Mar Geophys Res (2013) 34:116 DOI 10.

1007/s11001-012-9163-3

ORIGINAL RESEARCH PAPER

Evidence of gas hydrate accumulation and its resource estimation in Andaman deep water basin from seismic and well log data
Anand Prakash B. G. Samanta N. P. Singh

Received: 9 February 2012 / Accepted: 31 October 2012 / Published online: 10 November 2012 Springer Science+Business Media Dordrecht 2012

Abstract 2D and 3D seismic reection and well log data from Andaman deep water basin are analyzed to investigate geophysical evidence related to gas hydrate accumulation and saturation. Analysis of seismic data reveals the presence of a bottom simulating reector (BSR) in the area showing all the characteristics of a classical BSR associated with gas hydrate accumulation. Double BSRs are also observed on some seismic sections of area (Area B) that suggest substantial changes in pressuretemperature (PT) conditions in the past. The manifestation of changes in PT conditions can also be marked by the varying gas hydrate stability zone thickness (200650 m) in the area. The 3D seismic data of Area B located in the ponded ll, west of Alcock Rise has been pre-stack depth migrated. A signicant velocity inversion across the BSR (1,9501,650 m/s) has been observed on the velocity model obtained from pre-stack depth migration. The areas with low velocity of the order of 1,450 m/s below the BSR and high amplitudes indicate presence of dissociated or free gas beneath the hydrate layer. The amplitude variation with offset analysis of BSR depicts increase in amplitude with offset, a similar trend as observed for the BSR associated with the gas hydrate accumulations. The presence of gas hydrate shown by logging results from a drilled well for hydrocarbon
A. Prakash B. G. Samanta Regional Computer Centre, Oil and Natural Gas Corporation, Kolkata 700088, India e-mail: anandprakash999@gmail.com B. G. Samanta e-mail: bgsamanta2002@yahoo.com N. P. Singh (&) Department of Geophysics, Faculty of Sciences, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221005, UP, India e-mail: singhnpbhu@yahoo.co.in

exploration in Area B, where gas hydrate deposit was predicted from seismic evidence, validate our ndings. The base of the hydrate layer derived from the resistivity and acoustic transit-time logs is in agreement with the depth of hydrate layer interpreted from the pre-stack depth migrated seismic section. The resistivity and acoustic transit-time logs indicate 30-m-thick hydrate layer at the depth interval of 1,8651,895 m with 30 % hydrate saturation. The total hydrate bound gas in Area B is estimated to be 1.8 9 1010 m3, which is comparable (by volume) to the reserves in major conventional gas elds. Keywords Gas hydrate Bottom simulating reector Hydrate saturation estimation Resource assessment Andaman deepwater basin

Introduction Natural gas hydrates may have the potential of becoming an alternate energy resource as a result of the huge deposits estimated worldwide (Kvenvolden 1993a; Collett 2002; Makogon et al. 2007). The potential reserves of hydrated gas are estimated to be of the order of 1.5 9 1016 m3, and a commercial production of just 15 % of this gas reserves could provide the world with energy for over 200 years from now at the current level of energy consumption. In recent years, gas hydrates have received much attention because of their widespread occurrence and associated potential importance as an energy resource, sea oor stability related geo-hazard, and possible impact on global climate (Paul et al. 1991; Kvenvolden 1993b). A number of publications describing the origin, signicance, occurrence and formation/genesis of these deposits both in permafrost regions and in marine sediments on continental slopes are

