNTIL rally is won
IF the server wins the rally THEN
increment the server’s points by 1
ELSE
swap player status
ENDIF
UNTIL a player has won RequiredPoints
declare the winner
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM toss and decide the server

toss a coin
IF heads THEN
player 1 is the server
player 2 is the receiver
ELSE
player 2 is the server
player 1 is the receiver
ENDIF
END SUBPROGRAM toss and decide the server

38
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe the logic for scoring a ball game
similar to squash.

begin

set RequiredPoints
to 9

set each player’s

score to 0

toss and
decide server

server serves
the ball

play a rally

False
rally won

True

False server wins True

the rally

swap the increase server's

player status points by one

False player has

RequiredPoints

True

end

39
Methods of Algorithm Description

Subprogram

begin toss and

decide server

toss a coin

False result True

is heads

player 2 is player 1 is
the server the server

player 1 is player 2 is
the receiver the receiver

end toss and

decide server

40
Record Separation Problem
Problem Let us assume that a particular database program
manages a simple mailing list which consists of one record
for each person on the list, and a number of fields
containing information about each person (their name,
address, etc). The program can read in data produced by a
word processor provided that data is structured in the
following way:
Each record to be read must be a single paragraph
terminated by a return character, and each field within a
record is separated by a tab character. For example:
Colin Jamesontab33 Falcon StreettabWaverlytabNSWtab2113return

would be read as one record containing five fields. The

end of the data is marked with a # (hash) character which
immediately follows the return ending the last paragraph.
Assuming that there is at least one line of valid data at the
start of the input file, describe an algorithm that the
program might use to read such data one character at a
time and place the information into separate fields and
records. The algorithm reports the number of records read
when all the records have been processed.

41
Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution 1 This solution uses sequence, while and case structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe the separation of a string of
formatted data into fields and records to be used as input
to a database.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM

INITIALISATION
set record number to 0
set field number to 0
set field to empty
END INITIALISATION

read a character from the input file

WHILE character is not a hash

CASEWHERE character is

tab: output the field to the database

increment the field number
set the field to empty

return: output the field to the database

increment the field number
increment the record number
set field number to 0
set the field to empty

OTHERWISE: append the character to the field

ENDCASE

read a character from the input file

ENDWHILE

report how many records were read

END MAINPROGRAM

42
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe the separation of a string of
formatted data into fields and records to be used as input
to a database.

begin

record number and

field number are set
to 0
field is set to empty

read a character
from input file

character False
not a hash

True

character is

tab return otherwise

append character
output the field output the field to the field

increment the increment the

field number field number

increment the
set field to empty record number

set field number

to 0 and field
to empty

read a character
from input file

report how many

records were read

end

43
Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution 2 This solution uses sequence, repeat-until and if-then-else

structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe the separation of a string of
formatted data into fields and records to be used as input
to a database.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM

INITIALISATION
record number is set to 0
field number is set to 0
field is set to empty
END INITIALISATION

REPEAT
read a character from the file
IF the character is a hash THEN
don’t do anything
ELSE
IF the character is a return THEN
output the field to the database
increment the field number
increment the record number
set the field number to 0
set the field to empty
ELSE
IF the character is a tab THEN
output the field to the database
increment the field number
set the field to empty
ELSE
append the character to the field
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
UNTIL the character is a hash

report how many records were read

END MAINPROGRAM

44
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe the separation of a string of
formatted data into fields and records to be used as input
to a database.

begin

record number and

field number are set
to 0
field is set to empty

read a character
from input file

True character False

is a hash

True character False

is a return

output the field

to the database
True character False
is a tab
increment the field
number and output the field add the character
record number to the database to the field

set field number increment the

to 0 field number

set the field set the field

to empty to empty

False character
is a hash

True

report how many

records were read

end

45
Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution 3 This solution uses sequence and while structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe the separation of a string of
formatted data into fields and records, which are to be
used as input to a database. It assumes the data are correct.

