***TOP LEVEL

Top Level AT: Epistemology/Ontology

The popularization of more philosophical approaches to political iscourse may !e evi ent" !ut it is also un esira!le# it prioritizes $riti$ over action an isavo%s any attempt to act to fi& concrete pro!lem an creates a vicious cycle %here!y $riti$ over etermines action entirely an paralyzes change O%en ' David, Reader in Political Theory at the University of Southampton, Reorienting International Relations: On Pragmatism, Pluralism and Practical Reasoning, illennium: !ournal of International Studies, "ol# $%, &o# $, http:''mil#sagepu(#com'cgi'reprint'$%'$')*$ +ommenting on the ,philosophical turn- in IR, ./ver remar0s that ,1a2 fren3y for words like epistemology and ontology often signals this philosophical turn, although he goes on to comment that these terms are often used loosely#4 5o6ever, loosely deployed or not, it is clear that debates concerning ontology and epistemology play a central role in the contemporary IR theory wars# In one
respect, this is unsurprising since it is a characteristic feature of the social sciences that periods of disciplinary disorientation involve recourse to reflection on the philosophical commitments of different theoretical approaches, and

such a philosophical turn is not without its dangers and I 6ill (riefly mention three (efore turning to consider a confusion that has, I 6ill suggest, helped to promote the IR theory 6ars (y motivating this philosophical turn# The first danger 6ith the philosophical turn is that it has an inbuilt tendency to prioritise issues of ontology and epistemology over explanatory and/or interpretive power as if the latter t6o 6ere merely a simple function of the former# ;ut while the explanatory and'or interpretive power of a theoretical account is not wholly independent of its ontological and/or epistemological commitments 8other6ise criticism of these features 6ould not (e a criticism that had any value9, it is by no means clear that it is, in contrast, wholly dependent on these philosophical commitments# Thus, for e7ample, one need not be sympathetic to rational choice theory to recognise that it can provide powerful accounts of certain kinds of problems, such as the tragedy of the commons in 6hich dilemmas of collective action are foregrounded# It may, of course, be the case that the advocates of rational choice theory cannot give a good account of why this type of theory is powerful in accounting for this class of problems ( i#e#, ho6 it is that the relevant actors come to e7hi(it features in these circumstances that appro7imate the assumptions of rational choice theory9 and if this is the case it is a philosophical weakness!but this does not undermine the point that for a certain class of problems rational choice theory may provide the best account available to us# In other words while the critical "udgement of theoretical accounts in terms of their ontological and/or epistemological sophistication is one kind of critical "udgement it is not the only or even necessarily the most important kind# $he second danger run (y the philosophical turn is that because prioritisation of ontology and epistemology promotes theory%construction from philosophical first principles it cultivates a theory-driven rather than problem-driven approach to IR# Paraphrasing Ian Shapiro, the point can (e put li0e this: since it is the case that
there is no dou(t that such reflection can play a valua(le role in ma0ing e7plicit the commitments that characterise 8and help individuate9 diverse theoretical positions# :et, there is al6ays a plurality of possi(le true descriptions of a given action, event or phenomenon, the challenge is to decide 6hich is the most apt in terms of getting a perspicuous grip on the action, event or phenomenon in <uestion given the purposes of the in<uiry= yet, from this standpoint, ,theory>driven 6or0 is part of a reductionist program- in that it ,dictates al6ays opting for the description that calls for the e7planation that flo6s from the preferred model or theory-#* The ?ustification offered for this strategy rests on the mista0en (elief that it is necessary for social science (ecause general e7planations are re<uired to characterise the classes of phenomena studied in similar terms# 5o6ever, as Shapiro points out, this is to misunderstand the enterprise of science since ,6hether there are general e7planations for classes of phenomena is a <uestion for social>scientific in<uiry, not to (e pre?udged (efore oreover, this strategy easily slips into the promotion of the pursuit of generality over that of empirical validity# $he third danger is that the preceding two combine to encourage the formation of a particular image of disciplinary debate in IR@6hat might (e called 8only slightly tongue in chee09 ,the 5ighlander vie6-@ namely an image of warring theoretical approaches with each despite occasional temporary tactical alliances dedicated to the strategic achievement of sovereignty over the disciplinary field# It encourages this view because the turn to and prioritisation of ontology and epistemology stimulates the idea that there can only be one theoretical approach which gets things right, namely, the theoretical approach that gets its ontology and epistemology right# $his image feeds back into IR exacerbating the first and second dangers and so a potentially vicious circle arises# It should (e noted that I am not claiming that such a conducting that in<uiry-#) vicious circle has (een esta(lished in IR (y virtue of the philosophical turn, nor am I claiming that IR is alone in its current e7posure to this threat= on the contrary, Shapiro-s remar0s are directed at 8primarily &orth American9

the philosophical turn in IR increases its exposure to these dangers and vulnerability to the kind of vicious circle that they can collectively generate #
political science# I am simply concerned to point out that

hence, its

Top Level AT: (oot )ause

*o root cause of %ar comple&ity ooms monocausal e&plnalations +a!ri ,"ivienne, Becturer in International Relations at the University of Cent, Introduction: +onflict Analysis Reconsidered, Discourses on "iolence: +onflict Analysis Reconsidered, Pu(lished (y anchester University Press &D, IS;& DE%FD$F*FG, p# $ The study of 6ar has produced a num(er of often conflicting ans6ers to Huincy &rights 'uestion, I.hy is 6ar thoughtJ &hy is war fought(% The history of human political violence has shown that we cannot produce monocausal explanations of war. Studies 6hich concentrate on assumed innate human characteristics fail to account for the societal factors 6hich are implicated in 6hat is essentially an interactive and dynamic process# Similarly, investigations which link attributes of the international system such as balances of power not only produce contradictory findings but seem to negate human decision%making and psychological processes in the onset of war in specific conditions # Studies of violent conflict
aspire to uncover, through empirical investigation, patterns of (ehaviour 6hich lead to 6ar# As indicated (y 5olsti, studies of 6ar may (e divided into those 6hich emphasise structural or Iecological varia(les, such as the distri(ution of po6er capa(ilities 6ithin the system, and those 6hich emphasise Idecision>ma0ing, values, and perceptions of policy>ma0ers in attempts to isolate common features leading up to the decision for 6ar#G

The consensus of e&perts is on our si e /olsti ,0 Calevi !aa00o, Professor of Political Science at the University of ;ritish +olum(ia, On The Study Of .ar, Peace And .ar: Armed +onflicts And International Order, %)4K>%FKF, Pu(lished (y +am(ridge University Press, IS;& D*G%$FFGFE, p# $ Investigators of conflict, crises, and war reached a consensus years ago that monocausal explanations are theoretically and empirically deficient# Cenneth .alt3- 8%F*E9 classic typology of 6ar e7planations convincingly demonstrated various pro(lems arising from diagnoses that locate 6ar causation e7clusively at the individual, state attri(ute, or systemic levels# 5e also illustrated ho6 prescriptions (ased on faulty diagnoses offer no solution to the problem# Lven Rousseau-s po6erful e7ploration of the conse<uences of anarchy,
updated (y .alt3 8%FEF9, remains full of insights, (ut it only specifies 6hy 6ars recur 8there is nothing to prevent them9 and offers fe6 clues that help to predict 6hen, 6here, and over 6hat issues# ;lainey 8%FE$9, in another telling attac0 on monocausal theories, continues 6here .alt3 left off# 5e offers, on the (asis of rich historical illustrations, (oth logical and anecdotal re(uttals of facile e7planations of 6ar that dot academic and philosophical thought on the su(?ect# ;ut rebuttals of the obvious are not sufficient# &e presently have myriads of theories

of war emphasi)ing all sorts of factors that can help explain its etiology # As +arroll and Min0 8%FE*9 note, there are if anything too many theories and even too many typologies of theories # Huoting Timascheff approvingly, they point out that anything might lead to war, but nothing will certainly lead to war #

*o single cause of conflict 1arnett et al 2 ichael, 5un?oon Cim, adalene O-Donnell, Baura Sitea, Nlo(al Novernance, IPeace(uilding: .hat is in a &ameJ, Huestia ;ecause there are multiple contri(uting causes of conflict almost any international assistance effort that addresses any perceived or real grievance can argua(ly be called *peacebuilding#O oreover, anyone invited to imagine the causes of violent conflict might generate a rather expansive laundry list of issues to be addressed in the postconflict period including income distribution land reform democracy and the rule of law human security corruption gender e'uality refugee reintegration economic development ethnonational divisions environmental degradation transitional "ustice and on and on# There are at least t6o good reasons for such a fertile imagination# One, there is no master variable for explaining either the outbreak of violence or the construction of a positive peace (ut merely groupings of

factors across categories such as greed and grievance, and catalytic events# "aria(les that might (e relatively harmless in some conte7ts can (e a potent coc0tail in others# +onversely we have relatively little knowledge regarding what causes peace or what the paths to

peace are# +lthough democratic states that have reasonably high per capita incomes are at a reduced risk of conflict , being democratic and rich is no guarantor of a positive peace , and illi(eral and poor countries, at times, also have had their share
of sucascess# Second, organi3ations are li0ely to claim that their core competencies and mandates are critical to peace(uilding# They might (e right# They also might (e opportunistic# After all, if peace(uilding is (ig (usiness, then there are good (ureaucratic reasons for claiming that they are an invalua(le partner#

Top Level AT: 3tructural Violence

4irect violence" not structural oppression" causes %ar Thompson 5 .illiam, Professor of Political Science and Director of the +enter for the Study of International Relations at Indiana University, IA Streetcar &amed Sara?evo: +atalysts, ultiple +ausation +hains, and Rivalry Structures, International Studies Huarterly, 4E8$9, AD: E>%D>F
Richard &ed Be(o6 8GDDDPGDD%9 has recently invo0ed 6hat might (e called a streetcar interpretation of systemic 6ar and change# According to him, all our structural theories in world politics both overdetermine and underdetermine the explanation of the most

important events such as .orld .ar I, .orld .ar II, or the end of the +old .ar# ,ot only do structural theories tend to fixate on one cause or stream of causation they are inherently incomplete because the influence of structural causes cannot be known without also identifying the necessary role of catalysts# +s long as we ignore the precipitants that actually encourage actors to act we cannot make accurate generali)ations about the relationships between more remote causation and the outcomes that we are trying to explain # &or can 6e test the accuracy of such generali3ations 6ithout accompanying data on the presence or a(sence of catalysts# In the absence of an appropriate catalyst 8or a ,,streetcar-- that failed to arrive9, wars might never have happened# +oncrete information on their presence 8,,streetcars-- that did arrive9 might alter our
understanding of the e7planatory significance of other varia(les# ;ut since catalysts and contingencies are so difficult to handle theoretically and empirically, perhaps 6e should focus instead on pro(ing the theoretical role of contingencies via the development of ,,6hat if -- scenarios#

***)AP6TAL637 A*38E(3

)ap 9 Ans%ers :ni;ueness 3elf#)orrecting/AT: (una%ay )onsumerism

)apitalism creates the con itions for refle&ivity no ris$ of runa%ay consumerism )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# %G4 Minally, capitalism promotes innovation, and as a path to technical innovation, science# Science offers a means for critical analysis of !eliefs, and hence a 6ay to uncover an e!un$ false consciousness#%* In the <uest for a creative, innovative 6or0force, ideal firms see0 out highly educated individuals and individuals from 6idely varying (ac0grounds# If a society is to support such innovation, it 6ill need to support the education of individuals from all 6al0s of life in order to ma7imi3e the potential for finding the uni<uely creative individuals 6ho 6ill invent ne6 technologies and ne6 forms of life# ;ut a necessary (yproduct of such (roadly distri(uted education 6ill (e the creation of critical thin0ing individuals 6ho ;uestion the fetishes of the current generation# In this 6ay, capitalism creates the con itions for trenchant criti;ues of capitalist fetishes. )apitalism is self#correcting consumer#in uce responsi!ility an regulations effectively limit plun ering /ollen er an 1reen 0< P Q Mounder of the American Sustaina(le ;usiness +ouncil, a progressive alternative to the +ham(er of +ommerce, QQLditorial Director of the Mast +ompany !effrey 5ollender, ;ill ;reen, IThe Responsi(ility Revolution: 5o6 the &e7t Neneration of ;usinesses 6ill .in, pg# 7i7 The responsi(ility revolution is a(out more than cutting car(on, reducing energy use , monitoring factories, or donating to charities# It-s a(out reimagining companies from 6ithin: innovating ne6 6ays of 6or0ing, instilling a ne6 logic of

competing, identifying ne6 possi(ilities for leading, and redefining the very purpose of (usiness# +onse<uently, 6e-ve dra6n on the (est thin0ing not only from the corporate responsi(ility arena, (ut also from the realms of strategy, leadership, and management# Others, to 6hom 6e are inde(ted, have developed some of this (oo0-s core principles# 8.e 6ill ac0no6ledge them as 6e present their ideas#9 Our intent is to sho6 ho6

an emerging (reed of (usiness revolutionaries is turning theory into practice and (uilding organi3ations that gro6 revenue (y contri!uting to the greater goo # This is a (oo0 a(out change, (ut it see0s to help companies
it 6on-t (e (ecause they-ve suddenly seen the light# It 6ill (e (ecause

change on the inside@change their priorities, the 6ay they organi3e, ho6 they compete, and the 6ay they interact 6ith the 6orld# .e fully concede that many companies, perhaps even most companies, 6on-t 6illingly alter their (ehavior# ;ut they 6ill change nonetheless, and

massive num(ers of consumers, a spreading s6arm of competitors, values>driven employees, and even that laggard indicator, the federal government, ma0es them change# )hange is un er %ay. The responsi(ility revolution spreads# Perhaps you-ve seen the insurrection (egin to
roil your industry, and you-re determined to get out in front of it# If so, 6elcome to the cause#

)orporations are revolutionizing to%ar s socially conscious innovation solves their impact /ollen er an 1reen 0< P Q Mounder of the American Sustaina(le ;usiness +ouncil, a progressive alternative to the +ham(er of +ommerce, QQLditorial Director of the Mast +ompany !effrey 5ollender, ;ill ;reen, IThe Responsi(ility Revolution: 5o6 the &e7t Neneration of ;usinesses 6ill .in, pg# G>$ To the conventional>minded, putting values (efore profit is an upside>do6n 6ay to (uild strategy@and an all>
do6nside 6ay to spur sales# It sounds e7treme, even anarchic# Perhaps Triodos ;an0-s resilience and results might give s0eptics cause to reset their thin0> ing# Mor this Dutch (an0 signals that ,,corporate responsi(ility--$ 8+R9 may 6ell (e undergoing a period of unprecedented ,,punctuated e<uili(rium--@the controversial theory promulgated (y the reno6ned paleontologist Stephen !ay Nould#4 5e posited that evolution proceeds mostly slo6ly, (ut not al6ays steadily@that it is sometimes inter> rupted (y sudden, rapid transitions, in 6hich species decline and are supplanted (y entirely ne6 forms# Triodos ;an0-s consistently positive performance, 6hich gro6s out of its mission>first approach to investing, is (ut one more prominent piece of evidence that corporate responsi(ility is entering a period of dramatic, accelerated change in its o6n evolution# .hat ne6 shapes +R is a(out to ta0e on, 6e are ?ust no6 (eginning to understand# ;ut 6e 0no6 this much@ corporate

responsi(ility is undergoing a change that-s as revolutionary as it is evolutionary# +onsider the evidence: An emerging (reed of values>driven companies@some ne6, some 6ell esta(lished@is !uil ing a !etter form of capitalism# A ne6 generation of values>driven leaders has 0ic0ed over the alpha capitalists- argument that ,,the only (usiness of (usiness is (usiness#-- Old>guard notions a(out ,,culpa(ility-- and ,,accounta(ility-- are (eing su(sumed (y the vanguard-s re<uirement to act authentically and transparently# ;loodless (u336ords li0e ,,corporate responsi(ility-- and ,,eco> efficiency-- are (eing supplanted (y a ne6 voca(ulary@,,corporate consciousness,-- ,,resource intelligence,-- ,,social innovation-@ that aspires to capture our real>6orld e7periences# A(ove all, tomorro6-s (ell6ether organi3ations are moving (eyond the moralist-s dictum to (e less polluting , less 6asteful, ,,less (ad#-- They are striving to meet the innovator-s

imposing imperative to (e all nourishing" all replenishing" >>all goo #-- This moment of punctuated, accelerated change affects all of us in (usiness# It 6ill determine ho6 tomorro6-s companies organi3e, strategi3e, and compete# It 6ill reveal ne6 leaders and e7pose the phonies and purveyors of green6ash# It 6ill redefine (usiness-s o(ligations to society and reconfigure the sources of gro6th and competitive advantage# And it 6ill re<uire us not only to anticipate the end of
corporate responsi(ility as 6e-ve 0no6n it, (ut also to imagine the 6hole ne6 models that 6ill replace it#

)orporate enlightenment proves capitalism is self#correcting >consumer demand shapes corporate response >&NOs are forcing companies to form a socially positive role >Catrina proves P corporations can serve as first>responders in catastrophe /ollen er an 1reen 0< P Q Mounder of the American Sustaina(le ;usiness +ouncil, a progressive alternative to the +ham(er of +ommerce, QQLditorial Director of the Mast +ompany !effrey 5ollender, ;ill ;reen, IThe Responsi(ility Revolution: 5o6 the &e7t Neneration of ;usinesses 6ill .in, pg# *>) .hy is this different from the drum(eat for corporate accounta(ility that started at the (eginning of the decade, after the Lnron, .orld+om, and Tyco de(aclesJ R +ompanies, in the 6a0e of such scandals, must no6 6or0 harder to protect their reputations# R Nlo(al (rands, 6hich are (attling to crac0 mar0ets all over the 6orld, are no6 e7pected to perform a social role# +ustomers, than0s to the Internet, no6 have more po6er than ever (efore@the po6er to scrutini3e companiesactivities and to organi3e (oycotts at the slightest sign of mis(ehavior # R The (ody politic, seared (y Pon3i schemes and the meltdo6n in financial mar0ets, is punishing ,,(ad companies-- and demanding that all companies ,,do good#-- R Lmployees no6 e7pect companies to adopt a purpose that-s (igger than profit@a 0ey factor in the competition for AS talent# R &ongovernmental organi3ations 8&NOs9 are gro6ing e7ponentially and are relentlessly pushing companies to contri(ute to society# R Sta0eholders are pressuring institutional investors to adopt strong principles of governance and a responsi(le investing strategy # People across the political spectrum are concluding that despite the U#S#-s government (ailouts
of .all Street and the U#S# car industry, (usiness is still fast enough and nim(le enough to innovate solutions to some of the 6orld-s thorniest pro(lems# T6o proof points among thousands: Unilever-s pledge to certify as sustaina(le all of its Bipton tea (ags sold glo(ally, 6hich promises to lift one million African tea gro6ers out of poverty#%% Or recall the U#S# federal government-s fee(le response to the devastation caused (y 5urricane Catrina# volunteers and non>profits@proved

.al> art, 6ith its 6orld> class logistical operation@along 6ith the help of countless individual to (e the real first respon er# ore than anything, climate change is forcing (usiness and society itself to rethin0 everything, from transportation to energy sources to geo>politics to cities# .hen the oil (aron T# ;oone Pic0ens attac0ed the United States- petroleum>(ased economy as a ris0 to national security, it 6as clear that min s have change # Mormerly fringe notions that (usiness should (e environmentally and socially sustaina(le have move to the mainstream@and the (usiness landscape has (een fun amentally transforme #

)ap 9 Ans%ers :ni;ueness Life E&pectancy :p

Life e&pectancy increasing relate to capitalist sprea (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# GDD Bong>term trends in life e7pectancy@surely an important indicator of environmental health@are good, not (ad# Those trends are the result of human innovations made possi(le (y societies that en?oy political and economic freedom# Bife e7pectancy has gone up 6orld6ide in the last fifty years, even in poor countries# The trends go do6n only in countries 6ith 6idespread 6ar and e7tremely corrupt and despotic governments#GF ;efore listing its litany of traditional complaints, even the United &ations admitted as much# Its unreported GDDE document titled IState of the Muture (egan: IPeople around the 6orld are (ecoming healthier, 6ealthier, (etter educated, more peaceful, more connected, and they are living longer #$D The document even goes so far as to admit that these improvements are the fruit of free tra e an technology#

)ap 9 Ans%ers :ni;ueness Poverty 4o%n

A!solute poverty is ecreasing no% >6ealth accumulation isn-t 3ero>sum (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# FD>F% To repeat: Lven if the gap (et6een rich and poor gro6s over time, it oesn?t mean that the poor are getting poorer, (ecause the total amount of 6ealth may have gone up# The relevant issue is 6hether the lot of the poor improves over time, not ho6 close they are to the richest mem(er of their society#%G Mrom %F4E to GDD*, the average income of the richest GD percent of the U#S# population 6ent up almost every year, from TK,DEG in %F4E to T%K4,*DD in GDD* 8ad?usted for inflation9# ;ut this didn-t come at the e7pense of the poor # On the contrary, the real incomes of the poorest GD percent also 6ent up almost every year, from T%,*K4 in %F4E to TG*,)%) in GDD*# And all this happened over a period in 6hich the num(er of American families dou(led, from a(out $E million in %F4E to over EE million in GDD*#%$ In other 6ords, the total amount of %ealth %ent up# The rich didn-t get richer (y ma0ing the poor poorer# And this is to say nothing of the fact that

many families clim(ed up the income ladder over time# The poorest GD percent of the population is not al6ays made up of the same people# Up6ard mo(ility is common# The same thing is true internationally# To see this visually, go to the illuminating if (adly named .e( site Napminder 8666 #gapminder#org9# Napminder converts (oring, opa<ue statistics into intuitive animations# It allo6s you to see trends# One such animation uses an 7'y plot to sho6 the trends in life e7pectancy and per capita income from a(out %FE4 to GDD*# If you can get on the Internet, (efore you read further go to 666#gapminder #org and clic0 on INap inder .orld, GDD)# Then you can follo6 along# .ords alone don-t do ?ustice to the reality# Lvery country is represented here on an 7'y plot 6ith a color> coded circle# The country-s population determines the si3e of the circle# 8That-s 6hy India and +hina loo0 li0e !upiter and Saturn 6hile most of the other countries loo0 li0e little moons#9 The y>a7is 8up and do6n9 sho6s life e7pectancy# So the higher up a country is on the plot, the higher its

average per capita life e7pectancy# The 7>a7is 8left to right9 sho6s per capita income# The farther a country is to the right on the plot, the higher its per capita income# &o6 hit IPlay, and 6atch the circles move through time# &otice the general trend: up and to the right# In other 6ords, per capita income and life e7pectancy have gone up in many countries in the last thirty years, especially in Lurope, Asia, and &orth America# Total income has increase %orl %i e#%4 Poverty ecreasing life#e&pectancy increasing causally relate to sprea of capitalism (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# FG In fact, the percentage of people living in a(solute poverty has dropped since %FED# In %FED, the 6orld population 6as $#E
(illion, and $K percent 8%#4 (illion9 lived (elo6 the a(solute poverty line 8less than one dollar a day9# ;y %FFD, 6ith a 6orld population of *#$ (illion, those languishing in a(solute poverty dropped to G) percent 8still a(out %#4 (illion9#%* In fact, despite puddleglummish reports to the contrary, 6orld6ide, statistics on infant mortality, life e7pectancy, and poverty have all improve

ramatically in the last fe6 decades#%) +omparing countries, there is one unmista0a(le trend: countries 6ith the rule of la6 and economic freedom prosper over time# +ountries 6ithout these virtues do not# The annual IInde7 of Lconomic Mreedom drives this home# In GDDE, (ooming 5ong Cong topped the list, 6hile starving, Stalinist
&orth Corea came in dead last#%E Those t6o facts tell you 6hat you need to 0no6# If every country had free mar0ets and the rule of la6, every circle on the Napminder plot 6ould pro(a(ly (e moving up and to the right#

)ap 9 Ans%ers :ni;ueness Ev 6n ict @eneral

Prefer our evi ence they conflate !a human ecision ma$ing %ith capitalism (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# %)4 Too many critics confuse the free mar0et 6ith the (ad choices free people ma0e # Rod Dreher, for instance, chastises
fello6 conservatives, saying, I.e loo0 do6n on the li(eral li(ertine 6ho asserts the moral primacy of se7ual free choice, (ut some> ho6 miss that the free mar0et 6e so uncritically accepts e7alts personal fulfillment through individual choice as the summit of human e7istence#F Perhaps they miss that fact (ecause it-s not a fact# The free mar0et doesn-t e7alt anything# 5uman (eings e7alt and denounce

things li0e se7ual free choice# 5uman (eings might e7alt Iindividual choice as the summit of human e7is> tence, (ut a system of free
e7change doesn-t do that# In a free economy, sinful entrepreneurs may entice customers 6ith pornography, and sinful customers may (uy it# ;ut having free choices in the mar0et doesn-t dictate 6hat people 6ill choose# That-s the 6hole point of freedom: it

al6ays involves costs@that is, trade>offs# To choose one path is to foreclose the opposite path# Lven Nod accepted trade>offs# 5e chose to create a 6orld 6ith free (eings, one that allo6ed those (eings to turn against him# And they did# ;ut their freedom didn-t cause them to choose the (ad# It ?ust allo6ed them to# So, too, 6ith a free economy# +ritics notice all the vice present in free societies# ;ut it is only in free societies that 6e can fully e7ercise our virtue# +harity is charity, for instance, only if it-s not coerced# ;esides, there-s no evi ence that state control of the economy ma0es a citi3enry more virtuous# Lvery social ill in modern> day America, from 6idespread a(ortion and alcoholism to family (rea0do6n, 6as much %orse in statist and communist countries# Their attempt to !lame corporate e&ploitation on capitalism is misinforme they mista$e gree an corruption for the !est economic system Vance A Ph4 in Economics Baurence # "ance, ad?unct instructor in accounting at Pensacola !unior +ollege, ises, http:''mises#org'story'%KKE The all>too familiar circle of the government regulating an industry, creating a Ocrisis,O and then intervening even more to solve the crisis, thus ma0ing things 6orse, is no 6here more apparent than DiBoren3oUs e7amples from the energy industry# The (oo0 concludes 6ith a loo0 at Othe never>ending 6ar on capitalismO (y government intervention, regulations, agencies, and (ureaucrats# DiBoren3o also inclu es university professors" politicians" an la%yers in his in ictment. OAmerican universities devote an inordinate amount of time and resources to teach potential (usiness leaders not how to be capitalists but how to be corporate bureaucrats #* -oliticians *view businesses as cash cows to be plundered for the benefit of their own political careers#* *.awyers now have incentives to spend their lives digging up cases and evidence against corporations because some consumers stupidly misused their products# O DiBoren3o
also (riefly revie6s three anticapitalist (ut (est>selling (oo0s: Lric SchlosserUs Mast Mood &ation: The Dar0 Side of the All>American eal, ;ar(ara LhrenreichUs &ic0el and Dimed: On 8&ot9 Netting ;y in America, and ichael ooreUs Stupid .hite en and Do6nsi3e ThisV 5e finds that the

capitalism attac$e in these (oo0s is not capitalism at all" it is socialism" mercantilism" interventionism" an assorte anticapitalist myths # Although these Orevie6sO are an added (onus to the (oo0, they 6ould
(e even (etter if they 6ere lengthened and made into a series of appendices#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 4isease @eneral

8ealth accumulation solves isease >0ey to life e7pectancy for infants )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# )D>)%
A common misperception in the literature on development and health outcomes is that if a positive pu(lic health outcome can no6 (e achieved 6ithout accumulation of 6ealth and capital, then such development, and capitalism in particular, could not (e causally responsi(le for improvements in health#E* ;ut this follo6s neither for the historical nor the contemporary case# I have ?ust argued the historical case# +onsider t6o contemporary e7amples of lifesaving and life improving medical advances# The development of anti>retroviral drugs to

com(at AIDS has (een incredi(ly e7pensive, although today the drugs themselves are not e7pensive to ma0e and they are (eing distri(uted in many developing countries for very lo6 prices# These drugs are saving many lives# ;ut dearly they 6ould not e7ist at all 6ere it not for the massive investments in capital and scientific e7pertise in academic settings in developed capitalist countries# )apitalism provi e the %ealth accumulation that made this possi(le, even 6hile it 6as the collective action of government allocating funds for development of the drugs and glo(al health organi3ations that made possi(le their delivery to poor, mainly noncapitalist countries# Another (iomedical advance that promises to save or improve the health of many premature infants is the development of the actifier# Premature infants often have trou(le learning to suc0le, a tas0 that re<uires a great deal
of coordination of suc0ing, s6allo6ing, and (reathing muscles# The actificr is a simple, cheap device that provides instant feed(ac0 to the infant that teaches it to suc0le properly, often in ?ust a fe6 sessions# Bearning this coordination of muscles is the first step that infants need to ta0e to (ootstrap cognitive s0ills necessary for a successful and rich human life# It also allo6s infants to (reastfeed, 6hich is especially crucial

This device 6ill no dou(t save many lives at lo% cost in eveloping countries# ;ut Its development has re<uired a massive investment in science > the main developer of the device has a million dollar la(oratory and many postdocs 6ho 6or0 for him# And this accounting leaves out the many mis>steps and 6rong turns that less successful innovations have ta0en# Any one successful (iomedical device or drug comes from a large num(er of trials and errors, most of 6hich are costly (ut never recover their cost directly #
in places 6here 6ater <uality is <uestiona(le and assaults against a childUs immune system are li0ely to (e many#

)ap solves isease >smallpo7 e7ample )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# $K>$F
Lasterlin re?ects the idea that economic gro6th has (een largely responsi(le for the health transition, and he tests a version of this hypothesis, the O cCeo6n hypothesis,O 6hich claims that the causal factor generating the health transition is specifically (etter nutrition from greater 6ealth and income,O Lasterlin argues that if this hypothesis holds, then 6e should o(serve a tight connection (et6een rising levels of income and rising life e7pectancy# There should (e a short time lag (et6een them, and the time lag should (e appro7imately the same# ;ut the data do not sho6 this, rather they sho6 that in Lngland and .ales it too0 several decades for life e7pectancy gains to (e made, 6hile in S6eden, for e7ample, the gains came very <uic0ly 6ith the rising income that indicated the advent of capitalism in that country# Does this sho6 6hat Lasterlin 6ants to sho6, namely, that economic

gro6th is not causally responsi(le for the historical health transition has

no6 (een accomplished in much of the 6orldJ 6 thin$ not# There are other relevant differences (et6een the cases# Lngland 6as highly ur(ani3ed, 6hich created conditions for increased spread of infectious diseases, as Lasterlin recogni3es# ;ut this means that there 6as a higher (ar for the 6ealth effect to overcome, it does not mean that there 6as no 6ealth effect# Thus, I thin0 his re?ection of the cCeo6n hypothesis is premature# Murthermore, the fact that S6edenUs transition to capitalism came later gave it an advantage in the sense that it could learn from techni<ues adopted in Lngland to improve health# LasterlinUs alternative hypothesis is that the introduction of smallpo7 vaccines accounted for the progress in life e7pectancy in (oth cases# ;ut there are t6o things to note a(out this alternative that are relevant here# Mirst, even if this is the main cause of the health transition, the 6ide availa(ility of smallpo7 vaccines > their production and distri(ution, communication a(out their use and effectiveness, and the responsiveness of pu(lic health agents to the desire of citi3ens for them > must at least in part (e

due to the conditions created (y capitalism, including greater 6ealth and income, higher levels of education, and increasing legal and pu(lic infrastructure According to !onathan Tuc0er, Oa 0ey (rea0through in the control smallpo7 in industriali3ed countries 6as the invention of the Ice(o7, 6hich made it possi(le to refrigerate smallpo7 vaccine and there(y preserve its potency for long periods#O4U Second, citing smallpo7 vaccines alone ignores another ma?or contri(utor to female life e7pectancy 8the statistic s he uses in his argument9: falling fertility rates# +apitalism, % 6ill argue, played a ma?or role in encouraging and facilitating lo6er fertility rates, 6hich in turn increased maternal and infant survival rates#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 4isease 7e ical A vances

)ap is $ey to !iome ical a vances solves isease >this is a good ans6er to Icap frivolous medical investment i#e# "iagra, allergy medicine, etc# )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# 4%>4G Bi0e6ise scientific advances re<uire much 6ealth investment # Lasterlin argues that scientific innovations do not re<uire
capitalist mar0ets, rather they are due to factors internal to the evolution of science# 5e 6rites, >It is this se<uence in the evolution of (asic (iomedical science > from epidemiological studies to identification of causes and mechanisms > that principally e7plains, I (elieve, the chronology of advances in control of ma?or infectious disease, not demand conditions# ;ut again he does not address the massive

6ealth accumulations necessary for this advance in (iomedical science: the educational infrastructure= the la(oratories= and the opportunity cost of spending oneUs time doing science rather than procuring food and shelter# &o dou(t government or other collective agents had to play a role in assuring that 6ealth 6as invested in these scientific advances, (ut the %ealth ha to e&ist to !e so investe # It is no coincidence that (iomedical science too0 great leaps for6ard during the period ?ust su(se<uent to the economic ta0eoff of Luropean and &orth American societies# At the same time, the health ta0eoff must in turn have furthered the accumulation of 6ealth in early capitalism# The t6o processes > gro6th of (iomedical 0no6ledge and gro6th of capital accumulation > coul not have occurre separately# Murthermore, there is a great deal of positive evidence that capitalist firms invested in (iological and chemical research in order to solve some of the pressing health pro(lems of the day, including creating serums for diphtheria and other contagious diseases, and developing vaccines, pain 0illers, and cures for syphilis#4E

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 4isease Patents

Patents $ey to long#term innovation that is necessary in cases of mutation *or!erg 5 !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, p# %KE
+ompanies can do these things (ecause there are affluent mar0ets 6ith customers 6ho can pay 6ell# Those companies can only do 6hat they have resources for= they cannot simply accept e7penditure 6ith no earnings# ;ut that is 6hat many people complaining a(out efforts (y pharmaceutical companies to preserve their patents feel they should do# If patents for /I0/+I12 drugs were abolished altogether

far more poor people in the world would be able to afford them because they could then be reproduced at very low cost# $hat might give people greater access to a medicine today but it would drastically reduce availability in the future" because pharmaceutical companies spend huge amounts developing medicines # 3or every successful drug there are on average 45 or 65 unsuccessful ones and producing a new marketable medicine can cost hundreds of millions of dollars# The high prices of the fe6 medicines that can (e sold are necessary in order to finance all this research# If patents disappeared hardly any company would be able to afford the research and development of medicines# If we had not had patents before there would be no controversy over the price of drugs to treat /I0/+I12 because then those drugs would never have been invented#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 4isease Pu!lic /ealth

)ap solves isease $ey to !uil ing a pu!lic health infrastructure >solves vaccines, infrastructure and (asic health needs )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# 4D>4% Mor instance, among the ma?or impediments to pu(lic health in the nineteenth century 6ere dunghills and open se6ers, 6hich (red and spread 8particularly (y means of the flies that fed on them9 infectious diseases# Dunghills
consisted of (oth animal and human manure, and they 6ere maintained as a source of fertili3er (y people 6ho sold and carted the manure to fields and gardens# As cities gre6 6ith increasing industriali3ation, so did the dunghills# Netting rid of the dunghills re<uired not only the (uilding of latrines or se6ers, (ut also reducing the source of dung 6here possi(le# In the mid>nineteenth century trains (egan the transition a6ay from horse transportation, (ut this 6as not concluded until 6ell into the t6entieth century 6hen the (icycle and the automo(ile (ecame common# The United Cingdom e7perienced a (oom in rail6ay lines (et6een %K$D and %K4D# ;y %K4$, most ma?or cities, to6ns, and villages in ;ritain 6ere connected (y rail#UU4 This 6as (ut one of the many developments needed to rid cities of their dunghills > they could not ?ust disappear 6hen it 6as reali3ed that they 6ere a health pro(lem, let alone a horrendous stenchV ;uilding latrines that avoided 6ater6ays, and later (uilding closed se6ers, removing gar(age from cities, and (uilding health clinics all li0e6ise re<uired massive capital investments re<uiring antecedent 6ealth accumulation# Lasterlin cites the development of net6or0s of local (oards of health that could inspect and regulate the food and mil0 supply, and (acteriological

la(oratories for testing, as 6ell as the production and distri(ution of vaccines, as all very important for the health transition# These too re<uire great e7penditures of 6ealth on the part of societies, especially considering the opportunity costs of (uilding the pu(lic health 6or0force# People had to (e 6ell off enough to have the education and the time to 6or0 on these activities that 6ere not aimed at (asic provision of food, shelter, and clothing# Thus, an accumulation of 6ealth , 6hich in this era 6as ma e possi!le !y capitalism, 6as re;uire for the health transition, regardless of the fact that it had to (e
governments that channeled this 6ealth in order to (ring a(out the health transition#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 4isease AT: Brivolous (esearch