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available in the literature (e.g., Kvenvolden 1993a; Holbrook et al. 1996; Sloan 1997; Ginsburg and Soloviev 1998; Collett et al. 1999; Collett and Ladd 2000; Milkov and Sassen 2001; Collett 2002; Milkov 2004; Makogon et al. 2007; Economides and Wood 2009; Makogon 2010). Presently, many countries have national programs for the research and production of natural gas from gas hydrate deposits, and as a result of which over 220 gas hydrate deposits have been discovered, more than a hundred wells drilled, and kilometers of hydrated cores have been studied (Makogon et al. 2007). In Japan, the methane hydrate programme is in an advanced stage to carry out initial production testing in the deep water Nankai Trough (the program is called MH21; Tsuji et al. 2009). Canada with its consortium of partners has completed several drilling programs to produce gas from the Mackenzie Delta (Dallimore et al. 1999). Korea (Park et al. 2008), China (Zhang et al. 2007; Wang et al. 2010) and Malaysia (Hadley et al. 2008) have also launched major deep-water hydrate drilling expeditions successfully. Beginning in 1996, the National Gas Hydrate Programme (NGHP) initiated and funded by Ministry of Petroleum and Natural Gas, Government of India, has been documenting gas hydrate reserves in offshore India by collecting geophysical, geological, geochemical and microbiological data. Further, the drilling by JOIDES Resolution drill ship under NGHP Expedition- 01 in the Krishna Godavari (KG), Andaman and Mahanadi Basins has conrmed the presence of gas hydrate accumulation (Collett et al. 2008a, b). Seismic surveys (conventional 2D/3D survey, ocean bottom seismic, vertical seismic proling, and cross-well seismic and multi-component), well logging, and controlled source seismic surveys are the commonly used geophysical techniques for identication and evaluation of gas hydrate deposits. Most of the gas hydrates, worldwide have been inferred from the detection of a bottom simulating reector (BSR) and associated Gas Hydrate Stability Zone (GHSZ) thickness map (Shipley et al. 1979; Hyndman and Spence 1992; Yuan et al. 1996; Sain et al. 2000; Dewangan and Ramprasad 2007; Riedel et al. 2010). The BSR is recognized based on its characteristic features such as; (a) mimicking the shape of sea oor because the BSR follows isotherms, which are nearly parallel to the morphology of sea oor, (b) cutting across the underlying/ overlying dipping strata and (c) exhibiting large amplitude but opposite polarity to that of the seaoor reections (Brooks et al. 1986). The BSR is the interface between gas hydrate-bearing sediments above and free-gas saturated sediments below the interface and is often associated with the base of the gas hydrate stability eld (Kvenvolden 1993b). The BSR may not be continuous, indicating an upward gradation between a hydrate layer above and a free gas layer below the BSR. The Gulf of Mexico, Blake

Ridge, Cascadia Margin, Mackenzie Delta and Nankai Trough are some of the best known examples (Holbrook et al. 1996; Dallimore et al. 1999; Wood and Ruppel 2000; Hyndman et al. 2001; Ashi et al. 2002; Holbrook et al. 2002; Hornbach et al. 2008). In addition to the BSR, other geophysical anomalies, such as pockmarks, gas up-thrust zone, vents, and blanking zones are also prominent indicators of gas hydrate accumulation. Gas hydrate stability zones thickness maps have been prepared on the basis of available bathymetry, heat ow, seabed temperature and geothermal gradient data within the Exclusive Economic Zone (EEZ) of India (Chandra et al. 1998: Rastogi et al. 1999; Sethi et al. 2004; Ramana et al. 2007; Rajesh et al. 2010; Shankar et al. 2010). Gas hydrates show relatively high acoustic velocity and electrical resistivity values compared to unconsolidated, water-saturated sediments. Thus, gas hydrate-bearing sediments are usually characterized by increased values of resistivity and velocity from well logs. Normally, Archies equation (1942) is used for estimating the saturation of hydrocarbon using resistivity data. The equation has been applied to calculate gas hydrate saturation (Hyndman et al. 1999; Collett and Ladd 2000; Mrozewski et al. 2009). In addition, gas hydrate saturations have also been estimated from the modied Biot-Gassman theory by Lee (2000) and three phase Biot-type equation using acoustic log data (Lee 2000; Lee and Collett 2006). Recently, dielectric logging has also been used to estimate high-resolution in situ hydrate saturation (Sun and Goldberg 2005). Lee and Collett (2009) have suggested that gas hydrate saturations calculated from fractured reservoir could be overestimated as a result of the anisotropic nature of the reservoir caused by the presence of fractures. Geophysical, geochemical and microbiological proxies observed in the east coast of India have indicated the presence of gas hydrate deposits in Krishna Godavari, Cauvery, Mahanadi and Andaman Basins (Ramana et al. 2006, 2007, 2009; Riedel et al. 2008; Satyavani et al. 2008; Prakash et al. 2010a, b; Shankar et al. 2010; Nandi and Chaudhury 2011; Sain 2011). Satyavani et al. (2008) conducted seismic attribute studies in order to search for gas hydrates in the Andaman offshore and have indicated the presence of free gas accumulation below the BSR on the basis of seismic attributes, namely reection strength and instantaneous frequencies. In the present study, 2D and 3D seismic reection proles, as well as bore-hole data from the Andaman deepwater basin (Fig. 1) are analyzed to investigate the evidence for gas hydrate accumulation and its saturation and reserve estimation. AVO analysis, pre-stack depth migration, and velocity inversion of seismic data have been carried out. Model-based and grid-based tomography of the seismic data provided detailed velocity information, which indicates free gas below the hydrate layer. The logging results from a