MAINPROGRAM

INITIALISATION
set record number to 0
set field number to 0
set field to empty
END INITIALISATION
read a character from the file
WHILE the character is not a hash
WHILE the character is not a return
WHILE the character is not a tab
append the character to the field
read a character from the file
ENDWHILE
output the field to the database
increment the field number
set field to empty
read a character from the file
ENDWHILE
output the field to the database
increment the record number
set field number to 0
set the field to empty
read a character from the file
ENDWHILE
report how many records were read
END MAINPROGRAM

46
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe the separation of a string of
formatted data into fields and records, which are to be
used as input to a database. It assumes the data are correct.

begin

record number and

field number are set
to 0
field is set to empty

read a character
from the file

character False
not a hash

True

character False
not a return

True

character False
not a tab

True
add the character
to the file

read a character
from the file

output the field

increment the
field number

set field to empty

read a character
from the file

output the field

increment the
record number

set field to empty and

field number to 0

read a character
from the file

report number of
records read

end

47
Guess the Number Problem
Problem In a simple number game your opponent thinks of a secret
number between l and 100. In no more than 10 guesses
you have to try to guess the number. After each guess
your opponent tells you if your guess was too high, too
low or correct. Your opponent also keeps track of how
many guesses you have had and tells you the game is over
when you use all of your ten guesses or when you guess
the number correctly.
Describe an algorithm which takes the role of your
opponent in this game. Include in your solution a
subprogram which checks for illegal guesses (those less
than l or greater than 100). Include also the subprogram
which generates a secret number between 1 and 100. Do
not expand this but assume it is available.

48
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution This solution uses sequence, repeat-until, if-then-else and

subprogram structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe a game in which the user tries to
guess a number between 1 and 100, using no more than
ten guesses.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
number of guesses is set to 0
GotIt is set to false
END INITIALISATION
generate a secret number using random number generator
REPEAT
get a guess from the user
IF the guess is in range THEN
increment the number of guesses
check the guess
ELSE
tell the user the guess is out of range
ENDIF
UNTIL guess is correct (GotIt is true) or number of guesses is 10
IF the guess is incorrect (GotIt is false) THEN
tell the user they have run out of guesses (=10)
tell the user the secret number
ENDIF
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM check the guess

IF guess > secret number THEN
tell the user their guess is too big
ELSE
IF guess < secret number THEN
tell the user their guess is too small
ELSE
congratulate the user on a correct guess
tell them how many guesses they took
set GotIt to true
ENDIF
ENDIF
END SUBPROGRAM check the guess

49
Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe a game in which the user tries to
guess a number between 1 and 100, using no more than
ten guesses.

begin

set the number

of guesses to 0
and GotIt to false

generate a secret
number using
random generator

get a guess
from the user

False guess in True

range

tell user that guess increment the

is out of range number of guesses

check the guess

GotIt is
False true or number
of guesses is
equal to 10

True

False GotIt True

is false

tell user they have

run out of guesses

tell the user the

secret number

end

50
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Subprogram

begin
check the guess

guess is
True bigger than False
secret
number

tell the user the

guess is too big guess is
True less than False
secret
number
congratulate the
tell the user the user on guessing
guess is too small the secret number

tell the user how

many guesses
were taken

set GotIt to true

end
check the guess

51
Income Tax Problem
Problem To calculate the income tax payable on any income based
on the income tax scales shown below. The taxable income
is to be entered and the tax payable calculated.

Tax Scales

Taxable Income ($) Tax payable

$1–5400 Nil
$5401–20 700 Nil plus 20 cents for each $1 over $5400
$20 701–36 000 $3060 plus 38 cents for each $1 over $20 700
$36 001–50 000 $8874 plus 46 cents for each $1 over $36 000
$50 001 and over $15 314 plus 47 cents for each $1 over $50 000

Solution This solution uses sequence and if-then structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm used to calculate the tax payable on any
income using taxation rates set in the given table.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
input income
IF income greater than or equal to 50 001 THEN
tax is 15 314 + (income – 50 000) * 0.47
ELSE
IF income greater than or equal to 36 001 THEN
tax is 8874 + (income – 36 000) * 0.46
ELSE
IF income greater than or equal to 20 701 THEN
tax is 3060 + (income – 20 700) * 0.38
ELSE
IF income greater than or equal to 5401 THEN
tax is (income – 5400) * 0.20
ELSE
tax is nil
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
ENDIF
display income and tax payable
END MAINPROGRAM