)apitalism is not the cause of misplace isease research rather" economic gro%th purporte !y capitalism is $ey to preventing isease *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, p# %K) One common o(?ection to the mar0et economy is that it causes people and enterprises to produce for profit, not for needs# $his means, for e7ample, pharmaceutical companies devoting huge resources to research and medicines to do with obesity baldness and depression things that westerners can afford to worry about and pay for whereas only a fraction is devoted to attempting to cure tropical diseases afflicting the poorest of the 6orldUs inha(itants, such as malaria and tu(erculosis# This criticism is understanda(le# The unfairness exists, but capitalism is not to blame for it # &ithout capitalism and the lure of profit we shouldn't imagine that everyone would have obtained cures for their illnesses# In fact far fewer would do so than is now the case# If wealthy people in the &est demand help for their problems their resources can be used to research and eventually solve those problems, which are not necessarily trivial to the people afflicted with them# 7apitalism gives companies economic incentives to help us by developing medicines and vaccines# $hat westerners spend money this way does not make things worse for anyone# $his is not money that would otherwise have gone to researching tropical diseases!the pharmaceutical companies simply would not have had these resources otherwise# And, as free trade and the market economy promote greater prosperity in poorer countries their needs and desires will play a larger role in dictating the purposes of research and production# Empirically" e&cess profit is use for philanthropy *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, p# %KE It is not a pro(lem for the Third .orld that more and more diseases have (een made cura(le in the .estern 6orld# On the contrary, that is something that has proved to (e a (enefit, and not ?ust (ecause a 6ealthier 6orld can devote more resources to helping the poor# In many fields, the $hird &orld can inexpensively share in the research financed by wealthy &estern customers sometimes paying nothing for it# $he 8erck 7orporation gave free medicine to a pro"ect to combat onchocerciasis 8river (lindness9 in %% African states# +s a result those states have now rid themselves almost completely of a parasite that formerly affected something like a million people blinding thousands every year # GG $he 8onsanto 7orporation allows researchers and companies free use of their techni'ue for developing golden rice a strain of rice enriched with iron and beta carotene 8pro>vitamin A9, which could save a million people annually in the $hird &orld who are dying of vitamin + deficiency diseases# + number of pharmaceutical companies are lowering the prices of inhibitors for /I0/+I12 in poor countries by up to 9: percent on condition that the patents are preserved so that they can maintain full prices in wealthier countries#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves Economy @eneral

)apitalism is $ey to gro%th *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# )4 The gro6th of 6orld prosperity is not a Imiracle or any of the other mystifying terms 6e customarily apply to countries that have succeeded economically and socially# 2chools are not built nor are incomes generated by sheer luck like a bolt from the blue# $hese things happen when people begin to think along new lines and work hard to bring their ideas to fruition# ;ut people do that every6here, and there is no reason 6hy certain people in certain places during certain periods in history should (e intrinsically smarter or more capa(le than others# &hat makes the difference is whether the environment permits and encourages ideas and work or instead puts obstacles in their way# $hat depends on whether people are free to explore their way ahead to own property to invest for the long term to conclude private agreements and to trade with others# In short it depends on whether or not the countries have capitalism # In the affluent 6orld 6e have had capitalism in one form or another for a couple of centuries# That is ho6 the countries of the .est became Ithe affluent 6orld# Capitalism has given people both the liberty and the incentive to create, produce, and trade, thereby generating prosperity. )apitalism en s poverty an promotes gro%th *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# )4 !ohan &or(erg sho6s that the diffusion of capitalism in the last decades has lowered poverty rates and created opportunities for individuals all over the world# .iving standards and life expectancy has risen fast in most places# &orld hunger infant mortality and ine'uality have diminished# $his is because of an economic and technological development that is the result of free market policies# $he poor countries that have liberali)ed their economies have shown impressive results while those that have not are stuck in deep misery# $herefore we need more capitalism and globali)ation if we want a better world not less# )apitalism is $ey to %ealth generation @ilpin '$ Professor of Politics Ro(ert Nilpin, Professor of politics and international affairs, Princeton University, The challenge of glo(al capitalism: the 6orld economy in the G%st century, p# $ +apitalism is the most successful 6ealth>creating economic system that the 6orld has ever 0no6n= no other system, as the distinguished economist !oseph Schumpeter pointed out, has benefited the common people as much# 7apitalism he observed creates wealth through advancing continuously to ever higher levels of productivity and technological sophistication; this process re<uires that the Iold (e destroyed (efore the Ine6 can ta0e over# $echnological progress the ultimate driving force of capitalism re'uires the continuous discarding of obsolete factories economic sectors and even human skills# $he system rewards the adaptable and the efficient; it punishes the redundant and the less productive# Only capitalism generates up%ar economic mo!ility Vance A Ph4 in Economics Baurence # "ance, ad?unct instructor in accounting at Pensacola !unior +ollege, GDD*, ises, Accesssed April %$, GDDF, http:''mises#org'story'%KKE ;ecause it 6as ar7 himself 6ho coined the term, it is no surprise that capitalism has been falsely thought to benefit only capitalists and the rich while exploiting workers and the poor # DiBoren3o dismisses as ar7ist propaganda the idea that capitalism is Oa 3ero>sum game in 6hich Usome(ody 6ins, some(ody loses#UO Instead, O 7apitalism succeeds precisely because free exchange is mutually advantageous#* +nd not only does it succeed it is *the source of civili)ations and human progress#* 7apitalism has *brought to the masses products and services that were once considered luxuries available only to the rich#* 7apitalism is not only *the best- nown source of upward economic mobility * it *actually

reduces income ine'ualities within a nation#O In short, capitalism alleviates poverty raises living standards expands economic opportunity and enables scores of millions to live longer healthier and more peaceful lives #

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves Economy Empirics

/istory is on our si e capitalism causes prosperity" prevents hunger" an ensures a longer lifespan *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# EE
All e7perience indicates that it

is in liberal regimes that wealth is created and development is sustained # -olitics and economics are not exact sciences< we cannot perform laboratory experiments in order to ascertain 6hich systems 6or0 and 6hich do not# =ut the conflict between capitalism and central planning gives us something close# /istory provides us with several instances of similar populations with similar preconditions and sharing the same language and norms sub"ected to two different systems one a market economy and the other a centrally controlled command economy # &ith >ermany divided into capitalist &est and communist ?ast people talked of an economic miracle in the &estern part while the ?ast fell further and further behind # $he same thing happened with capitalist 2outh @orea and communist ,orth @orea# The former 6as num(ered among the Asian tigers, convincing the 6orld that Ideveloping countries can
actually develop# .hereas in the %F)Ds it 6as poorer than Angola, today, 6ith the 6orldUs thirteenth largest economy, South Corea is almost as affluent as a .estern Luropean country# $he ,orth @orean economy, (y contrast, underwent a total collapse, and the

country is now afflicted with mass starvation# Ane can also see the difference between $aiwan a market economy that experienced one of the swiftest economic developments in history and communist mainland 7hina which suffered starvation and misery until it saw fit to start opening up its mar ets# $ The same comparison can be made all over the world# $he greater the degree of economic liberalism in a country the better that countryBs chances of attaining higher prosperity faster growth a higher standard of living and higher average life expectancy# !eople in the economically freest countries are nearly "# times as rich as those in the least free, and they are living more than $# years longerV Tons of empirical evi ence *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# %GF The 6orldUs output today is ) times 6hat it 6as *D years ago, and 6orld trade is %) times greater # There is cause to (elieve that production has been led and driven by trade # L7actly 6hat difference open mar0ets ma0e is hard to tell, (ut virtually no economist denies that the effect is positive# $here are huge %uantities of empirical fact to show that free trade creates economic development# One comprehensive and fre<uently cited study of the effects of trade 6as conducted (y 5arvard economists !effrey 2achs and Andre6 &arner# E They examined the trade policies of CCD countries (et6een %FED and %FKF# +fter controlling for other factors the study reveals a statistically significant connection between free trade and growth that the authors 6ere una(le to find, for e7ample, (et6een education and gro6th# >rowth was between three and six times higher in free trade countries than in protectionist ones# Apen developing countries had on average an annual growth rate of E#E9 percent those two decades while closed developing countries had only 5#F9 percent# Apen industriali)ed countries had an annual growth of 4#49 percent while closed ones experienced only 5#DE percent growth#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves Economy AT: La!or E&ploitation

*o la!or e&ploitation cap lea s to rising !illions )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# EK>KD The immiseration o(?ection claims that there is a Urace to the (ottomU for la(or, in that capital 6ill see0 out ever cheaper la(or to hire and this 6ill cause la(orers to compete (y accepting lo6er and lo6er 6ages# The argument depends on the assumption that there is a large supply of unemployed and interchangea(le la(or that can (e tapped at 6ill, and that capital can flo6 freely to e7ploit these la(orers# These conditions o not hol precisely in practice,

though it is at the heart of the feminist o(?ection to capitalism that 6omen and children are often e7ploited in this 6ay# It is surely true that la(or 6ill see0 out the (est 6ages availa(le 6ithin other constraints that oneUs 6ay of life imposes# +apital has to compete for la(or 6ith other firms, and so the going 6age 6ill depend on 6hat other firms e7ist, as 6ell as on 6hat other options a society offers persons 6ho are una(le or un6illing to 6or0 for the 6ages offered# The (etter the outside option, then the (etter position la(or has to (argain for higher 6ages# ;ut li0e6ise, the more mo(ile capital is, the (etter a(le it 6ill (e to see0 out 6or0ers in different places 6hose outside options are 6orse and demands for 6ages are lo6er# Those unemployed la(orers 6ho are out there 6illing to accept the lo6 6ages are, after all, presuma(ly (etter off 6hen they earn the lo6 6ages than they 6ere 6hen they earned nothing# So it is not possi(le to say analytically ho6 this 6or0s out= it has to (e empirically determined# The real moral <uestion then is this: does capitalism improve the availa(le options to

the most vulnera(le 6omen and childrenJ One of the 0ey findings of international trade economists is that 6hen a ne6 international firm enters a developing mar0et, %ages as a %hole rise in the region# W This suggests that more capitalist trade and production increases %ages# In some cases, governments 6ill intervene to

artificially lo6er 6ages and raise the level of production in 6ays that a free mar0et 6ould not support, say (y outla6ing unions or (rea0ing stri0es# Although this no dou(t happens in many places in the 6orld, it is the result of political and social oppression (y governments, and hardly to (e (lamed on the capitalist system per se# An analogy 6ould (e (laming the political oppression of communist leaders on the socialist economic system# Any economic system 6ill leave open the possi(ility for unscrupulous (ut po6erful leaders to e7ploit the system and oppress people# On the other hand, governments may also interact in 6ays that raise 6ages, such as (y giving the companies ta7 (rea0s or other incentives to locate in the country# .hether they govern socialist or capitalist systems, governments need to (e responsive to the people= they can create much good or much harm regardless of the economic system they oversee#

)ap solves e&ploitation if e&ploitation e&ists" it?s not a result of impoverishment !ut of iffering talent levels )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# %D%>%DG It 6ill (e o(?ected that 6ealth ine<uality and poverty are (ac0ground conditions created (y capitalism that cause e7ploitation# I have already presented a great deal of evidence to suggest that the poverty claim is false# +apitalism ma0es persons %ealthier" not poorer# "irtually no one denies that income and 6ealth rise in countries 6hen they (ecome more involved in capitalist mar0ets and develop industry and trade# +apitalist mar0ets and firms create opportunities for interactions that improve the 6ealth of (oth sides of a trade= other6ise the interaction 6ould not occur, at least not as sanctioned (y capitalism, as defined (y the private o6nership, free and open mar0ets, and free 6age la(or conditions# Although corrupt government may steal or alter property rights and so impoverish some of its citi3ens, this is not the fault of capitalism (ut of corruptionV +apitalism does
argua(ly create ine<ualities, although it does not create them every6here# ;ut it is certainly an implication of the conditions of capitalism that ine<uality 6ill occur, provided that there is an initial ine<uality in resources and no or little social redistri(ution (y government# Since

persons differ in their talents and s0ills, at a minimum there 6ill (e ine<ualities in the resulting income and 6ealth
derived from capitalist interaction# Ine<uality creates the possi(ility of e7ploitation (ecause those 6ho have lesser endo6ments may (e more desperate to ma0e a trade than those 6ith greater endo6ments# ;ut is this the morally unaccepta(le form of e7ploitationJ The ans6er depends on 6hether the e7ploitation involves coercion# ;ut it involves coercion only if there is a(solute poverty# Thus, it is only the com(ination

of poverty and ine<uality that create a pro(lematic form of e7ploitation# Insofar as capitalism helps to remedy poverty, then, it tends to lessen the morally unaccepta(le forms of e7ploitation # )apitalism is self#correcting the transition a%ay from e&ploitative la!or proves /ollen er an 1reen 0< P Q Mounder of the American Sustaina(le ;usiness +ouncil, a progressive alternative to the +ham(er of +ommerce, QQLditorial Director of the Mast +ompany !effrey 5ollender, ;ill ;reen, IThe Responsi(ility Revolution: 5o6 the &e7t Neneration of ;usinesses 6ill .in, pg# F They are recreating their relationships 6ith suppliers# .hen activists pulled (ac0 the curtain on persistent health, safety, and child>la(or violations in the overseas factories of some of America-s foremost apparel (rands, the targeted
companies first reacted 6ith utter predicta(ility: they issued ,,codes of conduct-- for their vendors and dispatched teams of inspectors to e7pose serial offenders# In its first social>responsi(ility report, for e7ample, Nap Inc# proudly proclaimed that it had pulled its (usiness from %$) factories that failed to meet its ne6 la(or standards# ore recently, ho6ever, the clothing retailer has come to reali3e that internal

monitoring alone cannot unravel its supply chain-s tangled pro(lems , and simply listing the num(er of offending

factories does not inspire the pu(lic-s trust# In GDD), Nap

surprised the (usiness 6orld (y identifying, on its .e( site, its contract factories, so 6e could see for ourselves 6hat conditions 6ere li0e# Rather than simply policing their su(contractors, Nap and &i0e@6or0ing 6ith union and &NO representatives@are partnering 6ith them, to help them (ecome sustaina!le an esira!le places to %or$# +ontract factories that invest in people an treat their %or$ers %ell tend to improve efficiency 8read: lo6er prices9 and product <uality, 6hich gro6s their (usiness@and helps to gro6 their customers- (usiness results #

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves Economy AT: 8ealth 6ne;uality

8ealth ine;uality isn?t inherently !a capitalism creates a floor on glo!al poverty )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# K%>KG T6o o(?ections may (e raised to entrepreneurial capitalism: first, that it creates greater ine<ualities of 6ealth= and, second, that it leads to insta(ility 6hen firms (ecome o(solete (ecause of ne6 innovations# % 6ill address each one in turn# Mirst, it is important to note that although 6ealth ine<ualities are very high in entrepreneurial capitalist countries, those countries do not have the highest income ine<ualities currently# The highest income ine<ualities, as mentioned earlier, are in very poor countries, such as &ami(ia or Sierra Beone# ost developed capitalist countries have much lo6er Nini coefficients# 5o6ever, among capitalist countries, the highest Nini coefficients are in the United States, Singapore, and 5ong Cong, 6hich are among the most friendly places to entrepreneurial activity# Second, 6ealth ine<ualities are very great indeed 6hen one ta0es into account the ;ill Nates and !# C Ro6lings of the 6orld, (ut these are very fe6 individuals, 6hose great 6ealth hardly ma0es anyone else 6orse off# Indeed, if they ma0e philanthropic
gestures li0e the ;ill and elinda Nates Moundation has, they ma0e a great contri(ution to the 6ell>(eing of the poor in the 6orld through the use of their 6ealth# +onsidering household 6ealth on average 6ithin countries and (et6een countries, it is 6ithin countries, that is, 6ithin the various economic systems, that 6ealth ine<ualities are highest,O This suggests that political po6er, 6hatever its source, is a large part of the cause of differential income and 6ealth levels in a society, and insofar as that Is a pro(lem, it re<uires a political solution# Minally, although

6ealth ine<ualities can create social insta(ility, poverty is really the un erlying ifficulty # If capitalist development provides a solution to poverty, as I have argued, then it attac0s the root of many of the pro(lems 8poor health, inade<uate education, unemployment9 that lead to social insta(ility and human misery# )ap solves poverty any alternative also supports gross ine;uality" !ut oesn?t raise the !ottom !illions )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# KE>KK The most important o(?ection against capitalism , ho6ever, is that it ena(les gross ine<ualities in 6ealth and income# .hen these ine<ualities also entail a(solute impoverishment, so that persons do not have the a(ility to choose (et6een decent 6ays of life, then this is clearly a failure# ;ut capitalism raises the overall level of material 6ealth in a society, and so allo6s for the possi!ility of a ressing such a!Cect poverty# The fact that mar0et interactions lead to ine<ualities is not, in itself, a denial of freedom# ;ut it does pose the possi(ility of ine<ualities in po6er that can lead to positive
and social unfreedoms, and indeed this is (orne out in the actual 6orld in many 6ays# Perhaps the 6orst sort is 6here 6ealth (uys political influence in a nominally democratic country# ;efore leaving the topic of ine<uality, ho6ever, it is important to point out that capitalism

is not alone in supporting gross ine<ualities, (ut the 6ay in 6hich it does so is accepta(le 6here it is not in other systems# &orth Corea, a socialist totalitarian system, creates gross ine<ualities of 6ealth through political po6er that controls resources# The leader and his minions live in vast 6ealth 6hile much of the population teeters on the (rin0 of famine# The communist systems of the Soviet Union and +hina 6ere also notorious for the vast consumption and indulgence of their leaders compared 6ith the average citi3en , and
notoriously one had to (e a party mem(er in the Soviet Union in order to o6n a car# Traditional societies are no (etter= the patriarchs of many such societies are rich 6hile the young and the less po6erful la(or for far less# ;ut in each of these cases the 6ealth comes not through productive effort, (ut rather through political control, and in some cases through inheritance# .hile the leader of &orth Corea is in charge simply (y virtue of (eing the son of the previous leader, the richest capitalists in the 6orld 6ere not (orn to the previous generation of the 6ealthiest# It is true that ;ill Nates and .arren ;uffet 6ere (orn to upper>middle>class families, (ut their vast 6ealth 6as earned through innovation, s0ills, and talents, and not through inheritance# This is not to say that ine<uality in 6ealth is not a pro(lem, nor to say that opportunities to achieve great 6ealth are fairly distri(uted in capitalism# They are not, and that is a serious moral issue# ;ut it is to say that

socialist and traditional societies have at least e<ually difficult pro(lems to address in terms of ine<uality in 6ealth and po6er# In the final section of my contri(ution, I 6ill argue that an enlightened capitalism must do (etter to address
ine<ualities that either amount to a(solute poverty or cause political and social ine<ualities that deny freedom# It is also important to note, ho6ever, that ine<uality that does not rule out good options for life does not seriously interfere 6ith individual positive freedom, in either sense of the term# One

need not live in the (est of all possi(le 6orlds , after all, in order to (e free enough to pursue oneUs o6n pro?ects# )apitalism is net#!etter than resource re istri!ution at solving %ealth isparity *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# KD>K%

Thus, growth

is the best cure for poverty# Some economists have spoken of a trickle%down effect meaning that some get rich first after which parts of this wealth trickle down to the poor as the rich spend and invest # This
description may evo0e the image of the poor man getting the crum(s that fall from the rich manUs ta(le, (ut this is a completely mista0en picture of the true effect of gro6th# On the contrary, 6hat happens is that the poor benefit from growth to roughly the same extent and at

the same speed as the rich# $hey benefit immediately from an increase in the value of their labor and from greater purchasing power# &o country has ever succeeded in reducing poverty without having long-term growth # ,or is there any case of the opposite that is of a country having had long%term sustainable growth that didnBt benefit the poor population# Still more interestingly, there is no instance of a country having had steady levels of growth in the long term without opening up its mar ets# The .orld ;an0Us .orld Development Report GDDD'GDD% contained a good deal of
rhetoric a(out gro6th not (eing everything and not (eing sufficient for development@rhetoric influenced, no dou(t, (y the gro6th of the anti> glo(ali3ation movement# ;ut that reportUs o6n ta(les sho6 that the higher a countryUs gro6th has (een in the past GD years, the faster it has reduced poverty, infant mortality, and illiteracy# In the countries at the (ottom of the gro6th league, illiteracy had actually increased# It may (e that gro6th in itself is not sufficient to (ring good development for everyone, (ut growth is manifestly necessary# If we have 6

percent growth annually this means that the economy our capital and our incomes double every 46 years# If growth is twice as fast they double about every C4 years# This growth represents an unparalleled increase in prosperity# =y comparison the effects of even vigorous government income redistribution policies are insignificant !not "ust insignificant but downright dangerous because high taxes to finance these measures can "eopardi)e growth# If so, great long-term benefits for everyone are sacrificed in favor of small immediate gains for a few # 7ore ev empirical e&amples of real incomes for all increasing in capitalism *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# KK Studying e<uality in ED countries, the economist N# .# 2cully found that incomes were more evenly distributed in countries with a liberal economy, open mar ets, and property rights # $his was, a(ove all, because the middle class had more and the upper class less in free than in unfree economies# $he share of national income going to the richest fifth of the population was 4: percent lower in the freest economies than in the least free economies# $he proportion going to the poorest fifth in a society was unaffected by how free the economy was but their actual incomes were far greater in liberal economies # %) The lac$ of capitalism is the cause of %ealth isparity the *orth#3outh gap is concretely ivi e upon li!eral an non#li!eral economies *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# %*4 The 6orldUs ine<uality is due to capitalism# &ot to capitalism having made certain groups poor, (ut to its ma0ing its practitioners 6ealthy# The uneven distribution of wealth in the world is due to the uneven distribution of capitalism# Arguments that capitalism is someho6 to (lame for 6orld poverty are oddly contradictory# Some argue that capital and corporations ma0e their 6ay only into the affluent countries, leaving the poor ones up the prover(ial cree0# Others maintain that capital and corporations floc0 to poor countries 6ith lo6 production costs, to the detriment of 6or0ers in the developed 6orld# The truth seems to (e that they ma0e their 6ay into (oth# Trade and investment flo6s in the past t6o decades have come to (e more and more evenly distri(uted among the economies that are relatively open to the rest of the 6orld# It is the really closed economies that, for o(vious reasons, are not getting investments and trade# oreover, the differences (et6een these groups of countries are increasing# +learly, instead of globali'ation marginali'ing certain regions, it is the regions that stand bac from globali'ation that become marginali'ed. %

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves Environment

)apitalism empirically shiel s the environment eight reasons %ealth" emocracy" tech evelopment" tra e" mar$et a Custing to scarcity" regulation of e&ternalities" easy compliance" private property *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, p# GG*>G$E All over the 6orld, economic progress and gro6th are moving hand in hand 6ith intensified environmental protection# Mour researchers 6ho studied these connections found Ia very strong, positive association (et6een our 1environmental2 indicators and the level of economic development # A country that is
very poor is too preoccupied 6ith lifting itself out of poverty to (other a(out the environment at all# +ountries usually (egin protecting their natural resources 6hen they can afford to do so# &hen they grow richer they start to regulate effluent emissions and 6hen they have still more resources they also (egin regulating air <uality# %F A num(er of factors cause environment protection to increase 6ith 6ealth and development# Lnvironmental <uality is unli0ely to (e a top priority for people 6ho (arely 0no6 6here their ne7t meal is coming from# A(ating misery and su(duing the pangs of hunger ta0es precedence over conservation# &hen our standard of living rises we start attaching

importance to the environment and obtaining resources to improve it# 2uch was the case earlier in western ?urope , and so it is in the developing countries today# -rogress of this 0ind, ho6ever, re'uires that people live in democracies 6here they are a(le and allo6ed to mo(ili3e opinion= other6ise, their preferences 6ill have no impact# ?nvironmental destruction is worst in dictatorships# ;ut it is the fact of prosperity no less than a sense of responsi(ility that ma0es environmental protection easier in a 6ealthy society# A 6ealthier country can afford to tackle environmental problems; it can develop environmentally friendly technologies@6aste6ater and e7haust emission control, for e7ample@and (egin to rectify past mista0es# Nlo(al envir onmental development resembles not so much a race for the bottom as a race to the top , 6hat 6e might call a I+alifornia effect# The state of 7aliforniaBs 7lean +ir +cts first introduced in the %FEDs and tightened since, were stringent emissions regulations that made rigorous demands on car manufacturers# 8any prophets of doom predicted that firms and factories would move to other states and 7alifornia would soon be obliged to repeal its regulations# =ut instead the opposite happened< other states gradually tightened up their environmental stipulations# ;ecause car companies needed the 6ealthy
+alifornia mar0et, manufacturers all over the United States 6ere forced to develop ne6 techni<ues for reducing emissions# 5aving done so, they could more easily comply 6ith the e7acting re<uirements of other states, 6hereupon those states again ratcheted up their re<uirements# +nti%

globalists usually claim that the profit motive and free trade together cause businesses to entrap politicians in a race for the bottom# $he 7alifornia effect implies the opposite< free trade enables politicians to pull profit%hungry corporations along with them in a race to the top# This phenomenon occurs (ecause compliance with environmental rules accounts for a very small proportion of most companiesB expenditures # .hat firms are primarily after is a good (usiness environment@a li(eral economy and a s0illed 6or0force@ not a (ad natural environment# + review of research in this field shows that there are no clear indications of national environmental rules leading to a diminution of exports or to fewer companies locating in the countries that pass the rules# 45 $his finding undermines both the arguments put forward by companies against environmental regulations and those advanced by environmentalists maintaining that globali)ation has to be restrained for environmental reasons# Incipient signs of the 7alifornia effectBs race to the top are present all over the world because globali)ation has caused different countries to absorb new techni'ues more rapidly and the ne6 techni<ues are generally far gentler on the environment# Researchers have investigated steel manufacturing in :5 different countries and concluded that countries with more open economies took the lead in introducing cleaner technology# -roduction in those countries generated almost 45 percent less emissions than the same production in closed countries# This process is (eing driven (y multinational corporations (ecause they have a lot to gain from uniform
production 6ith uniform technology# ;ecause they are restructured more rapidly, they have more modern machinery# And they prefer assimilating the latest, most environmentally friendly technology immediately to retrofitting it, at great e7pense, 6hen environmental regulations are tightened up# =ra)il 8exico and 7hina!the three biggest recipients of foreign investment!have

followed a very clear pattern< the more investments they get the better control they gain over air pollution # The 6orst
forms of air pollution have diminished in their cities during the period of glo(ali3ation# .hen .estern companies start up in developing countries, their production is considera(ly more environment>friendly than the native production, and they are more 6illing to comply 6ith environmental legislation, not least (ecause they have (rand images and reputations to protect# Only $D percent of Indonesian companies comply 6ith the countryUs environmental regulations, 6hereas no fe6er than KD percent of the multinationals do so# One out of every %D foreign companies maintained a standard clearly superior to that of the regulations# This development 6ould go faster if economies 6ere more open and, in particular, if the governments of the 6orld 6ere to phase out the incomprehensi(le tariffs on environmentally friendly technology# G% Sometimes one hears it said that, for environmental reasons, the poor countries of the South must not (e allo6ed to gro6 as affluent as our countries in the &orth# Mor e7ample, in a compilation of essays on Lnvironmentally Significant +onsumption pu(lished (y the &ational Academy of Sciences, 6e find anthropologist Richard &ilk fretting that< If everyone develops a desire for the &estern high%

consumption lifestyle the relentless growth in consumption energy use waste and emissions may be disastrous# 44 =ut studies show this to be colossal misapprehension# On the contrary, it is in the developing countries that 6e find the gravest,
most harmful environmental pro(lems# In our affluent part of the 6orld, more and more people are mindful of environmental pro(lems such as endangered green areas# Lvery day in the developing countries, more than ),DDD people die from air pollution 6hen using 6ood, dung, and

agricultural 6aste in their homes as heating and coo0ing fuel# U&DP estimates that no fe6er than G#G million people die every year from polluted indoor air# This result is already Idisastrous and far more destructive than atmospheric pollution and industrial emissions# Tying people do6n to that level of development means condemning millions to premature death every year# It is not true that pollution in the modern

sense increases with growth# Instead pollution follows an inverted G%curve# &hen growth in a very poor country gathers speed and the chimneys begin belching smoke the environment suffers# =ut when prosperity has risen high enough the environmental indicators show an improvement instead< emissions are reduced , and air and 6ater sho6
progressively lo6er concentrations of pollutants# The cities 6ith the 6orst pro(lems are not Stoc0holm, &e6 :or0, and XYrich, (ut rather ;ei?ing, e7ico +ity, and &e6 Delhi# In addition to the factors already mentioned, this is also due to the economic structure changing from ra6> material>intensive to 0no6ledge>intensive production# In a modern economy, heavy, dirty industry is to a great e7tent superseded (y service enterprises# ;an0s, consulting firms, and information technology corporations do not have the same environmental impact as old factories# According to one survey of availa(le environmental data, the turning point generally comes (efore a countryUs per capita NDP has reached TK,DDD# At T%D,DDD, the researchers found a positive connection (et6een increased gro6th and (etter air and 6ater <uality# G$ That is roughly the level of prosperity of Argentina, South Corea, or Slovenia# In the United States, per capita NDP is a(out T$),$DD# 5ere as 6ell, the environment has consistently improved since the %FEDs, <uite contrary to the picture one gets from the media# In the %FEDs there 6as constant reference to smog in American cities, and rightly so: the air 6as ?udged to (e unhealthy for %DDP$DD days a year# Today it is unhealthy for fe6er than %D days a year, 6ith the e7ception of Bos Angeles# There, the figure is roughly KD days, (ut even that represents a *D percent reduction in %D years# G4 The same trend is noticea(le in the rest of the affluent 6orld@for e7ample, in To0yo, 6here, a fe6 decades ago, doomsayers (elieved that o7ygen mas0s 6ould in the future have to (e 6orn all around the city (ecause of the (ad air# Apart from its other positive effects on the developing countries, such as ameliorating hunger and sparing people the horror of 6atching their children die, prosperity beyond a

certain critical point can improve the environment# &hat is more this turning point is now occurring progressively earlier in the developing countries because they can learn from more affluent countriesB mistakes and use their superior technology# 3or example air 'uality in the enormous cities of 7hina which are the most heavily polluted in the world has steadied since the mid%C9H5s and in several cases has slowly improved# $his improvement has coincided with uni'uely rapid growth# Some years ago, the Danish statistician and Nreenpeace mem(er ;?Zrn Bom(org, 6ith a(out %D
of his students, compiled statistics and facts a(out the 6orldUs environmental pro(lems# To his astonishment, he found that 6hat he himself had regarded as self>evident, the steady deterioration of the glo(al environment, did not agree at all 6ith official empirical data# 5e found instead that air pollution is diminishing, refuse pro(lems are diminishing, resources are not running out, more people are eating their fill, and people are living longer# Bom(org gathered pu(licly availa(le data from as many fields as he could find and pu(lished them in the (oo0 The S0eptical Lnvironmentalist: easuring the Real State of the .orld# The picture that emerges there is an important corrective to the general prophesies of doom that can so easily (e im(i(ed from ne6spaper headlines# Bom(org sho6s that air pollution and emissions have been declining in

the developed world during recent decades# 5eavy metal emissions have (een heavily reduced= nitrogen o7ides have diminished (y
almost $D percent and sulfur emissions (y a(out KD percent# Pollution and emission pro(lems are still gro6ing in the poor developing countries, (ut at every level of gro6th annual particle density has diminished (y G percent in only %4 years# In the developed 6orld, phosphorus emissions into the seas have declined drastically, and L# coli (acteria concentrations in coastal 6aters have plummeted, ena(ling closed s6imming areas to reopen# Bom(org sho6s that, instead of large%scale deforestation the worldBs forest acreage increased from E5#4E million

to E6#5E million s'uare kilometers between C9:5 and C99E# 5e finds that there has never (een any large>scale tree death caused
(y acid rain# The oft><uoted, (ut erroneous statement a(out 4D,DDD species going e7tinct every year is traced (y Bom(org to its source@a GD> year>old estimate that has (een circulating in environmentalist circles ever since# Bom(org thin0s it is closer to %,*DD species a year, and possi(ly a (it more than that# $he documented cases of extinction during the past E55 years total "ust over a thousand species of

which about 9: percent are insects bacteria and viruses # As for the pro(lem of gar(age, the ne7t hundred years 6orth of Danish
refuse could (e accommodated in a $$>meter>deep pit 6ith an area of three s<uare 0ilometers, even 6ithout recycling# In addition, Bom(org illustrates ho6 increased prosperity and improved technology can solve the problems that lie ahead of us # All the fresh 6ater consumed in the 6orld today could (e produced (y a single desalination plant, po6ered (y solar cells and occupying D#4 percent of the Sahara Desert# It is a mistake then to believe that growth automatically ruins the environment# +nd claims that we

would need this or that number of planets for the whole world to attain a &estern standard of consumption!those ecological footprint calculations!are e'ually untruthful# Such a claim is usually made (y environmentalists, and it is
concerned, not so much 6ith emissions and pollution, as 6ith resources running out if everyone 6ere to live as 6e do in the affluent 6orld# +learly, certain of the ra6 materials 6e use today, in presentday <uantities, 6ould not suffice for the 6hole 6orld if everyone consumed the same things# ;ut that information is ?ust a(out as interesting as if a prosperous Stone Age man 6ere to say that, if everyone attained his level of consumption, there 6ould not (e enough stone, salt, and furs to go around# Raw material consumption is not static# .ith more and

/umanity is constantly improving technology so as to get at raw materials that were previously inaccessible and we are attaining a level of prosperity that makes this possible# ,ew innovations make it possible for old raw materials to be put to better use
more people achieving a high level of prosperity, 6e start loo0ing for 6ays of using other ra6 materials# and for gar(age to (e turned into ne6 ra6 materials# A century and a half ago, oil 6as ?ust something (lac0 and stic0y that people preferred not to step in and definitely did not 6ant to find (eneath their land# ;ut our interest in finding (etter energy sources led to methods (eing devised for using oil, and today it is one of our prime resources# Sand has never (een all that e7citing or precious, (ut today it is a vital ra6 material in the most po6erful technology of our age, the computer# In the form of silicon@6hich ma0es up a <uarter of the earthUs crust@ it is a 0ey component in computer chips# $here is a simple market mechanism that averts shortages# If a certain raw material comes

to be in short supply its price goes up# $his makes everyone more interested in economi)ing on that resource in finding more of it in reusing it and in trying to find substitutes for it# The trend over the last fe6 decades of falling ra6

material prices is clear# etals have never (een as cheap as they are today# Prices are falling, 6hich suggests that demand does not e7ceed supply# In relation to 6ages, that is, in terms of ho6 long 6e must 6or0 to earn the price of a ra6 material, natural resources today are half as e7pensive as they 6ere *D years ago and one>fifth as e7pensive as they 6ere a hundred years ago# In %FDD the price of electricity 6as eight times higher, the price of coal seven times higher, and the price of oil five times higher than today# G* $he risk of shortage is declining all the

time because new finds and more efficient use keep augmenting the available reserves# In a world where technology never stops developing static calculations are uninteresting and wrong# ;y simple mathematics, Bom(org
esta(lishes that if 6e have a ra6 material 6ith a hundred yearsU use remaining, a % percent annual increase in demand, and a G percent increase

in recycling and'or efficiency, that resource 6ill never (e e7hausted# If shortages do occur, then 6ith the right technology most su(stances can (e recycled# One>third of the 6orldUs steel production, for e7ample, is (eing reused already# $echnological advance can outstrip the

depletion of resources# &ot many years ago, everyone 6as convinced of the impossi(ility of the 6hole +hinese population having
telephones, (ecause that 6ould re<uire several hundred million telephone operators# ;ut the supply of manpo6er did not run out= technology developed instead# Then it 6as declared that nation6ide telephony for +hina 6as physically impossi(le (ecause all the 6orldUs copper 6ouldnUt suffice for installing heavy gauge telephone lines all over the country# ;efore that had time to (ecome a pro(lem, fi(er optics and satellites (egan to supersede copper 6ire# The price of copper, a commodity that people (elieved 6ould run out, has fallen continuously and is no6 only a(out a tenth of 6hat it 6as GDD years ago# People in most ages have 6orried a(out important ra6 materials (ecoming e7hausted# ;ut on the fe6 occasions 6hen this has happened, it has generally affected isolated, poor places, not open, affluent ones# To claim that people in Africa, 6ho are dying (y the thousand every day from supremely real shortages, must not (e allo6ed to (ecome as prosperous as 6e in the .est (ecause 6e can find theoretical ris0s of shortages occurring is (oth stupid and un?ust# $he environmental 'uestion will not resolve itself# -roper

rules are needed for the protection of 6ater, soil, and air from destruction# Systems of emissions fees are needed to give polluters an interest in not damaging the environment for others# 8any environmental issues also re'uire international regulations and agreements which confront us with entirely new challenges# 7arbon dioxide emissions for example tend to increase rather than diminish when a country grows more affluent# &hen talking about the market and the environment it is important to reali)e that efforts in this 'uarter will be facilitated by a freer growing economy capable of using the best solutions from both a natural and a human viewpoint# In order to meet those challenges it is better to have resources and advanced science than not to have them # "ery often, environmental improvements are due to the very capitalism so often blamed for the problems# $he introduction of private property creates owners with long%term interests# Bando6ners must see to it that there is good soil or forest there tomorro6 as 6ell, (ecause
other6ise they 6ill have no income later on, 6hether they continue using the land or intend to sell it# If the property is collective or government> o6ned, no one has any such long>term interest# On the contrary, everyone then has an interest in using up the resources <uic0ly (efore someone else does# It 6as (ecause they 6ere common lands that the rain forests of the Ama3on (egan to (e rapidly e7ploited in the %F)Ds and %FEDs and are still (eing rapidly e7ploited today# Only a(out a %Dth of forests are recogni3ed (y the governments as privately o6ned, even though in practice Indians possess and inha(it large parts of them# It is the a(sence of definite fishing rights that causes 8heavily su(sidi3ed9 fishing fleets to try to vacuum the oceans of fish (efore someone else does# ,o wonder then that the most large%scale destruction of

environment in history has occurred in the communist dictatorships where all ownership was collective# + few years ago a satellite image was taken of the borders of the 2ahara where the desert was spreading# ?verywhere the land was parched yellow after nomads had overexploited the common lands and then moved on# =ut in the midst of this desert environment could be seen a small patch of green# $his proved to be an area of privately owned land where the owners of the farm prevented overexploitation and engaged in cattle farming that 6as profita(le in the long term# G)
Trade and freight are sometimes critici3ed for destroying the environment, (ut the pro(lem can (e rectified 6ith more efficient transport and purification techni<ues, as 6ell as emissions fees to ma0e the cost of pollution visi(le through pricing# The (iggest environmental pro(lems are associated 6ith production and consumption, and there trade can ma0e a positive contri(ution, even aside from the general effect it has on gro6th# $rade leads to a countryBs resources being used as efficiently as possible# >oods are produced in the places

where production entails least expense and least wear and tear on the environment # That is 6hy the amount of ra6 materials
needed to ma0e a given product 0eeps diminishing as productive efficiency improves# .ith modern production processes, FE percent less metal is needed for a soft drin0 can than $D years ago, partly (ecause of the use of lighter aluminum# A car today contains only half as much metal as a car of $D years ago# Therefore, it is (etter for production to ta0e place 6here the technology e7ists, instead of each country trying to have production of its o6n, 6ith all the consumption of resources that 6ould entail# It is more environmentally friendly for a cold northern country to import meat from temperate countries than to 6aste resources on concentrated feed and the construction and heating of cattle pens for the purpose of native meat production#