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trench in the west. The morphology and structure of the Andaman Islands suggest that they are an island arc developed by subduction of Indian plate beneath the southeast Asian plate since the Late Cretaceous (Curray et al. 1979; Curray 2005). The regional geotectonic units in the basin area from east to west are back arc basin, volcanic arc, fore-arc, and trench associated with converging plate boundaries. Major tectonic eventssubduction/oblique subduction, magmatic intrusion and back-arc spreading led to the development of various sub-basins; fore-deep/trench, fore-arc, ponded ll, inter-arc, and back-arc basins. During the Late Cretaceous under-thrusting of the oceanic plate caused accretion of overlying Bengal Fan turbidites and shallow marine sediments and part of Burmese crust as north south trending prism by the process of reverse faulting, thrusting and folding (Curray 2005). The study areas (A and B) correspond to the deepwater part of the fore-arc sub-basin of Andaman basin and are shown in Fig. 1 on the regional tectonic map of Andaman basin.

Data and methods The study area in the Andaman deepwater basin is covered by 2D and 3D seismic surveys. Area A is covered by 162-fold 2D seismic survey with Common Depth Point (CDP) interval 12.5 m while Area B is covered by 62-fold 3D seismic survey with a grid of 12.5 9 25 m. Standard as well as special 3D seismic data processing scheme, such as pre-stack time and depth migration, very close grid migration velocity analysis, amplitude, phase and frequency attributes were performed. Coherence inversion, model-based and grid-based tomography of 3D seismic data has been carried out to obtain the best possible depth image as well as interval velocity-depth model. AVO curves for the BSRs are generated to see if there is any correlation between the presence of gas below the hydrate layer and amplitude increase with offset. Table 1 shows the processing scheme and parameters for 2D/3D data processing and pre-stack depth migration processing. Analysis of seismic data reveals BSR like reection events on the seismic sections. To study the characteristics of observed BSR-like features on seismic sections, special processing efforts were made to highlight the BSR. Detailed velocity analyses on pre-stack time and pre-stack depth migration gathers have been carried out to obtain the best estimate of root mean square (RMS) and interval velocity elds. Coherency inversion of seismic data was used to derive the interval velocity model for the 3D data and thereafter model-based tomography is used to update the velocity eld. However, some of reection events between the mapped horizons were not at. As a result, residual depth

Fig. 1 Tectonic map of Andaman Basin showing study areas. Stars indicate drilled well locations. Green dot indicates the location of gas hydrate accumulation conrmed under NGHP-01

drilled well in Area B have been used to estimate hydrate saturation and reserve estimation in the area. Some seismic sections also show double BSRs, which indicate changes in the PT conditions of the area in past. Double BSRs have also been reported in Nankai Trough (Golmshtok et al. 2006; Foucher et al. 2002), and in western Norway (Posewang and Mienert 1996).

Geologic setting The Andaman Basin is the southeastern part of the Bay of Bengal around the Andaman-Nicobar chain of islands between 6 and 14N latitude and 9194E longitude and covers an area of more than 47,000 km2. The basin has more than 7.5 km thick succession of marine sediments from Cretaceous to recent (source: www.dghindia.org/ SedimentaryBasins.aspx). The basin extends about 1,200 km in the northsouth direction from Myanmar in the north to Sumatra in the south, and 650 km in the east west direction from Malay Peninsula in the east and Java

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4 Table 1 Seismic data processing scheme and parameter

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move-out analysis in vertical mode in a grid of 250 9 250 m followed by grid-based tomography techniques was implemented to obtain the nal interval velocity model in the depth domain. The resulting nal velocity model was used for migration of data in the depth domain and it was observed that the reection events were now at verifying that the velocity model was optimum. The amplitude versus offset analysis of pre-stack time and pre-stack depth migration gathers at representative locations was carried out to investigate the nature of the BSR on seismic sections from the Andaman deepwater basin.

