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Rebuild America helps communities become stronger, cleaner, and more environmentally and economically sound through smarter energy use. The program starts with building renovation-and expands from there-to include renewable energy, efficient new building design, energy education, and other innovative energy and resource conservation measures. Ultimately, communities benefit from revitalized neighborhoods and main streets, improved school facilities, better low-income housing, and the positive economic impact brought by keeping local dollars at home. Rebuild America and its Business Partners work together to make the connection between the energy efficiency needs of the community and market-based solutions of industry.
Lithonia Lighting, as a charter Business Partner of Rebuild America, has produced this efficient lighting guide as a service to communities and building decisionmakers around the country.
January 2000
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Introduction
Lighting design is a creative process that generates solutions which provide for the safe, productive and enjoyable use of a space. Proper lighting design addresses not only the quantity of light needed but also the quality of that light. The light we introduce into a space shapes our environment both visually and emotionally. Lighting design must be concerned with a wide range of issues including energy efficiency and productive occupants. This pamphlet is an introduction into that process. It attempts to acquaint you with some of the complexities involved in lighting. It assumes that you are a relative novice to both the art and science of lighting but is involved in some project where lighting will play a significant role. It is meant to help you to be involved in the lighting design process in a pro active manner. Towards that end, this pamphlet is divided into four main sections. G It first discusses a concept called High Benefit Lighting which lays the conceptual foundation for how one might approach the lighting design process. G The second section is a glossary of common lighting terms and a generic description of some of the more common types of lighting fixtures to be considered in a typical lighting design. These allow the reader to know the language. G The next section provides some technical background to some of the more topical issues of lamp technology, ballasts and lighting controls. G Finally, applications are discussed providing the user with some specific guidelines on lighting design and a list of issues to discuss with the lighting contractor. This last section also includes a bibliography of some useful, lighting-related web sites.
Whats Involved?
First things first Before you begin a crusade for better lighting, recognize that all parties need to understand the relationship between lighting, the work being performed and the degree to which improved lighting affects the bottom line. In a situation involving 200 workers, and an average cost per worker including Social Security costs and benefitsof $25,000, a 5 percent productivity increase is worth about $250,000 each year. Recognize that the dollars associated with lighting are far in excess of the illumination systems annual operation and maintenance cost. Those involved should also recognize the need to gather more information about the specific procedures needed to achieve an optimized system. By being more conversant about the topic, you should be able to communicate effectively and thereby help the lighting designer develop a better system. Assistance is available from lighting consultants and illuminating engineers, including those who work independently as well as others who may be employed by utilities, manufacturers, electrical contractors, electrical distributors, lighting management companies, and contract cleaning companies. While in-house personnel may have a comprehensive knowledge of lighting in general and know how to make the overall system more efficient, it takes highly-specialized training and experience to understand the relationship between lighting quality and productivity, reject rate reduction, safety, and so on. Conduct an audit The first step toward renovation for high-benefit lighting is conducting an audit. This involves an analysis and evaluation of the existing lighting system, the tasks being performed, and the individuals performing them. This information determines electric illumination needs, the ability of the existing system to meet those needs, opportunities available to improve the existing system by walking through a facility. An experienced lighting professional often can conduct an audit on a walk-through basis, complemented by a review of utility bills. At the same time, the professional should be able to identify alternative actions that you can take to enhance the existing system.