52
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm used to calculate the tax payable on any
income using taxation rates set in the given table.

begin

read the income

True income is False

≥
50 001

tax is 15 314 +
(income – 50 000)
* 0.47 True income is False
≥
36 001
tax is 8874 +
(income – 36 000)
* 0.46 True income is False
≥
20 701
tax is 3060 +
(income – 20 700)
* 0.38 True income is False
≥
5401

tax is
(income – 5400) tax is nil
* 0.20

display income
and tax

end

Another valid method of solving this problem is to use the

multiple selection or ‘case’ structure.

53
Telephone Dialler Problem
Problem A telephone dialler is connected between a computer and
a telephone (see the diagram below). Its purpose is to dial
a telephone number entered via the computer keyboard,
establish a connection if it can and report on its progress
and degree of success. The whole telephone number is
entered via the computer keyboard at one time and is
stored in a buffer in the computer.

number pulses

Telephone

Dialler

message tones
(engaged,
answered etc)

The dialler ‘dials’ a digit by sending pulses along the

telephone line. To dial 2 it sends two pulses, to dial 5 it
sends five pulses etc. In the special case of a zero it sends
ten pulses. There is a gap of 2 seconds between the set of
pulses representing a digit of a telephone number.
The dialler will not operate unless the line is clear, in
which case it will provide a message that it allows a dial
tone then dials the number. Before sending the next digit it
will check for a response, this takes into account the
different lengths of phone numbers. The dialler will
provide a message that the phone is ‘ringing’, ‘engaged’ or
‘answered’.
Write an algorithm to describe the operation of the
telephone dialler.

54
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution This solution used sequence, repeat-until, if-then, while, case

and subprogram structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe the control of a telephone dialler.
BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
REPEAT
try for phone line
UNTIL the response is a dial tone
send a message to the computer that a clear telephone line is available
REPEAT
REPEAT
get a character from the computer
UNTIL the character is a digit
IF the character is a 0 THEN
set the digit value of the character to 10
ENDIF
assign the digit value of the character to a counter
WHILE counter is greater than 0
send a pulse
decrement the counter
ENDWHILE
send no pulse for two seconds
UNTIL there is a response
determine outcome and send message (response)
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM determine outcome and send

message (response)
INITIALISATION
set maxtime to 60
END INITIALISATION
IF response is an engaged tone THEN
send a message that the phone is engaged
ELSE
IF response indicates the phone is ringing THEN
send a message that the phone is ringing
set a timer to 0
REPEAT
check to see if the phone has been answered
increment the timer
UNTIL the phone is answered OR timer is greater than maxtime
CASEWHERE the phone was
answered : send a message that a connection has
been established
unanswered : send a message that no connection has
been established
OTHERWISE : send an error message
ENDCASE
ELSE
send an error message
ENDIF
ENDIF
END SUBPROGRAM determine outcome and send message

55
Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe the control of a telephone dialler.

begin

try for a
telephone line

the
False response
is a
dialtone

True
send a message to
the computer that a
clear line is available

get a character
from the computer

False character
is a digit

True

False character True

is a 0
set the value of
character to 10

set a counter to the

value of the character

counter is False
bigger
than 0

True
send a pulse

decrease the
counter by 1

send no pulse
for two seconds

False there is a
response on
the line

True
determine outcome
and send message
(response)

end

56
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Subprogram

begin determine
outcome and send
message (response)

set maxtime to 60

True Response False

is engaged
tone
send a message
that the phone
is engaged
False phone is True
ringing

send a message
send an error that the phone
message is ringing

set a timer
to 0

check to see
if the phone
is answered

increment timer

phone is
False answered or
timer > maxtime

True

phone
was

answered unanswered otherwise

send a message send a message send an error

that connection that no connection message
established established

end determine
outcome and
send message

57
Auto Teller Problem
Problem An automatic teller machine has a console as shown in the
diagram below. The teller machine follows this sequence
to assist a customer:
1. The customer will insert their card and enter a PIN. A
customer is allowed at most three tries at their PIN. If
they get it wrong three times the whole process ends
without ejecting the card.
2. If the PIN is correct they will then select an action
button (withdraw, deposit or balance).
3. Next they will select the account type (savings or
cheque).
4. Finally, they will enter the amount in whole dollars (if
appropriate), and press OK to confirm it, and the
transaction will be processed.
The auto teller will eject the customer’s card and stop the
process if the customer presses the ‘Cancel’ button.
Describe an algorithm which the auto teller could use to
accept the details from the customer and act on them.