Results and discussion Seismic sections from the Andaman area (Fig. 2a, b) show BSRs at 200800 ms below the sea bottom. These BSR events are distinct and have characteristic features of a classical BSR, such as mimicking the sea oor, polarity reversal, cross-cutting the lithological boundaries, and blanking above and below the BSR. There is an abundance of BSRs seen in the seismic sections within the deep water of Andaman basin, at some places as shallow as 200 ms

below the seaoor, while at other places it is quite deep, at about 800 ms below the seaoor. The non-systematic distribution of BSRs at different depth horizons reects the varying PT regime at different locations in the area. The variation in BSR depths is signicant and may be attributed to the high sedimentation and erosion of ridges, which is still continuing in the area, and thereby suggests a dynamic hydrate system in the Andaman deep water areas. A dynamic hydrate system with signicantly varying base of the hydrate stability has also been reported by Hornbach et al. (2008) based on the 3D seismic data analysis in the Blake Ridge hydrate province. Gas hydrate stability zone thickness in the area has been calculated to be of the order of 200650 m, which is in agreement with those proposed by Rastogi et al. (1999), computed on the basis of geothermal gradient, seabed temperature and bathymetry data. The BSR is discontinuous with varying amplitudes, and at several places very high amplitudes are observed (Fig. 2a). The reection strength may be attributed to the saturation of gas hydrate. In some places, the BSR is observed at very shallow depths *200 m below the sea oor. This is as a result of high thermal gradient in the area. The thermal gradient derived from the well data is of the order of

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Fig. 2 a Pre-stack Time Migrated (PSTM) section from Area A (Line 1 shown in Fig. 1) shows BSR indicating gas hydrate accumulation. There is no seismic indication for free gas below the hydrate layer. Gas hydrate stability zone thickness is of the order of

400 m. b PSTM section from Area A (Line 2 shown in Fig. 1) shows BSR indicating base of gas hydrate layer. The hydrate stability zone thickness is large of the order of 650 m

52 C/km in the area closer (less than 100 km) to the seaoor spreading center. This has pushed the gas hydrate stability zone to very shallow depths, on the order of 200 m in this part of the basin which lies in the back-arc part of

the Andaman Basin (the well location is marked by a red star in Fig. 1). However, the thermal gradient estimated from the well (shown in Fig. 1 by blue star) data in Area B is of the order of 25 C/km. The gas hydrate stability zone

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is estimated to be at 460 m depth below the sea oor in this part of the basin, which is more than 200 km away from the ocean oor spreading center. In Fig. 3, the estimated gas hydrate stability zone thickness is calculated graphically by superimposing hydrothermal and geothermal gradients (52 C/km) obtained from the well data on the average gas hydrate stability curve crystallizing from 87.7 % methane and rest C2? gases (Sloan 1998). We also assumed averaged hydrostatic pore-pressure gradient (10 MPa/km) to calculate relationship between sediment depth and pressure. The calculated gas hydrate stability zone thickness may be considered approximate since several factors cannot be fully accounted. However, the BSRs on the seismic sections at the drilled well locations match perfectly with the depths of hydrate layer encountered in the wells. Figure 4 shows the estimated gas hydrate stability zone thickness as 490 m below the seaoor at a location in Area B which is more than 200 km away from the seaoor spreading centre. The drilling result and seismic data interpretation corroborate very well.

Some of the seismic sections in Area B reveal two distinct BSRs (Fig. 5). The upper BSR is traced as a continuous reector stretching over 3 km of length, while the lower BSR is traced at approximately 50 m below the upper one at various locations and is localized one. The upper BSR can be interpreted as an active methane hydrate BSR and the lower BSR as a residual hydrate-related BSR. Migration of methane hydrate stability zone from lower BSR to upper BSR might have happened as a result of sea water warming and tectonic uplift. Seismic sections in the Andaman basin show very clearly active erosion of the ridges below which very prominent BSR are observed. This erosion would reduce the overburden and may result in pushing down the base of the gas hydrate stability zone. However, increased heat ow caused by tectonic activities in the area would have also lead to an upward movement. The Andaman Basin is tectonically active and changes in temperaturepressure conditions are very much expected as a result of seaoor spreading, subduction of the Indian plate beneath the Southeast Asian plate and volcanic

Fig. 3 Gas hydrate stability zone thickness plotted on the basis of temperature measurements made while drilling the well at a location which is nearly 60 km away from the spreading center. The drilling results conrm presence of gas hydrate at such a shallow depth in the area. The well location is shown in Fig. 1 by a red star