Query the utility Many electric utilities offer rebates, low-cost loans, and other incentives to encourage industries to improve the efficiency of their lighting systems. The utilities goal is to reduce lighting energy consumption and thereby forestall the need to build new generating plants. They also want to reduce the amount of pollutants emitted into the atmosphere. The nature of the equipment targeted by the utilities helps determine which alternatives will be most costeffective. Some utilities have third-party provider programs through which an entirely new lighting system can be installed and paid for on a share-the-savings basis. These third-party provider programs also may be available independent of utilities. Build in efficiency The vast array of new energy-efficient equipment makes incorporation of energy conservation principles simple, for system upgrading or for replacement. Some lamps produce the same amount of light and consume far less energy while others produce far more light for the same amount of energy. The latter are most effective when the audit indicates that the existing amount of illumination (illuminance) is insufficient. Luminaires (lighting fixtures) also have an important impact on efficiency. The most significant efficiency factor typically is coefficient of utilization. A coefficient of utilization of 0.70 indicates that 70 percent of the raw lumens produced by the lamps in the luminaire are distributed to the workplane. Theoretically, the higher the coefficient of utilization of the luminaires selected, the fewer luminaires are needed to produce desired illuminance. Thus, a higher coefficient of utilization should reduce capital requirements in addition to ongoing energy and maintenance costs. High coefficients of utilization are not the only concern however. Another important luminaire rating factor is called visual comfort probability. Visual comfort probability indicates the amount of discomfort glare likely to be produced by a given luminaire when the lighting system is composed entirely of that luminaire type. Glare is the sensation you experience when you are temporarily blinded at night by the high beams of an oncoming vehicle. Known as disability glare, it causes you to avert your eyes. Discomfort glare is more common and caused by a bright source in your field of view. You are not temporarily blinded by it because its lesser severity can be accommodated by tiny muscles that cause your eye to adapt. Over time, however, these muscles can become strained, leading to eyestrain and headaches, absenteeism, and myriad other problems, including lower productivity and higher reject rates. Likewise, the use of the wrong luminaire in applications that include VDT usage can result in veiling reflections where the intended screen images become difficult to see due to reflected images of the light fixtures in the room. For these reasons, among others, lighting system retrofits that involve renovating luminaires by installing new reflective materials must be looked at with particular care. If that approach is used, it is essential to ensure that the quality of light provided by the renovated fixtures is whats required to support task performance. The cost of renovation must be examined closely too. In the case of fluorescent luminaires, for example, it is common to recommend not only new reflective surfaces, but new ballasts as well. However, the cost of renovation may be very close to the cost of replacement, making the latter alternative something worth close review. Build in flexibility Flexibility often is accomplished through the use of lighting controls, devices almost always called for to boost or maintain efficiency. Dimming controls have the benefit of permitting workers to adjust lighting to meet their particular needs and preferences. They also permit lower lighting levels when workstations are unoccupied or when light is available through windows and skylights.
Flexibility can be accomplished through reliance on flexible branch wiring and movable luminaires such as those
indicated in the figure to the left. These luminaires are easily removed, permitting substitution of fixtures when tasks change and relocation of fixtures when the work area layout is modified. Again, being able to put the right kind of light where it is needed and when it is needed can be significant in enhancing overall quality and, thus, overall productivity, safety, and other positive benefits.
Build in good maintenance and sustainability The impact of good maintenance on overall lighting efficiency and quality cannot be stressed enough. Without maintenance, dirt and dust quickly build up on fixtures and lamp surfaces trapping light, lowering efficiency, changing light distribution, and affecting quality. Fortunately, many industrial lighting designers assume that inadequate maintenance will be performed and, to compensate, they include additional compensatory lighting in the system so that adequate lighting is available. Unfortunately, that approach increases both initial and long-term operations and maintenance costs. Accordingly, by resorting to high-quality maintenance, it may be possible to eliminate up to 10 percent (or more) of the installed lighting. High-quality maintenance allows lighting users to achieve a system that is far more efficient and actually provides better quality. For more details on High-Benefit Lighting including a variety of case studies, visit the web site of the National Lighting Bureau ( www.nlb.org ). Consider labeling new or retrofitted fixtures with labels to identify the type of lamps, their color temperature and color rendering, the type of ballast and the installation date. This will increase the likelihood that the correct lamps and ballasts be used in the future. USE ONLY T-8 LAMPS COLOR: 3500k CRI: 84+ ELECT. RAPID START BALLAST INSTALLED: 12/99
Consider implementing a group relamp program. Relamping refers to wholesale replacement of lamps at predetermined intervals. A typical strategy is to replace all lamps when they have reached 7080% of their rated life (the time when 50% of the lamps are still operating). Group relamping reduces maintenance costs associated with individual lamp replacement, schedules replacement to maintain illumination levels and provides an opportunity to clean fixtures.