Auto Teller Console

1 2 3 4 Withdrawal Savings

5 6 7 8 Deposit Cheque

9 0 Balance OK Cancel

58
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution This solution uses sequence, if-then, repeat-until, while, case

and subprogram structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe the control of an automatic teller
machine. Input comes from the buttons on the console,
output through a small video screen.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
set Action to an empty string
set Account to an empty string
set Amount to 0
END INITIALISATION
wait for the card to be inserted
get the PIN and check it (Action)
IF action is ‘cancel’ THEN
eject card
ELSE
IF action is not ‘keep card’ THEN
get action required (Action)
IF action is not ‘cancel’ THEN
get account to be used (Action, Account)
do the transaction
ENDIF
eject card
ENDIF
ENDIF
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM wait for the card to be inserted

WHILE no card has been inserted
wait
ENDWHILE
END SUBPROGRAM wait for the card to be inserted

59
Methods of Algorithm Description

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM get the PIN and check it (Action)

INITIALISATION
set OK to FALSE
set NumberOfTries to 3
END INITIALISATION
IF cancel button has been pressed THEN
set Action to ‘cancel’
ELSE
REPEAT
accept a four digit number
decrement NumberOfTries
IF correct PIN THEN
set OK to TRUE
ENDIF
UNTIL OK OR number of tries is 0
IF NOT OK THEN
set Action to ‘keep card’
ENDIF
ENDIF
END SUBPROGRAM get the PIN and check it

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM get action required (Action)

IF cancel button has been pressed THEN
set Action to ‘cancel’
ELSE
REPEAT
prompt user for action key
get a key press
UNTIL key press is an action key
CASEWHERE keypress is
Withdrawal : set Action to ‘withdraw’
Deposit : set Action to ‘deposit’
Balance : set Action to ‘show balance’
Cancel : set Action to ‘cancel’
ENDCASE
ENDIF
END SUBPROGRAM get action required

60
 Methods of Algorithm Description

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM get account to be used (Action, Account)

IF cancel button is pressed THEN
set Action to ‘cancel’
ELSE
REPEAT
prompt for account type key
get a keypress
UNTIL keypress is acceptable
CASEWHERE keypress is
savings account : set Account to ‘savings account’
cheque account : set Account to ‘cheque account’
cancel : set Action to ‘cancel’
ENDCASE
ENDIF
END SUBPROGRAM get account to be used

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM get the amount in dollars (Action, Amount)

INITIALISATION
set OK to FALSE
END INITIALISATION
IF the cancel button has been pressed THEN
set Action to ‘cancel’
ELSE
REPEAT
REPEAT
prompt for a keypress
get a keypress
UNTIL keypress is acceptable
CASEWHERE keypress is
OK : set OK to TRUE
cancel : set Action to ‘cancel’
set OK to TRUE
number : set Amount to 10 times the amount
plus digit value of number
ENDCASE
UNTIL OK
ENDIF
END SUBPROGRAM get the amount in dollars

61
Methods of Algorithm Description

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM do the transaction (Action, Account)

IF the cancel button has been pressed THEN
set Action to ‘cancel’
ENDIF
CASEWHERE Action is
cancel: set Amount to 0
set Account to empty string
deposit: get the amount in dollars (Action, Amount)
IF Action is not ‘cancel’ THEN
IF Account is ‘cheque’ THEN
add Amount to cheque account
ELSE
add Amount to savings account
ENDIF
ENDIF
withdraw: get the amount in dollars (Action, Amount)
IF Action is not ‘cancel’ THEN
IF Account is ‘cheque’ THEN
subtract Amount from cheque account
ELSE
subtract Amount from savings account
ENDIF
ENDIF
balance: IF Account is ‘cheque’ THEN
display balance of cheque account
ELSE
display balance of savings account
ENDIF
ENDCASE
END SUBPROGRAM do the transaction