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Mar Geophys Res (2013) 34:116 Fig. 4 Gas hydrate stability zone thickness plotted on the basis of temperature measurements while drilling the well at a location shown by blue star in Fig. 1, which is approximately more than 200 km away from the spreading center. The drilling results conrm presence of gas hydrate at that depth

activities (Curray 2005). The other possibility, which may give rise to double BSRs in the area, might be the presence of two or more thick hydrate layers separated by water saturated sediments. Double BSR has also been reported in the Nankai Trough area, offshore central Japan (Foucher et al. 2002). The secondary BSR (Fig. 5) does not follow the primary BSR and has a different structural character. However, both BSRs have same polarity. A deconvolution process (predictive distance: 24 ms, operator length: 240 m and percent white noise: 0.1 %) has been applied to remove the short period multiples before pre-stack time/depth migration. Therefore, the observed double BSR seems to be genuine, not a multiple. The double BSR may also be interpreted as the result of changes in the PT conditions in the past owing to low order tectonic activities in the area. Seismic section (Fig. 5) shows 120 m thick sediments deposited after the localized tectonic activity leading to seaoor rise. With 120 m thickness of sediments deposited after the tectonic activity and assuming the sedimentation rate of about 8 cm/Ka in Andaman Sea (Ramana et al.

2006), the age of the tectonic activity in Andaman Sea may be estimated to be of the order of 12 Ma (Pleistocene). Pre-stack time migration velocity analysis of 2D and 3D seismic data reveals variation in hydrate layer velocity between 2,000 and 1,750 m/s. Figure 6 shows one such panel indicating a hydrate layer velocity of 1,950 m/s. The hydrate layer velocity diminishes to 1,750 m/s at places where BSR amplitude is weak indicating a relationship between saturation of hydrate and interval velocity reection strength of the BSR. Amplitude-versus-offset/angle (AVO/AVA) analysis which determines the change in reection amplitude as a function of receiver offset or reection angle, is a vital tool used by the petroleum industry for the detection of gas beneath an interface (Shuey 1985). Consequently, the AVO analyses of pre-stack time migration gathers at various locations in the area are carried out. An example of the change in amplitude and waveform for the hydrate BSR as a function of offset is shown in Fig. 6a at a location X shown on Fig. 2a. At far offsets the amplitude

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Fig. 5 a Depth slice from pre-stack depth migration data volume at 2,260 m indicating double BSR (Area B). b The seismic section in depth exactly matches the events. The primary and secondary BSR are cutting across the layers but secondary BSR is localized one and seems to be relict indicating low order change in the pressure

temperature conditions. Seismic section shows the gas migration path well below the BSR. In this area the gas hydrate stability zone thickness is 490 m. 120 m thick sediments have been deposited after the tectonic event forming the anticline which might have changed the PT conditions in the area

increases rapidly and there is a phase shift at higher offsets ([3,622 m). Figure 7 shows the AVO curves obtained at three representative locations. Figure 7a represents the AVO response at the location where there is signicant evidence of free gas below the hydrate layer, such as very low interval velocity and high amplitude (Fig. 8). The AVO anomaly is very strong at such locations. A very weak AVO anomaly is observed (Fig. 7c) at the locations where there is no evidence of free gas below the hydrate layer (location-C shown on Fig. 2b). A moderate AVO anomaly (Fig. 7b) is observed at the locations where there is some indication of free gas beneath the BSR, such as lowering of interval velocity as compared to the background velocity (location-B shown on Fig. 9). For generation of AVO curves presented in this study pre-conditioned pre-stack time migration gathers are used. The preconditioning of pre-stack time migration gathers included careful parameterization for geometrical spreading correction, amplitude equalization for each offset, Q-correction, residual move-out correction, and a band pass ltering. The study of AVO responses of the BSR at various locations reveal that the AVO anomaly is mainly as a result of the underlying free gas rather than as a result of the hydrate layer above the BSR. Ecker and Lumley (2001) have also reported similar results in the Blake Outer Ridge through modeling methane hydrate in sediment overlying a layer of free methane gas-saturated sediment. The presence of free gas below the BSR in the Andaman offshore is also reported by Satyavani et al. (2008).