Private property is $ey to environmental protection government has zero incentive to protect pu!lic lan s 3troup an 3ha% , Professor of Economics Richard and !ane, Professor of Lconomics at ontana State University, Senior Associate at the Political Lconomy Research +enter, An Lnvironment .ithout Property Rights, http:''666#independent#org'pu(lications'article#aspJid[%F) To understand 6hy, it is helpful to look at the reasons why private property rights protect the environment# $here are several:$ 0. O%ners have incentives to use resources pro uctively an to conserve %here possi!le# Awners can obtain financial rewards from using resources productively and they have a strong incentive to reduce costs by conserving on their use of each resource# In the pursuit of profits, business firms have a strongincentive to implement new resource%saving technologies #Such incentives 6ere a(sent in the Lastern (loc under socialism#
+onsider the Tra(ant, the people-s car produced in Last Nermany (et6een %F*F and %FKF#4 8Production stopped shortly after the ;erlin .all came do6n#9 The Tra(ant provided (asic transportation and 6as easy to fi7# ;ut it 6as slo6 8top speed )) mph9, noisy, it had no discerni(le handling, it spe6ed a plume of oil and gray e7haust smo0e, and it didn-t have a gas gauge# The e7haust 6as so no7ious that .est Nermans 6ere not allo6ed to o6n Tra(ants# .hen the maga3ine +ar and Driver (rought one to the United States, the LPA refused to let it (e driven on pu(lic streets#The Tra(ant 6as so (ad partly (ecause its design 6as (asically the same as it had (een 6hen the car 6as first manufactured in %F*F# The latest model, the )D%, had (een introduced in %F)4, and 6as essentially unchanged G* years later# anufacturers could not reap a profit from ma0ing a (etter car, so they had no incentive to adopt ne6, cleaner technology that 6ould give (etter performance# Indeed, (ecause factories 6ere government>o6ned, there 6as little incentive to produce any cars at all in Last Nermany# So fe6 automo(iles 6ere availa(le that people 6aited an average of %$ years to get their Tra(ant#'. Private o%nership of property provi es an incentive for

goo care that is lac$ing un er government control # If a resource is well cared for it will be more valuable and add more to the personal wealth of its owner# If the owner allows the resource to deteriorate or be harmed by pollution he or she personally bears the cost of that negligence in the form of a decline in the value of the resource#Throughout the Soviet Union under +ommunism, resources 6ere routinely 6asted# In fact, the emphasis 6as on using up
resources, not on producing them@for a good reason# +entral planners often measured the use of inputs to determine 6hether a factory or other entity 6as carrying out the central plan# Mor e7ample, Ann> ari Satre Ahlander reports that despite the lo6 per capita production of agricultural crops, the use of fertili3ers and her(icides 6as high#* That is (ecause using them 6as a sign that 6or0 6as (eing done, even though e7cessive use of these chemicals could have harmful effects# A story is told a(out a part of Lstonia 6here the underground 6ater is flamma(le (ecause vast <uantities of aviation fuel 6ere dumped into the ground and they seeped into the 6ater# The fuel 6as assigned to a near(y Soviet military station to (e used for flying practice missions# To ma0e sure that the pilots had flo6n the re<uired num(er of hours, the military superiors monitored the amount of fuel the pilots used# .hen the pilots did not 6ant to fly the re<uired hours, they falsified their reports# To evade detection, they got rid of the fuel (y dumping it onto the ground#) 5. A resource o%ner has legal rights against anyone %ho

%oul harm the resource# $he private owner of a resource has more than "ust the incentive to preserve the value of that resource# -rivate property rights also provide the owner with legal rights against anyone 8usually including a government agency9 who invades!physically or by pollution!and harms the resource# $he private owner of a forest or a farm will not sit idly by if someone is cutting down trees without permission or invading the property with ha)ardous pollutants and lawsuits can be used to protect those rights# A private o6ner could pro(a(ly have stopped the
dumping of aviation fuel on the Lstonian farmland mentioned a(ove#;ut in the Lastern (loc, such protection 6as a(sent# Peter !# 5ill reports that in ;ulgaria heavy metals in irrigation 6ater lo6ered crop yields on ;ulgarian farms# The industrial sources of the metals 6ere 0no6n, (ut the farmers had no recourse# .ithout a system of redress through the courts, says 5ill, the farmers had no actiona(le claim against those causing the pro(lems#ED. Property rights provi e long#term incentives for ma&imizing the value of

a resource" even for o%ners %hose personal outloo$ is short-term. If using a tract of land for the construction of a toxic waste dump reduces its future productivity its value falls today reducing the owners wealth# $hat happens because lands current worth reflects the net present value of its future services!the revenue from production or services received directly from the land minus the costs re'uired to generate the revenues 8and
(oth discounted to present value terms9#Ba0e ;ai0al is the largest and deepest fresh6ater la0e on Larth# Once 0no6n for its purity, it is no6 heavily polluted (ecause Soviet planners decided to (uild paper mills at its edge and failed to reduce the emission of pollutants into the 6ater# According to one source, the effluent is discharged directly into the la0e and has created a polluted area G$ miles 6ide#K +learly,the value of the la0e and its surrounding land has (een seriously diminished (y pollution# In a society of private o6nership, the owner of lake

property would envision a place that would attract tourists and homebuyers# 2uch an owner would have a strong incentive to maintain the value of this property by preventing its deterioration# (ut government planners had no incentive to protect it.

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves Baile 3tates

@lo!alization an open tra e solve faile states @urr '$ Professor of @overnment an Polics Ted Ro(ert Nurr et al, Director, inorities at Ris0 Pro?ect= Distinguished University Professor, Department of Novernment \ Politics at the University of aryland, F>$D>GDDD, State Mailure Tas0 Morce Report: Phase III Mindings, http:''666#cidcm#umd#edu'inscr'stfail'SMTM]GDPhase]GDIII]GDReport]GDMinal#pdf Assessing the Impact of Trade Openness $he $ask 3orce has examined a wide range of economic variables and their association with state failure including: inflation rates= total and per capita investment= levels of government ta7ation, de(t, and spending= flo6s of foreign aid and rates of NDP gro6th# ,one of these, ho6ever, has proven to be significantly associated with state failure in models that also include indicators of a countrys 'uality of life 8as measured (y infant mortality or NDP per capita relative to 6orld medians9 and regime type# $he one persistent exception, for a 6ide variety of glo(al, regional, and failure>type analyses, is a countrys openness to international trade , measured as the value of a country-s imports plus e7ports as a percentage of NDP# /igher trade openness is strongly associated with a significantly lower risk of state failure# Depending on the region or type of failure, countries with levels of trade openness below the global median were two to two%and%one%half times as likely to experience state failure as countries with above%median levels of trade openness # .hy should lo6 trade
openness go hand in hand 6ith a higher ris0 of state failureJ Several economists pointed out to the Tas0 Morce that trade openness is generally related to population= countries 6ith larger populations generally supply more of their o6n needs, and their imports and e7ports therefore tend to (e smaller relative to their domestic economy# Lconomists also maintain that countries at higher levels of development (enefit more from trade and thus are li0ely to have higher levels of trade# 5o6ever, 6e found that even 6hen controlling for (oth population si3e and population density, and for levels of development, the effect of trade openness on state failure 6as still significant# The impact of trade openness 6or0ed the same 6ay 6hether loo0ing at the entire 6orld or only at a sample of countries generally less disposed to trade, such as those of Su(>Saharan Africa# .e found that trade openness 6as generally unrelated to other economic and trade varia(les, such as the concentration of a country-s e7ports, or of its trading partners, or its NDP per capita# + growing body of social%science research links trade openness to a

host of other virtues including faster economic growth strengthened democracy and improved environmental performance# $hese virtues, in turn are widely thought to (e associated with political stability# In this story, trade openness helps to produce political and economic outcomes that reduce the ris0 of state failure# $rade leads to faster growth and more democracy both of which encourage political stability# Baile 3tates comparatively out%eigh nuclear %ar Eoo A Professor of La% !ohn, Professor of Ba6, University of +alifornia at ;er0eley School of Ba6, Mailed States, Int-l +ollo<uium, Online Mailed states pose perhaps the most dangerous threat to (oth American national security and international peace and sta(ility# Mailed states have served as the incu(ator of international terrorist groups, such as the al Haeda organi3ation that attac0ed the United States on Septem(er %%, GDD%, or as trans%shipments points for illicit drugs human trafficking or the proliferation of weapons of mass destruction technologies# In 2omalia Rwanda /aiti and the former Iugoslavia failed states have produced the catastrophic human rights disasters# 2ince the end of &orld &ar II far more lives have been lost due to internal wars than international armed conflicts and many of the former have occurred in failed states# 8ilitary intervention in response often led by the Gnited 2tates and its allies incurs high costs in terms of money material and lives # Minding a comprehensive and effective solution
to these challenges of terrorism, human rights violations, or poverty and lac0 of economic development re<uires some ans6ers to the pro(lem of failed states

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 6ne;uality @en er

)ap is $ey to gen er e;uality >if patriarchy e7ists under capitalism, it acts as a nonintersecting system that 6ould e7ist under alternative economic systems as 6ell )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# GG It should (e clear from the definition that patriarchy is a, at least partially, parallel 8i#e#, nonintersecting9 system to any economic system, such as capitalism or socialism# Patriarchy does not preclude the e7istence of either socialism or capitalism# It remains to (e sho6n, ho6ever, that capitalism does not entail patriarchy, and, more to the point, that capitalism provides no (etter home for patriarchy than does socialism# On the face of it, there seems to (e no reason to thin0 that capitalism 6ould encourage patriarchy, since patriarchy constrains individuals from acting in 6ays> a capitalist system encourages or emphasi3es# That is (ecause patriarchy is a communal or collectivist system, emphasi3ing the needs of the 0in group or at least the patriarch over those of the individuals in the group# +apitalism is, perhaps notoriously among feminists, an individualist system, at least in theory# State guided or oligarchic capitalism varies from the theory, ho6ever, in emphasi3ing the needs of the state or the oligarchic family# So developing or pseudo>capitalism can give patriarchy a home 6hen there is a great deal of government interference# Socialism, on the other hand, focuses on the communal group, and thus is similarly lia(le to (e co>opted for patriarchal ends# Patriarchy is compati(le 6ith many, perhaps all, traditional cultures, though# Part of my argument, thus, 6ill (e to sho6 that capitalism offers %omen a %ay out of patriarchal, traditional culture# 8omen?s e;uality is necessary to en escalating violence an ethnic cleansing >turns their ethics'"TB impact Amnesty 6nternational ,F Octo(er %, pg# http:''ne6s#amnesty#org'li(rary'Inde7'L&NA+T$%DD)%FFKJopen\of[L&N>$4E These human rights violations happened in every region of the 6orld, (ut they are united (y a common thread# Discrimination# $hey were largely motivated by pre"udice# =ecause of their gender se7ual orientation, faith, race or ethnicity, the victims were viewed as being inferior as being less than human and were therefore seen as having no human rights# 1iscrimination is a root cause of human rights violations# (y dehumani'ing people, it paves the way for the worst atrocities # In every region nationalist ethnic religious and racial conflicts have led to genocidal or widespread illing of people solely because of who they are# &hole groups of people are branded *the other* by virtue of their identity#
;onds of solidarity and community are severed along identity lines# ODifferenceO is manipulated to encourage division and hatred# ODifferencesO, 6hich should (e cele(rated and encouraged to enrich all our lives and cultures (ecome OreasonsO 6hich some political and religious leaders use to vilify those they see as 6ea0 and scapegoat those least a(le to defend themselves# ;y so doing they create a climate 6here human rights violations are legitimi3ed and ordinary people suffer the most terri(le conse<uences#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 6ne;uality @eneral

)ap lea s to tech a vances that ma$e e;uality achieva!le )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# *%>*G Technological advances have not only lo6ered the paid 6or0ing day, (ut have also improved the convenience and comfort of daily life# This may (e true for 6omen even more than for men, (ecause 6omen are typically

responsi(le for domestic 6or0# The invention and proliferation of household appliances has reduced the total amount of time needed to maintain a clean, healthy home, launder clothing, and prepare food# In the United States, the amount of time spent (y all 6omen declined from 4)#K to GF#$ hours per 6ee0 during the t6entieth century#)% To some e7tent this understates the improvement in the <uality of life, ho6ever# 5omes

are no6 larger than (efore, ma0ing them more comforta(le and allo6ing greater privacy and space for leisure for individual household mem(ers# Also, 6omen have consistently over time reported cleaning as their least favorite activity, and
coo0ing and childcare as their most favorite domestic activities# Over this time period the proportion of time in these favored activities has increased# +apitalism can (e credited 6ith the technological improvements that have led to these

improvements in 6omenUs <uality of life# ;ut capitalism has also increased 6omenUs opportunity cost of 6or0ing in the home, and thus creates incentives for (oth men and 6omen to reduce the time 6omen spend on household chores# Lvidence for this point is that 6omen 6ho arc not employed spend a much greater time doing unpaid domestic 6or0 than 6omen 6ho arc employed # Unemployed 6omen in ;ritain spend up to three times more hours cleaning and t6o times more preparing food as employed 6omen#)* Thus, capitalism has improve the <uality of home life, ma0ing it cleaner, more comforta(le, and less time consuming to maintain and reproduce# The past %*D years have (rought enormous moral a vances, if one ta0es the moral test of a society to (e the degree to 6hich individuals are treated 6ith dignity and respect, regardless of their attri(uted status, that is, se7, race, ethnicity, or their religious, se7ual, or gender identification # This is an
admittedly li(eral standard for moral progress= this treatise 6ill have little to offer those 6ho hold that collectives are of greater moral importance than individuals# In this time period legal slavery has ended throughout the 6orld 86ith the e7ception of auritania, a traditionalist country9# Begal racial apartheid and legal caste systems have ended# It is no6 commonplace to <uestion the morality of racism" se&ism" an even homopho!ia in much of the 6orld# In the most developed capitalist economies, discrimination or segregation re<uires ?ustification, and although those evils continue there are legal remedies in these countries for challenging them and demanding reparation#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves /unger

Only the free mar$et can prevent starvation /ospers 2 Professor of Philosophy !ohn, Professor Lmeritus of Philosophy at US+, Bi(ertarianism: A Political Philosophy for Tomorro6, Pu(lished Originally in %FE%, pg# GEK>GEF If this happens, many among us will tell us that we are guilty that we should try to e'uali)e incomes all over the 6orld, that the others are starving (ecause 6e are too stingy# And if we act on their advice we will finally starve ourselves in a vain attempt to eep them from starving# $he whole thing would be fruitless unless we can come to grips with the cause of their starvation%the coercive statist economies under which these populations live, the forced collectivism
(y 6hich a man 6ho 6ould gladly 6or0 hard to support his 6ife and family (ecomes discouraged at having to share the (enefits 6ith GDD million others, in which matters of life and death are left to bureaucrats as incapable of handling them as a childwould be in

calculating the tra"ectories of spaceships as now done by computer # The fate of these people could be avoided if they could have free-mar et economies= (ut most of the vic> tims of the suffering and death 6ill not even 0no6 that their fates are avoida(le# Anly a capitalistic economy could solve their problems and many of them *have never been permitted to learn about capitalism# !ust as a capitalist economy is *an incredible bread ma% chine , O%F providing amply for the needs of millions so the so% cialist economy in the face of a burgeoning population is a guaranteed starvation machine which needs only time to per% fect its deadly work# .hy do you suppose that Soviet Russia permits the $ percent of its

land area to remain privately o6nedJ ;ecause the garden and agricultural plots of this $ percent produce 4K percent of RussiaUs foodstuffs, and its leaders 6ell 0no6 that 6ithout it Russia 6ould starve# ;ut the danger does not end there: the danger is that (y the end of the century 6e ourselves may have faUen victim to the same 0ind of starvation machine that is already afflicting them# Ance our citi)ens no longer

'uestion the policies of centrali)ed control, deficit spending, inflation, and social insecurity 6hich they no6 appear to favor, even the strong economic reserve generated (y a century and a half of economic freedom will at last break down# +nd if this happens it is we who will turn on our television sets and watch the starvation of our own people# Aur own formulas for disaster will have come back to haunt us, (ut (y that time it 6ill (e too late# =y the time catastrophe strikes a military dictator will pro(a(ly ta0e over the country, with *sweeping emergency powers * and for those of us who remain alive our heritage of liberty will have vanished#In the face of all this, student groups in the United States are almost all fiercely opposed to
capitalism# Of the do3ens of confusions and fallacies a(out the nature and functioning of afree mar0et# they fall victim to one after another= no slogan is too false for them to repeat as if it 6ere an o(vious truth# .hat account 6ill they give of their present vie6s if mass starvation stal0s the 6orldJ Perhaps, one suspects, it 6as 6hat some of them 6anted all along= the poverty of millions means little to those 6ith an in> satia(le appetite for po6er# The vast ma?ority of them, of course, desire no such terrifying outcome= they are simply mis> guided idealists 6ho 0no6 nothing a(out ho6 production can (e generated to fulfill human needs# Totally ignorant of the role of li(erty in economic matters, they chant any slogans they (ear as long as they have a humanitarian ring# ;ut in the end they 6ill (e simply cannon>fodder, to (e used (y their leaders as long as they are useful, and then thro6n on the trash>heap 6hen the time for po6er comes#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves *ationalism

Anti#glo!alization lea s to nationalism causes military conflict *or!erg 5 7A in /istory !ohan &or(erg, Mello6 at Tim(ro and +ATO, A 6ith a focus in economics and philosophy, In Defense of Nlo(al +apitalism, pg# GKK
Nlo(ali3ation (rings 6ith it a num(er of effects upon 6hich it is easy to cast suspicion@old economic forms disrupted, interests undermined, cultures challenged, and traditional po6er centers eroded# .hen (oundaries (ecome less important, people, goods, and capital move more freely @(ut so too can crime, fanaticism, and disease# +dvocates of globali)ation have to sho6 that greater freedom and greater opportunities counter(alance such pro(lems# They must

point to possible ways of dealing 6ith them, perhaps more effectively than (efore# Atherwise there is a serious risk that anti%globalist ideas will take root in the &estern world in which case a downturn or a trivial tariff war for e7ample, could evoke a powerful protectionist reaction# +fter the &all 2treet 7rash of C949 the United States s6itched to a drastic policy of protectionism= thereafter all it e7ported for many years 6as depression# Other governments responded in 0ind, and 6orld trade collapsed, diminishing (y t6o>thirds in ?ust three years# + national crisis led to worldwide depression# $he return of protectionism today would mean stagnation in the affluent world and deeper poverty in the developing countries# +t worst it would once again lead to conflict, to countries regarding each other as enemies# &hen governments turn in upon themselves regarding what is foreign as a threat rather than an opportunity the simplest and coarsest forms of nationalism will gain ground #

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves Overpopulation

)apitalism solves overpop creates con itions for sustaina!le health con itions that iscourage mass procreation )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# $K>$F
Lasterlin re?ects the idea that economic gro6th has (een largely responsi(le for the health transition, and he tests a version of this hypothesis, the O cCeo6n hypothesis,O 6hich claims that the causal factor generating the health transition is specifically (etter nutrition from greater 6ealth and income,O Lasterlin argues that if this hypothesis holds, then 6e should o(serve a tight connection (et6een rising levels of income and rising life e7pectancy# There should (e a short time lag (et6een them, and the time lag should (e appro7imately the same# ;ut the data do not sho6 this, rather they sho6 that in Lngland and .ales it too0 several decades for life e7pectancy gains to (e made, 6hile in S6eden, for e7ample, the gains came very <uic0ly 6ith the rising income that indicated the advent of capitalism in that country# Does this sho6 6hat Lasterlin 6ants to sho6, namely, that

economic gro6th is not causally responsi(le for the historical health transition has

no6 (een accomplished in much of the 6orldJ I thin0 not# There are other relevant differences (et6een the cases# Lngland 6as highly ur(ani3ed, 6hich created conditions for increased spread of infectious diseases, as Lasterlin recogni3es# ;ut this means that there 6as a higher (ar for the 6ealth effect to overcome, it does not mean that there 6as no 6ealth effect# Thus, I thin0 his re?ection of the cCeo6n hypothesis is premature# Murthermore, the fact that S6edenUs transition to capitalism came later gave it an advantage in the sense that it could learn from techni<ues adopted in Lngland to improve health# LasterlinUs alternative hypothesis is that the introduction of smallpo7 vaccines accounted for the progress in life e7pectancy in (oth cases# ;ut there are t6o things to note a(out this alternative that are relevant here# Mirst, even if this is the main cause of the health transition, the 6ide availa(ility of smallpo7 vaccines > their production and distri(ution,

must at due to the conditions created (y capitalism, including greater 6ealth and income, higher levels of education, and increasing legal and pu(lic infrastructure# According to !onathan Tuc0er, Oa 0ey (rea0through
communication a(out their use and effectiveness, and the responsiveness of pu(lic health agents to the desire of citi3ens for them > least in part (e in the control smallpo7 in industriali3ed countries 6as the invention of the Ice(o7, 6hich made it possi(le to refrigerate smallpo7 vaccine and there(y preserve its potency for long periods#O4U Second, citing smallpo7 vaccines alone ignores another ma?or contri(utor to female life e7pectancy 8the statistics he uses in his argument9: falling fertility rates# +apitalism, % 6ill argue, played a maCor role in

encouraging and facilitating lo%er fertility rates, 6hich in turn increase maternal an infant survival rates# E&tinction Otten 0 Ld6ard Otten, Professor of Lmergency edicine and Pediatrics at the University of +incinnati, GDDD>GDD%, http:''666#ecology#org'(iod'population'human^pop%#html The e7ponential gro6th of the human population, ma0ing humans the dominant species on the planet, is having a grave impact on (iodiversity# This destruction of species (y humans will eventually lead to a destruction of the human species through natural selection# .hile human (eings have had an effect for the last *D,DDD years, it has only (een since the industrial revolution that the impact has (een glo(al rather than regional# $his global impact is taking place through five primary processes: over harvesting alien species introduction pollution habitat fragmentation and outright habit destruction#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 3pace

)ap $ey to space investment 9oschara ,2 Mred Coschara MCL Space Program, April K, %FFE, http:''666#l*development#com'f0espace'f0espace#shtml
Space e7ploration and coloni3ation holds the potential for fulfillment of all of humanityUs rational dreams# 5o6ever, 6e are still crippled (y the lac0 of a via(le plan for developing the possi(ilities open to us# $he commercial use of space and the opportunities it represents

are the only methods that will be able to attract the development participation necessary to achieve a suitable level of effort# $his is a splendid chance for capitalism to sho6 its mettle and prove its 6orth: to demonstrate that the profit motive is the most powerful incentive available in modern civili3ed society#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo 3olves 8ar

)apitalism solves %ar )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, Noogle ;oo0 Does capitalism cause more 6arsJ This has long (een an argument of socialists against capitalism, (ut it seems a flimsy one# Mirst, it is clear that the communist e7periments of the t6entieth century 6ere every (it as militaristic and capa(le of aggressive 6ars as the capitalist ones# Second, it is commonly asserted, and I thin0 Professor 5olmstrom 6ould agree, that democratic nations do not 6age 6ar against each other# ;ut democratic countries tend to6ard capitalism, since that seems to (e 6hat people choose 6hen given the chance# As 6ith slavery, the logic of capitalism tells against %ar, in general, as that 6ipes out potential trading partners# +apitalist competition is a positive>sum game, not a 3ero or negative sum # I agree 6holeheartedly 6ith Professor 5olmstromUs assertion that security is than (roader military security= the security of persons and property generally is the necessary condition for capitalist development# 6mperial %ars pre# ate capitalism !y centuries" %ar is illogical un er capitalism !ecause it estroys %ealth 7ac9enzie 5 Ph4 in Economics D#.# acCen3ie, PhD in Lconomics, IDoes +apitalism Re<uire .arJ 4>E>GDD$ http:''666#mises#org'fullstory#aspJcontrol[%GD% Perhaps the oddest aspect of these various, (ut similar, claims is that their proponents appeal so often to historical e7amples# They often claim that history sho6s ho6 capitalism is imperialistic and 6arli0e or at least (enefits from 6ar# +apitalism supposedly needs a (oost from some 6ar spending from time to time, and history sho6s this# Ro(ert 5iggs demonstrated that the 6artime prosperity during the Second .orld .ar 6as illusory1i2# This
should come to no surprise to those 6ho lived through the deprivations of 6artime rationing# .e do not need 6ars for prosperity, (ut does capitalism (reed 6ar and imperialism any6ayJ /istory is rife with examples of imperialism# The Romans, Ale7ander, and many others of the ancient 6orld 6aged imperialistic 6ars# The Incan Lmpire and the empire of Ancient +hina stand as e7amples of the universal character of imperialism# .ho could possi(ly claim that imperialism gre6 out of the prosperity of these ancient civili3ationsJ Imperialism

precedes modern industrial capitalism by many centuries# Gneven wealth distribution or underconsumption under capitalism obviously did not cause these instances of imperialism# Of course, this fact does not prove that modern capitalism

lac0s its o6n imperialistic tendencies# The notion that income gets underspent or maldistri(uted lies at the heart of most claims that capitalism either needs or produces imperialistic 6ars# As !#;# Say argued, supply creates its o6n demand through payments to factors of production# Demand Side economists 5o(son and Ceynes argued that there 6ould (e too little consumption and too little investment for continuous full employment# .e save too much to have peace and prosperity# The difficulty 6e face is not in oversaving, (ut in underestimating the 6or0ings of mar0ets and the desires of consumers# Doomsayers have (een do6nplaying consumer demand for ages# As demand side economist !#C# Nal(raith claimed, 6e live in an affluent society, 6here most private demands have (een met# Of course, 5o(son made the same claim much earlier# Larlier and stranger still, mercantilists claimed that U6asteful actsU such as tea drin0ing, gathering at alehouses, ta0ing snuff, and the 6earing of ri((ons 6ere unnecessary lu7uries that detracted from productive endeavors# The prognostications of esteemed opponents of capitalism have consistently failed to predict consumer demand# Today, consumers consume at levels that fe6 long ago could have imagined possi(le# There is no reason to dou(t that consumers 6ill continue to press for ever higher levels of consumption# Though it is only a movie, ;re6sterUs illions illustrates ho6 creative people can (e at spending money# People 6ho do actually inherit, 6in, or earn large sums of money have little trou(le spending it# Indeed, 6ealthy individuals usually have more trou(le holding on to their fortunes than in finding 6ays to spend them# .e are never going to run out of 6ays to spend money# any of the complaints a(out capitalism center on ho6 people save too much# One should remem(er that there really is no such thing as saving# +onsumers defer consumption to the future only# As economist Lugen ;_`hm> ;a6er0 demonstrated, people save according to time preference# Savings diverts resources into capital formation# This increases future production# Interest enhanced savings then can purchase these goods as some consumers cease to defer their consumption# CeynesU claim that animal spirits drive investment has no rational (asis# +onsumer preferences are the (asis for investment# Investors forecast future consumer demand# Interest rates convey 0no6ledge of these demands# The intertemporal coordination of production through capital mar0ets and interest rates is not a simple matter# ;ut CeynesU marginal propensities to save and 5o(sonUs concentration of 6ealth arguments fail to account for the real determinants of production through time# SayUs Ba6 of ar0ets holds precisely (ecause people al6ays 6ant a (etter life for themselves and those close to them# Malling interest rates deter saving and increase investment# Rising interest rates induce saving and deter investment# This simple logic of supply and demand derives from a <uite (asic notion of self interest# Ceynes denied that the 6orld 6or0ed this 6ay# Instead, he claimed that (ond holders hoard money outside of the (an0ing system, investment periodically collapses from Uthe dar0 forces of time and uncertainty, and consumers save income in a mechanical fashion according to marginal propensities to save# &one of these propositions hold up to scrutiny, either deductive or empirical# Speculators do not hoard cash outside of (an0s# To do this means a loss of interest on assets# People do move assets from one part of the financial system to another# This does not cause deficient aggregate demand# ost money e7ists in the (an0ing system, and is al6ays availa(le for lending# In fact, the advent of e>(an0ing ma0es such a practice even less sensi(le# .hy hoard cash 6hen you can move money around 6ith your computerJ It is common 0no6ledge that people save for homes, education, and other e7pensive items, not (ecause they have some innate urge to s<uirrel some portion of their income a6ay# This renders half of the mar0et for credit rational# Investors do in fact calculate rates of return on investment# This is not a simple matter# Investment entails some speculation# Bong term investment pro?ects entail some uncertainty, (ut investors 6ho 6ant to actually reap profits 6ill estimate the returns on investment using the (est availa(le data# Ceynes feared that the dar0 forces of time and uncertainty could scare investors# This possi(ility, he thought, called for government intervention# 5o6ever, government intervention 8especially 6arfare9 generally serves to increase uncertainty# Private mar0ets have enough uncertainties 6ithout thro6ing politics into the fray# The vagaries of political intervention serve only to dar0en an already uncertain future# +apital mar0ets are (est left to capitalists# &or is capital not e7tracted surplus value# It comes not from e7ploitation# It is simply a matter of

people valuing their future 6ell(eing# +apitalists 6ill hire 6or0ers up to the point 6here the discounted marginal product of their la(or e<uals the 6age rate# To do other6ise 6ould mean a loss of potential profit# Since 6or0ers earn the marginal product of la(or and capital derives from deferred consumption, ar7ist arguments a(out reserve armies of the unemployed and surplus e7traction fail# It is <uite odd to 6orry a(out capitalists oversaving 6hen many complain a(out ho6 the savings rate in the U#S# is too lo6# .hy does the U#S#, as the 6orldUs Ugreatest capitalist'imperialist po6erU, attract so much foreign investmentJ any Americans 6orry a(out AmericaUs international accounts# Mears a(out foreigners (uying up America are unfounded, (ut not (ecause this does not happen# America does have a relatively lo6 national savings rate# It does attract much foreign investment, precisely (ecause it has relatively secure property rights# Indeed, much of the third 6orld suffers from too little investment# The claims of ar7ists, and 5o(son, directly contradict the historical record# Sound theory tells us that it should# The ar7ist claim that capitalists must find investments overseas fails misera(ly# Barry Cudlo6 has put his o6n spin on the false connection (et6een capitalism and 6ar# .e need the .ar as shoc0 therapy to get the economy on its feet# Cudlo6 also endorses massive airline su(sidies as a means of restoring economic prosperity# Cudlo6 and Crugman (oth endorse the alleged destructive creation of 6arfare and terrorism# Cudlo6 has rechristened the ;ro0en .indo6 fallacy the ;ro0en .indo6 principle# Cudlo6 claims that may lose money and 6ealth in one 6ay, (ut 6e gain it (ac0 many time over 6hen the re(uilding is done# Cudlo6 and Crugman have <uite an affinity for deficits# Crugman sees de(t as a sponge to a(sor( e7cess saving# Cudlo6 see de(t as a short term nuisance that 6e can dispel (y ma7imi3ing gro6th# One 6ould thin0 that such famous economists 6ould reali3e that competition does 6or0 to achieve the goal of optimum gro6th (ased on time preference, (ut this is not the case#

&hile these economists have expressed their belief in writing they could do more# If the destruction of assets leads to increased prosperity then they should teach this principle by example# @udlow and @rugman could for instance help build the economy by demolishing their own private homes# $his would have the immediate effect of stimulating demand for demolition experts and the longer term affect of stimulating the demand for construction workers# They can create additional 6ealth (y financing the reconstruction of their homes through de(t# ;y (orro6ing funds, they dra6 idle absurdity of destructive creation in his original explanation of the opportunity costs from repairing broken windows# Cudlo6 is <uite clear a(out his intentions# 5e 6ants to gro6 the economy to finance the 6ar# As Cudlo6 told some students, OThe

resources into use and stimulate financial activity# Of course, they 6ould (oth initially lose 6ealth in one 6ay# ;ut if their thin0ing is sound, they 6ill gain it (ac0 many times over as they re(uild# $he truth is that their beliefs are fallacious# =astiat demonstrated the

tric0 here is to gro6 the economy and let the economic gro6th raise the revenue for the 6ar effortO1ii2# Cudlo6 also praises the Reagan Administration for gro6ing the economy to fund national defense# 5ere Cudlo6Us attempts to give economic advice cease completely# 5is argument here is not that capitalism needs a shot in the arm# It is that resources should (e redirected to6ards ends that he sees fit# Cudlo6 is a 6ar ha60 6ho, o(viously, cannot fund this or any 6ar personally# 5e instead favors using the state to ta7 others to fund 6hat he 6ants, (ut cannot afford# 5e seems to thin0 that his values matter more than any otherUs# .hy should anyone else agree 6ith thisJ Cudlo6 tarnishes the image of laisse3 faire economics (y parading his faulty reasoning and his claims that his 6ants should reign supreme as a pro>mar0et stance# Unfortunately, it is sometimes necessary to defend capitalism from alleged advocates of li(erty, 6ho employ false dogmas in pursuit of their o6n militaristic desires# 7apitalism neither re'uires nor promotes imperialist expansion# 7apitalism did not create

imperialism or warfare# &arlike societies predate societies with secure private property# $he idea that ine'uity or underspending give rise to militarism lacks any rational basis# Imperialistic tendencies e7ist due to ethnic and nationalistic

(igotries, and the 6ant for po6er# Prosperity depends upon our a(ility to prevent destructive acts# The dogma of destructive creation fails as a silver lining to the cloud of 6arfare# Destructive acts entail real costs that diminish availa(le opportunities# The idea that 6e need to find 6or0 for idle hands in capitalism at (est leads to a 0ind of Sisyphus economy 6here unproductive industries garner su(sidies from productive people# At 6orst, it serves as a supporting argument for 6ar# The more recent versions of the false charges against capitalism do nothing to invalidate t6o simple facts# +apitalism generates prosperity (y creating ne6 products# &ar inflicts poverty by destroying existing wealth#