62
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart
An algorithm to describe the control of an automatic teller
machine. Input comes from the buttons on the console,
output through a small video screen.

begin

set Action to
an empty string

set Account to
an empty string

set Amount to 0

wait for card

to be inserted

get the PIN

and check it

False Action is
‘cancel’

Action True
False is not
‘keep card’

True

get Action
required (Action)

False Action is
not
‘cancel’
eject card
True

get Account to
be used
(Action, Account)

do the transaction
(Action, Account)

eject card

end

63
Methods of Algorithm Description

Subprograms

begin wait for card

to be inserted

card not False

inserted

True

wait

end wait for card

to be inserted

64
 Methods of Algorithm Description

begin get the PIN

& check it (Action)

set OK to false

set number
of tries to 3

False cancel True

button is
pressed

accept a four set Action

digit number to ‘cancel’

decrement
number of tries

False True
correct PIN

set OK to true

OK = true
False or
number of
tries = 0

True

False True
OK

set Action to
‘keep card’

end get the PIN

and check it

65
Methods of Algorithm Description

begin get action

required (Action)

False cancel True

button is
pressed

prompt for set Action

action key to ‘cancel’

get a keypress

False keypress is
action key

True

keypress is

Withdrawal Deposit Balance Cancel

set Action to set Action to set Action to set Action to

‘withdrawal’ ‘deposit’ ‘show balance’ ‘cancel’

end get Action

required

66
 Methods of Algorithm Description

begin get account

to be used
(Action, Account)

False cancel True

button is
pressed

prompt for set Action

account type key to ‘cancel’

get a keypress

False keypress is
acceptable

True

keypress is

cheque account savings account cancel

set Account to set Account to set Action to

‘cheque account’ ‘savings account’ ‘cancel’

end get account

to be used

67
Methods of Algorithm Description

begin get amount

in dollars
(Action, Amount)

set OK to false

False cancel True

button is
pressed

prompt for set Action

a keypress to ‘cancel’

get a keypress

False keypress is
acceptable

True

keypress is

OK cancel number

set Amount to 10
set OK to true set Action times the amount
to ‘cancel’ plus digit value
of number

set OK to true

False
OK is true

True

end get amount

in dollars

68
 Methods of Algorithm Description

begin do
transaction
(Action, Account)

False cancel True

button
pressed

set Action
to ‘cancel’
Action is

cancel deposit withdrawal balance

set Amount get Amount in get Amount in

to 0 dollars (Action, dollars (Action,
Amount) Amount) False Account is True
‘cheque’
set Account
to empty
string Action Action
False False display balance display balance
is not is not
‘cancel’ ‘cancel’ of savings of cheque
account account

True True

False Account is True False Account is True

‘cheque’ ‘cheque’

add Amount to add Amount to subtract Amount subtract Amount

savings account cheque account from savings from cheque
account account

end
do transaction

69
 Algorithms for
Searching and Sorting
Algorithms for Searching
To give some assistance with understanding the standard
algorithms for searching and sorting, as required in the 2/3
Unit (Common) Computing Studies Syllabus, the following
examples are provided.

Linear Search

Problem In a theatre there is a row of seats. Each seat is numbered

consecutively starting at 1. A person occupies each of the
seats. Describe an algorithm which an usher could follow
to find the seat number of the first person in the row who
is wearing a red jumper (indicated by the dark circle).

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

72
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution This solution implements a linear (sequential) search

which will work whether or not the persons are seated in a
given order or at random.
The solution uses sequence, while and if-then-else structures.

Pseudocode
An algorithm to describe a linear (sequential) search to
find the seat number of the first person wearing a red
jumper from a set of persons sitting in a row of seats.