To obtain the best possible estimate of depth and interval velocity model, the 3D seismic data of Area B has been depth-migrated. Coherency inversion followed by three iterations of model-based tomography has been carried out to get the best estimates of interval velocity model. Some of the reection events between interpreted horizons are not at, indicating sub-optimal velocity in that zone. Therefore, vertical residual depth move-out analysis is carried out in order to atten all the reection events in the zone of interest (1,000 m below sea oor). The velocity model is then updated using grid-based tomography. This velocity model was used to carry out nal depth migration. Thereafter, it was observed that all the reection events were at, which suggests that the nal velocity model was an optimum one. Figure 8 shows a representative seismic depth section (corresponding to Line A, Fig. 10) showing the base of the hydrate layer at about 1,900 m, with a high interval velocity of 1,950 m/s. The very low interval velocity of 1,450 m/s and high amplitude of the reection events observed beneath the BSR suggests free gas accumulation below the hydrate layer. Reection events on the anticline below the BSR are truncating against the BSR, which shows that the hydrate layer functions as a seal preventing the upward movement of gas. Seismic sections in the area show high amplitude and low frequency events below the BSR (Fig. 5) suggesting gas migration from depth. The gas might have migrated to a structurally higher location and have been trapped around the area towards the south of Line B shown in Fig. 10. The area of possible free gas below the gas hydrate layer is mapped and shown in

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Fig. 6 a Migration velocity analysis panel showing BSR on PSTM gather. BSR also shows phase change at higher offset ([3,622 m). b The interval velocity calculated from root mean squire (RMS) velocity shows increased interval velocity (1,950 m/s) above the

BSR. The red and white lines show velocity trend at the nearby locations 1 km away, whereas black line indicates RMS velocity picked at the location. Highest semblance value zone is indicated by red in the gure

Fig. 10. Figure 9 shows a seismic section (corresponding to Line B, Fig. 10) without any indication of free gas beneath the hydrate layer as no signicant lowering of interval velocity is observed in the section. The area of the BSR without evidence of free gas is also mapped and shown in Fig. 10. The overall seismic signatures derived from the study of seismic data in Area B of the Andaman deepwater basin reveal the presence of free gas below the hydrate layer. The results of two wells drilled in the area showed the presence of biogenic gas at shallow depths (few hundred meters below the sea oor). The wells encountered hydrate layers at depths predicted by the seismic data analysis. Furthermore, the inferred results are in agreement with models of conventional gas hydrate formation and thus support the model for gas hydrate formation and development of the BSR proposed by Claypool and Kaplan (1974), which envisaged that methane is generated microbially from organic matter and hydrate formation takes place concurrent with sedimentation. Geochemical analysis

of hydrate sediments cored under the National Gas Hydrate Programme Expedition-1 conrmed the microbial origin of hydrates found in Andaman basin (Collett et al. 2008a, b). The study by Briggs et al. (2012) also validate the presence of sediments composed of *1 % marine derived organic carbon and biogenic methane in the Andaman Sea.

Down-hole log data analysis A well was drilled in the study Area B with logging measurements made while drilling (LWD). The well resistivity log superimposed on the seismic section is shown in Fig. 11. The base of the hydrate layer identied on the basis of resistivity and acoustic transit-time logs response matches the depth of the base of hydrate layer inferred from the pre-stack depth migrated seismic section. High seismic amplitudes on the seismic section at shallow levels in the gure coincide with high resistivity log

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Fig. 7 AVO curves generated from the analysis of PSTM data. a Strong AVO anomaly where free gas below the BSR is indicated by the velocity and amplitude anomalies. b Moderate AVO anomaly where there is some seismic indication for free gas below the BSR. c Low or no AVO anomaly where there is no indication for free gas below the BSR. The red curve corresponds to the amplitudes of the

raw data. The dashed light blue and cyan curves are theoretical AVO curves that are tted to the data. The light blue curve corresponds to the Aki and Richards (2002) curve. The cyan curve is the Shuey (1985) curve. The amplitudes on the y axis are normalized to 100. The angle on the x axis is incidence angle in degree

responses indicating secondary hydrate accumulation or free gas accumulation. This gas may be the dissociated hydrate gas accumulated and trapped in the suitable reservoir rock at a depth of about 1,600 m below the sea level. Minor faults seen on the seismic sections might have worked as conduits for the gas migration from deeper depths. The responses of the gamma ray (c), P-wave-velocity (converted from transit-time), resistivity and bulk density logs in the zone of interest are shown in Fig. 12. The zone can be divided into four units. Unit 1 is characterized by relatively high natural gamma-ray, low velocity, low resistivity and high density. This unit seems to be shale, devoid of gas hydrate as indicated by higher gamma values. Unit 2 is characterized by increased velocity from 1,650 to 1,950 m/s, a lower natural gamma value indicating greater sand percentage than Unit 1. The resistivity log shows an increase from 1.2 to 2.2 Xm. Unit 2 also shows a slight decrease in bulk density from 1.9 to 1.7 gm/cc in the depth interval of 1,8651,895 m. The resistivity and velocity logs of the Unit 2 indicate the presence of gas hydrate over a depth interval between 1,865 and 1,895 m. The velocity log is selected to precisely locate the boundary between Unit 2 and Unit 3.