$here is no sound reason to think otherwise# Empirical stu ies proveGglo!al capitalism solves %ar @artz$e A Professor of Political 3cience Lri0 Nart30e, associate professor of political science at +olum(ia University and author of a study on economic freedom and peace contained in the GDD* Lconomic Mreedom of the .orld Report, IMuture Depends on +apitali3ing on +apitalist Peace, %D'%K, .indsor Star, http:''666#cato#org'pu(^display#phpJpu(^id[*%$$ .ith terrorism achieving Oglo(al reachO and conflict raging in Africa and the iddle Last, you may have missed a startling fact > 6e are living in remar0a(ly peacea(le times# Mor si7 decades, developed nations have not fought each other# Mrance and the United States may chafe, (ut the resulting conflict pitted french fries against Ofreedom
fries,O rather than Mrench soldiers against U#S# Ofreedom fighters#O Tony ;lair and !ac<ues +hirac had a nasty spat over the LU, (ut the Lnglish arenUt going to storm +alais any time soon# $he present peace is unusual# /istorically powerful nations are the most war

prone# $he conventional wisdom is that democracy fosters peace but this claim fails scrutiny# It is based on statistical studies that show democracies typically donBt fight other democracies# Iet the same studies show that democratic nations go to war about as much as other nations overall# +nd more recent research makes clear that only the affluent democracies are less likely to fight each other# -oor democracies behave much like non% democracies when it comes to war and lesser forms of conflict# + more powerful explanation is emerging from newer and older empirical research % the *capitalist peace #O As predicted (y ontes<uieu, Adam Smith, &orman Angell and others nations with high levels of economic freedom not only fight each other less they go to war less often period# Lconomic freedom is a measure of the depth of free mar0et institutions or, put another 6ay, of capitalism# $he *democratic peace* is a mirage created by the overlap between economic and political freedom# 1emocracy and economic freedom typically co%exist# $hus if economic freedom causes peace then statistically democracy will also appear to cause peace# &hen democracy and economic freedom are both included in a statistical model the results reveal that economic freedom is considerably more potent in encouraging peace than democracy :5 times more potent , in fact,
according to my o6n research# Lconomic freedom is highly statistically significant 8at the one>per>cent level9# Democracy does not have a

measura(le impact, 6hile nations 6ith very lo6 levels of economic freedom are %4 times more prone to conflict than those 6ith very high levels# ;ut, 6hy 6ould free mar0ets cause peaceJ 7apitalism is not only an immense generator of prosperity; it is also a

revolutionary source of economic social and political change # .ealth no longer arises primarily through land or control of
natural resources# &e6 Cind of .ealth Prosperity in modern societies is created (y mar0et competition and the efficient production that arises from it# This ne6 0ind of 6ealth is hard for nations to OstealO through con<uest# In days of old, 6hen the Lnglish did occasionally storm +alais, no(les dreamed of 6ealth and po6er in con<uered lands, 6hile visions of (ooty danced in the heads of peasant soldiers# "ictory in 6ar meant ne6 property# In a free mar0et economy, 6ar destroys immense 6ealth for victor and loser ali0e# Lven if capital stoc0 is restored, efficient production re<uires property rights and free decisions (y mar0et participants that are difficult or impossi(le to co>ordinate to the victorUs advantage# The Ira<i 6ar, despite Ira<Us immense oil 6ealth, 6ill not (e a money>ma0er for the United States# ?conomic freedom is not a

guarantee of peace# Ather factors like ideology or the perceived need for self%defence can still result in violence# =ut where economic freedom has taken hold it has made war less likely # Research on the capitalist peace has profound

implications in todayUs 6orld# Lmerging democracies, 6hich have not sta(ili3ed the institutions of economic freedom, appear to (e at least as 6arli0e > perhaps more so > than emerging dictatorships# :et, the United States and other 6estern nations are putting immense resources into democrati3ation even in nations that lac0 functioning free mar0ets# This is in part (ased on the faulty premise of a Odemocratic peace#O It may also in part (e due to pu(lic perception# Lveryone approves of democracy, (ut OcapitalismO is often a dirty 6ord# 5o6ever, in recent decades, an increasing num(er of people have rediscovered the economic virtues of the Oinvisi(le handO of free mar0ets# .e no6 have an additional (enefit of economic freedom > international peace# The actual presence of peace in much of the 6orld sets this era apart from others# The empirical (asis for optimistic claims > a(out either democracy or capitalism > can (e tested and refined# $he way forward is to capitali)e on the

capitalist peace to deepen its roots and extend it to more countries through expanding markets development and a common sense of international purpose# $he risk today is that faulty analysis and anti%market activists may distract the developed nations from this historic opportunity#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo Value to Life

)ap is $ey to value to life )u 0< 4ean of /umanities an Professor of Philosophy = 9: Anne +udd, I+apitalism for and Against: A Meminist De(ate, pg# 4F The average <uality of life for humans, particularly for 6omen and children, has improved in the past hundred years, and many of the advances are causally relate to capitalism# There are three categories of o(?ective improvement of <uality of life: material, moral, and political# aterial Improvements Include physical changes in life and 6or0, such as changes in the amount and strenuousness of physical la(or, the availa(ility of food, clean 6ater, and decent shelter the degree of violence suffered, as 6ell as the disease (urden# ;y moral advances I mean the degree to 6hich human individuals are treate in a ignifie an ecent manner, as 6orthy of respect in their o6n right, and as responsi(le, autonomous self>o6ners# ;y political advances I mean the degree to 6hich individuals have a voice in the government of their communities and nations # These three
categories encompass the o(?ective list of interests that I claim all humans have# .hile it is not possi(le to <uantify or measure each of these categories, I can ma0e some generali3ations a(out the progress m <uality of life over the past century# Mor virtually every interest, the

;uality of life has improve un er capitalism# Bree om is $ey to value to life 1roo$s F Professor of Pu!lic Affairs" @overnment an 1usiness = 3yracuse Arthur ;roo0s, Professor of Pu(lic Affairs, Novernment and ;usiness a Syracuse, GDDK, IMree People Are 5appy People, +ity !ournal, Be7is A large (ody of social>science research over the past decade has (een devoted to studying happiness# In general, researchers rely on self>reported measurements of happiness>>6hich, according to considera(le 6or0 (y psychologists, statisticians, and neuroscientists, are actually ;uite accurate and compara(le among individuals# 8This
has (een sho6n (y comparing peopleUs survey responses to psychological evaluations, surveys of family mem(ers, and even tests of (rain activity#9 And over the past three decades, the nation6ide Neneral Social Survey 8NSS9>>underta0en appro7imately every t6o years (y researchers at the &ational Opinion Research +enter>>has (een one of the only repeated surveys to as0 people a(out their happiness and has therefore (een used in many happiness studies# In GDDD, the NSS also as0ed adult Americans a(out their attitudes a(out freedom# A(out ED percent of the respondents said that they 6ere Ocompletely freeO or Overy free,O and another G* percent said that they 6ere Omoderately free#O Murther, a(out ED percent thought that Americans in general 6ere completely or very free# Perhaps such results are not surprising in the United States# ;ut the NSS also revealed that people 6ho said that they felt completely or very free 6ere t6ice as li0ely to say

that they 6ere very happy a(out their lives as those 6ho felt only a moderate degree of freedom, not much, or none at all# Lven 6hen holding income, se7, education, race, religion, politics, and family status constant, 6e find that people %ho felt free 6ere a(out %K percentage points more li0ely than others to say that they 6ere very happy# Nraphs (y Al(erto ena Mreedom and happiness are highly correlated , then= even more significant, several studies have sho6n that free om causes happiness# In a famous %FE) e7periment, psychologists in +onnecticut gave
residents on one floor of a nursing home the freedom to decide 6hich night of the 6ee0 6ould (e Omovie night,O as 6ell as the freedom to choose and care for the plants on their floor# On another floor of the same nursing home, residents did not receive these choices and responsi(ilities# The first group of residents>>no healthier or happier than the second 6hen the e7periment (egan>><uic0ly sho6ed greater alertness, more activity, and (etter mood# A year and a half later, they 6ere still doing (etter, and even dying at half the rate of the residents on the other floor# any su(se<uent studies replicated the e7periment in different settings, including foreign ones# One GDD$ study of Nerman senior citi3ens as0ed participants to 0eep diaries recording their activities and moods# The researchers found that

a lo6 level of perceived personal freedom strongly predicted depression= they 6ent on to suggest enhanced freedom for nursing>home residents as an efficient 6ay to improve their ;uality of life# Economic free om is $ey to happiness 1roo$s F Professor of Pu!lic Affairs" @overnment an 1usiness = 3yracuse Arthur ;roo0s, Professor of Pu(lic Affairs, Novernment and ;usiness a Syracuse, GDDK, IMree People Are 5appy People, +ity !ournal, Be7is :ou might (e tempted to ascri(e this correlation to the unhappy poor 6ho favor government intervention to improve their lot# ;ut a loo0 at entire nations, itUs important to note, sho6s that freer economies mean happier populations in general# In
such criteria as the freedom

GDDG, the International Social Survey Programme measured happiness in nearly three do3en countries# In the same year, as in every year since %FF*, the .all Street !ournal and the 5eritage Moundation compiled the Inde7 of Lconomic Mreedom, scoring nations on

to operate a (usiness, trade 6ith other nations, ease of investment, property rights, and level of (usiness corruption# The result 6as an aggregate score from D to %DD, 6here %DD meant ma7imum freedom# &ear the top, scoring around KD, 6ere most of the Anglophone countries = most .estern Luropean
countries scored in the )*>E* range= formerly +ommunist countries and developing nations 6ere lo6er= and at the (ottom sat &orth Corea# If you apply these data to the International Social Survey ProgrammeUs nations, you 6ill find that a %>percentage>point increase in

economic freedom is associated 6ith a G>point rise in the percentage of the population 6ho say that they are completely happy or very happy#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo AT: 1rutish/3elfish

)apitalism promotes interpersonal cooperation" not competition >even simple goods li0e the ipod rely on inter>company cooperation to produce a final product (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# KD>K% It 6ould ta0e pages and pages for me to descri(e ?ust a tiny part of the iPod # If 6e traced the antecedents (eyond the

com> puter and soft6are companies, ho6ever, to the delivery com> panies, mines, patent offices, and po6er plants, you 6ould find hundreds of millions of people 6or0ing in seemingly unrelated ?o(s, spea0ing do3ens of languages, all (lissfully una6are that they are, in a small 6ay, ma0ing the iPod possi(le# And yet no one is or even could oversee this 6hole process, not even Apple Inc# As one

.e hear a lot a(out the (rutish, competitive nature of capitalism, a(out 6inners and losers , survival of the fittest, and all that# Some of us may even have do6nloaded a podcast on the su(?ect right onto our iPods# .e hear far too little a(out the miracles of free cooperation an inter epen ence that free mar0ets have made possi(le, that have helped ma0e things li0e the iPod possi(le# .hatever the other vices in the mar0et, 6e should ta0e no critic seriously 6ho does not first recogni3e this virtue#GK
commentator put it: Apple Imay not ma0e the iPod, (ut they created it# In the end, that-s 6hat really matters#GE That-s the free mar0et#

)apitalism lea s to altruism %ealth accumulation is $ey (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# %G$>%G4 To (e sure, plenty of capitalism-s champions appeal to greed, even glory in it# ;ut there-s no evidence that capitalist countries in general, or Americans in particular, are greedier than average# In fact, the truth is Cust the opposite# A recent ;ritish study sho6ed that the United States, 6hich has the fourth>freest economy in the 6orld, is the most generous country 6hen it comes to charita(le giving# Americans give a(out %#)E percent of our NDP to charities, more than t6ice the
second>ran0ed United Cingdom 8D#E$ percent9 and +anada 8D#EG percent9# The Mrench came in dead last in the study, giving ?ust D#%4 percent of their NDP to charity# The study also found an inverse correlation (et6een ta7ation and giving# The more

government confiscates, the less people give# +onversely, the freer the economy, the more people give#GE This ma0es you 6onder ho6 much Americans 6ould give if the government too0 less from us# It-s nice 6hen statistics confirm common sense# A poor population is in no mood to (e generous# .hen you-re starving, you-re desperate# Anyone 6ho visited the Soviet>(loc countries (efore the collapse of the Soviet Union e7perienced this firsthand# In such places, only the very virtuous are generous# If you-re rich, on the other hand, it-s easy to (e generous, even if you-re morally mediocre # ;esides, prosperity gives you something to (e generous 6ith# And 6hen the government confiscates your 6ealth and claims to (e using it to help the less fortunate, the situation not only creates resentment= it creates the illusion that you already gave at the office#GK

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo AT: )onsumption

)apitalism?s focus on consumption provi es a uni;ue value to life Cust !ecause some consumption is e&cessive oesn?t mean %e shoul thro% the !a!y out %ith the !ath%ater 3aun ers 2 Professor = A@7 Peter, Ad?unct Professor at the Australian Nraduate School of anagement, .hy +apitalism is Nood for the Soul, http:''666#cis#org#au'POBI+:'summer]GDDE>DK'saunders^summerDE#html ;ut recognising that consumption does not al6ays (ring contentment does not mean we have to give up on capitalism# =ecause capitalism constantly encourages innovation it is inevitable that many of the items brought to market will be trivial or even trashy, but some will make a genuine contribution to human well%being# &e cannot know in advance which will be life%enhancing and which will not but pointing to discarded piles of trashy commodities does not make a compelling case for turning off the growth machine # oreover, "ust because a luxury barbecue wont satisfy the soul doesnt mean we would be better off without i t# +live assumes consumption prevents the
pursuit of genuine happiness, (ut commercial relationships do not rule out other, more enduring, forms of association, li0e friendships, family ties, voluntary activity, or religious 6orship#8%K9 Of course (uying and selling cannot give us everything 6e need in life, (ut most people are 6ell a6are of this# 5amilton claims that E*] of us thin0 spending time 6ith friends and family 6ill enhance our lives, 6hile fe6er than 4D] thin0 more money 6ill do the same# It is difficult to see how capitalism can have turned us into consuming automatons

when so many of us still assert the importance of non%materialistic values# 8%F9

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo AT: 6mmoral

)ap creates the con itions for a Cust an moral society 1roo$s an 8ehner 0< # *Professor of !usiness = 3yracuse" **3enior fello% = EPP) Arthur, Professor of ;usiness and Novernment a Syracuse, and, Peter, senior fello6 at the Lthics and Pu(lic Policy +enter, I5uman &ature and +apitalism, %G>%%>GD%D, The American, http:''666#american#com'archive'GD%D'decem(er'human>nature>and>capitalism A free mar0et can also !etter our moral con ition@not dramatically and not al6ays, (ut often enough# It places a premium on thrift, savings, and investment# And capitalism , 6hen functioning properly, penali3es certain 0inds of (ehavior@(ri(ery, corruption, and la6lessness among them@(ecause citi3ens in a free>mar0et society have a huge sta0e in discouraging such (ehavior, 6hich is a poison>tipped dagger aimed straight at the heart of prosperity# In addition, capitalism can act as a civili3ing agent# The social critic Irving Cristol argued, correctly in our vie6, that the early architects of democratic capitalism (elieved commercial transactions I6ould themselves constantly refine and enlarge the individual-s sense of his o6n self>interest, so that in the end the 0ind of commercial society that 6as envisaged 6ould (e a relatively ecent community#%% )apitalism is comparatively the most ethical system spar$s emocracy an opportunity 8ilson ,A Professor of Pu!lic Policy !ames, Professor of Pu(lic Policy a Pepperdine, +apitalism and morality Pu(lic Interest, &o# %G%, Mall
5o6ever one ?udges that de(ate, it is stri0ing that in %FED > at a time 6hen socialism still had many defenders, 6hen certain American economists 8and the +IAV9 6ere suggesting that the Soviet economy 6as gro6ing faster than the American, 6hen (oo0s 6ere (eing 6ritten e7plaining ho6 Midel +astro could achieve (y the use of moral incentivesO 6hat other nations achieved (y employing material ones>0ristol and ;ell sa6 that the great test of capitalism would not be economic but moral# Time has proved them right# ?xcept for a handful

of +merican professors everyone here and abroad now recogni)es that capitalism produces greater material abundance for more people than any other economic system ever invented# $he evidence is not in dispute# + series of natural experiments were conducted on a scale that every social scientist must envy# 2everal nations%china >ermany @orea and 0ietnam % were sawed in two and capitalism was installed in one part and *socialism* in the other# In every case the capitalist part out%produced by a vast margin the non%capitalist one # oreover, it has become clear during the last half century that democratic regimes only flourish in capitalist societies # &ot every nation 6ith
something appro7imating capitalism is democratic, (ut every nation that is democratic is, to some significant degree, capitalist# 8;y Ocapitalist,O I mean that production is chiefly organi3ed on the (asis of privately o6ned enterprises, and e7change ta0es place primarily through voluntary mar0ets#9 If capitalism is an economic success and the necessary 8(ut not sufficient9 precondition for democracy, it only remains vulnera(le on cultural and moral grounds# That is, of course, 6hy todayBs radical intellectuals have em(raced the more e7treme forms of multiculturalism and postmodernism# These doctrines are an attack on the

hegemony of bourgeois society and the legitimacy of bourgeois values# $he attack takes various forms % denying the existence of any foundation for morality asserting the incommensurability of cultural forms re"ecting the possibility of textual meaning or elevating the claims of non%western 8or non>6hite or non>Anglo9 traditions# ;y 6hatever route it travels, contemporary radicalism ends with a re)ection of the moral claims of capitalism# =ecause morality is meaningless because capitalism is mere power or because markets and corporations destroy culture capitalism is arbitrary oppressive or corrupting # ost critics of capitalism, of

course, are not radicals# Bi(eral critics recogni3e, as postmodernists pretend not to, that, if you are going to offer a moral criticism of capitalism, you had (etter (elieve that moral ?udgments are possi(le and can (e made persuasive# To li(erals, the failure of capitalism lies in its production of un?ustifia(le ine<ualities of 6ealth and its rec0less destruction of the natural environment# +apitalism may produce material a(undance, the argument goes, (ut at too high a price in human suffering and social in?ustice# I do not deny that capitalism has costs; every human

activity has them# 8It 6as a defender of capitalism, after all, 6ho reminded us that there is no such thing as a free lunch#9 Mor people 6orried a(out ine<uality or environmental degradation, the 'uestion is not whether capitalism has conse'uences but whether its conse'uences are better or worse than those of some feasible economic alternative # 8I stress Ofeasi(leO (ecause I tire of one must count as benefits the tendency of an economic system to produce beliefs and actions that support a prudent concern for mitigating the unreasonable costs of the system # +apitalism and pu(lic policy ;y these tests, practical alternatives to capitalism do not seem very appealing# Ine%uality is a feature of every modern society, Adam Smith

hearing critics compare capitalist reality to socialist > or communitarian or cooperative > ideals# .hen ideals are converted into reality, they tend not to loo0 so ideal#9 And, in evaluating conse<uences, one must rec0on up not simply the costs (ut the costs set against the (enefits# In addition,

e7pected that it 6ould (e a particular feature of 6hat 6e call capitalism# Indeed, he (egan The .ealth of &ations (y setting forth a pu33le that he hoped to solve# It 6as this# in Othe savage nations of hunters and fishersO 86hat 6e later learned to call euphemistically Onative culturesO or Oless> developed nationsO9, everyone 6or0s and almost everyone ac<uires the essentials of human sustenance, (ut they tend to (e Oso misera(ly poorO that they are reduced, on occasion, to 0illing (a(ies and a(andoning the elderly and the infirm# Among prosperous nations, (y contrast, many people do not 6or0 at all and many more live lives of great lu7ury, yet the general level of prosperity is so high that even the poorest people are (etter off than the richest person in a primitive society# 5is (oo0 6as an effort to e7plain 6hy Othe system of natural li(ertyO 6ould produce (oth prosperity and ine<uality and to defend as tolera(le the ine<uality that 6as the inevita(le 8and perhaps necessary9 corollary of prosperity# Smith certainly succeeded in the first tas0 (ut 6as less successful in the second, at least to ?udge (y the num(er of people 6ho (elieve that ine<uality can (e eliminated 6ithout sacrificing prosperity# any nations have claimed to eliminate mar0et>(ased ine<ualities, (ut they have done so only (y creating non>mar0et ine<ualities > a Soviet nomen0latura, a ruling military elite, an ela(orate (lac0 mar0et, or a set of non>cash per0s#

;et6een unconstrained mar0et ine<uality and the lesser ine<uality achieved (y some redistri(ution, there is much to discuss and decide, and so the 6elfare>state de(ate proceeds# Participants in this de(ate sometimes forget that the only societies in 6hich such a de(ate can have much meaning are those that have produced 6ealth that can (e redistri(uted and that have ac<uired a government that 6ill do so democratically > in short, capitalist societies# Similarly 6ith respect to the environment: Anly rich 8that is, capitalistJ nations can afford to worry much

about the environment and only democratic 8that is, capitalist9 nations have governments that will listen to environmentalists# As 6ith ine<uality, environmental policies in capitalist systems 6ill vary greatly > from the inconse<uential through the prudent to the loony > (ut they 6ill scarcely e7ist in non>capitalist ones# If anyone doubted this they were surely convinced when the Iron 7urtain was torn down in C9H9 giving the &est its first real look at what had been hidden behind the =erlin &all# ?astern ?urope had been turned into a vast toxic waste dump# "aclav 5avel e7plained 6hy: + government that commands the economy will inevitably command the polity; given a commanding position a government will distort or destroy the former and corrupt or oppress the latter# $o compel people engaged in production and e7change to internali)e all of the costs of production and exchange without destroying production and exchange one must be able to make proposals to people 6ho do not 6ant to hear such proposals, induce action among people 6ho do not 6ant to act, and monitor
performance (y people 6ho do not li0e monitors, and do all of this only to the e7tent that the gains in human 6elfare are purchased at accepta(le costs# &o regime 6ill ma0e this result certain, (ut only democratic capitalist regimes make it at all possible# +apitalism creates

7apitalism because it re'uires private property sustains a distinction between the public and the private sphere and thereby provides a protected place for people to stand who wish to make controversial proposals # And capitalism permits 8(ut does not re<uire9 the emergence of democratic institutions that can 8(ut may not9 respond to such proposals# Or to put it simply# environmental action arises out of the demands of ?ournalists, professors, foundation e7ecutives, and private>sector activists 6ho, for the most part, would not exist in a non%capitalist regime# +apitalism and the good life any readers may accept the vie6 that capitalism permits, or possi(ly even facilitates,
6hat are often called Opost>material valuesO that lead some private parties to ma0e environment>protecting proposals# the ma0ing of desira(le pu(lic policies (ut re?ect the idea that this is (ecause there is anything moral a(out it# At (est, it is amoral, a tool for the achievement of human 6ants that is neither good nor (ad# At 6orst, it is an immoral system that glorifies greed (ut, (y happy accident, occasionally ma0es possi(le popular government and pays the (ills of some pu(lic>interest lo((ies that can get on 6ith the (usiness of doing good# 5ardly anyone regards it as moral# People 6ith these vie6s can find much support in The .ealth of &ations# They 6ill recall the famous passage in 6hich Smith points out that it is from the Ointerest,O not the O(enevolence,O of the (utcher, the (re6er, or the (a0er that 6e e7pect our dinner# An Oinvisi(le handO leads him to promote the pu(lic good, though this is Ono part of his intention#O Should they study the (oo0 more carefully, they 6ill come across passages predicting the degradation of the human spirit that is li0ely to occur from the division of la(or, the incessant see0ing after monopoly (enefits and political privilege that 6ill follo6 from the e7pansion of manufacturing, and the Olo6 profligacy and viceO that 6ill attend upon the gro6th of large cities# The average 6or0er employed in repetitive tas0s 6ill (ecome Ostupid and ignorant,O the successful merchant living in a (ig city 6ill (ecome personally licentious and politically advantaged# Carl ar7, a close student of SmithUs 6ritings, had these passages in mind 8and, indeed, referred to them9 6hen he dre6 his picture of the alienation man 6ould suffer as a conse<uence of private property and capitalism# ;ut ar7 8and, in some careless passages, even Smith9 had made an error# They had

confused the conse'uences of moderni)ation (that is of industriali)ation and urbani)ationJ with the conse'uences of capitalism# $he division of labor can be furthered and large industrial enterprises created by statist regimes as well as by free ones; people will flock to cities to seek opportunities conferred by socialist as well as capitalist economies; a profligate and self%serving elite will spring up to sei)e the benefits supplied by aristocratic or socialist or authoritarian or free%market systems# Sho6 people the road to 6ealth, status, or po6er, and they 6ill rush do6n that road, many 6ill do some rather unattractive things along the 6ay# +mong the feasible systems of political economy capitalism offers the best possibility for checking some but not all of these tendencies toward degradation and depravity # .hen Smith

suggested that the increased division of la(or 6ould turn most 6or0ers into unhappy copies of +harlie +haplin in odern Times, he thought that only pu(lic education could provide a remedy# ;ecause he 6rote long (efore the advent of modern technology, he can (e forgiven for not having foreseen the tendency of free mar0ets to su(stitute capital for la(or in 6ays that relieve many 6or0ers of precisely those mindlessly repetitive tas0s that Smith supposed 6ould destroy the human spirit# Grbani)ation is the result of modernity > that is, of the 6ea0ening of village ties, the advent of large>scale enterprise, the rise of mass mar0ets, and an improvement in transportation > and

modernity may have non%

capitalist as well as capitalist sources #

e7ico +ity, Sao Paulo, Rio de !aneiro, and osco6 have long (een among the do3en largest cities in the 6orld, (ut, until <uite recently 8and still <uite uncertainly9, none of these 6as located in a nation that could (e fairly descri(ed as capitalist# They 6ere state>dominated economies, either socialist or mercantilist, and Smith 6ould have had no use for any of them# And, (eing non>capitalist, most of these states 6ere (arely democratic 8the USSR not at all9# .acking either a truly private sector or a truly

democratic regime reformist and meliorist tendencies designed to counteract the adverse conse'uences of massive urbani)ation were not much in evidence# Americans 6ho rightly thin0 that high rates of crime are characteristic of (ig cities, (ut 6rongly suppose that this is especially true of capitalist cities, need to spend some time in osco6, Rio, and e7ico +ity# 7apitalism creates privilege; socialism creates privilege; mercantilism creates privilege; primitivism creates privilege# 8en and women everywhere will seek advantage grasp power and create hierarchies# (ut to the extent that a society is capitalist, it is more li ely than its alternatives to sustain challenges to privilege . These arise from economic rivals,
privately financed voluntary associations, and democratically elected po6er>holders= they operate through mar0et competition, government regulation, legal action, and moral suasion# ;ut they operate clumsily and imperfectly, and, in the routine aspects of ordinary morality, they may not operate 6ell enough#

3upply#si e ethics solves a race to the !ottom 1ra ley , Ph4 in Political Economy" 7.A. in Economics

Ro(ert ;radley, PhD in Political Lconomy, #A# in Lconomics, I+apitalism at .or0: ;usiness, Novernment and Lnergy, pg# $%F +apitalism at .or0 has descri(ed ho6 althusian and neo> althusian thin0ing has repeatedly led to false alarms and promiscuous calls for
government energy planning# This (oo0 has advanced the thesis that comple7 regulation in place of simple>rules capitalism disrupts mar0et processes and corrupts (usi> ness incentives# .hat is perhaps more important, +apitalism at .or0 has argued that free enterprise is a system that is not only super(ly 6ealth creating (ut also morally superior to coercion>(ased alternatives# It is ethical (ecause it is (ased on the self>love of Adam Smith, the self>help of Samuel Smiles, and the rational self>interest of Ayn Rand# :et

far from !eing atomistic or amoral, capitalism driven (y self>interest is an intensely socia(le system= its supply>side ethics re6ards societyUs 6ealth creators, person (y person, thus creating good6ill and empo%ering philanthropy# Mrom the innumera(le parts comes a ro(ust civil society , its individuals dually directed, as it 6ere, (y the economic invisi(le hand of mar0ets and the moral invisi(le hand of human (enevolence# In the post>Lnron 6orld, capitalism deserves a second loo0 (y even its most trenchant and intransigent critics #

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo AT: (esource 8ars

(esource shortages on?t lea to %ar 3alehyan F Idean, Prof# Pol# Sci# a &orth Te7as, !ournal of Peace Research, IMrom +limate +hange to +onflictJ &o +onsensus :et, 4*:$, Sage
A fe6 caveats are in order here# It is important to note, again, that the most severe effects of climate change are li0ely to (e felt in the future, and the future is inherently uncertain#4 .hile fundamental shifts in the environment are not inconceiva(le, our (est (et for predicting 6hat is to come is to loo0 at 6hat has transpired in the past# Since it is fre<uently argued that climate change 6ill lead to resource scarcities and e7acer(ate ine<uality, it is possi(le to dra6 upon past evidence regarding these factors to develop a sense of ho6 conflicts might unfold given changes in the LarthUs atmosphere# Additionally, I do not ta0e issue 6ith the claim that climate change 6ill present considera(le challenges for human societies and ecosystems more generally# 5umanitarian crises stemming, in part, from climate change have the potential to (e severe, and steps must (e ta0en <uic0ly to attenuate such contingencies# Rather, my purpose here is to underscore the point that environmental processes, (y themselves, cannot

explain 6hy, 6here, and 6hen fighting 6ill occur= rather, the interaction (et6een environmental and political systems is critical for understanding organi3ed armed violence# Mirst, the deterministic view has poor predictive power as to 6here and 6hen conflicts 6ill (rea0 out# Mor every potential e7ample of an environmental catastrophe or resource shortfall that leads to violence, there are many more counter%examples in which conflict never occurs# ;ut popular accounts typically do not loo0 at the dogs that do not
(ar0# Darfur is fre<uently cited as a case 6here desertification led to food scarcity, 6ater scarcity, and famine, in turn leading to civil 6ar and ethnic cleansing#* :et, food scarcity and hunger are problems endemic to many countries > particularly in su(>Saharan Africa > but similar pro(lems else6here have not led to large%scale violence # According to the Mood and Agriculture Organi3ation of the United &ations, food shortages and malnutrition affect more than a third of the population in ala6i, Xam(ia, the +omoros, &orth Corea, and Tan3ania,) although none of these countries have e7perienced full(lo6n civil 6ar and state Ihilure# 5urricanes, coastal flooding, and droughts > 6hich are all li0ely to intensify as the climate 6arms are fre<uent occurrences 6hich rarely lead to violence# The Asian Tsunami of GDD4, although caused (y an oceanic earth<ua0e, led to severe loss of life and property, flooding, population displacement, and resource scarcity, (ut it did not trigger ne6 6ars in Southeast Asia# Barge>scale migration has the potential to provo0e conflict in receiving areas 8see Rcuveny, GDDE= Salehyan \ Nleditsch, GDD)9, yet most migration flo6s do not lead to conflict, and, in this regard, social integration and citi3enship policies are particularly important 8Nleditsch, &ordils \ Salebsyan, GDDE9# In short, resource scarcity, natural disasters, and long>term climatic shifts

are ubi%uitous, while armed conflict is rare= therefore, environmental conditions, (y themselves, cannot predict violent outbreaks# Second, even if local skirmishes over access to resources arise, these do not al6ays escalate to open 6arfare and state collapse# .hile interpersonal violence is more or less common and may intensify under resource pressures, sustained armed conflict on a massive scale is difficult to conduct# eier, ;ond \ ;ond 8GDDE9 sho6 that, under certain circumstances, environmental conditions have led to cattle raiding among pasroralists in Last Africa, (ut these conflicts rarely escalate to sustained violence# artin

8GDD*9 presents evidence from Lthiopia that, 6hile a large refligee influ7 and population pressures led to locali3ed conflict over natural resources, effective resource management regimes 6ere a(le to ameliorate these tensions# ;oth of these studies emphasi3e the role of local dispute>resolution regimes and institutions > not ?ust the response of central governments > in preventing resource conflicts from spinning out of control# artinUs analysis also points to the importance of international organi3ations, nota(ly the U& 5igh +ommissioner for Refugees, in implementing effective policies governing refugee camps# Therefore, local hostilities need not escalate to serious armed conflict and can (e managed if there is the political 6ill to do so#

*o resource %ars tons of other root causes Victor F David, professor of la6 at Stanford Ba6 School, the director of the Program on Lnergy and Sustaina(le Development at Stanford University and an ad?unct senior fello6 at the +ouncil on Moreign Relations, Smo0e and irrors, http:''666#nationalinterest#org'Article#asp7Jid[%)*$D : ARNU L&T is that classic resource wars@hot conflicts driven (y a struggle to gra( resources@ are increasingly rare# ?ven where resources play a role they are rarely the root cause of bloodshed# Rather the root cause usually lies in various failures of governance# That argument@in (oth its classic form and in its more nuanced incarnation@is hardly a stra6 man, as Thomas 5omer>Di7on asserts# 2etting aside hyperbole the punditry increasingly points to resources as a cause of war# And so do social scientists and policy analysts, even 6ith their more nuanced vie6s# I-ve triggered this de(ate (ecause conventional wisdom puts too much emphasis on resources as a cause of conflict # Netting the story right has (ig implications for social scientists trying to unravel
cause>and>effect and often even larger implications for pu(lic policy#

*o resource conflict 1uc$lan 2 ;en?amin, Research Associate a +entre for Applied Studies in International &egotiations, IA +limate of .arJ Stopping the Securitisation of Nlo(al +limate +hange A contri(ution to contemporary de(ates, !une, Scholar
Since the %FEDs there have (een calls for a (roader security frame6or0 encompassing environmental issues# As early as %FE% Richard Mal0 6as tal0ing a(out possi(le lin0s (et6een environment and security, although climate change 6as not yet in the frame# 4 Mal0 6as follo6ed in the %FKDs (y scholars such as Lssam Ll 5inna6i, 6ho first introduced the term Ienvironmental refugee, and in %FKE (y the landmar0 Report of the .orld +ommission on Lnvironment and Development, the I;rundtland Report# * Again, not mentioning climate change, the ;rundtland Report clearly enunciated lin0s (et6een environmental issues and dangers for human security# These studies form a (ac0drop to the e7plosion

of interest in the lin0s (et6een the environment and violent conflict that occurred at the end of the +old .ar in %FKF>F%# As national security institutions sought a ne6 raison d-ctre, scholars li0e Thomas 5omer>Di7on and his Toronto School, Paul Lrlich, Ro( S6art, and Ro(ert Caplan gained early traction for their ideas a(out resource scarcity leading to conflict# ) Often du((ed &eo> althusians, due to the intellectual de(t o6ed to the Lnglish economist and clergyman Thomas althus 6ho, in %EFK, argued that e7ponential population gro6th com(ined 6ith linear gro6th in food output 6ould eventually lead to conflict, 6ar and epidemic, these thin0ers moved (eyond food scarcity to add a 6hole host of environmental issues to those lin0ed 6ith conflict# Tal0ing a(out supply and demand>induced scarcity as 6ell as ine<uity 8so>called structural scarcity9, 5omer>Di7on and others 6ere <uic0 to identify the lin0s (et6een their earlier 6or0 and the ne6 threat of climate change that 6as (eginning to (e enunciated (y the regular Assessment Reports of the U&-s influential Intergovernmental Panel on +limate +hange# E As Peter Sch6art3 and Doug Randall P t6o leading proponents of this school of thought P made clear: I 0iolence and disruption stemming from the stresses created (y a(rupt changes in the climate pose

a different type of threat than we are accustomed to today# ilitary confrontation may (e triggered (y a desperate need for natural resources such as energy, food and 6ater# K These warnings were taken up in%turn by governments and other actors, perhaps most nota(ly (y the Pentagon in its a(ove mentioned report of GDD$, 6hich s0etched an
apocalyptic scenario of runa6ay climate change and 6ar# ore recently still, the ongoing conflict in Sudan-s Darfur region has (een increasingly mentioned as the first of the future climate change 6ars# Mirst speculated a(out (y ichael ;yers and &ic0 Drago?lovic in a GDD4 editorial in the 5uman Security ;ulletin, this idea has fre<uently popped up in the popular press ever since# F Narnering less pu(licity 6ere early defectors from the climate change and conflict school descri(ed a(ove# ost nota(le is perhaps the State Mailure Tas0force, set up in %FF4 (y the then United States 8US9 "ice>President Al Nore to loo0 for environmental and political causes of state failure# +gainst expectations the $askforce

found no evidence for a link between environmental degradation and violent conflict conclusions which are cogent with a number of contemporary and more recent studies# + further blow to the environment and conflict link suggested by the ,eo%8althusian thinkers cited above has come in the form of criticism which directly attacks their research design# Perhaps most persuasive among these attac0s is the contention that many of the case studies used to support the ,eo%8althusian argument are selected on the dependent variable that is to say they treat only cases in which environmental degradation and conflict are both present . .ithout more comprehensive data, it is argued, their usefulness is reduced to that of well-researched anecdotes K interesting but hardly predictive of conflict elsewhere# %D The second ma?or criticism is that ,eo%8althusian models of conflict are underspecified# In other words they offer little indication as to which variables may or may not be important in triggering or prolonging conflict P they are simply too ela(orate to do
so# %% Alternative models and schools of thought 8such as that ela(orated (y the State Mailure Tas0force a(ove and the systematic %FFK study of 5ague and Lllingsen9 emphasise the fact that, 6hile there is consensus on several factors causing conflict, there are many others for 6hich direct causal lin0s simply do not e7ist# %G .ith regard to the former category, factors generally agreed to influence the li0elihood of intrastate conflict include: levels of economic development, history of conflict and the e7istence of either ethnic dominance or ethnic polarisation# In the second category, factors that are li0ely to increase the ris0 of conflict (ut that do not act as independent varia(les are: political insta(ility, the time elapsed since independence, dependency on natural resources, large population si3e and rough terrain# %$ Turning to interstate conflict, the factors on 6hich there is general consensus include: geographical pro7imity, non>democratic regimes, relative po6er and a history of conflict# %4 .hat is clear from these t6o sets of varia(les is that environmental factors are at best of secondary importance# C: 2ome

scholars even go so far as to suggest that resource scarcity may have precisely the opposite effect from that predicted by proponents of ,eo%8althusianism# An e7ample of this is a recent study Aaron T# .olf 6hich suggests that shared fresh6ater resources may in fact lead to greater cooperation between riparian states# %) This conclusion is supported (y data
from the ;AR Pro?ect Data(ase 6hich lists %K$% 6ater> related Ievents 8either conflict or cooperation9 (et6een riparian states# Of these, %GGK are e7amples of cooperation and many of the others are small>scale disputes rather than full>(lo6n armed conflict# .hile .olf-s study, and the many criticisms cited a(ove, mean that the e7pectations of the &eo> althusians are largely unsu(stantiated, it does not, of course, immediately follo6 that climate change 6ill not lead to any conflict at all# Indeed, it is <uite plausi(le that some of the more dire climate change scenarios could result in some instances of conflict# %E As +lionadh Raleigh and 5enri0 Urdal point out, 6hile it is generally agreed that the resource

scarcity and conflict link has been overstated, fe6 6ould agree that there are no lin0s at all# %K .hat is important, and 6hat 6e
argue in this paper, is that claims a(out climate change leading to conflict are highly speculative# %F As Raleigh and Urdal again ma0e clear: IThere is every reason to (e cautious a(out the lin0s (et6een climate change and conflict# ?xisting environment and conflict research

has simply not produced sufficient evidence to enable us to make anything but highly speculative claims a(out the
effects of climate change and violent conflict# GD As 6e 6ill see in the follo6ing sections, it is a dramatic erosion of human security and not the ris0 of violent conflict that is the real threat of climate change#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo AT: (oot )ause