BALLAST
The incandescent lamp is run straight off the electricity coming out of the wall socket. However, other lamp types need to have that electricity controlled in order to start and operate efficiently. A ballast is an electrical device used in fluorescent and HID luminaires to regulate starting and operating characteristics to the lamp. For more details, see the later section entitled: Lets Talk Ballasts.
LUMINAIRE
The luminaire is the entire light fixture including the lamp, ballast (if any) and the housing.
FLUX
Units: lumens Flux is a measure of how much total light is being emitted, reflected, etc. Its most common use is to quantify how much light a bare lamp is emitting (e.g., a particular fluorescent lamp emits 2,900 lumens while a particular metal halide lamp emits 110,000 lumens). A commonly used analogy is to think of a garden hose being used to water your yard. The amount of water, or number of gallons, being carried by the hose is the equivalent, conceptually, of the flux or number of lumens being emitted by the lamp.
LUMINOUS INTENSITY
Units: Candelas (candlepower) This term is used to describe how much light is being emitted in a particular direction. Think of an adjustable bib at the end of our hose. We can set it (as in A below) such that it sends out a concentrated flow of water in one direction while very little water, if any, goes in the other directions. Or we can set it to make a gentle spray over a wide range of directions as in B below. Likewise, the optics in a light fixture (a luminaire) is used to control the direction and the amount light that is to be emitted by the luminaire, with it sending more light in some directions than others. That amount is specified in candelas.
A. Concentrated Intensity
B. Wide-Spread Intensity
ILLUMINANCE
Units: footcandles (English) or lux (Metric) Illuminance is a measure of how much light is falling on a surface. If we continue our hose analogy, we might spray 10 gallons of water over an area of 5 square feet. This would give us 2 gallons per square foot. Likewise, if we cover the floor of a 20 x 20 room with 40,000 lumens, its illuminance is 100 lumens per square foot, which is 100 footcandles. 1 footcandle = 1 lumen/square foot 1 lux = 1 lumen/square meter 1 footcandle = 10.76 lux
COLOR TEMPERATURE
Color temperature is the term used to specify the color of a lamp. In laymens terms, it is the temperature a standard piece of metal would have to be to glow a certain color. That is, a lamp with a 4100K color temperature would have the same color as a piece of standard metal that has been heated up to that temperature. (K = degrees Kelvin). This chart shows the color temperatures of some standard lighting conditions. The higher the Kelvin temperature, the cooler (bluer) its appearance.
COLOR RENDERING
Color rendering is the lamps ability to accurately show the colors of objects illuminated by that lamp. This attribute is measured in CRI (Color Rendering Index) which peaks at 100. Here is a table of some typical CRI values. * = These are typical CRI values for these lamp types but any one manufacturers lamp may vary significantly from the values presented here. Please check with your lamp supplier for specific information. ** = The standard lamp used to compute these values is an incandescent lamp so, of course, its CRI would be 100. This is not to imply that all colors are rendered perfectly under incandescent.
EFFICACY
Units: Lumens Per Watt (LPW) This term is typically used to quantify how efficiently a lamp turns electricity into light. The higher the efficacy, the more efficient the lamp. Here is a table showing the efficacy of some standard lamp types. Please note the wide ranges. Check with your lamp supplier for specific information.
As one can imagine, the efficiency of a luminaire remains a constant regardless of what application it is used in. But the CU of a luminaire changes with the dimensions and surface reflectances of the room it is placed in. As the reflectances of the room surfaces decrease so does the CU of the lighting system (as the room surfaces absorb more light, there is less light reaching the work plane). Less obvious might be how the shape of the room affects the CU. Here we see two rooms that have the same luminaire in each. One can see that as higher angled rays leave the luminaire, they would have a greater chance of hitting a wall (and therefore being partially absorbed) in the tall, thin room to the left. Therefore, for any one luminaire type, the room on the right would have the higher Coefficient of Utilization (assuming the room surface reflectances were the same.)