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
stand in front of the first seat
set FoundIt to FALSE
set MoreSeats to TRUE
END INITIALISATION
get the description of the wanted person
WHILE FoundIt is FALSE AND MoreSeats
IF the person in front of you is not the wanted person THEN
stand in front of the next seat
ELSE
set FoundIt to TRUE
ENDIF
ENDWHILE
IF FoundIt THEN
report the seat number of the wanted person
ELSE
report that the wanted person is not present
ENDIF
END MAINPROGRAM

73
Methods of Algorithm Description

Problem A user has stored a set of numbers in a one-dimensional

array. Each element of the array contains a unique number.
Describe an algorithm the person could follow to find the
element of the array which contains a particular number.

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

14 34 12 19 41 26 45 16

Solution This solution implements a linear (sequential) search

which will work whether or not the numbers are stored in
order or at random.
The solution uses sequence, while, if-then and if-then-else
structures.

Flowchart

begin

set This to first position

set Last to last position
set FoundIt to FALSE
get Target

NOT
FoundIt False
AND
This<=Last

True

Target = True
data at This
position
set FoundIt TRUE
set PositionFound to
False This position

False True
FoundIt
Increment This
report report
‘Target not found’ PositionFound

end

74
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Binary Search The task is to determine whether or not a particular data

value (the target) is present in a set of data. If the target is
found the position of its first occurrence is reported and
the search ends.
Note: that binary search will only work on sorted data.

General Idea of the Algorithm

Binary search divides the data set into two parts and
determines in which part the element is likely to be found.
The other part of the data set is discarded and the retained
part is divided into two parts. The process is continued
until either the value is found or there are no more
elements in the data set to be checked. If a match is found
then the position of the match is reported otherwise a
message is written telling the user that the target is not
present in the data.
At each division there are three possibilities for the target
(if it exists in the data set):
(1) the target lies at the division point;
(2) the target lies to the left of the division point
(3) the target lies to the right of the division point.

34 Target

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

12 14 16 19 26 34 41 45

Lower Middle Upper

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

12 14 16 19 26 34 41 45

Lower Middle Upper

75
Methods of Algorithm Description

Problem A user wants to find the telephone number of a person in

the Sydney Telephone Directory. The names are listed
alphabetically. Each set of data for a person is stored as an
element of a one-dimensional array. One way would be to
carry out a linear search starting with the first name in the
listing and checking each one until either the target is
found or the end of the directory is reached. Describe a
more efficient algorithm which the person could use to
find the telephone number of the particular person.

Solution This solution implements a binary search which will work

only if the names are in strict alphabetical order.
The solution uses sequence, repeat-until, if-then-else and
subprogram structures.

Pseudocode
BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
set Lower to first position
set Upper to last position
set FoundIt to FALSE
get the Target name
END INITIALISATION
REPEAT
calculate the Middle position
IF Target = data at Middle position THEN
set FoundIt to TRUE
set PositionFound to Middle
ELSE
IF Target < data at Middle position THEN
set Upper to Middle – 1
ELSE
set Lower to Middle + 2
ENDIF
ENDIF
UNTIL FoundIt OR Lower > Upper
IF FoundIt THEN
report PositionFound
ELSE
report ‘Target not present’
ENDIF
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM calculate the Middle position

set Middle to (Upper + Lower) divided by 2
set Middle to integer part of Middle
END SUBPROGRAM calculate the Middle position

76
Algorithms for Sorting
Bubble Sort The task is to sort a set of data into either ascending order
or descending order as determined when the algorithm is
written. In this case the order chosen is ascending order.

General Idea of the Algorithm

The data elements are compared in pairs and the larger of
the pair ‘bubbles’ towards the top of the structure. On
each pass, one element (the largest in the unsorted part)
will be moved to its correct position in the sorted part.

1 2 3 4 5 6

42 32 23 12 19 54 Compare first with second

and Swap
1 2 3 4 5 6

32 42 23 12 19 54 Compare second with third

and Swap
1 2 3 4 5 6

32 23 42 12 19 54 Compare third with fourth

and Swap

1 2 3 4 5 6

32 23 12 42 19 54 Compare fourth with fifth

and Swap

1 2 3 4 5 6

32 23 12 19 42 54 Compare fifth with sixth

and leave

1 2 3 4 5 6

32 23 12 19 42 54 Data set at end of first pass

Problem A person wants to sort a set of marks into ascending order.