)apitalism is not the root cause of se&ism" racism" ine;uality" environmental estruction" or conflict Levin ,F Presi ent of Eale Richard Bevin, president of :ale, %FFK, The innesota Revie6, 4K>4F, http:''666#theminnesotarevie6#org'?ournal'ns4K'levin#htm As a result of this vie6 of the 6orld, many people on the far right and far left are single%causers; they believe not only that everything the demon does has bad effects in our society but also that everything bad in our society is caused by this demon# Right>6ing e7tremists hold feminism or secular humanism or XON responsi(le for drugs, crime, floridation, and the decline of Ofamily values,O and many leftists@including some appearing in mr@claim that capitalism is the cause of racism and sexism 8+otter %%F>G%, Be6is FE>FK, :oung GKK>F%9# This in turn leads to the belief that there's a single cure, and only this one cure for all these social ills< the complete extirpation of the demon that causes them and the complete transformation of society# $hus extremists on both sides tend to be all%or%nothingists to re"ect all reforms as *band% aids* that are doomed to fail since they donBt get at the source of our problems and so wonBt further this radical transformation 8&eilson' eyerson 4*: G)K>)F9# any are also millenarians 6ho (elieve the transformation 6ill (e (rought a(out (y an
apocalyptic clash (et6een the forces of good and evil ending in the permanent defeat of the demon and the creation of a utopia8for fundamentalists this is a literal Armageddon and Second +oming, for militias itUs Ra5o.a 8Racial 5oly .ar9 or the uprising of true patriots against our traitorous government foretold in The Turner Diaries 6ith its 5itlerian Ofinal solution,O and for ar7ists itUs the proletarian

polari'ation is that partisans at (oth extremes try to eliminate the intermediate positions between them, often by denying their differences # &eilson
revolution that, their anthem tells us, 6ill (e Othe final conflict#O Another conse<uence of their and eyerson say that O6e should see li(eralism and conservatism as flipsidesO 84*: G)F9 and argue that Repu(licans and Democrats are really the same 84E: G4G9, as does Tom Be6is at greater length 8KF>FD9# Similarly, Neorge .allace, in his racist, third>party campaign, insisted that Othere isnUt a dimeUs 6orth of difference (et6een them#O 8ore sinister is their tendency to *disappear* these intermediate

positions by e'uating them with the opposite extreme# c+arthy and his follo6ers attac0ed Democrats and even li(eral Repu(licans as Opin0osO and Ofello6 travelers,O and 8arxist regimes condemned social democrats and even communists who deviated from the party line as fascist counterrevolutionaries who must be li'uidated# 2ome extremists on the academic left employ this tactic against moderates and liberals although with less lethal results # )apitalism isn?t the root cause of %ar 4an e$er ,' +hris, Professor of ilitary Sociology in the Department of .ar Studies at Cing-s +ollege Bondon, The +auses of .ar and the 5istory of odern Sociological Theory, Lffects of .ar on Society, Ldited (y Niorgio Ausenda, Pu(lished (y the +enter for Interdisciplinary Research on Social Stress (y ;oydell \ ;re6er Btd, IS;& DK*%%*K)K4, %st Ldition Pu(lished in %FFG, Gnd Ldition Pu(lished in GDDG, p# 44>4) All these arguments presuppose t6o specious sociological contentions: first that capitalism, as the most historically developed and dynamic form of class e7ploitation, is the source of modern militarism and second, that socialism prefera(ly on a 6orld scale would involve the abolition of war# The deficiencies in these views, and indeed of those associated 6ith the industrial society thesis discussed earlier, can be revealed by drawing on 8achiavellian themes 6hich can then (e set out more e7plicitly in the ne7t
section# Despite the fact that industrial capitalism has produced t6o 6orld 6ars, as Aron 8%F*49 and more recently ichael ann 8%FK49 have argued, there is no -special relationship* between capitalism and militarism!or the tendency to war @only one of historical indifference# All the

pre%dispositions of Lcapitalist states to use warfare calculatively as a means of resolving their disputes 6ith

other states predate the formation of capitalism as an economic system # Of course, it could (e argued that capitalism merely changes the form of militarism# That is to say, pre>capitalist patterns of militarism 6ere still e7pressions of class relations and modern capitalism has ?ust increased the destructive po6er of the industrialised means of 6ar availa(le to the state# ;ut this argument 6ill not do# 2ocialist

societies in their use of industrialised po6er show that the technological potential for war is transfera(le and can be reproduced under non%capitalist conditions# Murthermore, the military activities of socialist states cannot be explained in terms of a 1end page 442 defensive war against capitalism or even an aggressive one, as national and geopolitical po6er motives are argua(ly ?ust as significant in the determination of state (ehaviour# Murthermore, imperial expansion not only predates capitalism (ut it is also difficult to reduce the
causes of 6ars then and no6 to the interests of dominant economic classes 8 ann %FK4:G*>4)9# ean6hile, modern attempts to e7plain patterns of military e7penditure in terms of the imperatives of capital accumulation face ma?or difficulties# The association (et6een economic (oom and military spending has (een revealed as an empirical association not an inherent connection= indeed the evidence from Nermany and !apan indicates that lo6 levels of military spending might 6ell (e associated 6ith economic performances superior to those of societies 6hich commit more of their N&P to defence e7penditure# Murthermore, the idea that 6ar and the threat of 6ar are 6eapons of national mythology used (y dominant classes to confuse the 6or0ing class and 6ea0en their natural affinity 6ith international socialism faces the pro(lem that, as in the case of Lurope in %F%4, national enthusiasms 6ere such that truly remar0a(le po6ers 6ould have to (e attri(uted to ruling classes in order to ma0e sense of them 6hile in any case alternative e7planations are at hand 85o6ard %FE):%DK>%*9# The pro(lems of economic determinism in ar7ist social theory are compounded (y t6o further difficulties# The first of these concerns its emphasis on endogenous, unfolding models of social change# The tendency is to vie6 state (ehaviour in terms of the imperatives of internal class

8arxism finds it difficult to view inter%state relations as characterised by structural interdependencies of a politico%strategic nature # The drift of ar7ism is to regard the state as a class actor not as a geopolitical one#
relations 6ith 6arfare (eing regarded as the e7ternalisation of the contradictory nature of those relations# This failing derives not ?ust from the internalist (ias of ar7ist social theory (ut also from its failure to provide a satisfactory account of the conditions under 6hich the human species has (ecome differentiated into separate societies and, more specifically, 6hy it is that the modern capitalist economic system has developed in the conte7t of a system of competing nation>states@a political system e7tending from the core of Lurope to the rest of the glo(e during the course of the t6entieth century# As ichael ann has suggested there is nothing in capitalism as an economic system 6hich presupposes or re<uires such a political system although there is a strong 1end page 4*2 case in favour of the vie6 that the development and triumph of modern capitalism (enefited from the constant po6er struggle amongst the emergent nation>states of Luropean civilisation 85all %FK)= ann %FKK9# In ar7ist theory, the rise of nation>states has (een interpreted as an early stage in the political e7pression of the universality of the capitalist mar0et, an e7pression 6hich 6ill change 6ith the demands of capital accumulation 8Semmel %FK%: %))>E$9# A contemporary case in point 6ould (e the current shift to Luropean integration in the conte7t of glo(al competition amongst the ma?or capitalist (locs# 5o6ever, nationalism is not a (ourgeois phenomenon created to provide

ideological and legal conditions favoura(le for capitalist economic relations# &or are modern nationalisms, 6hen suita(ly ,decoded,- enthusiastic proletarian movements ready to ta0e the stage vacated (y their less distinguished .estern comrades# &ationalism is a far more significant motor of human history than class@a fact 6hich 6as recognised (y some ar7ists in the early t6entieth century: ussolini 6as one of them 8Ash6orth and Dande0er

$he inability of 8arxism to provide a satisfactory account of nationalism is part of a broader failure to explain why societies exist at all # That is to say, in relation to the four clusters of modernity distinguished earlier, it is through the con"oining of industrialism capitalism bureaucratic surveillance and the state monopolisation of the means of violence that modern societies have emerged # As Anthony Niddens has suggested, societies are actually products of modernity 8and not one dimension of modernity, i#e#, class relations 6ithin capitalism9# If (y society one means
%FK):KG>E= Dande0er %FK*:$4F>)E= Nregor %FE4:%4*>E= Smith %FK$:4E>*D9#

a clearly demarcated and internally 6ell articulated social entity it is only relatively recently that large human populations have lived under such arrangements and these have (een the achievements of modern nation>states 8Dande0er %FFD:*%= Niddens %FK*:%EG9#

7ar&ists are %rong no single cause of conflict 7oore D !ohn &orton, Director, +enter for &ational Security Ba6, University of "irginia School of Ba6 The Transnational Ba6yer .e 6ill start with 6hat 6e generally 0no6 a(out the causes of war# There is a short list of some of the ma?or things that 6e hear over and over a(out the causes of 6ar# +ertainly, there are specific disputes among nations= ideological disputes= ethnic and religious differences; proliferation of 6eapons and arms races= social and economic in"ustice; imbalance of power; competition for resources; incidents; accidents; and miscalculation# $he old 8arxists believed that wars were caused by economic determinism# There are many other theories, (ut 6hat do 6e really 0no6 a(out the causes of 6arJ The ans6er is that nothing on the list of the most important traditional causes of war powerfully correlates with war # If 6e loo0 from the opposite perspective there is another list, 6hich in many respects (uilds on the causes of 6ar list descri(ed a(ove# That is to say, looking at traditional approaches for avoidance of war rather than causes of war there are a number of mechanisms including diplomacy balance of power third party dispute settlement collective security arms control and resolving underlying causes # 5o6ever, once again, the point is that there is nothing on this list that we know to have a robust correlation with wars# This is not
to suggest that these approaches are not important# They are collectively an important part of the human arsenal for dealing 6ith 6ar and conflict# Mor e7ample, if 6e 6ant to focus on the issue of 6eapons of mass 1QK42 destruction, it 6ould (e an error not to focus on the importance of arms control# 5o6ever, these approaches, (y themselves, are not the ans6er to understanding 6ar# Rather, the most important empirical correlation found to date, 6hich is <uite ro(ust, is the finding that democracies rarely, if ever, 6age 6ar against other democracies# % This finding is called the Democratic Peace# According to ;ruce Russett, the +hairman of the International Relations Department at :ale, IA stri0ing fact a(out the 6orld comes to (ear on any discussion a(out international relations d 16hen 6e consider that2 democracies have almost never fought each other#

)ap 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo AT: Terrorism

8ealth levels have no effect on terrorism 1ec$er A Professor of Economics Nary, &o(el Baurete and Professor of Lconomics a U +hicago, Terrorism and Poverty:Any +onnectionJ, http:''666#(ec0er>posner>(log#com'archives'GDD*'D*'terrorism^and^p^%#html
A former president of the .orld Trade Organi3ation, the current ;ritish +hancellor of the L7che<uer, the 5ouse of ;ishops of the Lpiscopal +hurch, and many others have claimed 6ithout citing any evidence a close connection (et6een poverty and terrorism# -overty may be

related to terrorism but in ways that are far more indirect and weaker than alleged# +ny si)eable effect of poverty on terrorism is not apparent from what is generally known about terrorist activities # The suicide bombers in the F'%% attac0 were mainly highly educated 2audis not poor 8oslems from other parts of the iddle Last, Asia, or Africa# $he =as'ue region of 2pain may not have done well economically in recent decades but the members of its ?$+ terrorist organi)ation are generally middle class and reasonably well educated # The same goes for the ;aader> einhof Nerman
terrorists, and many other terrorist groups in different nations# L7amples such as these can usually (e chosen to support a particular position on most issues, so more complete evidence is necessary to dra6 any conclusions 6ith confidence# Mortunately, a fe6 studies do systematically

analy)e the relation between poverty and terrorism # /arvard economist Al(erto +badie has recently studied both terrorism within a country and transnational terrorism for almost 455 nations 8&;LR .or0ing Paper &o# %DK*F9# 5e

estimates the poverty>terror relation after controlling for the degree of political freedom, religious and ethnic heterogeneity, and other varia(les# +e finds little net relation between the degree of terrorism and poverty , 6here poverty is measured (y per capita NDP, the degree of ine<uality 6ithin a country, and a couple of other 6ays#

)ap 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails )apitalism 6nevita!le

/uman nature prevents alternative solvency 8il$inson A 7A in Philosophy .ill .il0inson, A in Philosophy, former Academic +oordinator of the Social +hange Pro?ect and the Nlo(al Prosperity Initiative at The ercatus +enter at Neorge ason University, I+apitalism and 5uman &ature, %> GDD*, http:''666#cato#org'research'articles'6il0inson>D*DGD%#html Tragically, human nature isnUt at all as advertised , and neither is pine needle tea# According to the U#S# State Department, at least one million &orth Coreans have died of famine since %FF*# ar7Us theory of human nature, li0e Cim !ong IlUs theory of pine needle tea, is a (iological fantasy, and 6e have the corpses to prove it# .hich may drive us to 6onder: if communism is deadly (ecause it is contrary to human nature, does that imply that capitalism, 6hich is contrary to communism, is distinctively compati(le 6ith human natureJ A gro6ing scientific discipline called evolutionary psychology speciali3es in uncovering the truth a(out human nature, and it is already illuminating 6hat 6e 0no6 a(out the possi(ilities of human social organi3ation# 5o6
natural is capitalismJ Lvolutionary Psychology %D% Lvolutionary psychology see0s to understand the uni<ue nature of the human mind (y applying the logic and methods of contemporary evolutionary (iology and cognitive psychology# The main 6or0ing assumption of evolutionary psychology is that the mind is a variegated tool0it of speciali3ed functions 8thin0 of a S6iss Army 0nife9 that has evolved through natural selection to solve specific pro(lems faced (y our fore(ears# Distinct mental functions@e#g#, perception= reading other peopleUs intentions= responding emotionally to potential mates@are under6ritten (y different neurological OcircuitsO or Omodules,O 6hich can each (e conceived as mini computer programs selected under environmental pressure to solve specific pro(lems of survival and reproduction typical in the original setting of human evolution, the Lnvironment of Lvolutionary Adaptedness, the OLLA#O Strictly spea0ing, the LLA is a statistical composite of environmental pressures that account for the evolutionary selection of our distinctively human traits# Boosely, the LLA 6as the period called the Pleistocene during 6hich humans lived as hunter>gatherers from a(out %#) million years ago up until the invention of agriculture a(out %D,DDD years ago# According to evolutionary psychologists, the (asic constitution of the human mind hasnUt

changed apprecia(ly for a(out *D,DDD years# Thus the evolutionary psychologistUs slogan: modern s0ulls house Stone Age

minds# As pioneers of evolutionary psychology Beda +osmides and !ohn Too(y put it: The 0ey to understanding ho6 the modern mind 6or0s is to reali3e that its circuits 6ere not designed to solve the day>to>day pro(lems of a modern American@they 6ere designed to solve the day>to>day pro(lems of our hunter>gatherer ancestors# Understanding the pro(lems faced (y mem(ers of human hunter>gatherer (ands in the LLA can therefore help us to understand a great deal a(out human nature, and the prospects and pathologies of modern social systems# Mirst, a 6ord of caution: .e cannot e7pect to dra6 any straightfor6ard positive political lessons from evolutionary psychology# It can tell us something a(out the 0ind of society that 6ill tend not to 6or0, and 6hy# ;ut it cannot tell us 6hich of the feasi(le forms of society 6e ought to aspire to# .e cannot, it turns out, infer the naturalness of capitalism from the manifest failure of communism to accommodate human nature# &or should 6e (e tempted to infer that natural is (etter# Moraging half>na0ed for nuts and (erries is natural, 6hile the &e6 :or0 Stoc0 L7change and open>heart surgery 6ould (oggle our ancestorsU minds# .hat evolutionary psychology really helps us to appreciate is ?ust 6hat an unli0ely achievement comple7, li(eral, mar0et>(ased societies really are# It helps us to get a (etter grip on 6hy relatively free and fa(ulously 6ealthy societies li0e ours are so rare and, possi(ly, so fragile# Lvolutionary psychology helps us to understand that successful mar0et li(eral societies re<uire the cultivation of certain psychological tendencies that are 6ea0 in Stone Age minds and the suppression or su(limation of other tendencies that are strong# Mree, capitalist societies, 6here they can (e made to 6or0, 6or0 6ith human nature# ;ut it turns out that human nature is not easy material to 6or0 6ith# There is a rapidly e7panding li(rary of (oo0s that try to spell out the moral, political and economic implications of evolutionary psychology# 8The Origins of "irtue (y att Ridley, Dar6inian Politics (y Paul Ru(in, and The +ompany of Strangers (y Paul Sea(right are good ones9# ;elo6 is a short tour of ?ust a fe6 features of human nature emphasi3ed (y evolutionary psychologists that highlight the challenges of developing and sustaining a modern mar0et li(eral order# .e are +oalitional The si3e of hunter>gather (ands in the LLA ranged from G* to a(out %*D people# The small si3e of those groups ensured that everyone 6ould 0no6 everyone else= that social interactions 6ould (e conducted face>to>face= and that reputations for honesty, hard 6or0, and relia(ility 6ould (e common 0no6ledge# Lven today, peopleUs address (oo0s usually contain no more than %*D names# And military s<uadrons generally contain a(out as many people as Pleistocene hunting e7peditions# L7periments (y psychologists Beda +osmides and Ro(ert Cur3(an have sho6n that human (eings have speciali3ed a(ilities to trac0 shifting alliances and coalitions, and are eager to define others as inside or outside their o6n groups# +oalitional categories can easily lead to violence and 6ar (et6een groups# Thin0 of 5utus and Tutsis, Al(anians and Ser(s, Shiites and Sunnis, +rips and the ;loods, and so on ad nauseam# 5o6ever, coalitional categories are fairly fluid# Under the right circumstances, 6e can learn to care more a(out someoneUs devotion to the Red So7 or :an0ees than their s0in color, religion, or social class# .e cannot, ho6ever, consistently thin0 of ourselves as mem(ers only of that one grand coalition: the ;rotherhood of an0ind# Our disposition to thin0 in terms of OusO versus OthemO is

irreme ia!le and it has unavoi a!le political implications# Populist and racialist political rhetoric encourages people

to identify themselves as primarily rich or poor, (lac0 or 6hite# It is important to avoid designing institutions, such as racial preference programs, that reinforce coalitional categories that have no (asis in (iology and may heighten some of the tensions they are meant to rela7# A great deal of the animosity to6ard free trade, to ta0e a different e7ample, depends on economically and morally inappropriate coalitional distinctions (et6een 6or0ers in ;altimore 8us9 and 6or0ers in ;angalore 8them9# Positively, free trade is lauda(le for the 6ay it encourages us to see to mem(ers of unfamiliar groups as partners, not enemies# .e are 5ierarchical Bi0e many animals and all primates, humans form

hierarchies of dominance# It is easy to recogni3e social hierarchies in modern life# +orporations, government, chess clu(s, and churches
all have formal hierarchical structures of officers# Informal structures of dominance and status may (e the leading cause of tears in ?unior high students# The dynamics of dominance hierarchies in the LLA 6as comple7# 5ierarchies play an important role in guiding collective efforts and distri(uting scarce resources 6ithout having to resort to violence# Daily affairs run more smoothly if everyone 0no6s 6hat is e7pected of him# 5o6ever, space at the top of the hierarchy is scarce and a source of conflict and competition# Those 6ho command higher status in social hierarchies have (etter access to material resources and mating opportunities# Thus, evolution favors the psychology of males and females 6ho are a(le successfully to compete for positions of dominance# Biving at the (ottom of the dominance heap is a ra6 deal, and 6e are not (uilt to ta0e it lying do6n# There is evidence that lo6er status males naturally form coalitions to chec0 the po6er of more dominant males and to achieve relatively egalitarian distri(ution of resources# In his (oo0 5ierarchy in the Morest, anthropologist +hristopher ;oehm calls these coalitions against the po6erful Oreverse dominance hierarchies#O Lmory professor of economics and la6 Paul Ru(in usefully distinguishes (et6een OproductiveO and OallocativeO hierarchies# Productive hierarchies are those that organi3e cooperative efforts to achieve other6ise unattaina(le mutually advantageous gains# ;usiness organi3ations are a prime e7ample# Allocative hierarchies, on the other hand, e7ist mainly to transfer resources to the top# Aristocracies and dictatorships are e7treme e7amples# Although the nation>state can perform productive functions, there is the constant ris0 that it (ecomes dominated (y allocative hierarchies# Ru(in 6arns that our natural 6ariness of 3ero>sum allocative hierarchies,

6hich helps us to guard against the concentration of po6er in too fe6 hands, is often directed at modern positive>sum productive hierarchies, li0e corporations, there(y threatening the via(ility of enterprises that tend to ma0e everyone (etter off# There is no 6ay to stop

dominance>see0ing (ehavior# .e may hope only to channel it to non>harmful uses # A free society therefore re<uires that positions of dominance and status (e 6idely availa(le in a multitude of productive hierarchies, and that opportunities
for greater status and dominance through predation are limited (y the constant vigilance of Othe peopleO@the ultimate reverse dominance hierarchy# A flourishing civil society permits almost everyone to (e the leader of something, 6hether the local Star Tre0 fan clu( or the city council, there(y some6hat satisfying the human taste for hierarchical status, (ut to no oneUs serious detriment# .e are Lnvious Xero>

sum Thin0ers Perhaps the most depressing lesson of evolutionary psychology for politics is found in its account of the deep>seated human capacity for envy and, related, of our difficulty in understanding the idea of gains from
trade and increases in productivity@the idea of an ever>e7panding OpieO of 6ealth# There is evidence that greater s0ill and initiative could lead to higher status and (igger shares of resources for an individual in the LLA# ;ut (ecause of the social nature of hunting and gathering, the fact that food spoiled <uic0ly, and the utter a(sence of privacy, the (enefits of individual success in hunting or foraging could not (e easily internali3ed (y the individual, and 6ere e7pected to (e shared# The LLA 6as for the most part a 3ero>sum 6orld, 6here increases in total 6ealth through invention, investment, and e7tended economic e7change 6ere totally un0no6n# ore for you 6as less for me# Therefore, if anyone managed to ac<uire a great deal more than anyone else, that 6as pretty good evidence that theirs 6as a stash of ill>gotten gains, ac<uired (y cheating, stealing, ra6 force, or, at (est, sheer luc0# Lnvy of the disproportionately 6ealthy may have helped to reinforce generally adaptive norms of sharing and to help those of lo6er status on the dominance hierarchy guard against further predation (y those a(le to amass po6er# Our 3ero> sum mentality ma0es it hard for us to understand ho6 trade and investment can increase the amount of total 6ealth# .e are thus ill>e<uipped to easily understand our o6n economic system# These features of human nature@that 6e are coalitional, hierarchical, and envious 3ero>sum thin0ers@6ould seem to ma0e li(eral capitalism e7tremely unli0ely# And it is# 5o6ever, the (enefits of a li(eral mar0et order can (e seen in a fe6 further features of the human mind and social organi3ation in the LLA# Property Rights are &atural The pro(lem of distri(uting scarce resources can (e handled in part (y implicitly coercive allocative hierarchies# An alternative solution to the pro(lem of distri(ution is the recognition and enforcement of property rights# Property rights are prefigured in nature (y the 6ay animals mar0 out territories for their e7clusive use in foraging, hunting, and mating# Recognition of such rudimentary claims to control and e7clude minimi3es costly conflict, 6hich (y itself provides

a strong evolutionary reason to loo0 for innate tendencies to recogni3e and respect norms of property# &e6 scientific research provides even stronger evidence for the e7istence of such property Oinstincts#O Mor
e7ample, recent e7perimental 6or0 (y Oliver Noodenough, a legal theorist, and +hristine Prehn, a neuroscientist, suggests that the human mind evolved speciali3ed modules for ma0ing ?udgments a(out moral transgressions, and transgressions against property in particular#

Lvolutionary psychology can help us to understand that property rights are not created simply (y stro0es of the legislatorUs pen# utually ;eneficial L7change is &atural Trade and mutually (eneficial e7change are human universals, as
is the division of la(or# In their ground(rea0ing paper, O+ognitive Adaptations for Social L7change,O +osmides and Too(y point out that, contrary to 6idespread (elief, hunter>gatherer life is not Oa 0ind of retro>utopiaO of Oindiscriminate, egalitarian cooperation and sharing#O The archeological and ethnographic evidence sho6s that hunter>gatherers 6ere involved in numerous forms of trade and e7change# Some forms of hunter>gatherer trading can involve <uite comple7 speciali3ation and the interaction of supply and demand# ost impressive, +osmides and Too(y have sho6n through a series of e7periments that human (eings are a(le easily to solve comple7 logical pu33les involving reciprocity, the accounting of costs and (enefits, and the detection of people 6ho have cheated on agreements# 5o6ever, 6e are una(le to solve formally identical pu33les that do not deal 6ith <uestions of social e7change# That, they argue, points to the e7istence of Ofunctionally speciali3ed, content> dependent cognitive adaptations for social e7change#O In other 6ords, the human mind is O!uiltH to tra e# Trust and 5aye0Us T6o Orders It is easy to see a 0ind of in vitro capitalism in the evolved human propensity to recogni3e property rights, speciali3e in productive endeavors, and engage in fairly comple7 forms of social e7change# 5o6ever, the 0ind of freedom and 6ealth 6e en?oy in the United States remains a chimera to (illions# .hile our evolved capacities are the scaffolding upon 6hich advanced li(eral capitalism has (een (uilt, they are, <uite plainly, not enough, as the hundreds of millions 6ho live on less than a dollar a day can attest# The path from the LLA to laptops and lattes re<uires a great cultural leap# In recent 6or0, &o(el Pri3e>6inning economists Douglass &orth and "ernon Smith have stressed that the crucial ?uncture is the transition from personal to impersonal e7change# Lconomic life in the LLA 6as (ased on repeated face>to>face interactions 6ith 6ell>0no6n mem(ers of the community# Agreements 6ere policed mainly (y pu(lic 0no6ledge of reputation# If you cheated or shir0ed, your stoc0 of reputation 6ould decline, and so 6ould your prospects# Our evolutionary endo6ment prepared us to navigate s0illfully through that 6orld of personal e7change# 5o6ever, it did not prepare us to cooperate and trade 6ith total strangers 6hom 6e had never met and might never see again# The road to prosperity must cross a chasm of uncertainty and mistrust# The transition to e7tended, impersonal mar0et order re<uires the emergence of Oinstitutions that ma0e human (eings 6illing to treat strangers as honorary friendsO as Paul Sea(right puts it# The e7citing story of the 6ay these institutions piggy(ac0ed on an evolved psychology designed to solve <uite different ecological pro(lems is the topic of Sea(rightUs (oo0, The +ompany of Strangers, as 6ell as an important part of forthcoming 6or0s (y Douglass &orth and "ernon Smith# As he so often did, M# A# 5aye0 anticipated contemporary trends# 5aye0 understood that our 0ind of economy and society, 6hich he called an e7tended order, or Omacro>cosmos,O is in many 6ays alien to our (asic psychological constitution, 6hich is geared to deal 6ith life in small groups, the Omicro>cosmos#O .e live in t6o 6orlds, the face>to>face 6orld of the tri(e, family, school, and firm, and the impersonal, anonymous 6orld of huge cities, hyper>speciali3ation, and trans>6orld trade# Lach 6orld has its o6n set of rules, and 6e confuse them at our peril# As 5aye0 6rites in The Matal +onceit: If 6e 6ere to apply the unmodified, uncur(ed, rules of the micro>cosmos 8i#e#, of the small (and or troop, or of, say, our families9 to the macro>cosmos 8our 6ider civili3ation9, as our instincts and sentimental yearnings often ma0e us 6ish to do, 6e 6ould destroy it# :et if 6e 6ere al6ays to apply the rules of the e7tended order to our more intimate groupings, 6e 6ould crush them# So 6e must learn to live in t6o sorts of 6orlds at once# The (alance is delicate# Once 6e appreciate the impro(a(ility and fragility of our 6ealth and freedom, it (ecomes clear ?ust ho6 much respect and gratitude 6e o6e to the (elief systems, social institutions, and personal virtues that allo6ed for the emergence of our O6ider civili3ationO and that allo6 us to move (et6een our t6o 6orlds 6ithout destroying or crushing either# Lvolutionary Psychology and Political 5umility The 0ey political lesson of evolutionary psychology is simply that there is a universal human

nature# The human mind comprises many distinct, speciali3ed functions, and is not an all>purpose learning machine that can (e reformatted at 6ill to reali3e political dreams# The shape of society is constraine !y our evolve nature# Rema0ing humanity through politics is a !iological impossi!ility on the order of curing cancer 6ith pine needle tea# .e can, ho6ever,
6or0 6ith human nature@and 6e have# .e have, through culture, enhanced those traits that facilitate trust and cooperation, channeled our coalitional and status>see0ing instincts to6ard productive uses, and (uilt upon our natural suspicion of po6er to preserve our freedom# .e can, of course, do (etter# As Immanuel Cant famously remar0ed, Ofrom the croo0ed tim(er of humanity no truly straight thing can (e made#O ;ut, in the 6ords of philosopher, Denis Dutton, It is not # # # that no (eautiful carving or piece of furniture can (e produced from t6isted 6ood= it is rather that 6hatever is finally created 6ill only endure if it ta0es into account the grain, te7ture, natural ?oints, 0notholes, strengths and 6ea0nesses of the original material# Lvolutionary psychology, (y helping us (etter understand human nature, can aid us in

cultivating social orders that do not foolishly attempt to cut against the grain of human nature #

.e can learn ho6 (est to 6or0 6ith the material of humanity to encourage and preserve societies, li0e o6n, that are not only (eautiful, (ut 6ill endure#

Evolutionary psychology is the only fiel of science that?s emographically inclusive Pin$er ' Ph4 from /arvar Steven, PhD from 5arvard in e7perimental psychology, director of the +enter for +ognitive &euroscience at IT, !ohnstone Mamily Professor of Psychology at 5arvard, The ;lan0 Slate: The odern Denial of 5uman &ature, p# $4G>$4$ To (egin 6ith, research on the biological basis of sex differences has been led by women# ;ecause it is so often said that this
research is a plot to 0eep 6omen do6n, I 6ill have to name names# Researchers on the (iology of se7 differences include the neuroscientists Ra<uel Nur, elissa 5ines, Doreen Cimura, !erre Bevy, artha c+lintoc0, Sally Shay6it3, and Sandra .itelson and the psychologists +amilla ;en(o6, Binda Nottfredson, Diane 5alpern, !udith Cleinfeld, and Diane cNuinness# 2ociobiology and evolutionary psychology,

sometimes stereotyped as a *sexist discipline * is perhaps the most bi%gendered academic field I am familiar with#

Its ma?or figures include Baura ;et3ig, Lli3a(eth +ashdan, Beda +osmides, 5elena +ronin, ildred Dic0e>man, 5elen Misher, Patricia No6aty, Cristen 5a60es, Sarah ;laffer 5rdy, agdalena 5urtado, ;o((ie Bo6, Binda ealey, Melicia Pratto, arnie Rice, +atherine Salmon, !oan Sil0, eredith Small, ;ar(ara Smuts, &ancy .ilmsen Thornhill, and argo .ilson# It is not "ust gender feminismBs collision with

science that repels many feminists# .ike other inbred ideologies it has produced strange excrescences , li0e the offshoot 0no6n as difference feminism# +arol >illigan has become a gender%feminist icon because of her claim that men and women guide their moral reasoning by different principles< men think about rights and "ustice; women have feelings of compassion, nurturing, and peaceful accommodation#O If true it would dis'ualify women from becoming constitutional lawyers 2upreme 7ourt "ustices and moral philosophers 6ho ma0e their living (y reasoning a(out rights and ?ustice# ;ut it is not true# 8any studies have tested >illiganBs hypothesis and found that men and women differ little or not at all in their moral reasoning#%4 So difference feminism offers women the worst of both worlds : invidious claims 6ithout scientific support# Similarly, the gender>feminist classic called &omenBs &ays of @nowing claims that the se7es differ in their styles of reasoning# 8en value excellence and mastery in intellectual matters and skeptically evaluate arguments in terms of logic and evidence; women are spiritual relational inclusive and credulous #%* &ith sisters like these who needs male chauvinists( >ender feminismBs disdain for analytical rigor and classical liberal princi ples has recently been excoriated by e'uity feminists, among them !ean ;eth0e Llshtain, Lli3a(eth Mo7>Nenovese, .endy Caminer, &oretta Coertge, Donna
Bafram(oise, ary Bef0o6it3, .endy cLlroy, +amille Paglia, Daphne Patai, "irginia Postrel, Alice Rossi, Sally Satel, +hristina 5off Sommers, &adine Strossen, !oan Cennedy Taylor, and +athy :oung#U .ell (efore them, prominent 6omen 6riters demurred from gender>feminist ideology, including !oan Didion, Doris Bessing, Iris urdoch, +ynthia O3ic0, and Susan Sontag#UE And ominously for the movement, a younger generation has re?ected the gender feministsU claims that love, (eauty, flirtation, erotica, art, and heterose7uality are pernicious social constructs# The title of the (oo0 The &e6 "ictorians: A :oung .omanUs +hallenge to the Old Meminist Order captures the revolt of such 6riters as Rene Denfeld, Caren Behrman, Catie Roiphe, and Re(ecca .al0er, and of the movements called Third .ave, Riot Nrrrl ovement, Pro>Se7 Mem> inism, Bipstic0 Bes(ians, Nirl Po6er, and Meminists for Mree L7pression#%) $he difference between gender feminism and e'uity

feminism accounts for the oft%reported paradox that most women do not consider themselves feminists 8a(out ED percent in %FFE, up from a(out )D percent a decade (efore9, yet they agree 6ith every ma?or feminist position#O $he explanation is simple< the word *feminist* is often associated with gender feminism but the positions in the polls are those of e'uity feminism# 3aced with these signs of slipping support gender feminists have tried to stipulate that only they can be considered the true advocates of womenBs rights# Mor e7ample, in %FFG Nloria Steinem said of Paglia, O5er calling herself a feminist is sort of li0e a &a3i saying theyUre not anti>Semitic#OU And they have invented a lexicon of epithets for what in any other area would be called disagreement< *backlash * *not getting it * *silencing women * *intellectual harassment#* G% All this is an essential (ac0ground to the discussions to come# $o say that women and men do not have interchangeable minds that people have desires other than po6er, and that motives belong to individual people and not "ust to entire genders is not to attack feminism or to compromise the interests of 6omen, despite the misconception that gender feminism spea0s in their name# +ll the arguments in the remainder of this chapter have been advanced most forcefully by women# *atural survival instinct ma$es capitalism unovercoma!le an esira!le se& e ite 3er%etman ,2 +4 .ill Ser6etman, !D Suffol0 Ba6, http:''666#nin?ala6yer#com'6riting'mar7#html
Carl ar7Us 6or0 laid the foundation for the theories that redefined the left in the nineteenth century# 5e analy3ed capitalism and concluded that 6hile it 6as productive, the forces that drove it 6ould lead to its inevita(le collapse and replacement 6i th communism# .hile ar7 gave the 6orld a great deal to thin0 a(out and has influenced (illions, his theories are inherently fla6ed# Some of the details have (een addressed (y modern +ommunists and Socialists, (ut the (asic underlying assumptions of his 6or0, 6hen su(?ected to scrutiny, seem to conflict 6ith reality# These assumptions lead me to <uestion his conclusions regarding the forces that drive history, the self>consuming nature of capitalist society, and the via(ility of a communist society# 8arxBs first set of assumptions regards the nature of MhuNmanMsN# 5e (ases his materialist conception of human nature on that of ;# Bud6ig Muer(ach# ;oth men (elieved that a 1hu2man1s are2 is a product of his society# Lvery individualUs (eliefs, attitudes, and ideas a re a(sor(ed at an early age (y e7posure to those of the 6orld around him# $his argument

makes some sense but it ignores two things< the infinite and contradictory variety of experiences any society will produce and the evidence that MhNmanBs behavior will always be guided by certain instincts# !effery Dahmer and artin