NEMA created the following groupings of luminaires for comparing LER values: Fluorescent FL - Fluorescent Lensed FS - Fluorescent Strip FW - Fluorescent Wraparound HID Industrial HO - HID Open Industrial Downlight (non-residential) DOL - Open/Low Shielding DBL - Baffle/Low Shielding DLL - Lensed/Low Shielding DVL - Louvered/Low Shielding FP FI - Fluorescent Parabolic - Fluorescent Industrial
HC - HID Closed Industrial DOH DBH DLH DVH Open/High Shielding Baffle/High Shielding Lensed/High Shielding Louvered/High Shielding
As use of this metric increases, data sheets for most lighting products will include an LER value specified using this format:
Lighting Products
The following is a short list of the lighting products to be considered when designing a lighting system.
Fluorescent Lighting:
Parabolic Lighting - Recessed and surface mounted products designed to minimize direct glare. Architectural Lighting - Direct/indirect recessed lighting, linear wallwash, perimeter, and recessed row lighting. Lensed Troffers - Recessed standard and premium products available in a variety of sizes and lens types. Indirect and Direct/Indirect Lighting - Pendant mounted products designed for low glare and high comfort in office, library and laboratory applications. Wall Brackets - Wall-mounted lighting commonly used for stairwells, restrooms, and hospital patient rooms. Surface Commercials - Products for use under cabinets, wraparounds, and other surface/pendant mounted lighting. Strips - Various grades of linear fluorescent strip lighting. Industrials - Reflector industrials with solid top or uplight, damp / wet location luminaires, and cleanroom products. Decorative - A wide variety decorative styled surface and wall-mounted products including wall sconces.
Outdoor Lighting
Area Lighting - A wide variety of cutoff and post-top lighting available in various styles, optical control, finishes, and wattages. Floodlighting - Standard, architectural and high-performance floods available in a variety of sizes and wattages. Wallpak - Wall-mounted lighting units available in polycarbonate or glass,
utilizing HID and compact fluorescent sources. Pathway / Accent Lighting - Decorative bollards and post-top lighting available in various styles, finishes, and wattages. Landscape Lighting - In-grade, underwater, and floodlighting products designed for architectural outdoor lighting. Parking Garage Lighting - Lighting products designed specifically for the requirements of parking garages. Sportslighting - Floodlighting products designed for recreational to professional levels of outdoor sports
Emergency Systems
Exit Signs - Architectural, general purpose, heavy duty and rough service exits. Exits utilize incandescent, fluorescent, LED, and self luminous sources. Retrofit exit kits are available to upgrade existing incandescent exits to LED exits. Emergency Lighting Units - Contemporary to heavy duty products designed to illuminate the path of egress. Battery Packs - Battery back-up units providing various levels of light for linear and compact fluorescent sources in the event of a power outage. AC Power Systems - Reliable standby power supply for incandescent, fluorescent or HID lighting systems.
Luminaire Efficiency
Due to the smaller diameter of the T8 tube, the fluorescent luminaire is experiencing a modest gain in luminaire efficiency for two reasons. First the smaller diameter allows the optical designer to have better control of the light. This improvement in control allows the designer to put more of the light on the intended target. Secondly, the smaller diameter means that less light, which is reflecting off the reflector behind the lamp, is being blocked by the lamp.
Lumen Maintenance
The T8 lamps are better able to hold their original rated lumens, i.e. as the lamp approaches its end of life, the T8 is emitting more of its original lumens than the T12. Here we see a chart comparing the lumen maintenance of three lamps: A standard T12 A standard T8 A deluxe T8 Using these figures, the standard T8 allows for a 9% reduction in the number of luminaires needed while the deluxe T8 allows for a 16% reduction.
Lamp Efficiency
The smaller diameter also allows the lamp manufacturer to take certain technological advantages and increase the efficacy of the lamp. Here is a table comparing T12 with T8.
Old T12 T8-40w T8-32w Watts 40 40 32 Initial Lumens 3150 3400 2950 CRI 70 82 86 LPW 78.75 85 92.19
This shows a 17% improvement of the T8 over the T12 when comparing rated lumens. The combination of these last two items means that the T8 not only has a higher efficacy when new but then loses those lumens slower over time for a combined improvement of about 35%.