Each mark is stored as an element of a one-dimensional
array. Describe an algorithm which will sort the marks by
‘bubbling’ the largest mark in the unsorted part to the
‘top’ of the unsorted part. This will result in the sorted
part getting larger each time through and the unsorted
part getting smaller. The algorithm need not stop even if
the person realises that the marks become sorted before
the algorithm has finished.

77
Methods of Algorithm Description

Solution This solution implements a bubble sort on an array of

marks.
The solution uses sequence, while, if-then and subprogram
structures.

Pseudocode

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
set End to last position
END INITIALISATION
WHILE End > first position
set Current to first position
WHILE Current is less than End
IF data at Current > data at (Current + 1) THEN
Swap (Current, Current + 1)
ENDIF
increment Current
ENDWHILE
decrement End
ENDWHILE
END MAINPROGRAM

Note: that the parameters to the subprogram when it is

called by the MAINPROGRAM are Current and Current
+ 1 but in the definition of the SUBPROGRAM general
names are used for the parameters. When the
SUBPROGRAM is called it substitutes the names of the
actual parameters for those of the formal parameters
used in the definition.

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM Swap (Position1, Position2)

set Temp to data value at Position1
set data at Position1 to data at Position2
set data at Position2 to Temp
END SUBPROGRAM Swap

78
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Selection Sort In this algorithm a set of data is sorted into either

ascending order or descending order as determined when
the algorithm is written. In this case the order chosen is
ascending order.

General Idea of the Algorithm

The general idea behind the algorithm is to divide the
array into two parts — the unsorted part and the sorted
part. Each pass through the unsorted part finds the largest
number and places it at the start of the sorted part. The
array originally has an ‘empty’ sorted part and a ‘full’
unsorted part. So the largest number in the unsorted part
is found and swapped with the last element in the
unsorted part. The length of the sorted part is then
increased by one and the length of the unsorted part is
decreased by one.

1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 32 41 22
Unsorted|Sorted

1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 32 22 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 22 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

22 12 16 24 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

16 12 22 24 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

12 16 22 24 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted

79
Methods of Algorithm Description

Pseudocode

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
set EndUnsorted to last position
END INITIALISATION
WHILE EndUnsorted > first position
set Current to first position
set Largest to data at Current
set PositionOfLargest to Current
WHILE Current < EndUnsorted
increment Current
IF data at Current > Largest THEN
set Largest to data at Current
set PositionOfLargest to Current
ENDIF
ENDWHILE
Swap (PositionOfLargest, EndUnsorted)
decrement EndUnsorted
ENDWHILE
END MAINPROGRAM

BEGIN SUBPROGRAM Swap (Position1, Position2)

set Temp to data value at Position1
set data at Position1 to data at Position2
set data at Position2 to Temp
END SUBPROGRAM Swap

80
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart

begin

set EndUnsorted
to last position

EndUnsorted False
> first position

True

set Current to
first position

set Largest to
data at Current

set Position Of Largest

to Current

Current False
< End Unsorted

True

increment Current

data at True
Current >
Largest
begin Swap
set Largest to
data at Current
False
set
Temp to data set PosOfLargest
at Position1 to Current

set
data at Position1 to
data at Position2 swap
(Position Of Largest,
EndUnsorted)

set decrement
data at Position2 EndUnsorted
to Temp

end Swap end

81
Methods of Algorithm Description

Insertion Sort In this algorithm a set of data is sorted into either

ascending order or descending order as determined when
the algorithm is written. In this case the order chosen is
ascending order.