This acoustic velocity boundary does not exactly match the decrease in the resistivity observed near the base of Unit 2. The discrepancy of about 15 m is likely as a result of the presence of signicant amounts of free gas below the deepest gas hydrate occurrence. 3D pre-stack depth migration of seismic data has also predicted the free gas below the gas hydrate (Fig. 8). The interval velocities estimated by the pre-stack depth migration of 3D seismic data in the gas hydrate zone and in the free gas zone below the hydrate layer are of the order of 1,950 and 1,500 m/s respectively. The log data largely validated the velocity prole obtained by pre-stack depth migration across the hydrate zone. In Unit 4, the bulk density decreases from 1.7 to 1.28 g/cc in its upper part (1,9101,930 m), without any signicant decrease in the velocity and increase in the resistivity. Although, there is sudden low natural gamma value at a depth of 1,930 m. Therefore, Unit 4 seems to be devoid of free gas, or hydrate, and lowering of bulk density may be attributed to the change in lithology. The electrical resistivity and acoustic transit-time logs indicate the presence of gas hydrate at the depth interval between 1,865 and 1,895 m. The resistivity log data can be used to quantify the amount of gas hydrate in the sedimentary section. The

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Fig. 8 Pre-stack Depth Migrated section (Line-A shown in Fig. 10) overlain by Interval velocity section showing BSR. Very low Interval velocity below BSR indicates free gas below the gas hydrate layer which is working as barrier for further upward migration of the gas

Fig. 9 Pre-stack Depth Migrated section (Line-B shown in Fig. 10) overlain by Interval velocity section showing BSR and the location for AVO analysis presented in Fig. 7b

resistivity log data in Unit 2 shows an increase in the resistivity from 1.1 to 2.2 Xm in the hydrate layer. Gas hydrate, like ice, acts as an electrical insulator. The presence of gas hydrate (or free gas) increases the resistivity of the host rock. Using the assumption that the high resistivity above the BSR is caused by the presence of gas hydrate in the pores (i.e., pores are lled either with water or with gas hydrate), gas hydrate saturation can be estimated by using Archies equation (1942), as proposed by Lu and McMechan (2002):

S 1 R0 = Rt n

where R0 is resistivity of formation saturated with water which can be estimated as the background resistivity which in this case is taken as 1.1 Xm. Rt is the measured resistivity in the hydrate zone which is 2.2 Xm. For hydrated clastic sediments, the value of n can be taken as n 1:9386 (Pearson et al. 1983). Using the above parameters, the hydrate saturation is estimated to be on the order of about 30 %. The exponent

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12 Fig. 10 Bathymetric map showing estimated area of hydrate accumulation in Area-B based on the presence of BSR. Contour interval is 40 m. The location of the well is indicated by a star. Line-A indicates location of the seismic section shown in Fig. 8. Line-B indicates location of seismic section shown in Fig. 9

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Fig. 11 Resistivity Log superimposed on pre-stack time migrated seismic section shows gas hydrate zone. There is an increase in resistivity from background value of 1.1 to 2.2 Xm in the hydrate zone. Fluid expulsion paths are also seen. The high resistivity in the shallow zone at 1,730 ms indicates possible secondary hydrate accumulation

n in the above Eq. (1) is empirical and can, therefore, introduce an error in hydrate concentration estimates. The critical factor in estimation using the resistivity log is the choice of baseline indicating hydrate-free sediments, which is dependent upon the pore water salinity.

Resource assessment To estimate the volume of hydrate-bound gas at specic site, the areal extent of hydrate occurrence, the thickness of the gas hydrate stability zone, the gas hydrate

concentration in the sediment and the gas hydrate yield are required parameters. Delineation of gas hydrate accumulation in Area B is done by mapping the BSR over the area. Figure 10 shows the areal extent of the BSR. The total area is estimated to be on the order of 25 km2. The average thickness of the gas hydrate stability zone is estimated to be 400 m, but based on the log data analysis it is concluded that gas hydrate is present in a 30-m-thick layer above the BSR throughout the area. Resistivity logs provide estimates of hydrate saturation at 30 %. The well encountered mainly claystone and siltstone at depths well below the BSR. Therefore, the average porosity of the sediments containing