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Now lets discuss some of the individual parameters involved with electronic ballasts.
Fluorescent ballasts should always be designated as high power factor (power factor > 90%). Advantages of High Power Factor Ballasts include: 1. Avoids possible penalty charges from the electric utility. 2. Wiring costs are less because normal power factor ballasts result in about twice the line current of high power factor ballasts and may require heavier wire to carry the load. 3. With high power factor ballasts, more fixtures can be installed on each branch circuit.
SYSTEM CONFIGURATION
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Specialty Ballasts
There are ballasts designed for specific applications or environments, and should be considered as appropriate: O O O O Dimming Ballasts Cold Weather Ballasts Sign Ballasts Weatherproof Ballasts
At $0.09/KwH, this saved our user (per luminaire) $28.50/year in energy costs and $3.00/year in maintenance costs resulting in a payback of only 1.8 years. Case #2 In a Florida school, typical classrooms had 24 4-lamp luminaires using T12 lamps and magnetic ballast. These were replaced with T8 lamps and electronic ballasts. This resulted in an average drop in demand from 0.60kW to 0.45kW for a 25% savings.
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2. Unpredictable Scheduling irregularly occupied areas, such as copy centers and dressing rooms, can use motion sensors to save energy. 3. Daylighting perimeter areas near the daylighting should be on separate controls to take full advantage of daylight when available. 4. Brightness Balance controls can be used to mitigate offensive differences in brightness such as can occur with daylighting or in tunnel lighting. 5. Lumen Maintenance lighting system output typically decreases with time. Therefore, lighting systems are typically designed to provide sufficient light at the low end of the cycle. Controls can be used to reduce the excess light that is provided at the beginning of the cycle. Such controls then gradually increase power to the lamps, with time, to compensate for their natural losses. 6. Task Tuning frequently lighting systems are designed to provide uniform lighting throughout a space. Task tuning is providing controls so that lighting can be greatest where difficult visual tasks occur and lowest in areas such as aisles and reception areas. 7. Load Shedding/Demand Reduction selective reduction of lighting in less critical areas during peak demand periods can reduce energy bills. Some questions to ask with regards to any proposed lighting control scheme include: K K K K K K K K K K K What functions will the processor perform? What output functions are required? What is the size and complexity of the space being controlled? How much change is anticipated for the space and the lighting system? What other systems are proposed for the facility? What is the expertise level of the system operators and maintainers? Is a dedicated processor required? Does the system meet all code and safety requirements? What are the economics of the system? What is the reliability of the system? What are the warranty and service commitments?
Lighting Control Equipment falls into 5 main categories typically: K K K K K Manual Switching Timing Devices Photosensors Occupancy/Motion Sensors Dimming
Manual Switching
Significant energy savings can be achieved if occupants are willing to switch off unnecessary lights. Some general provisions that allow for this function include: K Each separate office should have its own control switch and those with daylighting should have at least two level switching. K In large open areas, similar work areas should be grouped together on one circuit. K When 1 or 2 lamp luminaires are used, adjacent luminaires should be placed on alternate circuits. K For 3 lamp systems, switch the middle lamp on a separate circuit. K For 4 lamp systems, the inside pair should be on a different circuit from the outside pair. K Task areas with high levels of lighting should be switched on separate switches. K Luminaires along windowed walls should be switched on a separate circuit.
Photosensors
A photosensor is an electrical device that measures the current amount of available daylight, and then adjusts the level of electric lighting accordingly. Key to the success of this control technology is the photocell placement and calibration. Photosensor calibration must be easy and accurate.
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Another key consideration is the design of the areas to be controlled by photosensors. Each area controlled by a single photosensor should: K Have the same general task activities, illuminance requirements and surrounds. K Have the same daylight conditions. K Be contiguous, having no high walls or partitions to divide it.