Buther Cing 6ere products of the same society# At some age, humans ac<uire the a(ility to learn and ma0e their o6n decisions# At this point, 6e

are free and can develop any 6ay 6e choose# In a single day, a human (eing has (i llions of e7periences, and he 6ill learn from many of them# an not only chooses 6hich e7periences to learn from, (ut 6hat he learns# .hich e7periences influences us most and the degree of their influence is dependent upon our choices# Those choices are the only thing that separates the Dahmers and artin Buther Cings of the 6orld# 5o6ever far into the childhood or the 6om( you ta0e (ac0 our chain of e7periences, there must (e a starting point# $hat starting point is

our subconscious and our base instincts#

an is a product of evolution# .hen

ar7 argued that there is no single nature of man

(ecause 6eUre simply products of our society, he seemed to (e overloo0ing the forces that made man 6hat he is today# +ll

living organisms possess a survival instinct without which life could not exist# /umans are no exception = 6ithout a survival instinct there
6ould (e nothing to prevent us from starving ourselves out of negligence, hurling ourselves off of cliffs, or committing suicide 6hen 6eUre upset, any of 6hi ch 6ould ma0e the continuation of our species impossi(le# .hen 6e face danger or discomfort, human (eings respond at a very (asic level# 3ear and desire are perfectly natural to us# &e are separated from other living things though by our ability to

reason# &iet3scheUs most sensi(le argument 6as that conscious thought coupled 6ith our survival instinct generates 6hat he called a O6ill to
po6er#O O.ill to po6erO is the application of conscious thought to our survival instinct# It allo6s us to formulate strategies for survival and act upon them# ,o theory of human nature is plausible unless it has definitive survival value and it cannot (e inhe rent to man unless itUs in our genes# If itUs not 0no6n to (e in our D&A, 6e canUt prove that it e7ists in all men# Survival instinct and conscious thought can (e proven, so the e7istence of a 6ill to po6er is hard to ignore# Lven ar7 ac0no6ledges the human 6ill in OAlienated Ba(or,O although it plays no role in his theory# It is possi(le that there are other elements of human nature, not accounted for (y the 6ill to po6er, that 6e have not yet found in our D&A# Boo0ing at human history, 6e can empirically o(serve a sense of compassion in men that helps us (uild the great societies that 6e have# ;y compassion, I refer to our general distaste for 6atching other human (eings suffer>>those that en?oy suffering cannot function in society, and so do not reproduce as often# &atural selection 6eeds out people 6ho cannot live 6it h others# ar7 (elieved that man could ac<uire compassion and genuine concern for his comrades simply (y ma0ing it important in post>capitalist society# This 6ould not only ta0e generations to instill in society, (ut it there is no reason to (elieve tha t any given individual 6ould em(race it# =ecause 8arxBs materialist view on

humanity does not acknowledge our nature his ideal reflects the same mistakes# If human nature can be changed as he feels it can simply by changing our society that we live in why should we live with the ine'uities of capitalism( The problem is that his assumptions are bac ed by no credible arguments # If one accepts the materialist conception of
the 6orld at face value, then most of 6hat ar7 6rote 6ill (e consistent# If one disagrees 6ith the 6ay ar7 sees man0i nd, ho6ever, and ta0es a more &iet3schean vie6, the ar7ist ideal is a prescription for disaster# 1ue to our naturally distrustful greedy and ambitious

natures which precede capitalism humans will not motivate themselves to do anything unless there is a reward# $heir survival instinct wonBt let them# Competition isn't )ust good for men%%it's necessary# If there 6ere no competition for
the things 6e need, 6e 6ould ?ust ta0e them and copulate and nothing else# .hile the species might survive, it 6ould not progress, and 6e can live (etter# 7ompeting for resources forces us to establish our identities and do more than )ust sit there and exist # Our 6ill to po6er drives us to accumulate food, money, and control in order to ma7imi3e our chances of survival and reproduction# As long as our nature remains unchangea(le, .e 6ill never (e a(le to ad?ust to life in a ar7ist society# 8arxBs economic theory is flawed as

well since it ignores the role of individuals and looks only at groups# The genius of a fe6 individuals is all that has 0ept

man0ind raised from the life in nature that 5o((es called O(rutish, nasty and short#O The individuals responsi(le for these achievements 6ere generally not re6arded until the advent of capitalism and is industrial revolution, 6hich has increased our rates of progress e7ponentially# If these fe6 contri(utors 6erenUt punished for their differences , they spent their lives 6or0ing hum(ly under the OpatronageO of feudal lords# +apitalism encourages individuals to ma0e their contri(utions and spread them throughout the 6orld, raising all of man0ind higher and higher from our natural, animal>li0 e e7istence#

)apitalism is human nature >alternative doesn-t solve ' is a utopian (ut futile attempt >self>interest manifests more harm in alternatives to capitalism /unter 00 Professor of /umanities = 3t. Peters!urg ar0 5unter, Professor of 5umanities a St# Peters(urg, ITo Attac0 +apitalism Is To Attac0 5uman &ature, )>G%>GD%%, Real +lear ar0ets, http:''666#realclearmar0ets#com'articles'GD%%'D)'G%'to^attac0^capitalism^is^to^attac0^human^nature^F FDKE#html
&ever letting a crisis go to 6aste has (ecome a progressive credo for transformative change# .hile one hand fans the fires, the other provides momentum for change heretofore unfathoma(le# The current economic maelstrom has provided the opportunistic left

6ith the perfect e7cuse to pin (lame for our economic pro(lems on the inherent fla6s of capitalism# Lnter 5umanities
professor Lugene c+arraher and his tendentious article The Lnd of +apitalism and the .ellsprings of Radical 5ope 6here he declares e7 cathedra the need to destroy capitalism in favor of a yet another ill>defined progressive utopia# c+arraher rolls out the usual leftist arguments mischaracteri3ing capitalism follo6ed (y vague references to ideals and lofty goals# In the end, the reader is left 6ith elusive platitudes 6ithout any clear understanding of 6hat e7actly c+arraher is proposing, other than more government control and the ever>popular hope# &ot to disappoint, c+arraher presents his opening salvo against capitalism 6ith the de rigueur reference to ar7, 6hich serves as a reminder that although ar7ism has (een thoroughly discredited in practice it still thrives in the rarified academic ran0s of the left# c+arraherUs argument against capitalism is that it is Oun?ust as a political economy and rapacious in its relationship to the natural 6orld#O And, of course, no progressive criti<ue of capitalism 6ould (e complete 6ithout the o(ligatory indictment of ho6 capitalism Ocompels us to (e greedy, callous and petty#O c+arraherUs denunciation of capitalism is in fact an attac0 on human nature disguised as political

discourse# The OperniciousO traits he attri(utes to capitalism are, in fact, traits glo(ally present in every political'social order>in many cases far %orse in non#capitalistic societies>(ecause they are traits of humanity itself# 5is entire argument against capitalism consists of nothing more than an ela(orate correlation>proves> causation fallacy 8cum hoc ergo propter hoc > O6ith this, therefore (ecause of thisO9# 5e 6ants us to (elieve that since capitalism contains
greed it causes greed# Murthermore, c+arraher seems content to overloo0 the fact that capitalism is an organic economic system not created as

much as evolving naturally as a conse<uence of free individuals interacting 6ith other free individuals# Private property and the production of goods may (e a part of capitalism, (ut its most essential virtue is as a guardian of manUs freedom# +ritici3ing capitalism for its

avarice is not unli0e condemning representative democracy for its failure to elect the 6isest of men > each may occur, (ut it is not relevant to their fundamental purpose# ;oth capitalism and representative democracy ma7imi3e freedom (y diffusing po6er and responsi(ility across the (roadest spectrum of society# Rigid control is antithetical to freedom and it is this that most ve7es the li(eral intellectual# .hat c+arraher is un6illing to come to terms 6ith is that his inherent criticism of capitalism is not so much an indictment of capitalism (ut rather a revealing supposition he is ma0ing a(out humanity itself# 5is attac0 on capitalism mas0s a general contempt for a free people 6ho in his 6orldvie6 6ill inevita(ly choose a path of greed and avarice unless a coercive political order prevents it# Therefore, any li(eral political'economic system proposed to replace capitalism must have at its core a process through 6hich the masses are controlled and coerced
to overcome the human attri(utes so a(horred (y the li(eral intellectual that he 6rongly attri(utes to capitalism rather than people# c+arraher presents the reader 6ith a moral crusade cleverly cloa0ed as political theory# 5e sees the Deadly Sins ever present in modern capitalism, and li0e the fourth century ascetic Lvagrius Ponticus, c+arraher seems particularly o(sessed 6ith manUs rapacious gluttony# .hile capitalismUs natural and organic nature is condemned for its Odeli(erate nurturance of our vilest <ualitiesO he fails to put forth the ramifications of the artificial and contrived alternative# The progressive alternative to capitalism must of necessity resem(le Dostoyevs0yUs Nrand In<uisitor (ecause the cru7 of the matter for (oth modern li(erals and Dostoyevs0y is human freedom# The infinite variety that is millions of people ma0ing millions of decisions to reflect their o6n self interest needs to (e replaced 6ith a G%st century U(ermensch or ne6 political aristocracy that is a(le to impose on the masses a sin>free, enlightened order# Redemption comes through manUs ina(ility to choose the indulgence of sin, and as such the anointed elite > having removed manUs freedom > (ecome the deliverers of manUs salvation (y ta0ing upon themselves the (urden of choice# an0ind, no6 (eing a(solved of the (urden of freedom, can live content 6ithout the an7iety of responsi(ility# 5o6ever (eautiful the veneer of his

lofty rhetoric, this O.ellspringO is in the end enslavement# The only 6ay to deliver man0ind from the demon

ammon 6ill (e (y removing the greatest gift of the gods > freedom# In this Maustian e7change 6e are guaranteed the ar7ist security of (read, authoritarian certainty of order and utopian unity of 6orld government# Mar from ne6, c+arraherUs .ellspring of Radical 5ope is one more self>righteous proclamation (y a moral prig intent on delivering man0ind to elusive Olympian heights# ;eyond the rhetoric, one suspects this

e7periment 6ould end as other such utopian pursuits have conclu e in history > hopeless# 3elf#interest is human nature (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# %GG>%G$ So capitalism doesn-t need greed# At the same time, it can channel greed, 6hich is all to the good# .e should 6ant a social order that channels proper self>interest as 6ell as selfishness into socially desira(le outcomes# Any system that re<uires everyone al6ays to act selflessly is doomed to failure (ecause it?s utopian# People aren-t li0e that# That-s the pro(lem 6ith socialism: it doesn-t fit the human condition# It alienates people from their rightful self>interest and channels selfishness into socially destructive (ehavior li0e stealing, hoarding, and getting the government to steal for you#

)ap 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Piecemeal (eform 9ey

Piecemeal reform is the only %ay to achieve !roa er social reform 1ra ley , Ph4 in Political Economy" 7.A. in Economics Ro(ert ;radley, PhD in Political Lconomy, #A# in Lconomics, I+apitalism at .or0: ;usiness, Novernment and Lnergy, pg# %D$ There are good revolutions and (ad ones# There must (e continual improvement, or incrementalism, (et6een sea changes# Often, if not <uite al6ays, revolution comes (y steps, not (ounds# ;usiness thin0er !im +ollins enriched the
Schumpeter>Druc0er>5amel vie6 (y noting ho6 good>to>great companies 6ere disciplined change ma0ers 6hose entrepreneurship 6as less a(out revolutionary moments than revolutionary process# In his 6ords: Nood>to>great transformations never happened in

one fell s6oop# There 6as no single defining action, no grand program , no one 0iller innovation, no solitary luc0y (rea0, no 6renching revolution# Nood to great comes a(out (y a cumulative process@ step !y step, action !y action, ecision !y ecision, turn (y turn of the fly6heel@that adds up to sustained and spectacular results# Success 6as Ian organic evolutionary process # # # a pattern of (uildup leading to (rea0through# The Idoom loop, noted +ollins from his case studies, 6as I(ig programs, radical change efforts, dramatic revolutions, chronic restructuring@ al6ays loo0ing for a miracle moment or ne6 savior# +ollins sa6 greatness in disciplined thought and action= failure, in Ifads and # # # management hoopla# There 6as no silver (ullet, no magic, that could su(stitute for sustaine " %ell# irecte effort#

(eformism is not a irty %or action from %ith#in can !e groun #!rea$ing 4i&on 0 Summer, +hris, Activist and founding mem(er of Direct Action &et6or0 , IReflections on Privilege, Reformism, and Activism, Online To (olster his criti<ue of Ureformism,U for instance, he critically cites one of the e7amples in my essay: demanding authentic we need revolutionary strategy that links diverse everyday struggles and demands to long%term radical ob"ectives without sacrificing either# Af course this isnBt to say that every so%called BprogressiveB ballot initiative or organi)ing campaign is necessarily radical or strategic# Reforms are not all created e'ual# =ut some can fundamentally sha e systems of power leading to enlarged gains and greater space for further advances# Andre Nor3, in his seminal (oo0

Strategy for Ba(or, refers to these as Onon>reformistO or OstructuralO reforms# 5e contends, Oa struggle for non>reformist reforms>>for anti> capitalist reforms>>is one 6hich does not (ase its validity and its right to e7ist on capitalist needs, criteria, and rationales# A non>reformist reform is determined not in terms of 6hat can (e, (ut 6hat should (e#O .ook to history for examples< the end of slavery the eight%

hour workday desegregation# +ll were born from long hard struggles and none were endpoints# Iet they all struck at the foundations of power (in these cases the state white supremacy and capitalismJ and in the process they created new prospects for revolutionary change# &o6 consider contemporary struggles: amnesty for undocumented immigrants,
sociali3ed health care, e7pansive environmental protections, indigenous sovereignty# These and many more are argua(ly non>reformist reforms as 6ell# ,one will single%handedly dismantle capitalism or other systems of power but each has the potential to

escalate struggles and sharpen social contradictions# +nd we shouldnBt misinterpret these efforts as simply meliorative incrementalism making Bad"ustmentsB to a fundamentally flawed system#

)ap 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Pragmatism 9ey

7erely criticizing cap is insufficient the alternative isn?t via!le %ithout a specific an %or$a!le alternative @ross!urg ,' Professor of )O73 = :*) Ba6rence, +ommunication Studies Professor at U&+, .e Notta Net Out of This Place, pg# $KK>$KF If it is capitalism that is at sta0e, our moral opposition to it has to (e tempered (y the realities of the 6orld and the possi(ilities of political change# Ta0ing a simple negative relation to it, as if the moral condemn notion of the evil of capitalism are sufficient 8granting that it does esta(lish grotes<ue systems of ine<uality and oppression9 is not li0ely to esta(lish a via(le political agenda# Mirst, it is not at all clear 6hat it 6ould mean to overthro6 capitalism in the current situation# Unfortunately, despite our desires, the Imasses are not 6aiting to (e led into revolution , and it is not simply a case of their failure to recogni3e their o6n (est interests, as if 6e did# Are 6e to decide@rather undemocratically, I might add@to overthro6 capitalism in spite of their legitimate desiresJ Second, as much as capitalism is the cause of many of the ma?or threats facing the 6orld, at the moment it may also (e one of the fe6 forces of sta(ility, unity and even, 6ithin limits, a certain Icivility in the 6orld# The 6or0ing system is, unfortunately, simply too precarious and the alternative options not all that promising# Minally, the appeal of an as yet unarticulated and even unimagined future, 6hile perhaps po6erful as a moral imperative, is simply too 6ea0 in the current conte7t to effectively organi3e people, and too vague to provide any direction# Instead, the Beft must thin0 of 6ays to
rearticulate capitalism 6ithout either giving up the criti<ue or naively assuming that it can create capitalism 6ith a human heart# Beaving such images to 5olly6ood, the Beft can organi3e to change specific a7iomatics of capitalism in particular local, regional, national and glo(al conte7ts# Mor e7ample, there is good evidence that the 6ays in 6hich contemporary American corporations have chosen to deal 6ith la(or are not necessarily the most effective in terms of capital productivity itself# This does not entail simply championing unions as they have e7isted, (ut restructuring unions to meet the ne6 demands of a changing la(or force and to 6or0 6ithin the ne6 systems of glo(al capitalism# 6e can recogni3e and argue that the rich are no longer primarily entrepreneurs (eing re6arded for ta0ing ris0s, (ut managers 8+LOs9and financial manipulator, even criminals of various sorts# The e7pansion of capital as a social utility has given 6ay to its immediate private appropriation# this little reinvestment into capitalismUs future# It therefore seems reasona(le to limit the a(ility to privately appropriate 6ealth In this conte7t 6e might argue a guaranteed minimum and ma7imum income, lin0ing such arguments to notions to the value of human life# .e might propose to limit investors- a(ilities to reap short>term profits (y a num(er of means, including lin0ing e7ecutives- salaries to capital gains and investments rather than profits#

)ap 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails 3ocialism 1a

3ocialism fails history is littere %ith terri!le e&periments in strong#state economics 3aun ers 2 Professor = A@7 Peter, Ad?unct Professor at the Australian Nraduate School of anagement, .hy +apitalism is Nood for the Soul, http:''666#cis#org#au'POBI+:'summer]GDDE>DK'saunders^summerDE#html
The pro(lem for those of us 6ho (elieve that capitalism offers the (est chance 6e have for leading meaningful and 6orth6hile lives is that in this de(ate, the devil has always had the best tunes to play# 7apitalism lacks romantic appeal# It does not set the pulse

racing in the way that opposing ideologies like socialism fascism or environmentalism can # It does not stir the blood, for it identifies no dragons to slay# It offers no grand vision for the future for in an open market system the future is shaped not by the imposition of utopian blueprints but by billions of individuals pursuing their own preferences # 7apitalism can "ustifiably boast that it is excellent at delivering the goods but this fails to impress in countries li0e Australia that have come to ta0e affluence for granted# It is <uite the opposite 6ith socialism# &here capitalism delivers but cannot inspire socialism inspires despite never having delivered # 2ocialisms history is littered with repeated failures and with human misery on a massive scale yet it still attracts smiles rather than curses from people who never had to live under it#8G9 +ffluent young +ustralians who would never dream of patronising an +dolf /itler (ier0eller dec0ed out in s6asti0as are nevertheless happy to hang out in the .enin =ar at 2ydneys 7ircular Ouay sipping chilled vodka cocktails under hammer and sickle flags indifferent to the twenty million victims of the 2oviet regime# 7hic westerners are still sporting 7he >uevara t%shirts , forty years after the man-s death, and floc0ing to the cinema to see him on a motor (i0e, apparently oblivious to their handsome hero*s legacy of firing s%uads and labour camps #8$9 3trong#state alternatives have !een trie an faile every instance has pro uce estruction on a mass scale E!eling ,5 Professor of Economics Richard L(eling, Bud6ig von ises Professor of Lconomics at 5illsdale +ollege, %FF$, The Muture of Mreedom Moundation, The Mailure of Socialism and Bessons for America, Part G, Accessed April %$, GDDF, http:''666#fff#org'freedom'D4F$(#asp During the last seventy years, the socialists had their chance to institute their ideal in many countries around the 6orld# ,nd in every case the result has been disastrous# 2ocialism in practice has produced tyranny, mass murder, poverty, corruption and cultural destruction # $he re"ection of socialism by the people of Lastern Lurope and the former Soviet Union must be considered the ultimate indictment of the ideology that declared itself to be the liberator of man0ind# The socialist ideal contained three ideas at its core: economic central planning= the (elief in collective or group rights= and the case for nationali3ed social services# $he application of these three ideas in socialist countries resulted in economic chaos social conflict and ethnic warfare and the collapse of all basic services considered essential and desirable for normal and healthy life# 3trong state economics ensures totalitarianism an unlimite government coercion /ospers 2 Professor = :)3 !ohn, Professor Lmeritus of Philosophy at US+, Bi(ertarianism: A Political Philosophy for Tomorro6, Pu(lished Originally in %FE%, pg# G4F>G*D In a free>enterprise society, people 6ho disagree 6ith the government, even those 6ho disagree 6ith the 6hole system, can still find employment# They can in fact usually earn their living (y attac0ing the e7isting state of affairs# In a socialist so% ciety people who disagree with the government can easily be disposed of# In (oth systems there 6ill al6ays (e people 6ho disagree= (ut
6ith socialism the political leader has the po6er to shut up the opposition# In Russia 6hat happens is that an economic demand is OcreatedO for a 6or0er in the salt>mines of Si(eria# Anly in a free%enterprise economy can the individu% al be in a position where his

income is independent of the government# In a centrally planned economy the worker must ultimately lose his freedom to choose his o6n line of 6or0# Mor, if no one 6ants to go to a certain area for a certain type of ?o( and the government determines the
6ages, the government must force him to go there# It must control the 6or0er along 6ith the 6or0# .hen 6e discuss Ofreedom to choose oneUs ?o(O 6e mean freedom in its primary sense, as a(sence of coercion, not as the po6er to do something# Someone 6ho 6ants to (e a college professor and isnUt, is not necessarily unfree# If no(ody is 6ill> ing to (uy his services (ecause he is ignorant, he may call him> self Onot free to (ecome a professorO (ut the fact is simply thatothers choose not to avail themselves of his services# 5e may not get the ?o( he 6ants, (ut he is still free (ecause he is uncoecced# ;ut in a socialist system all such choices would be coerced, (ecause of the po6er of unlimited government# -erhaps

the most foolish thing that 8arx ever said was that under social% ism the state would eventually wither away# 3or * ### it is above all under socialism# where the state owns all the means of production does all the

planning and assigns and controls all the "obs that the state is and must be closest to omnipo% tence #### It is precisely under a socialist state that the least liberty can exist # Gnder complete socialism, in fact, liberty for the individual is simply impossible# O4 In a free>enterprise economy, of course, all this is different# There, if someone plans to start a

(usiness# and his plan is un> 6ise or short>sighted# he goes (an0rupt# &o one forces him to start the (usiness, and no one 6ill stop him# &or can he coerce employees into 6or0ing for him: he cannot command their services (y edict# (ut only (y paying them at least as much as the going 6age for the type of 6or0 in <uestion# The 6or0er voluntarily chooses to 6or0 for him# and consumers voluntari> ly choose to (uy his product 8if they donUt# he goes (ro0e9# The manufacturer of the product cannot coerce the consumer# In a free economy, the consumer determines the economic fate of the manufacturer 8and 6ith him# his employees9# This pro> vides the manufacturer, of course# 6ith a natural motive for providing the (est possi(le product at the lo6est possi(le price, so that his product 6ill outvote that of his competitors in the economic ple(iscite of the consumers#

)ap 9 Ans%ers Anti#(eformism Turn

Anti#reformism ooms any movement a%ay from capitalism 1urro%s 0 Paul ;urro6s, author and pu(lisher from the S A+ lecture series &e6 +olonist April GDD% http:''666#ne6colonist#com'altcap#html I thin0 that if 6e 6ant to (uild a popular movement, and create an alternative to capitalism, 6e need to start (y as0ing such <uestions, and (y articulating them in a language that*s real# 8&ot many people are interested
in the su(tleties of the Idialectical relationship (et6een (ase and superstructure# Net realV9 Mrom an organi3ing perspective alone, 6e need to recogni3e that the language 6e use, the mannerisms, style, and tone 6e adopt, is at least as important as the su(stance of our message# .e need to have a little humility @we need to be a little less attached to our conclusions a little more 'uestioning of our

assumptions a little less 'uick with our "udgements and dismissals# Instead of saying everyone else isnt revolutionary enough (while we sit on our ass waiting for the Revolution; pure but aloneJ we need to look in the bloody mirror# &e need to ask ourselves &hat are we really doing to create a welcoming movement a culture of resistance; what are we really doing to foster solidarity; when was the last time I reached out to someone who didnt already share my politics; when was the last time I actually had an impact on someone J Instead of saying Ithose

young anarchists don-t 0no6 ho6 to (uild institutions 8and then calling them Ireformist or Iparochial or I(ourgeois 6hen they do9, the Old Beft needs to recogni3e that all the same criticisms apply e<ually to themselves# In addition to saying Ital0 minus action e<uals 3ero, younger activists need to simultaneously pay more attention to history, theory, and the e7periences of veteran activists# Tal0 minus action is 3ero, (ut it-s also true that action minus 6ell>thought>out ideas and principles can (e less than 3ero# It can (e damaging to individual people, and it can hinder the gro6th of a radical movement# Ultimately, 6e need to (e less concerned a(out the alleged failings and ignorance of others, and more concerned a(out our o6n political relevance# The entire Beft, progressive, activist community 8young and old, socialist or not9 needs to (uild or e7pand upon its o6n institutions, and more importantly, the alternatives 6e create must em(ody the values 6e profess to hold# Instead of

saying +nything short of complete LRevolution is reformist (and then going home to watch $0J we need to recogni'e that no revolution begins with the overthrow of the -tate # The dismantling or sei3ure of the State is usually a
reflection of a deep revolution already occurring at the grassroots, community and 6or0place level# The Spanish Revolution of %F$)>$F didn-t ?ust happen (ecause the Spanish 6ere more Iradical or Icommitted than 6e are# It 6as the culmination of almost ED years of organi3ing, ma0ing mista0es, (uilding a popular (ase# Pre>e7isting structures and 6or0er organi3ations made possi(le a 6or0ers- ta0eover of much of the Spanish economy 8especially in +atalonia9# Participation in radical unions, factory committees, and collectives for decades, ena(led Spanish 6or0ers to develop 0no6ledge of their enterprises, a sense of their o6n competence, and gave them direct e7perience 6ith collective organi3ational principles# The struggle of the Spanish anarchists and communists offers many lessons@not the least of 6hich is that revolution is a long>term agenda# :ounger activists especially need to ta0e this seriously, (ecause they tend to thin0 that militancy alone 8regardless of popular support9 6ill (ring a(out a fast demise of capitalism# Gnrealistic expectations are a fast road to burnout and despair# At the same time, ho6ever, o(serving that the state>capitalist system is po6erful, and (elieving that revolution is a long>term agenda, is not an e7cuse to stuff our nests, or avoid direct action# As Nramsci pointed out 6e need to maintain an optimism of 6ill, even if 6e have a pessimism of mind# In other 6ords, 6e need to stri0e a (alance (et6een hope and reality@something that is a(solutely necessary, if our efforts are to (e sustained (eyond youthful idealism into the rest of our lives# .e need to thin0 hard a(out the meaning of solidarity# Solidarity is &OT a(out supporting those 6ho share your precise politics# It-s a(out supporting those 6ho struggle against in?ustice@even if their assumptions, methods, politics, and goals differ from our o6n# Any anarchist 6ho says they 6on-t support +u(an solidarity efforts, or could care less a(out the U#S# em(argo, (ecause the +u(an revolution is IStatist and Iauthoritarian, is in my opinion, full of shit# 8;ut this doesn-t imply that 6e should turn a (lind eye to human rights violations in +u(a, ?ust (ecause they-re relatively non>e7istent compared to the rest of Batin America 8or +anada for that matter9# It doesn-t imply that 6e should refrain from criticism of +u(a-s economic system from a socialist and 6or0ing>class perspective, simply (ecause 6e-re 6orried a(out the declining num(er of post>capitalist e7periments to support#9

4enouncing interaction %ith political authority ooms any positve potential of the alternative @ross!urg ,' Professor of )O73 = :*) Ba6rence Nross(urg, .e Notta Net Outta This Place, %FFG, p# $)G>$)4 In their desire to renounce vanguardism, hierarchy and authoritarianism, too many intellectuals have also renounced the value of intellectual and political authority. This renunciation of authority is predicated on a theoretical crisis of representation in 6hich the
authority of any 0no6ledge is suspect, since all 0no6ledge is historically determined and implicated in hierarchical relations of po6er# The political reflection of this suspicion is that structures and hierarchy are e<uated 6ith domination# Intellectuals cannot claim to spea0 the Itruth of the 6orld, and they cannot spea0 for or in the name of other people# There are only t6o strategies availa(le to the critic# Mirst, the a(ility to descri(e the reality of people-s e7perience or position in the 6orld can (e given over entirely to the people 6ho are the su(?ects of the analysis# They are Iallo6ed to spea0 for themselves 6ithin the intellectual-s discourse# The critic merely inscri(es the other-s o6n sense of their place 6ithin and relationship to specific e7periences and practices# Second, the critic analy3es his or her o6n position self>refle7ivly, and its conse<uences for his or her study 8i#e#, my history and position have determined the inevita(le failure of my authority9 (ut 6ithout privileging that position# In either case, there is little room for the critic-s o6n authority# .hile such a moment of intellectual suspicion is necessary, it

goes too far when it assumes that all knowledge claims are un"ustified and un"ustifiable leaving the critic to celebrate difference and a radical and pluralist relativism . The fact of conte7tual determination does not (y itself mean that all
0no6ledge claims are false, nor does it mean that all such claims are e<ually invalid or useless responses to a particular conte7t# It need not entail relativism# $he fact that specific discourses are articulated into relations of power does not mean that these

relations are necessary or guaranteed, nor that all nowledges are e%ually bad @and to (e opposed@for even if they are implicated 6ith particular structures of po6er, there as no reason to assume that all structures of power are e'ually bad . Such
an assumption 6ould entail the futility of political struggle and the end of history# This is the conundrum of the intellectual Beft, for you can-t have 0no6ledge 6ithout standards and authority# Similarly, although all structures of commonality, norrnality and the sacred may (e suspect,

social e7istence itself is impossi(le 6ithout at least the imagination of such possi(ilities# $his

intellectuals crisis of representation becomes particularly dangerous when it is pro"ected on everyday life and political struggle , 6hen it is mista0enly
identified 6ith a very different crisis of authority# In the post>"ietnam, post>.atergate, post>Three ile Island, post>+hallenger, post>!immy ;a00er 6orld, many if not all of the traditional sources of moral, political and even intellectual authority 8including those empo6ered (y the post6ar consensus9 have collapsed or at least lost a good deal of their aura# There is a deep seated pu(lic an7iety that America-s po6er 8moral, political, economic, etc#9 is on the 6ane and that none of the traditional authorities is capa(le of protecting Americans from the many forces@ natural and social@that threaten them# 5ere 6e must assent to part of the ne6 conservative argument: Structures of ironic cynicism have (ecome increasingly po6erful and do represent a real cultural and political pro(lem# ;oth ,crises involve a struggle to redefine cultural authority# Mor the former it is a struggle to reesta(lish the political possi(ility of theory# Mor the latter it involves the need to construct politically effective authorities, and to relocate the right of intellectuals to claim such authority 6ithout reproducing authoritarian relations# The intellectuals- crisis is a refle7ive and rather self>indulgent struggle against a pessimism 6hich they have largely created for themselves# The conflation of the t6o glosses over the increasing presence 8even as popular figures9 of ne6 conservative intellectuals, and the threatening implications of the po6er of a popular ne6 conservatism# The ne6 conservative alliance has <uite intentionally addressed the crisis of authority, often (laming it on the Beft-s intellectual crisis of representation 8e#g#, the attac0s on ,political correctness9, as the occasion for their o6n efforts to set ne6 authorities in place ne6 positions, ne6 criteria and ne6 statements# .eft intellectuals have constructed their own

irrelevance, not through their Ielitist language, (ut through their refusal to find appropriate forms and sites of authority# +uthority is not necessarily authoritarian= it need not claim the privilege of an autonomous sovereign and unified speaking sub"ect# In the face of real historical relations of domination and su(ordination political intervention seems to demand, as part of the political responsibility of those empowered to speak that they speak to!and sometimes for!others# +nd sometimes that speech must address 'uestions about the relative importance of different struggles and the relative value even the ena(ling possi(ilities of different structures.