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Fig. 12 Well Logs from a well in Andaman area marked by a blue star in Fig. 1. Unit-2 marks the zone of gas hydrate. Hydrate layer is characterized by higher velocity, lower density and higher resistivity than the hydrate-free background zone

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hydrates in the area can be estimated to be about 50 % without any loss of generality. Kvenvolden and Claypool (1988) estimated the global volume of hydrate-bound methane at 40 9 1015 m3 assuming average thickness of the gas hydrate stability zone as 500 m and the average porosity of the sediment as 50 %. For the purpose of this study, the gas hydrate yield is estimated to be of the order of 150 m3 of hydrocarbon gases. Gas hydrate yield is dened as the volume of gas held in gas hydrate (Sloan 1998). One cubic meter of pure methane gas hydrate contains 172 m3 of methane at standard temperature and pressure if the gas hydrate structure is completely lled with methane (unrealistic in the natural environment) and 139 m3 of methane if only 70 % of lattice cages are occupied (Collett 1995). The total volume of hydratebound gas (V) is estimated using the following equation. V Areal extent GHSZ thickness Hydrate saturation Porosity Gas hydrate yield 2 The total hydrate bound gas in Area B is estimated to be on the order of 1.8 9 1010 m3 at standard temperature and pressure. This gas hydrate resource is comparable (by volume) with the reserves within large or major conventional gas elds.

Conclusion In this paper, 2D and 3D seismic-reection proles, as well as well log data from the Andaman deepwater basin area, are analyzed to examine the bottom-simulating reectors associated with a gas hydrate accumulation, and to conduct the gas hydrate resource assessment of the area. Conventional 2D and 3D data processing, as well as special processing, such as a velocity and amplitude study (VAMP), coherency inversion, model-based and grid-based tomography of seismic data have been carried out to examine the characteristics of the observed BSRs and investigate whether these BSRs are associated with gas hydrate accumulation in the area. The results from seismic data are correlated with the well log results to substantiate the seismic data interpretation. Seismic data analysis reveals the presence of BSR showing all the characteristics of a classic BSR associated with gas hydrate formation in the area. The 2D and 3D seismic sections reveal that at several places the amplitude of BSR is large coupled with a high interval velocity of the order of 1,950 m/s just above the BSR, whereas at some other places the amplitude of the BSR is small and accompanied by an interval velocity of the order of 1,750 m/s. The variation of the base of gas hydrate stability

zone in the Andaman area (200650 m) suggests a dynamic hydrate system in Andaman Basin. The presence of double BSRs on seismic sections within Area B also suggests changes in PT conditions in the Pleistocene. There is a sizeable velocity inversion across the BSR (1,9501,650 m/s) in Area B. The areas with low velocity (on the order of 1,450 m/s) below the BSR and high amplitudes indicate a free/dissociated gas deposit beneath the gas hydrate layer. The amplitude variation with offset analysis of the BSR data show an increase in amplitude with offset; however, the AVO anomaly is more pronounced at places having low velocity below the BSR level, suggesting a possible free gas deposit beneath the hydrate layer. Pre-stack depth migration of 3D seismic survey in Area B of the Andaman deepwater basin reveals a pool of free gas beneath the hydrate layer. Strong AVO anomalies of the BSR coinciding with strong velocity inversions further substantiate the presence of a gas hydrate layer capping a free gas pool in Area B. The logging results from the well drilled in Area B conrm the existence of a hydrate deposit visualized by seismic analyses; however, the well velocity below the hydrate layer does not fully corroborate with seismic velocity. The resistivity and acoustic transit-time log data provides an estimate of hydrate saturation of nearly 30 % in the 30-m-thick hydrate layer at a depth interval of 1,8651,895 m. The total hydrate bound gas in the Area B is estimated to be 1.8 9 1010 m3, a volume comparable to the reserves in major conventional gas elds.
Acknowledgments The authors are grateful to the Oil and Natural Gas Corporation Limited (ONGC) for granting permission to use the data for this study. The authors express their sincere thanks to Shri S. V. Rao, Director (Exploration), Sri A. K. Dwivedi, Basin Manager, and Shri S. Panigrahi, General Manager and Head Geophysical Services for their support and encouragement for completion of this study. The authors are also thankful to Dr. Peter D. Clift and anonymous reviewers for their comments and suggestion which really improved the quality of the paper.

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