Occupancy/Motion Sensors
As frequent turning off and on can adversely effect lamp life, the challenge in this kind of system is designing the system to trap actual entry/exit patterns, while avoiding false positives (i.e. the lights coming on in an office when someone passes by). To understand the best technology to employ, we need to understand the strengths and weaknesses of each technology Passive Infrared (PIR) sensors use a dual element sensing device so that when one element senses infrared energy before the other, the sensor assumes occupancy and turned to the occupied state. PIR sensors are strictly line-of-sight devices. They cannot see around corners or over partitions and in, general, are best in smaller spaces such as offices, conference rooms, lunchrooms, etc. Ultrasonic sensors (US) use a quartz crystal oscillator to generate an inaudible signal. The ultrasonic signal is broadcast into a space, bounces off surfaces and returns to the sensors receiver. Changes in the signals return time indicate occupancy. Ultrasonic sensors are typically more expensive that PIR but offer greater coverage and have the ability to see behind partitions. However, the increased sensitivity means that they are more susceptible to false triggering from such things as HVAC systems, open windows and people walking by open doors to controlled spaces. Ultrasonic sensors are best used in bathrooms, office spaces with partitions, larger open areas, etc. Microwave sensors are similar to ultrasonic in that a signal is generated and moving objects will cause a shift in the frequency of the return signal. Microwave sensors are primarily limited to the security and alarm industries. Dual Technology (DT) sensors typically utilize both a passive infrared and ultrasonic technology. They offer the combined strengths of both technologies without the weaknesses of each. In addition, the control options are usually configurable by the user. For example, the unit may be set such that both technologies are required to trigger occupied and then either to hold on. Dual technology sensors are especially well suited for classrooms or spaces which are difficult to cover with a single technology. In general, all occupancy/motion sensors have adjustments for sensitivity, time delay, and coverage patterns. Some even integrate daylight controls to prevent the light from operating when there is sufficient natural daylight. Sensors can be ceiling, wall or wallbox mounted. Ceiling-mounted where the first type of motion sensor to be used in lighting applications. They may be used for small or large areas and have few limitations. The typical ceiling mounted system consists of a motion sensor/controller unit and a switchpack (transformer plus a relay). The switchpack provides low voltage to the sensor/controller through the transformer and the relay provides switching of the line voltage powering the lights. Wall-mounted systems are similar to ceiling-mounted and also require a switchpack. Wallbox systems are single unit and are a direct replacement for normal switches. The transformer and relay are integral to the unit. These units work well for small offices.
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2. No incandescent lighting
Exceptions might include: K K K Dimming applications Where used as emergency backup to HID lighting Low duty-cycle applications
7.
K K
8. Consider dual level switching for areas using 3 or 4 lamp luminaires and with:
K K K Multiple types of work functions within an area High density of computer monitors Lighting circuits running parallel to a glass wall or other areas with significant ambient light
National Energy Codes may require you to be capable of reducing the connected lighting load by 50% in a fairly uniform pattern.
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K For horizontal Glazing (skylights): luminaires located within a zone that is the overhead glazing area projected to the ground plus the floor to ceiling height in all directions. K Provide these zones with bi-level switching, dimming, light-level control, occupancy sensor, independent switches etc.
Government Organizations
www.epa.gov (Environmental Protection Agency) www.eren.doe.gov/femp (FEMP) www.climatetreaty.com (Global Climate Change)
Research/Education
www.lrc.rpi.edu (Lighting Research Center) www.northwestlighting.com (Seattle Lighting Design Lab)
Commercial Organizations
www.lightsearch.com (Inter.Light) lighting-inc.com/searchman.html (list of lighting manufacturers) www.llithonia.com (Lithonia Lighting)
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Lithonia Lighting manufactures commercial and residential downlighting as well as specification-grade and commodity-grade products for industrial and outdoor applications.
Products from Lithonia Emergency Systems, Lithonia Control Systems & Lithonia Reloc Wiring Systems utilize the most advanced technology available.
Lithonia continues to lead the industry with a wide selection of architectural, commercial, industrial and residential fluorescent lighting.
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www.lithonia.com/rebuildamerica
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