General Idea of the Algorithm

This is the method used by many card players to put their
cards in order. The general idea of the algorithm is to
divide the array into two parts — the unsorted part and
the sorted part. To begin with, the sorted part contains
only the right hand element. Each pass takes the last
element from the unsorted part and then finds where it
should be inserted in the sorted part. To find the proper
place to insert the element a sequential (linear) search is
used. As each element in the sorted part is checked, it is
moved, if necessary, one place to the left to make room for
the new element. At each pass the length of the sorted part
increases by one and the length of the unsorted part
decreases by one until its length is 0.
1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 32 41 22
Unsorted|Sorted

1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 32 22 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 22 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 22 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

24 12 16 22 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted
1 2 3 4 5 6

12 16 22 24 32 41
Unsorted|Sorted

82
 Methods of Algorithm Description

Pseudocode

BEGIN MAINPROGRAM
INITIALISATION
set First to first position
set Last to last position
set PositionOfNext to Last – 1
ENDINITIALISATION
WHILE PositionOfNext >= First
set Next to data at PositionOfNext
set Current to PositionOfNext
WHILE (Current < Last ) AND (Next > data at (Current + 1))
increment Current
set data at (Current – 1) to data at Current
ENDWHILE
set data at Current to Next
decrement PositionOfNext
ENDWHILE
END MAINPROGRAM

Note: Variations of the algorithm are possible. In some

versions, the task of finding the correct place to
insert is separated from the task of moving the
elements to make room. By doing this, the task of
finding the correct place to insert can be speeded up
by using a binary search rather than a linear
search.

83
Methods of Algorithm Description

Flowchart

begin

set First
to first position

set Last
to last position

set PositionOfNext
to Last –1

False
PositionOfNext
>= First

True

set Next to data

at PositionOfNext

set Current to
PositionOfNext

Current
< Last AND False
Next > data at
Current + 1

True

increment Current

set data at Current –1

to data at Current

set data at Current

to Next

decrement
PositionOfNext

end

84
 A COLLECTION OF
PROBLEMS WITH NO
SOLUTIONS GIVEN
Methods of Algorithm Description

Use these problems to test your skills at using methods of

algorithm description.
l. Refine the ‘Lift Problem’ (on page 27) to establish a
more ‘realistic’ problem and solution. Consider the
problem of sending the lift to specific floors. Determine
when the lift doors should be opened and closed.
2. Refine the ‘Telephone Dialler Problem’ to cater for these
suggested extensions.
(a) Modify the dialler so that it rejects numbers
beginning with 0 (for STD call bar).
(b) As for (a), but allow access to Austpac 01922, 01923,
01924.
(c) Restrict as in (a), but allow 008 numbers.
3. A one-lane bridge only allows traffic to travel in one
direction at a time. A set of traffic lights controls the
flow of traffic. It takes a slow vehicle 45 seconds at most
to cross the bridge. Write an algorithm to specify the
control of the traffic lights.
Extension:
Consider a ‘rush’ period in which traffic travelling
north is three times as heavy as traffic travelling south.
4. Road work is being undertaken on a country road and
traffic is being controlled by a player of mechanical
‘stop/slow’ paddle turners. Write an algorithm to
describe the control of the paddle turners to safely
direct traffic around the road works.
5. A program accepts as input dates in the form
dd/mm/yy (eg 13/11/85) and later uses them in
expanded form (eg 13 November 1985). Write an
algorithm that could be used to do this conversion.
Assume that there are no incorrect dates, and that all
dates are in the 20th century.
6. Write an algorithm that will take today’s date and
someone’s birth date as input and use the data to
calculate the person’s age in years and full months.

86
 Methods of Algorithm Description

7. A community group has decided to install an automatic

sprinkler system in the local park. The sprinkler should
come on when the ground moisture reduces to 20% of
saturation level which is measured by a sensor. It
should be turned off when the moisture reaches 55% of
saturation level. Write an algorithm that could be used
to control the sprinkler system.
8. A tourist bus has 53 seats. When tickets are booked, the
next available seats are allocated according to number
(ignoring where they are). Write an algorithm to decide
what is the next seat available and to store the name of
the person booking each seat.
Extension 1
The seats are arranged so that numbers 1 and 2 are
together, 3 and 4 are across the aisle and so on up to 48.
Seats 49 to 53 are across the back of the bus. Write an
algorithm that can choose the seat wanted from what is
available, then store the name of the person booked
with the seat number.
Extension 2
Write an algorithm to print out the names of people
booked on the bus in the order of the seats.
9. A subprogram of a grammar checking program checks
for the use of apostrophes for the possessive case.
Search a line of text for the symbol ‘. If it follows an s
and is also followed by an s, remove the second s.

87