)ap 9 Ans%ers 3uffering Turn

A centrally planne economy is impossi!le lea ers %on?t try it" if they o the result is mass suffering (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# E)>EE
At the same time, the hunch that some sort of oversight is re<uired to ma0e a mar0et 6or0 is on target# Mree trade isn-t anarchy# It re<uires a rule of la6 that ma0es sure one person doesn-t steal from another person or force the other person into an un> 6illing e7change 8merely a more sophisticated form of theft9# ;ut that doesn-t mean the government should control the mar0et# Thin0 of the trading game again# .hat if, instead of the students getting to trade freely, the teacher dictated or tried to guess 6hich toy each of her t6enty>five students preferredJ .hat are the chances that the students 6ould end up 6ith toys they li0ed ?ust as much as the toys they got (y trading freelyJ &ear 3ero# .hat if the teacher 6as a su(stitute teacher 6ho had never met the class (eforeJ &earer 3ero# &o6 multiply the pro(lem (y a fe6 (a3illion, and you have some sense of the pro(lem confronting anyone 6ho 6ants to centrally plan an economy, as the Socialists did# To plan a 6hole economy, you

have to set prices and production <uotas for all the goods and services it contains# Do this even a little 6rong, and there 6ill (e all sorts of 6asteful surpluses and shortages in the mar0et# ;ut no(ody has ever succeeded in planning a 6hole economy of any si3e and gotten it ?ust a little 6rong# Lither they <uic0ly (ac0ed a6ay from the attempt to plan the entire economy, or else they created %i esprea famine an eath, as Benin and ao Tse>tung discovered# .hy did they failJ It-s not (ecause these men 6ere stupid# It-s (ecause they didn-t 0no6 it all# That-s pretty much 6hat it 6ould it ta0e# The successful master controller 6ould need to 0no6 the economic value not ?ust of every product in the mar0et# 5e 6ould need to 0no6 the economic value of every individual thing in the mar0et at any given time and place, since the value of things can change drastically depending on the situation# Remem(er, the value of a good is e<ual to the 6ealth and opportunity someone is 6illing to give up to o(tain it at a specific moment# Such assessments vary from person to person and vary even for the same person in different circumstances and at different times# &o one has access to all of that information #G$ The issue is not ?ust the sheer num(er of choices# If this 6ere only a math pro(lem, someday a (igger, faster computer might solve it# The pro(lem is 0no6ledge# &o one has access to all the constantly changing ?udgments of the (illions of agents involved even in small economies# The conclusion is inescapa(le: central economic planning is impossi!le@full stop#

)ap 9 Ans%ers Transition 8ars Turn

Alternatives to )apitalism en in %ar an genoci e (ummel D Professor of Political 3cience Rudolph Rummel, professor emeritus of political science at the University of 5a6aii, The Cilling achine that is ar7ism, Online Of all religions, secular and other6ise, that of ar7ism has (een (y far the (loodiest P (loodier than the +atholic In<uisition, the various +atholic crusades, and the Thirty :ears .ar (et6een +atholics and Protestants# In practice, .arxism has meant bloody terrorism, deadly purges, lethal prison camps and murderous forced labor, fatal deportations , man> made famines, extra)udicial executions and fraudulent show trials, outright mass murder and genocide # In total 8arxist regimes murdered nearly CC5 million people from C9CD to C9HD # 3or perspective on this incredible toll note that all domestic and foreign wars during the $#th century illed around /0 million # $hat is when 8arxists control states 8arxism is more deadly then all the wars of the 45th century including &orld &ars I and II and the @orean and 0ietnam &ars# +nd what did 8arxism, this greatest of human social e7periments, achieve for its poor citi3ens, at this most (loody cost in livesJ &othing positive# It left in its 6a0e an economic, environmental, social and cultural disaster# The Chmer Rouge P 87ambodian communists9 6ho ruled +am(odia for four years P provide insight into why 8arxists believed it necessary and moral to massacre so many of their fellow humans# $heir 8arxism was married to absolute power# $hey believed without a shred of doubt that they knew the truth that they would bring about the greatest human welfare and happiness and that to reali)e this utopia they had to mercilessly tear down the old feudal or capitalist order and ;uddhist culture, and then totally re(uild a communist society# ,othing could be allowed to stand in the way of this
achievement# Novernment P the +ommunist Party P 6as a(ove any la6# All other institutions, religions, cultural norms, traditions and sentiments 6ere e7penda(le# The ar7ists sa6 the construction of this utopia as a 6ar on poverty, e7ploitation, imperialism and ine<uality P and, as in a real 6ar, noncom(atants 6ould unfortunately get caught in the (attle# There 6ould (e necessary enemy casualties: the clergy, (ourgeoisie, capitalists, O6rec0ers,O intellectuals, counterrevolutionaries, rightists, tyrants, the rich and landlords# As in a 6ar, millions might die, (ut these deaths 6ould (e ?ustified (y the end, as in the defeat of 5itler in .orld .ar II# To the ruling .arxists, the goal of a

communist utopia was enough to )ustify all the deaths# $he irony is that in practice even after decades of total control 8arxism did not improve the lot of the average person but usually made living conditions worse than before the revolution# It is not by chance that the worldBs greatest famines have happened within the 2oviet Gnion 8a(out * million dead from %FG%>G$ and E million from %F$G>$, including G million outside U0raine9 and communist 7hina 8a(out $D
million dead from %F*F>)%9# Overall, in the last century almost ** million people died in various ar7ist famines and associated epidemics P a little over %D million of them 6ere intentionally starved to death, and the rest died as an unintended result of ar7ist collectivi3ation and agricultural policies# .hat is astonishing is that this *currency* of death by 8arxism is not thousands or even hundreds of

thousands but millions of deaths# This is almost incomprehensible P it is as though the whole population of the +merican ,ew ?ngland and 8iddle +tlantic 2tates or 7alifornia and $exas had been wiped out# +nd that around 6: million people escaped 8arxist countries as refugees was an une'ualed vote against 8arxist utopian pretensions# Its e<uivalent 6ould (e everyone fleeing +alifornia, emptying it of all human (eings# There is a supremely important lesson for human life and 6elfare to (e learned from this horrendous sacrifice to one ideology: &o one can (e trusted 6ith unlimited po6er# The more power a government has to impose the beliefs of an ideological or religious elite, or decree the whims of a dictator, the more li ely human lives and welfare will be sacrificed # +s a governmentBs power is more unrestrained as its power reaches into all corners of culture and society the more likely it is to kill its own citi)ens # :.3. transition from cap spar$s great po%er %ars an omnici e *y;uist A !#R# reno6ned e7pert in geopolitics and international relations, .orld&etDaily contri(uting editor, IThe Political +onse<uences of a Minancial +rash, Me(ruary 4, 666#financialsense#com'storm6###GDD*'DGD4#html
Should the United States e7perience a severe economic contraction during the second term of President ;ush, the American people 6ill li0ely support politicians 6ho advocate further restrictions and controls on our mar0et economy P guaranteeing its strangulation and the steady pauperi3ation of the country# In +ongress today, Sen# Ld6ard Cennedy supports nearly all the economic dogmas listed a(ove# It is easy to see, therefore, that the coming economic contraction, due in part to a policy of massive credit e7pansion, 6ill have serious political conse<uences for the Repu(lican Party 8to the (enefit of the Democrats9# Murthermore, an economic contraction 6ill encourage the formation of anti%

capitalist ma"orities and a turning away from the free market system# $he danger here is not merely economic# $he political left openly favors the collapse of +mericas strategic position abroad# $he withdrawal of the Gnited 2tates from the 8iddle ?ast the 3ar ?ast and ?urope would catastrophically impact an international system that presently allows F billion people to live on the earths surface in relative peace# 2hould anti%capitalist dogmas overwhelm the global market and trading system that evolved under +merican leadership the planets economy would contract and untold millions would die of starvation# ,ationalistic totalitarianism fueled by a politics of blame would once again bring war to +sia and ?urope# ;ut this time the war would be waged with mass destruction weapons and the United States 6ould (e (lamed (ecause it is the center of glo(al capitalism# Murthermore, if the anti%capitalist party gains power in &ashington we can expect to see policies of appeasement and unilateral disarmament enacted# +merican appeasement and disarmament in this context would be an admission of guilt before the court of world opinion#

Russia and 7hina a(ove all, would exploit this admission to "ustify aggressive wars invasions and mass destruction attacks# A future financial crash, therefore, must (e prevented at all costs# ;ut 6e cannot do this# As one o(server recently lamented, I.e dran0
the poison and no6 6e must die#

3o %oul a glo!al transition 9othari F' Professor of Political 3cience Professor of political science at the University of Delhi, Towards a Just Social Order, p# *E% Attempts at glo(al economic reform could also lead to a 6orld rac0ed (y increasing tur(ulence, a greater sense of insecurity among the ma?or of po6ers P and hence to a further tightening of the structures of domination and domestic repression K producing in their wake an intensification of the old arms race and militari)ation of regimes encouraging regional conflagrations and setting the stage for eventual global holocaust#

***)O*3:7PT6O* A*38E(3

)onsumption 9 Ans%ers Perm Pragmatism 9ey

Perm o !oth complementing the alt %ith political action is vital to get people on !oar 9ronen!erg" 2 8!a0u(, Department of International Lconomics, University of Bod3, I a0ing consumption ,reasona(le-, !ournal of +leaner Production, "olume %*, Issue ), pg# **E>*)), Science Direct, pdf, Tashma9 Buture research into consumption pro(lems is li$ely to com(ine the social science approach focusing on incremental environmental improvement and the (iophysical perspective pointing at pro(lems such as scale or irreversi(ility 1%E2# Once environmental pro(lems gain even more attention from the pu(lic, information ac<uired through such research 6ill (ecome increasingly demanded (y governments and other decision ma0ers# The notion of reasona(le
consumption refers to ma0ing informed choices in the mar0et# Ultimately, consumers themselves, given appropriate information and education, should (e a(le to assess their consumption patterns and mitigate them accordingly# +ommunication and information sharing constitute essential issues in industrial ecology, as they enhance interconnectedness 6ithin the system and facilitate all interdisciplinary underta0ings and, ultimately, the systemUs sustaina(ility# A policy aimed at sustaina(le consumption and production should support the e7change of

information among companies, (et6een companies and consumers, (et6een companies and governments and among the various government agencies involved# Policy instruments shoul shape consumer !ehaviour !y influencing their !eliefs, attitu es an e&pectations related to eco>designed products# This shoul lea to changing the consumersU perception of values, needs an the means of their satisfaction# Information flo6s constitute an important leverage point for changing consumption patterns 1%42# The sustaina(ility of consumption depends, to a large e7tent, on information a(out the possi(ility of Ima0ing a
difference and ho6 to ma0e it, as 6ell as on the attitudes of other relevant actors 8and their potential assistance to consumer decision ma0ing9 1%K2# &evertheless, consumers are not a(le to deal 6ith e7cessive amounts of information and intermediaries are necessary to pass the information from companies to consumers# +onsumer and (usiness education, complemented 6ith the stimulation and facilitation of environmentally friendly patterns of (ehaviour, emerges as an appropriate solution# In short, the concept of Ireasona(le consumption is (ased on the assumption that if consumers are provided 6ith relia(le and comprehensive information a(out the environmental conse<uences of their choices, they 6ill (e li0ely to change them in a more sustaina(le direction# 5o6ever, such informative incentives should (e complemented 6ith economic measures directed

also at appealing to the consumersU economic reasoning# Perm is the only option pragmatic solutions are $ey +ac$son" A 8Tim, Professor at University of Surrey, +entre for Lnvironmental Strategy, United Cingdom, Is There a IDou(le Dividend in Sustaina(le +onsumptionJ, !ournal of Industrial Lcology, "olume F, Issue %>G, pg# %F>$), pdf, Tashma9 On the other hand, it seems to me that the sym(olic interactionist approach does offer some particularly promising insights for sustaina(le consumption# At the very least, the social anthropology and philosophy of consumer (ehavior does not preclude the possi(ility of negotiating or renegotiating the conditions and the means under 6hich Imar0ing services, for e7ample, are
e7changed# oreover, the insight that a certain amount of consumer (ehavior is dedicated to an 8ultimately ea6ed9 pursuit of meaning opens up the tantali3ing possi(ility of devising some other, more successful and less ecological damaging strategy for pursing personal and cultural meaning# This is not, in any sense, a simple tas0, nor one that can easily (e pursued (y any given individual or set of individuals# On the contrary, it is a fundamentally social and cultural pro?ect, 6hich %ill re;uire sophisticated policy interventions at many different levels 8!ac0son and ichaelis GDD$= !ac0son GDD*9#

)onsumption 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails @eneral

Alt fails can?t overcome societal tren s )arolan" D 8 ichael S#, Departments of Sociology and Lnvironmental Studies, .hitman +ollege, ILcological oderni3ation Theory: .hat A(out +onsumptionJ, Society \ &atural Resources, "olume %E, Issue $, pg# G4E> G)D, Taylor and Mrancis, pdf, Tashma9 .hile in some respects our age is a postmaterial one, it is in other respects still very much the prover!ial F<<#poun material gorilla# Me6 in this 6orld are ready to give up on ?e6elry, cars, (ig>screen televisions, and computers, although many 6ould li0e them produced in as ,,green-- a manner as possi(le# And the (illions that do not yet possess these items are far from giving up on the idea of one day having them in their possession 8Renner and Sampat GDDG9# .e must not (ase our hopes on a total demateriali3ing of the economy, for such hope is a chimera# +onsumption 6ill al6ays (e tied to the material 6orld , to some e7tent, and as such consumption 6ill al6ays (e tied to the environment# As noted (y ichael Redclift 8%FF), $9, increased production
re<uires increased consumption in ,,(oth volume and 0ind#--

Alt fails on a national scale multiple !arriers 3paargaren and ol" 2 8Nert and Arthur P#!#, Department of Social Sciences, .ageningen University, The &etherlands, INreening glo(al consumption: Redefining politics and authority, Nlo(al Lnvironmental +hange, "olume %K, Issue $, August GDDK, pg# $*D>$*F, Science Direct, pdf, Tashma9 &ational environmental regimes are (elieved to fall short ue to the gro6ing organisational an technical comple&ity of glo!alising pro uction an consumption systems # Nlo(alising productionPconsumption chains and
net6or0s stretch (eyond the nationPstateUs territory and po6er in a num(er of circumscri(ed respects# Mirst, the high>speed and 6ide>ranging character of social and economic transformations are difficult to integrate into rather static or slo6ly changing national environmental regimes# Second, the social and economic systems that are 0ey in distur(ing the sustenance (ase are increasingly organised transnationally, 6hile their transnational

rationalities do not fit 6ell 6ith the national orientations and rationalities of the state# Third, the state and its citi3ens are faced 6ith fast e7panding flo6s of information on the causes and conse<uences of environmental disruptions# The a(undance of easy accessi(le information flo6s leads to rising e7pectations from the side of citi3enP consumers, and thus to legitimacy pro(lems for national environmental regimes 8 ol, GDDK9# 7ore evi ence alt has no potential +ac$son" A 8Tim, Professor at University of Surrey, +entre for Lnvironmental Strategy, United Cingdom, Is There a IDou(le Dividend in Sustaina(le +onsumptionJ, !ournal of Industrial Lcology, "olume F, Issue %>G, pg# %F>$), pdf, Tashma9 +learly, this vie% of consumption as a vital form of social communication suggests that simplistic appeals to consumers to forego consumption opportunities ?ust %ill not %ash# Indeed proponents of this vie6 dismiss the ecohumanistic idea of Iliving (etter (y consuming less as Inafve, a(surd and moralistic 8!ac0son et al# GDD49# In short, the sym(olic interactionist perspective on consumption appears once again to support the argument that consumption goods@even at very high levels of throughput@ are essential elements in the pursuit of human 6ell>(eing# It ta0es us , in one sense, right (ac0 to the place from 6hich 6e started#

)onsumption 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails )onsumption 6nevita!le

)onsumption is inevita!le re ucing resource consumption %ill lea to consumption of other goo s that results in resource pro uction 8apner and .illough(y" A 8Paul, Associate Professor and Director of the Nlo(al Lnvironmental Politics program, School of International Service at American University, and !ohn, Professor of Lconomics at American University, +hair of the Department of Lconomics, IThe Irony of Lnvironmentalism: The Lcological Mutility (ut Political &ecessity of Bifestyle +hange, Lthics \ International Affairs, "olume %F, Issue $, Decem(er GDD*, pg# EE>KF, .iley Online Bi(rary, pdf, Tashma9 +onsidering 6hat 6ould happen if a group of environmentalists decided to cut (ac0 on their use of a 0ey resource can also ma0e this point# Bet-s say, for e7ample, that I reduce my 6ater consumption in an effort to save fresh 6ater# There is no <uestion that this immediately reduces demand on 6ater and thus helps to conserve a limited resource# ;ut, in the act of doing so, I also pay less to the 6ater utility provider, and thus have more discretionary income# 6f 6 spen the money 6 save (y not consuming 6ater on other resource> involved goo s or activities, especially ones that in irectly use %ater 8such as many manufactured goods9, the net environmental impact of my decision may !e har to iscern# If I invest my savings in conventional financial mechanisms, I
6ill pro(a(ly still end up inducing environmental harm# In short, resource restraint (y some may not translate directly into a collective reduction in resource use# This un erlines the ifIculty of protecting the environment through campaigns to change individual consumption

patterns#

)onsumption 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails AT: Princen

4esira!ility alone fails lac$ of a pragmatic solution ooms alt solvency 6les" - 8Alastair, Lnergy and Resources Nroup, University of +alifornia at ;er0eley, IThe international political economy of ma0ing consumption sustaina(le, Revie6 of International Political Lconomy, "olume %$, Issue G, pg# $4D>$*K, Taylor and Mrancis, pdf, Tashma9 3imply focusing on individual consumer decision>ma0ing, and providing information to correct consumption or production choices, is unli$ely to stop egra ation# A more effective strategy, Princen argues, is to shift decisionma0ing authority from those 6ho
overe7ploit resources to those 6ho e7perience negative feed(ac0 and are a(le to act accordingly# The production system needs fundamental restructuring to overcome the collective impacts of (usiness practices, and to empo6er actors such as farmers, fishermen, and residents to act# ,Sustaina(le production re<uires effective feed(ac0 from all decisions in a production chain-# Princen claims that it is possi(le to (uild alternative trade relationships that (ring

consumers and producers much closer, (ut does not e7plain ho6 this might occur# &or does he address in detail 6hat methods can reduce the distances inherent in production chains and 6hy# This strategy may !e far more challenging than consumption scholars thin$ # A chapter (y Cen +onca, a NLP professor, e7amines transnational commodity chains as ne6
developments that ma0e government>directed, state>centric regulatory models ineffective# Production chains, +onca argues, challenge these models (ecause governance is not located inside nation>states (ut in the relations of po6er (et6een participants along the production chain# +onca usefully e7plores 6hy this is the case= this is the 0ind of 6or0 that IPL scholars e7cel in# +onca-s argument 6ould, ho6ever, (e much stronger if he added the internationali3ation of design practices, 6hich sustaina(le industry e7perts are increasingly studying# Product design affects 6hat ris0s lie in products, the spread of 6aste and pollution 6orld6ide, and the structural impacts of sourcing# :et product design largely eludes conventional regulation# ,Regulating- consumption, then, may need ne6 private and community innovations in trac0ing, monitoring, and enforcing measures to re<uire industry to provide more information and to demand sustaina(ility fromupstream and do6nstream users# .hat is

!oo$ does not address# Indeed, it fails to analyze ho% ,communities- of citi3ens, consumers, and 6or0ers may emerge and connect as ,regulators- across far>flung su(>national and national settings#
regulated may also need to change in light of ne6 understandings of ho6 industrial production 6or0s across (orders#

These are vital points that the

)onsumption 9 Ans%ers )ap @oo Turn

The alternative eviscerates capitalism 8apner and .illough(y" A 8Paul, Associate Professor and Director of the Nlo(al Lnvironmental Politics program, School of International Service at American University, and !ohn, Professor of Lconomics at American University, +hair of the Department of Lconomics, IThe Irony of Lnvironmentalism: The Lcological Mutility (ut Political &ecessity of Bifestyle +hange, Lthics \ International Affairs, "olume %F, Issue $, Decem(er GDD*, pg# EE>KF, .iley Online Bi(rary, pdf, Tashma9 A second route involves fun amentally ;uestioning unmitigated capitalist evelopment# Nlo(al capitalism is partly constituted (y the search for not>yet>spent purchasing po6er for profita(le outlets# oney 6hips around the glo(e today in
search of progta(le investment much li0e a hyper circulation system# %) The rate, character, and reach of contemporary capitalism refuse many options that 6ould clearly (enegt the environment, insofar as they generate multiple shells under 6hich money can (e placed and made availa(le to material

production# Indeed, any honest analysis of the pro(lem of curtailment must eventually go (eyond seeing environmental challenges as mere e7ternalities and identify un(ridled capitalism as foundational to the redeployment of gnances to6ard environmentally harmful practices# %E Rethin0ing development and confronting 0ey engines of capitalism are far from easy, even if they
seem inescapa(le# oreover, it is unclear ho6 rethin0ing itself 6ill ma0e much of a difference# :et at the heart of (oth is the re<uirement to (uild political movements that <uestion the logic of unregulated capitalist development# In (oth rich and poor societies of the 6orld, such politics must stress the importance of guaranteeing the satisfaction of human needs to all citi3ens# Such needs should (e degned (roadly to include the right to an ade<uately comforta(le material life as 6ell as a politically and spiritually fulglling one# In rich societies, such a politics 6ould stress the importance of

redistri(ution and the e7pansion of Inonproductive, Ileisure activities# In poorer societies, the pressure to pursue material gro6th as rapidly as possi(le can (e reduced if states provide 6idespread education and health services# Such efforts 6ill not in themselves end, to (e sure, ecologically unsound material gro6th or capitalism per se# They 6ill, ho6ever, place pressure upon contemporary economic practices and create openings for reorganizing capitalist society#

***)O7PET6T6VE*E33 A*38E(3

)ompetitiveness 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails @eneral

)an?t organize a grassroots movement people are too e&ploite !y the system

/arvey - Professor = ):*E

8David, IA +onversation 6ith David 5arvey,GDD), http:''666#logos?ournal#com'issue^*#%'harvey#htm9 .ell you have to start some6here# One of my favorite passages from ar7 is IThe realm of freedom (egins 6here the realm of necessity is left (ehind, and he gives this rather long rhetoric a(out freedom# Then at the end of it he says, ITherefore, limiting the length of the 6or0ing day, is a crucial

And I thin0 the difference (et6een a reformist and a revolutionary is not necessarily that you do radical things all the time, (ut it is that at a given moment, you may all do the same thing, i#e# demand living 6age, (ut you do it 6ith a different o(?ective, and that is as a long>term transition# A transformation, 6hich is 6hat you may have in mind, and I thin0 that ar7 6as very 6ell a6are that if people are 6or0ing %K>GD hours a day, E days a 6ee0, they are not going to (e very revolutionary in their consciousness# They are going to (e so damn tired, that they are not going to have time for anything, and therefore, creating spaces and possi(ilities for people to thin0 of other possi(ilities is a precursor to a more general transformation# That is one of things that I certainly found out in the living 6age campaign in ;altimore# People 6or0ing t6o ?o(s, 6or0ing KD hours a 6ee0, and they do not have time to organi3e, they hardly have time to have a life, let alone (e active in community organi3ations, and active as political organi3ers# It is very difficult to do that 6hen you are in that situation#
demand# So you go from a 0ind of revolutionary rhetoric to an almost reformist, 0ind of practical demand right no6#

7ovements failG on?t challenge glo!al capital an are coopte !y rising po%ers 3pector 0< Associate Professor of 3ociology at Pur ue :niversity )alumet
8Alan ! Spector, I&eoli(eral Nlo(ali3ation and +apitalist +rises in the Age of Imperialism in INlo(ali3ation in the G%st +entury: Ba(or, +apital, and the State on a .orld Scale, pg *4, I.ren9

Some 6ho consider themselves in the anticapitalist, ar7ist tradition hail the ascendancy to political po6er of such reformers as +have3 and orales, and the .orld Social Morum has also (rought together hundreds of thousands of grassroots activists in conferences 6here ideas and tactics have (een e7changed# It is true that there are aspects of revolutionary ar7ism in the mass movements that helped s6eep these leaders into po6er# Throughout Batin America, there is rene6ed interest in anti>imperialism and strong movements of millions 6ho are developing a criti<ue of modern capitalist imperialism# The prediction that ar7ism 6as dead and that free mar0et capitalism 6as the Iend of history seems to have (een a (it premature# 5o6ever, 6hile there has (een some distri(ution of 6ealth, and 6hile some of these leaders strongly critici3e the U#S# government , (an0s, and corporations, none of them are seriously challenging the core of glo!al capitalism. Murthermore, other ma?or capitalist po6ers, especially from the Luropean Union, as 6ell as +hina, are ma0ing alliances 6ith many of these leaders# .hile it may seem Iprogressive for these leaders to (e ta0ing a stance against U#S# imperialism, it is not clear that their leadership 6ill (ecome a ma?or force against capitalism as a 6orld system# 5istorically, many movements have opposed the dominant imperialist po6er of the time, only to !e co#opte !y another, usually rising" capitalist po%er# In the late %KDDs, the United States opposed Spanish imperialism in the +ari((ean, for e7ample, and then replaced the Spanish as a rising imperialist po6er over much of that region# Allying 6ith .estern Luropean capitalists against U#S# capitalist interests 6ill not 6ea0en capitalism# +hina is seen as an eventual competitor of U#S# capitalism, (ut despite the leadership of the +ommunist Party, it is clear that capitalist economic relations are gro6ing rapidly in +hina# Some have suggested that, in the a(sence of a large, international ar7ist movement, +hina could replace a declining U#S# empire and (reathe ne6 life into the 6orld capitalist system#

)ompetitiveness 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails )ompetitiveness 6nevita!le

Jero#sum economics is inevita!le it?s evolutionarily engraine (u!in '<0' >professor of economics at emory 8Paul, GD%G, Deep Political Lconomy9 http:''666#pu(choicesoc#org'papers^GD%G'Ru(in#pdf Political thin0ing is 3ero sum or even negative sum 8as 6hen there is resource using conflict over a resource#9 This may (e (ecause the economy during evolutionary times 6as not a dynamic or gro6ing economy, and so there 6as no need for our minds to evolve to understand economic gro6th# .e naturally thin0 of a fi7ed amount of goods to divide# In such a 6orld if I have more, then you have less # If 6e fight over the resource, then 6e have less in total (ecause of the loss from the act of fighting# This sort of thin0ing permeates the decision ma0ing of those untrained in economics 8Ru(in, GDDG9# Mor e7ample, it e7plains 6hy untrained people 6orry a(out losing ?o(s through international trade# 8The num(er of ?o(s is vie6ed as fi7ed#9

1y econstructing the current economic policy" it %ill lea to capitalism 9antola -# )omm Prof at /elsin$i
8Anu, ITransforming political imaginaries: the uses of competitiveness +ulture and Social +hange: Disciplinary L7changes9 Mor Schumpeter capitalism

6as Ia form or method of economic change and not only never is (ut never can (e stationary 8Schumpeter %FFG'%F4$, KG9# The opening of the ne6 mar0ets and the ne6 organisational developments incessantly destroy the old economic structure from 6ithin and thus the infamous Schumpeterian process of creative destruction ta0es place forming the essential dynamic of capitalism # As capitalism is seen as a constantly changing evolutionary process Schumpeter sees that the function of the entrepreneur is to reform or revolutioni3e, Ito act 6ith confidence (eyond the range of familiar (eacons 8Schumpeter %FFG'%F4$, %$G9# +apitalism is 0ept alive (y the a(ility to innovate under the process of creative destruction#

)ompetitiveness 9 Ans%ers Environment Turn

Economic nationalism is vital to sustain the environment An%ar and Sam" 0' 8Sa?id, Ad?unct Professor, University of South Australia, and +hoon>:in, School of ;usiness and Information Technology, PS; Academy, Singapore, IIs Lconomic &ationalism Nood for the LnvironmentJ A +ase Study of Singapore, Asian Studies Revie6, "olume $), Issue %, pg# $F>*K, Taylor and Mrancis, Tashma9 On the other hand, a perceived lac$ of threat to national economic security can !e vie%e as a hin rance to strategies aimed at slo%ing o%n environmental egra ation # This is vividly demonstrated in the case of the sand trade# Sand is a highly pri3ed

commodity in Singapore to meet the demands for land reclamation and construction#GK Singapore has sourced its sand mainly from alaysia, Indonesia, Thailand, "ietnam and +am(odia# In a recent report, the environmental monitoring group Nlo(al .itness condemned the Singapore government for importing sand illegally from +am(odia and 6ithout regard to the environment 8Nlo(al .itness, GD%D9# The report noted that the +am(odian government had earlier announced a (an on sand e7ports after locals protested a(out the adverse environmental impact, (ut the country continued to supply Singapore 6ith tens of thousands of tonnes of dredged sand# The Singapore government denied any 6rongdoing, arguing that it is up to the source country to police sand e7traction licences, although it did not condone Iany e7traction of sand that is in (reach of the source countriesU la6s and rules on environment protection#GF Nlo(al .itness 8GD%D, p# GK9 reported that it had seen a contract (et6een the !urong To6n +orporation 8!T+9 and a sand importing company to purchase sand, 6hile industry sources in Singapore and +am(odia claimed that sand e7ported from +am(odia 6as actually purchased (y !T+#$D The Singaporean government responded that it is Inot a party to any agreement or contract for the import of sand, and that I!T+ engages sand suppliers, 6hich are private entities, on a commercial (asis to supply sand for reclamation and other developmental 6or0s 8Nlo(al .itness, GD%D, p# GF9# Nlo(al .itness e7pressed scepticism a(out the governmentUs response, noting that statutory (oards such as !T+ are under the purvie6 of government ministers# As such, the government, stated Nlo(al .itness 8GD%D, p# $D9, should (ear Iultimate responsi(ility for their 8!T+ and 5D;9 activities# In sum, Nlo(al .itness (elieves that Singapore can and should play a greater role in defending the environment against the effects of the sand trade 6ith +am(odia# Unli0e the case of the ha3e, 6here the Singaporean economic interest 6as severely threatened, compelling the Singapore government to react strongly to deal 6ith the pro(lem, Singapore is not prepared to limit its sand trade or initiate a regional'glo(al resolution to the +am(odian situation# The potential slo6ing do6n of the industrialisation and ur(anisation pro?ects that the government has put in place presents challenges and imposes opportunity costs that Singapore is not prepared to incur# SingaporeUs priority is continued economic gro6th, and it is prepared to do 6hatever is re<uired to achieve it# That said, environmental issues in Singapore are not ?ust a function of economic interest# SingaporeUs relationship 6ith 6ater is a case in point, 6here SingaporeUs <uest for 6ater self>reliance 6as attri(uted largely to national insecurity that might arise in the event of a sudden disruption of 6ater supply from alaysia 8Cog, Bim and Bong, GDDG= Tan, GD%%, pp# 4%P4G9# The foregoing cases demonstrate that economic considerations have 6eighed heavily in domestic policies, leading to SingaporeUs un6illingness to incur economic costs of actions such as cutting emission levels unilaterally or ceasing sand imports from +am(odia 6hen other countries do not share the (urden# Mrom SingaporeUs standpoint, other sta0eholders have to play their part to level the playing field in the competitive race# Singapore supports regional and glo(al initiatives to cur( environmental degradation, particularly 6hen the national economic cost of failing to do so is great# Singapore ta0es on its o6n responsi(ilities and targets (ased on a shared understanding of the ris0s 6ith other countries and other considerations, most nota(ly the economic pay off# These are concerns for the simple reason that they have impacts on the current and future economic prospects of the city state# .hile these are pragmatic measures that any responsi(le government 6ould ta0e to protect the interests of the local society, as in many countries, the Ime>first attitude has undou(tedly 6orsened the environmental crisis# +oncluding Remar0s This paper argues that climate change is more than environmental degradation (ut concerns economic security dynamics

countries are demanding access to the rich 6orldUs capital to help pay for anything that is climate related, from sea 6alls to fighting deforestation to (uilding lo6>car(on cities 6ith good pu(lic transport and efficient (uildings# That is also 6hy Singapore has re?ected emission cuts unless others do li0e6ise, for fear of losing its competitive edge since emission cuts are costly and 6ould adversely affect its economy, particularly the heavily relied>upon manufacturing sector# +limate change has to (e integrated and internalised 6ith the larger development process# The pro(lem 6e face today is to arrive at a consensus in dealing 6ith
as 6ell# prepared to record high structural unemployment for the sa0e of their economic prospects, (ut not to achieve a (etter environmental outcome for the citi3ens of the 6orld#

That is 6hy developing

environmental pro(lems in a 6ay that reconciles national and glo(al interests# The analysis presented in this paper can (e used to highlight the follo6ing implications# Mirst, it is evident that a hegemonic po6er, such as the United States, is no longer a(le to impose policies on national economies through unilateral force# The United &ations also lac0s independent authority, as it depends e7clusively on the collective decisions of states# The only effective actors are the multiplicity of nation states, 6hich remain preoccupied 6ith economic gro6th and committed to putting their o6n interests first# They may (e

Secondly, an appreciation of the ne6 approach to economic nationalism is useful # This approach suggests that policy change needs to (e o(?ectively analysed in terms of 6hether it is li0ely to promote the interests of the nation through active (ut calculated and selective involvement in glo(al efforts to deal 6ith social dilemmas# .hile economic nationalism inevita(ly creates tension among nation states, it is also a reason

for em(racing a regional and glo(al approach to dealing 6ith climate change and environmental pro(lems# The ne6 approach to economic nationalism serves as a useful frame6or0 for e7plaining the connection (et6een economic gro6th and environmental protection# Thirdly, it is pertinent and imperative to esta(lish an agreed>upon methodology to measure the relationship
(et6een national economic 6ealth and environmental protection initiatives# ;ecause economic interests matter, it is necessary, at the local and glo(al levels, to ascertain the costs and (enefits of actions in order to devise a 6in>6in situation# Lconomic motivation re<uires commitment from

developed countries to lead the 6ay, not only in cutting their o6n emissions levels, (ut also in offering financial assistance and
technological 0no6>ho6 to their poorer counterparts to transit the latter onto

the clean development path#

)ompetitiveness 9 Ans%ers 3olves 8ar

)ompetition is the only %ay to resolve conflict" the $riti$ %oul ma$e states harm themselves @artz$e '<0< Political 3cience Prof" :)34
Lri0, Interdependence Really is +omple7, GD%D, http:''666#princeton#edu'hpcglo(al'conferences'6artrade'Nart30e^paper#pdf

.ar com(ines in inflicting and incurring harm, forcing competitors to reveal capa(ilities or resolve even as they compete for additional (argaining leverage# To appeal to participants, contests must (e e7pected to result in an advantageous shift in the (argaining range (et6een competitors# Beverage in (argaining is ma7imi3ed (y inconflicting harm on others, though this does relatively little to reduce uncertainty and allo6 competitors to identify mutually accepta(le (argains# Actions that are largely only costly to opponents 6ill (e appealing to initiators, (ut do little to inform# uch as 6ar itself, interdependence forces the unification of the functions of coercion and information revelation (y lin0ing hardships in inflicted 6ith hardships incurred # Symmetric economic ties 8interdependence9 ma0e it harder for states to in conflict economic hardship 6ithout also e7periencing harm themselves# Asymmetric dependence allo6s the dependent state to reveal information 8through costly acts such as cutting off trade9, (ut it provides fe6 incentives for the dependent state to act in this 6ay since, li0e (urning money, the informative act fails to advantage the dependent actor# In contrast, the independent state in a dependent economic relationship has every incentive to use its leverage to material advantage, (ut little improvement in informational conditions is li0ely to result#

***E*V6(O*7E*T 9 A*38E(3

Top Level Environment @overnment Action @oo

@overnment action is necessary. Alternatives li$e anarchy" localism" spirituality" an eco# centrism %ill get s;uashe an %orsen current estruction Taylor '$ Professor of 3ocial Ethics ;ron, Professor of Religion \ Social Lthics, Director of Lnvironmental Studies, University of .isconsin> Osh0osh, ;L&L&LAT5 T5L SURMA+L: +RITI+AB LSSA:S I& T5L P5IBOSOP5: OM DLLP L+OBON:, P# GKG>GK4 A more trenchant pro(lem is ho6 (ioregionalists 8and the anarchists 6ho influenced their most influential theorists9 often assume that people are naturally predisposed 8unless corrupted (y life in unnatural, hierarchical, centrali3ed, industrial societies9 to cooperative (ehavior# This de(ata(le assumption appears to depend more on radical environmental faith , a 0ind of Paul Shepard>style mythologi3ing, than on ecology or anthropology# Unfortunately for (ioregional theory, evolutionary (iology sho6s that not only cooperation promotes species survival= so also, at times, does aggressive competitiveness# ;ased on its unduly rosy vie6 of the potential for human altruism, it is dou(tful that (ioregionalism can offer sufficient structural constraints on the e7ercise of po6er (y selfish and 6ell>entrenched elites# It should (e o(vious, for e7ample, that nation>state governments 6ill not voluntarily cede authority# Any political reorgani3ation along (ioregional lines 6ould li0ely re<uire I6idespread violence and dislocation# Me6 (ioregionalists seem to recogni3e this li0elihood, or ho6 devastating to nature such a transitional struggle 6ould pro(a(ly (e# oreover, ma0ing an important (ut often overloo0ed point a(out political po6er,
political theorist Daniel Deudney 6arns: The si3es of the (ioregionality (ased states 6ould vary greatly (ecause (ioregions vary greatly# This 6ould mean that some states 6ould (e much more po6erful than other 1and2 it is not inevita(le that (alances of po6er 6ould emerge to constrain the possi(le imperial pretensions of the larger and stronger states# Andre6 ;ard Schmoo0ler, in his criti<ue of utopian (ioregional progeny9# Mor ignoring a specific pro(lem of po6er# 5e as0ed: 5o6 can good people prevent (eing dominated (y a

ruthless fe6, and 6hat 6ill prevent hierarchies from emerging if decentrali3ed political self>rule is ever achievedJ One does not have to (elieve all people are (ad to recogni3e that not all people 6ill (e good, he argued= and unless (ad people all (ecome good, there is no solution to violence other than some 0ind of government to restrain the evil fe6# Schmoo0ler else6here noted that those 6ho e7ploit nature gather more po6er to themselves# 5o6, then, can 6e restrain such po6erJ There must (e a government a(le to control the free
e7ercise of po6er, Schmoo0ler concluded# Once 6hen de(ating Nreen anarchists and (ioregionalists in a radical environmental ?ournal, Schmoo0ler agreed that political decentrali3ation is a good idea# ;ut if 6e move in this direction, he 6arned, Ithere should (e at the same time a 6orld order sufficient 1to th6art2 6ould>(e con<uerors# oreover, ISince the (iosphere is a glo(ally interdependent 6e(, that 6orld order should (e a(le to constrain any of the actors from fouling the earth# This re<uires la6s and means of enforcement # Schmoo0ler concluded, INovernment

is a parado7, (ut there is no escaping it# This is (ecause po6er is a parado7: our emergence out of the natural order ma0es po6er and inevita(le pro(lem for human affairs, and only po6er can control po6er# ;ioregionalism generally fails to grapple ade<uately 6ith the pro(lem of po6er# +onse<uently, it has little
Ians6er to specifically glo(al environmental pro(lems, such as atmospheric depletion and the disruption of ocean ecosystems (y pollution and overfishing# Political scientist Paul .apner argues that this is (ecause (ioregionalism assumes Ithat all glo(al threats stem from local instances of environmental a(use and that (y confronting them at the local level they 6ill disappear# &or does (ioregionalism have much of

a response to the Iglo(ali3ation of corporate capitalism and consumerist mar0et society, apart from advocating local resistance or long>odds campaigns to revo0e the corporate charters of the 6orst environmental offenders# These efforts do little to hinder the inertia of this process# And little is ever said a(out how to restrain the voracious appetite of a glo(al>corporate>consumer culture for the resources in every corner of the planet# Lven for the devout, promoting deep ecological spirituality and ecocentric values seems pitifully inade<uate in the face of such forces# Perhaps it is (ecause they have little if any theory of social change, and thus cannot really envision a path to6ard a sustaina(le society, that many (ioregional deep ecologists revert to apocalyptic scenarios# any of them see the collapse of ecosystems and industrial civili3ation as the only possi(le means to6ard the envisioned changes# Others decide that political activism is hopeless, and prioriti3e instead spiritual strategies for evo0ing deep ecological spirituality, hoping, self>consciously, for a miracle# +ertainly the resistance of civil society to glo(ali3ation and its destructive inertia is honora(le and important, even a part a part of a 6ider sustaina(ility strategy# ;ut there 6ill (e no victories over glo(ali3ation and corporate capitalism, and no significant progress to6ard sustaina(ility, %ithout ne6 forms of international, enforcea(le, glo(al environmental governance# Indeed, 6ithout ne6 restraints on po6er (oth 6ithin nations and internationally, the most (eautiful (ioregional e7periments and models 6ill (e over6helmed and futile#

Top Level Environment 6ncrementalism 9ey

Piecemeal reform is the only %ay to achieve !roa er social reform 1ra ley , Ph4 in Political Economy" 7.A. in Economics Ro(ert ;radley, PhD in Political Lconomy, #A# in Lconomics, I+apitalism at .or0: ;usiness, Novernment and Lnergy, pg# %D$ There are good revolutions and (ad ones# There must (e continual improvement, or incrementalism, (et6een sea changes# Often, if not <uite al6ays, revolution comes (y steps, not (ounds# ;usiness thin0er !im +ollins enriched the
Schumpeter>Druc0er>5amel vie6 (y noting ho6 good>to>great companies 6ere disciplined change ma0ers 6hose entrepreneurship 6as less a(out revolutionary moments than revolutionary process# In his 6ords: Nood>to>great transformations never happened in

one fell s6oop# There 6as no single defining action, no grand program , no one 0iller innovation, no solitary luc0y (rea0, no 6renching revolution# Nood to great comes a(out (y a cumulative process@ step !y step, action !y action, ecision !y ecision, turn (y turn of the fly6heel@that adds up to sustained and spectacular results# Success 6as Ian organic evolutionary process # # # a pattern of (uildup leading to (rea0through# The Idoom loop, noted +ollins from his case studies, 6as I(ig programs, radical change efforts, dramatic revolutions, chronic restructuring@ al6ays loo0ing for a miracle moment or ne6 savior# +ollins sa6 greatness in disciplined thought and action= failure, in Ifads and # # # management hoopla# There 6as no silver (ullet, no magic, that could su(stitute for sustaine " %ell# irecte effort# 6ncrementalist solutions a up no environmental solutions %ill occur %ithout practical an governmental change /iro$a%a ' +4 an LL7 Ceith 5iro0a6a, !D a U+onn, B#B# # in Lnvironmental and &atural Resources Ba6, Be6is \ +lar0 Ba6 School, &orth6estern School of Ba6 of Be6is \ +lar0 +ollege, !#D#, University of +onnecticut, !une GDDG, Stanford Lnvironmental Ba6 !ournal, G% Stan# Lnvtl# B#!# GG* Under this reinterpretation of the pu(lic trust doctrine and its evolution, pragmatismBs perspective of legal progress modifies the notion of revolutionary paradigm shifts# DelgadoUs pessimism can be avoided by acknowledging that, 6ithout contesting
the possi(ility of paradigm dispute, 6e can <uestion the unavoida(ility of incommensura(ility (et6een paradigms# Under the pragmatic vie6 of legal progress, the law shifts in incremental steps # +onse<uently, the pragmatist is free to recogni)e incremental changes

as achievements

1QGEE2 and innovations, rather

than having to take a position between *wrong % or at least seriously fla6edO

GGK > paradigm shifts, or alternatively, no change in the la6 at all# Murthermore, the pragmatist can recogni3e appropriate arguments through 6hich the interpretive community can modify an interpretation or practice# As 5olmes stated: A very common phenomenon and one very familiar to the student of history, is this# The customs, (eliefs, or needs of primitive time esta(lish a rule or a formula# In the course of centuries the custom, (elief, or necessity disappears, (ut the rule remains# The reason 6hich gave rise to the rule has (een forgotten, and ingenuous minds set themselves to in<uire ho6 it is to (e accounted for# Some ground or policy is thought of, 6hich seems to e7plain it and to reconcile it 6ith the present state of things= and then the rule adapts itself to the ne6 reasons 6hich have (een found for it, and enters on a ne6 career# The old form receives ne6 content, and in time even the form modifies itself to fit the meaning 6hich it has received# GGF 7hanges in each instance

create entirely new contexts in which more 8or less9 progressive arguments find a hold# ?very time a change occurs , even if it is incremental or ostensi(ly seems (enign, the change creates a ne6 conte7t 6ithin 6hich an entirely new set of possibilities 6ill arise# G$D The pragmatist therefore evaluates progress (y the distance a ne6 idea causes practices to move a6ay from past practices and
paradigms# The difference (et6een the pragmatic version of progress and the Cuhnian version is one only of degree# In the end, the results of (oth versions of progress are the same > 6e loo0 (ac0 at the change and reali3e that earlier ideas do not ma0e sense anymore# The effectiveness of the pragmatic approach lies in the simple reali3ation that, in adopting an innovative approach to a legal <uestion, courts 6ill find comfort in adopting 6hat appears to (e an incremental change, rather than a radical paradigmatic shift# In 1QGEK2 contrast to radical theorists that deny the e7istence of progress (ecause of a failure to immediately reach the radical goals of alternative paradigms, the pragmatist recogni3es that a

series of incremental changes eventually add up# ?nvironmental pragmatism enables environmentalists to seek achievable gains by focusing on minor improvements in the la6 that incrementally close the gap between the values that pre%existed current environmental law and the alternative paradigms of environmental protection # Even if %e see$ utopia" gra ual reforms are the !est mechanism to get there 4elicath" ,- assistant professor in the Dept# of +ommunication a the University of +incinnati !ohn .#, Larthtal0, +ommunication Lmpo6erment for Lnvironmental Action, Lds# uir \ "eenendall, pg# %)G Mirst, Iradical environmentalists can no longer simply avoi politics# A via(le ecology movement re<uires action 6ithin e7isting structures, something that Iradical environmentalists have so far re?ected in their refusal to compromise# The movement needs to direct its attention to 6hen and 6here to compromise# Lven utopian politics recogni3es the need to engage e7isting political processes# The very fact that one must move individuals to 6ant utopia necessitates 6or0ing out some instrumental means of

getting to ecotopia# Any such instrumentality involves using politics that remain this side of utopia# An e7cellent e7ample of this is the
need for a radical environmental voice on glo(al issues that must inevita(ly re<uire action on the part of the nation>state# Dealing 6ith crises li0e glo(al 6arming and the depletion of the o3one layer re<uires international action and the responses of governments in the form of effective energy, defense, trade, and foreign policies#

(eform versus revolution is a false choice incremental changes can transform the social e @eus ,arius, Teaches political theory and legal theory at the University of Beiden# Democracy and Nreen Political Thought, p# GDD
.hat do 6e understand (y ecological restructuringJ Restructuring

is a0in to transforming as opposed to a(olishing the state and the status <uo# It is not a dogmatic attempt to create a completely ne6 6orld that 0no6s no pollution at all and that is clean and (eautiful in all respects # Lcological restructuring does not imply that the attaining of a i&o6here a la .illiam orrisi# The 6hole society does not have to (e altered, no every stone has to (e moved# It encompasses further>reaching changes and reforms on a middle to long term, that can (e read?usted, that are aimed at the prevention and solution of the most aggravating forms of pollution and at acute forms of degradation of the environment# It deals 6ith policy plans in the areas of production and consumption that can (e tried out first under Poppers motto: If they go 6rong, the damage is not very great and read?ustment is not very difficult 8Popper %FE4: %*F9# This 0ind of restructuring 6ill (ear the character of compromise and 6ill have to (e accomplished in democratic 6ays# They must (e the result of open discussion, of imaginative po6er, and of the preparedness to accept disagreea(le measures# They 6ill re<uire courage and determination and 6ill entail ta0ing certain ris0s, (ut less considera(le ris0s than are implied (y acting only marginally or not at all 8as is happening at present9, or (y aspiring to do it all at once 8as the utopians envisage9# The comparison that suggests itself is that of the 8re9(uilding of a house 8"an Nunsteren %FEK:
%4K9# The utopian engineer ta0es up the position of an architect 6ho is designing a completely ne6 and comple7 (uilding# Starting from a specific set of ideals the engineer tries to (uild an architecturally sound and appealing edifice# In this respect Popper spea0s of iaestheticismi, the desire to (uild a 6orld 6hich is not only a little (etter and more rational than ours, (ut 6hich is free from all its ugliness: not a cra3y <uilt, an old garment (adly patched, (ut an entirely ne6 go6n, a really (eautiful ne6 6orld 8Popper %FE4: %)*9# In the case of piecemeal

engineering the house in a principle is 0ept intact: heavy lea0ages are repaired= (ro0en 6indo6s are replaced, generally the maintenance that is really necessary is carried out step (y step# There is no need for an
architect, there is no need for re(uilding, reconstruction or more drastic alterations# Reservedness, carefulness, doing no more than is strictly necessary, are the (asic principles# Some6here in (et6een lies the 6ide 8and actually neglected9 area of

restructuring, the re(uilding of a house# It is not that a completely ne6 house is erected P in order to prevent the annihilation of capital, the usually high costs, the unpredicta(le pro(lems, disadvantages, and set(ac0s P (ut the e7isting house is more or less thoroughly altered, re(uilt, reconstructed, to comply 6ith the ne6ly formulated demands# An architect is needed only for certain stages, during the re(uilding one has a roof a(ove
oneis head, 6hen surprises arise 8the se6er turns out to (e in a 6orse condition than assumed, some (eams need to (e repaired, etc#9 the plans can (e read?usted, and one can still learn from earlier mista0es# The re(uilding does not primarily tac0le the conse<uences of the o(solescence of the houses, the lea0ing roof, the porous pipes, the 6oodrot in the 6indo6>frames, (ut alters, the structure of the house itself# .ith great caution some of the 6alls are (ro0en through modern provisions are installed, ne6 rooms are added, a dormer is constructed# In large part the house stays the same, yet simultaneously undergoes a structural change# In the case of environmental policy these are the 0inds of choices that have to (e made# The house is 0ept as it is, one tries only to prevent unaccepta(le deterioration and ta0es no measures to restrict 6ater and energy consumption# One can also decide to demolish the house and replace it 6ith a perfectly insulated, energy>saving and environmentally friendly (uilt house, fitted 6ith sun collectors and a compost lavatory# One can also P 6ith far less cost and 6ith reasona(le results P insulate an e7isting house, install a highly efficient heating system, and ta0e a range of 6ater>saving measures 8replacing the (ath 6ith a sho6er, replacing the outdated cistern 6ith one of a small 6ater volume, installing 6ater>saving taps#9 I do not 6ant to spin out of this e7ample endlessly# The vital

point is that there is a 6hole 6orld (et6een piecemeal engineering and utopian engineering and that the introduction of middle>range reforms can eventually lead to structural changes in our modern unecological society# If applied 6ith patience and perseverance, a com(ination of detached and surveya(le alterations in itself can produce the highly needed ecological reconstruction of society#

Top Level Environment Perm/Pragmatism 9ey

7ust reCect ra ical environmental criticism un ercuts pragmatic environmental change (eitan ,F Lric Reitan 8Seattle University .riter for the Llectronic Nreen !ournal9 Pragmatism, Lnvironmental .orld "ie6s, and Sustaina(ility# Decem(er %FFK .ith the urgency of the current environmental crisis, 6e cannot affor to get (ogged do6n in theoretic disputes that mas0 a common mission and get in the 6ay of ma0ing the practical changes that are so pressing# Pragmatic
ediation of Deep Lcology and +hristian Ste6ardship The e7ample I have chosen to discuss is the theoretic de(ate (et6een t6o environmental philosophies that have emerged in the last fe6 decades: the philosophy of ste6ardship that has evolved in +hristian communities, and the philosophy of deep ecology# I choose these t6o not on the (asis of any special status they have, (ut rather (ecause they are the t6o environmental perspectives 6ith 6hich I have the most personal ac<uaintance, and (ecause the nature of the de(ate (et6een them usefully illustrates the value of using pragmatic principles to guide theoretic environmental discourse# ;efore applying pragmatic principles to this e7ample, some preliminary comments may (e helpful# Mirst, it is important to 0eep in mind that comple7 6orldvie6s or philosophical systems may impact more than one domain of human life, and that they may have radically opposing pragmatic implications in one or more of those domains 6hile implying su(stantially the same (ehaviors in the domain of the human>nature relationship# In such a case, 6e can say that 6hile the 6orldvie6s do not have the same pragmatic meaning overall, they have the same environmental meaning# As such, it is important not

to let the real differences in other areas mas0 the genuine agreement in the environmental domain# Second, it is
6orth noting that there is almost certainly more than one human social arrangement that harmoni3es sustaina(le 6ith the natural environment# Put another 6ay, there is more than one set of human practices that works in terms of promoting a healthy human>natural system# And it follo6s from this o(servation that more than one worldview can be pragmatically true< while two worldviews may imply

environmental behaviors that are different , and hence have a different pragmatic meaning, insofar as they both promote sustainable behaviors they are both true from a pragmatic standpoint# Pragmatic truth is not monistic, (ut pluralistic# Niven the urgent pragmatic goals of environmental philosophy sustained theoretic debates about meaning differences of this sort appear to be unwarranted and should be put aside in favor of the task of finding practical ways of integrating and accommodating those alternative social arrangements 6hich serve the common goal of sustaina(le human>natural systems# Only the permutation solves >recogni3ing areas of compromise is more effective than trying to isolate differences# Only the permutation results in a unified ecological movement Ellis ,- 73 in )ivil Engineering !effrey Lllis, +hief, Lnvironmental, Safety and 5ealth Lngineering at United States Air Morce, S in +ivil Lngineering, %FF), Uncommon ground: rethin0ing the human place in nature, pg# G)D ;ecause of the comple7ity and seeming intransigence of environmental pro(lems, it is clearly time for radical environmentalists to focus less on defining their differences and more on determining the common ground that might provide the (asis for a more coherent an unifie ecology movement# As I hope this essay illustrates, if they hope to achieve a 6or0ing consensus, radicals must strive to resist the 6ell>esta(lished tendency in environmental discourse to identify the single most important and fundamental cause of the many environmental pro(lems that have (ecome increasingly apparent in recent decades# The desire to essentiali3e environmental pro(lems and trace them all to one root cause is o(viously a po6erful one# If a root cause can (e identified, then priorities can (e clearly esta(lished and a definite agenda determined# Although the intention (ehind this silver (ullet approach to understanding the glo(al environmental crisis has (een to provide the environmental movement 6ith a dear focus and agenda, its impact has (een very nearly ?ust the opposite# It has repeatedly proven to (e more ivisive than pro uctive in galvani3ing a united front against environmental destruction# The response oesn?t influence the environment 9illings%orth an Palmer ,F # !immie and !ac<ueline S#, professor of Lnglish at Te7as A\ and Associate Director, .riting Programs Office, Bandma0 Lssays on Rhetoric and the Lnvironment, %FFK, p# G%$>4 To sum up, since ecophilosophical discourse generally flies in the face of the prevailing social paradigm, and offers its ethical insights and ecological panaceas in a language that is not accessi(le to lay pu(lics, it appears to (e null and void from the (eginning# In other 6ords, environmental ethics appears to (e incapa(le of moving a democratic ma?ority to support policies leading to6ard sustaina(ility# Mrom a traditional philosophical point of vie6, this situation is not a philosophical pro(lem, since emphasis is placed primarily on identifying (asic principles and providing supporting arguments# Mrom a rhetorical point of vie6, ho6ever, it is, since effective philosophical discourse necessarily promotes societal transformation #
C# # Sayre, for e7ample, recently t6ea0ed the (eard of the lion in its o6n den, noting that IIf norms encouraging conservation and proscri(ing

pollution 6ere actually in force in industrial society, it 6ould not (e the result of ethical theory= and the fact that currently they are no in force is not alleviated (y any amount of adroit ethical reasoning# oreover, empirical studies of pu(lic opinion and voting (ehavior

reveal an apparent parado7: more than t6o>thirds of adult Americans consider themselves environmentalists even 6hile the noose of ecocrisis continues to tighten around their collective nec0s# This parado7 disappears, ho6ever, de5aven>Smite argues, once 6e reali3e that there is no empirical data to support the hypothesis that the environmental movement involves any general Iphilosophical reorientation of pu(lic opiniond# On the contrary, he continues, people (ecome environmentalists not (ecause of Ienvironmental philosophy, (ut rather (ecause of local issues adversely affecting or threatening to affect the <uality of their o6n lives 86ater <uality, siting of a nuclear po6er plant, 6aste, and so on9# The environmental movement, on this argument, is (etter conceptuali3ed not as a mass pu(lic inspired (y environmental ethics, (ut as a num(er of so>called local>issue pu(lics addressing ecological dysfunctions# 1ut the plan oes legal reform is $ey 4oremus '$ la% professor at :)#4avis 5olly, .ashington \ Bee Ba6 Revie6, v*E, p#4$ Lnvironmentalists see0 e7pressive la6 in the nature protection conte7t# They recogni3e that nature protection can only (e effective in the long term if the political community comes to care more deeply a(out nature# Ba6 is one tool for changing societal values= appropriately framed and enforced, it can I tipK a society struggling to fin consensus on values# Lven if it is not framed 6ith a specific goal in mind, the la6 in this area inevita(ly e7presses societal values, endorsing certain formulations of the appropriate relationship (et6een human (eings and nature and
re?ecting others# ;ecause the politics of nature protection are necessarily so value>intensive, stories are li0ely to (e indispensa(le#

Top Level Environment AT: Postmo ern 9

Bailure to protect the natural %orl is the ultimate act of silencing others 8apner '$ P School of the International Service at American University Paul, International Studies Huarterly, v4), p# %EF
The response to eco>criticism I am suggesting calls on postmodern critics to see the manner in 6hich they themselves silence nature and to ta0e their o6n advice and respect the radical Iotherness of nonhuman 6orld# Postmodernism prides itself on critici3ing the urge

to6ard mastery running through the core of modernity@an urge animated (y a desire to gain greater degrees of control over ourselves and the 6orld, including 8and especially9 the natural 6orld 8Spretna0, %FFF= Thiele, %FFE9# ;ut isn-t mastery e7actly 6hat postmodernism is e7erting as it captures the nonhuman 6orld 6ithin its o6n conceptual domainJ Doesn-t postmodern criticism do tis o6n violence as it silences the 6orld of forests, oceans, mountain ranges, and savannasJ ight not postmodernism (e simply deepening the modernist urge to6ard mastery eliminating the ontological 6eight of the nonhuman 6orld through the assertion that there is no Inature (ecause everything is a social constructionJ The postmodernist may respond that, 6ell, yes, recogni3ing the social
construction of Inature does ignore the self>e7pression of the nonhuman, (ut ho6 6ould 6e 0no6 6hat such self e7pression meansJ Indeed, nature doesn-t seem to spea0= rather, some person al6ays spea0s on nature-s (ehalf and as 6e all 0no6, 6hatever that person says is a social construction# Indeed, isn-t any attempt to listen to the nonhuman 6orld a form of social constructionJ All attempts to listen to nature are, indeed, social constructions, except one. Lven the most radical postmodernist ac0no6ledges the distinction (et6een physical e7istence and none7istence# As mentioned, postmodernists assume that there is a physical su(stratum to the phenomenal 6orld, even if they argue a(out its different meanings# This su(stratum is essential for allo6ing entities to spea0 or e7press themselves# That 6hich doesn-t e7ist, doesn-t spea0# That 6hich doesn-t e7ist, manifests no character# Put differently, yes, the postmodernist should rightly 6orry a(out interpreting nature-s e7pressions# And everyone should (e 6ary a(out those 6ho claim to spea0 on nature-s (ehalf 8including 6hen environmentalists and student of glo(al environmental politics do so9# ;ut

6e should not dou(t the simple>minded notion that a prere<uisite of e7pression is e7istence# That 6hich doesn-t e7ist can never e7press itself# And this in turn suggests that preserving the nonhuman 6orld@in all its diverse em(odiments@must (e seen (y eco> critics as a fundamental good# Lco>critics must (e supporters, in some fashion, of environmental preservation#

Top Level Environment AT: (oot )ause

*o single root cause their emphasis on root cause dooms the alternative permutation solves !est Ellis ,- 73 in )ivil Engineering !effrey Lllis, +hief, Lnvironmental, Safety and 5ealth Lngineering at United States Air Morce, S in +ivil Lngineering, %FF), Uncommon ground: rethin0ing the human place in nature, pg# G)D ;ecause of the comple7ity and seeming intransigence of environmental pro(lems, it is clearly time for radical environmentalists to focus less on defining their differences and more on determining the common ground that might provide the (asis for a more coherent an unifie ecology movement# As I hope this essay illustrates, if they hope to achieve a 6or0ing consensus, radicals must strive to resist the 6ell>esta(lished tendency in environmental discourse to identify the single most important and fundamental cause of the many environmental pro(lems that have (ecome increasingly apparent in recent decades# The desire to essentiali3e environmental pro(lems and trace them all to one root cause is o(viously a po6erful one# If a root cause can (e identified, then priorities can (e clearly esta(lished and a definite agenda determined# Although the intention (ehind this silver (ullet approach to understanding the glo(al environmental crisis has (een to provide the environmental movement 6ith a dear focus and agenda, its impact has (een very nearly ?ust the opposite# It has repeatedly proven to (e more ivisive than pro uctive in galvani3ing a united front against environmental destruction# This is not surprising# It 6ould indeed (e convenient if all ecological pro(lems sprang from the same source, (ut this is far from li0ely # If nothing else, during the last forty years it has (ecome a(undantly clear that environmental pro(lems arc deeply comple7 # &ot only have they proven e7tremely difficult to unravel scientifically, (ut they have social and political aspects that further compound their comple7ity# Nlo(al 6arming, species e7tinction, pollution human population gro6th, depletion of resources, and increased rates of life> threatening disease are ?ust some of the many pro(lems that confront us# The idea that there is a single root cause to any one of these pro(lems, let alone to all of them ta0en together, is, to put it mildly, a!sur # ;ecause
environmental pro(lems arc each the result of a multiplicity of causal factors, there can (e no one comprehensive solution to all of them# And yet radical environmental thin0ers are correct in re?ecting the piecemeal approach to environmental pro(lems that has (ecome institutionali3ed in American society# Thus far, reform environmentalism has proven itself inade<uate to the tas0 of halting the deterioration of the earthUs ecological systems# ;ut an alternative to that approach 6ill not emerge until radicals re?ect the <ui7otic and divisive search

for a root cause to the spectrum of environmental pro(lems that have (een su(sumed under the um(rella of the ecological crisis# Instead of arguing 6ith one another a(out 6ho is most right, radicals must (egin to consider the insights each perspective has generated and 6or0 to6ard a more comprehensive rather than a confrontational understanding of pro(lems that have multiple, comple7, and interconnected causes #

Aesthetics 9 Ans%ers @eneral

Bocus on aesthetics legitimizes the status ;uoG!eauty can !e foun %ithin even the most horri!le circumstances 8hite F2 Professor of )omparative Literature 5ayden, Professor of +omparative Biterature at Stanford University, The +ontent of the Morm: &arrative Discourse \ 5istorical Representation, p# E% This aestheticism under6rites the conviction 8periodically reaffirmed 6hen history fails to provide a 0no6ledge that can legitimately claim the title Iscientific9 that historical studies are, after all, a (ranch of (elles>lettres, a calling suita(le for a 0ind of gentleman>scholar for 6hom Itaste serves as a guide to comprehension, and Istyle as an inde7 of achievement# .hen the notions of taste and style are given a specifically moral connotation, as they inevita(ly are 6hen they serve as the
(asis of a professional ethics, they authori3e the attitudes that the socially responsi(le historian properly assumes (efore his designated o(?ects of study# These attitudes include respect for the Iindividuality, Iuni<ueness, and Iineffa(ility of historical entities, sensitivity to the Irichness and Ivariety of the historical field, and a faith in the Iunity that ma0es of finite sets of historical particulars comprehensi(le 6holes# All this

permits the historian to see some (eauty, if not good, in everything human and to assume an Olympian calm in the face of any current social situation , ho6ever terrifying it may appear to anyone 6ho lac0s historical perspective# It renders 1one2 him receptive to a genial pluralism in matters epistemological , suspicious of anything smac0ing of reductionism, irritated 6ith theory, disdainful of technical terminology or ?argon, and contemptuous of any to discern the direction that the future development of 1one-s2 his o6n society might ta0e# *e ite for gen ere language

Anthro 9 Ans%ers Environment Lin$ Turn

/uman#centere ness is $ey to environmental sustaina!ility 3chmi tz '$ Professor of Philosophy = Arizona David Schmidt3, G0# Philosophy, University of Ari3ona, Lnvironmental Lthics, p# $EF>4DK
Bi0e economic reasoning, ecological reasoning is reasoning a(out e<uili(ria and pertur(ations that 0eep systems from converging on e<uili(ria# Bi0e economic reasoning, ecological reasoning is reasoning a(out competition and unintended conse<uences, and the internal logic of systems, a logic that dictates ho6 a system responds to attempts to manipulate it# Lnvironmental activism and regulation do not automatically improve the environment# It is a truism in ecology, as in economics, that 6ell>intentioned interventions do not necessarily translate into good results# Lcology 8human and nonhuman9 is complicated, our 0no6ledge is limited, and environmentalists are themselves only human# Intervention that 6or0s 6ith the system-s logic rather than against it can have good conse<uences# Lven in a centrally planned economy, the shape ta0en (y the economy mainly is a function not of the central plan (ut of ho6 people respond to it, and people respond to central plans in 6ays that (est serve their purposes, not the central planner-s# Therefore, even a dictator is in no position simply to decide ho6 things are going to go# Lcologists understand that this same point applies in their o6n discipline# They understand that an ecology-s internal logic limits the directions in 6hich it can (e ta0en (y 6ould>(e ecological engineers# .ithin environmental philosophy, most of us have come around to something li0e Aldo Beopold-s vie6 of humans as plain citi3ens of the (iotic community#1G%2 As ;ryan &orton notes, the contrast (et6een anthropocentrism and (iocentrism o(scures the fact that 6e increasingly need to (e nature>centered to (e properly human>centered= 6e need to focus on Osaving the ecological systems that are the conte7t of human cultural and economic activities#O 1GG2 If 6e do not tend to 6hat is good for nature, 6e 6ill not (e tending to 6hat is good for people either# As Nary "arner recently put it, on purely anthropocentric grounds 6e have reason to thin0 (iocentrically#1G$2 I completely agree# .hat I 6ish to add is that the converse is also true: on purely (iocentric grounds, 6e have

reason to thin0 anthropocentrically# .e need to (e human>centered to (e properly nature>centered, for if 6e do not tend to 6hat is good for people, 6e 6ill not (e tending to 6hat is good for nature either# Mrom a (iocentric perspective, preservationists sometimes are not anthropocentric enough# They sometimes advocate policies and regulations 6ith no concern for values and priorities that differ from their o6n# Lven from a purely (iocentric perspective, such slights are illegitimate# Policy ma0ers 6ho ignore human values and human priorities that differ from their o6n 6ill, in effect, (e committed to mismanaging the ecology of 6hich those ignored values and priorities are an integral part#

Anthro 9 Ans%ers AT: Lin$ of Omission

4u!!ing people LanthropocentricK !ecause they i n?t tal$ a!out animals ma$es the creation of an effective environmental movement impossi!le" an isn?t accurate Le%si ,' Professor of Environment artin Be6is professor in the School of the Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies at Du0e University# Nreen Delusions, %FFG p%E>%K
&ature for &ature-s Sa0e@And 5umanity for 5umanity-s It is 6idely accepted that environmental thin0ers can (e divided into t6o camps: those 6ho favor the preservation of nature for nature-s sa0e, and those 6ho 6ish only to maintain the environment as the necessary ha(itat of human0ind 8see Pepper %FKF= O-Riordan %FKF= . Mo7 %FFD9# In the first group stand the green radicals, 6hile the second supposedly consists of environmental reformers, also la(eled Ishallo6 ecologists# Radicals often pull no punches in assailing the mem(ers of the latter camp for their anthropocentrism, managerialism, and gutless accommodationism@to some, Ishallo6 ecology is I?ust a more efficient form of e7ploitation and oppression 8<uoted in &ash %FKF:GDG9# &hile

this dichotomy may accurately depict some of the ma?or approaches of the past, it is remar0a(ly unhelpful for devising the ind of framewor re%uired for a truly effective environmental movement# It incorrectly assumes that those 6ho adopt an anti>anthropocentric vie6 8that is, one that accords intrinsic 6orth to nonhuman (eings9 6ill also em(race the larger political programs of radical environmentalism# Similarly, it portrays those who favor reforms within the political and economic structures of representative democracies as there(y excluding all nonhumans from the realm of moral consideration# :et no convincing reasons are ever provided to show why these beliefs should necessarily be aligned in such a manner# 8Mor an instructive discussion of the pitfalls of the anthropocentric versus
nonanthropocentric dichotomy, see &orton %FKE, chapter ir#9

Anthro 9 Ans%ers /umans Birst

Preventing human e&tinction is necessary in an eco#centric frame%or$ 1aum , Ph4 = Penn 3tate :niversity Sean ;aum, PhD a Penn State University, GDDF, I+oste(enefit analysis of space e7ploration: Some ethical considerations, Space Policy, "ol# G*, Science Direct It is of note that the priority of reducing the ris0 of human e7tinction persists in forms of +;A 6hich value nature in an ecocentric fashion, i#e# independently of any consideration of human interests# The (asic reason is that 6ithout humanity leading long>term survival efforts 86hich 6ould most li0ely include space coloni3ation9, the rest of Larth life 6ould perish as a result of the astronomical processes descri(ed a(ove# This point is ela(orated (y
futurist ;ruce Tonn, 6ho argues on ecocentric grounds for reorienting society to focus on avoiding human e7tinction through (oth immediate avoidance of catastrophe and long>term space coloni3ation 14D2# Tonn du(s this process of surviving (eyond Larth-s eventual demise ,,transcending o(livion-- 14%2# There is thus some convergence in the recommendations of the common

anthropocentric, money>(ased +;A and the ecocentric +;A descri(ed here# This convergence results from the fact that 8in all li0elihood9 only humans are capa(le of coloni3ing space, and thus human survival is necessary for Larth life to transcend o(livion# *)1A M )ost#1enefit Analysis )oncerns over humans create an a priori environmental consciousness solves the impact >only focusing on anthropocentrism allo6s egocentrism and ethnocentrism to greatly damage the environment +ohnson ,Pamela +# !ohnson, Development of an Lcological +onscience: Is Lcocentrism a Prere<uisiteJ The Academy of anagement Revie6 P peer revie6ed ?ournal, !uly, !STOR $# Anthropocentrism, especially 6hen motivated (y concerns a(out intergenerational e<uity and ?ustice, can (e a strong foun ation for the development of an ecological conscience# If one elevates the 6ell>(eing of the entire human species, no6 and in the future, to the center of moral consideration, it (ecomes impossi(le to escape the conclusion that the 6ell>(eing of humans and the 6ell>(eing of the ecosystems on 6hich 6e depend are ine&trica!ly lin$e # .e have one small planet, and as a species 6e are interconnected 6ith other species in a comple7 set of ecological relationships a(out 6hich 6e have only limited understanding# It seems to me that egocentrism and ethnocentrism are more ecologically pro!lematic than anthropocentrism# If 6e can get over the anthropocentric'ecocentric divide, 6e can (egin to address some more pressing
issues hinted at (y 5anna 8%FF*: EFE9 6hen he as0ed, for e7ample, O.hat level of environmental distur(ance 6ould ma0e it appropriate to close a plant or shut do6n a (usiness 8there(y significantly stressing and placing at ris0 a human community9JO Specific <uestions a(out the ethical principles and reasoning processes 6e use to mediate interspecies conflicts 8particularly (et6een Ovital interestsO of humans and other species9 are the tough ones# Paradigm definition is necessary (ut insufficient to address such issues# Huestions such as these are 6here the hard 6or0 of operationali3ing an ethic or a paradigm really (egins#

/uman#centere ness is a pre#re;uisite to care for the environment Light ' Professor of environmental philosophy Andre6 Bight, professor of environmental philosophy and director of the Lnvironmental +onservation Lducation Program, GDDG, Applied Philosophy Nroup at &e6 :or0 University, LTAP5IBOSOP5:, v$$, n4, !uly, p# *)%
It should (e clear (y no6 that endorsing a methodological environmental pragmatism re<uires an acceptance of some form of anthropocentrism in environmental ethics, if only (ecause 6e have sound empirical evidence that humans thin0 a(out the value of

nature in human terms and pragmatists insist that 6e must pay attention to ho6 humans thin0 a(out the value of nature# Indeed, as I said a(ove, it is a common presupposition among committed nonanthropocentrists that the proposition that humans are anthropocentrist is true, though regretta(le# There are many pro(lems involved in the 6holesale re?ec > tion of anthropocentrism (y most environmental philosophers# .hile I cannot ade<uately e7plain my reservations to this re?ection, for no6 I hope the reader 6ill accept the premise that not e7pressing reasons for environmental priorities in human terms seriously hin ers our a(ility to communicate a moral (asis for (etter environmental policies to the pu(lic# ;oth anthropocentric and nonanthropocentric claims should (e open to us# This influence on the environmental movement shoul !e the most relevant concern Light ' Professor of environmental philosophy

Andre6 Bight, professor of environmental philosophy and director of the Lnvironmental +onservation Lducation Program, GDDG, Lnvironmental Lthics: .hat Really atters .hat Really .or0s David Schmidt3 and Lli3a(eth .illott, p# **)>*E
In recent years a criti<ue of this predominant trend in environmental ethics has emerged from 6ithin the pragmatist tradition in American philosophy#U The force of this criti<ue is driven (y the intuition that environmental philosophy cannot afford to (e <ui escent

a(out the pu(lic reception of ethical arguments over the value of nature# The original motivations of environmental philosophers for turning their philosophical insights to the environment support such a position#, Lnvironmental philosophy evolved out of a concern a(out the state of the gro6 ing environmental crisis, and a conviction that a philosophical contri(ution could (e made to the resolution of this crisis# ;ut if environmental philosophers spend all of their time de(ating non>human centered forms of value theory they 6ill argua(ly never get very far in ma0ing such a contri(ution# Mor e7ample, to continue to ignore human motivations for the act of valuing nature causes many in the field to overloo0 the
fact that most people find it very difficult to e7tend moral consideration to plants and animals on the grounds that these entities possess some form of intrinsic, inherent, or other6ise conceived nonanthropocentric value# It is even more difficult for people to recogni3e that nonhumans could have rights# +laims a(out the value of nature as such do not appear to resonate 6ith the or dinary moral

intuitions of most people 6ho, after all, spend most of their lives thin0ing of value, moral o(ligations, and rights in e7clusively human terms# Indeed, 6hile most environmental philosophers (egin their 6or0 6ith the assumption that most people thin0
of value in human>centered terms 8a pro(lem that has (een decried since the very early days of the field9, fe6 have considered the pro(lem of ho6 a non>human>centered approach to valuing nature can ever appeal to such human intuitions# The particular version of the pragmatist criti<ue of environmental ethics that I have endorsed recogni3es that 6e need to rethin0 the utility of anthropocentric

arguments in environmental moral and political theory, not necessarily (ecause the traditional nonanthropocentric arguments in the field are false, (ut (ecause they hamper attempts to contri(ute to the pu(lic discussion of environmental pro(lems, in terms familiar to the pu(lic # (everence for human life is first priority 3chmahmann an Polache$ ,A Partner and Associate in Begal Mirm, GG ;#+# Lnvtl# Aff# B# Rev# E4E
To some e7tent, it is a challenge to the value of civili3ation to dismiss the !udeo>+hristian ethic as anthropocentric or speciesist nGE and thus deficient, and to minimi3e the significance of the capacity to e7press reason, to recogni3e moral principles, and to plan for ordered coe7istence in a comple7 technological society# OThe core of this (oo0,O Singer 6rites in Animal Bi(eration, Ois the claim that to discriminate against (eings solely on account of their species is a form of pre?udice, immoral and indefensi(le in the same 6ay that discrimination on the (asis of race is immoral and indefensi(le#O nGK Such an e<uation, ho6ever, allo6s Ingrid &e60ir0, founder of People for the Lthical Treatment of Animals 8PLTA9, to state that O1s2i7 million !e6s died in concentration camps, (ut si7 (illion (roiler chic0ens 6ill die this year in slaughter houses#O nGF The only OpureO human (eing, &e60ir0 has theori3ed, is a dead one# O1O2nly dead people are true purists, feeding the earth and living (eings rather than ta0ing from them# # # # .e 0no6 it is impossi(le to (reathe 6ithout hurting or e7ploiting#O n$D $hese forms of doctrinaire

*animal rightism* ignore the value that society has placed on human life which enables society to function in an orderly fashion# In effect the extreme positions of animal rights activists devalue human life and detract from human rights# n$% OThe (elief that human life, and only human life, is sacrosanct is a form of 1QE*42 speciesism,O Singer 6rites# n$G ;ut if the sacredness of all life is e'uivalent what is one to make of animals that kill each other and the often arbitrary nature of life and death and survival of the fittest in the wild( .hat is one to ma0e of the conflict (et6een the seeming

ar(itrariness of the 0illing that ta0es place in nature and the ethical content of human e7istence that starts 6ith the certainty that the life of every individual person is uni<uely sacredJ Sometimes the statements of contemporary radical environmentalists and animal rights activists display a profound misanthropy# OIf radical environmentalists were to invent a disease to bring human population back to

ecological sanity it would probably be something like +I12 ,O 6rites one author using the pseudonym

iss Ann Thropy# n$$ OSeeing no other possi(ility for the preservation of (iological diversity on earth than a drastic decline in the num(er of humans, iss Ann Thropy contends that AIDS is ideal for the tas0 primarily (ecause Uthe disease only affects humansU and sho6s promise for 6iping out large num(ers of humans#O n$4 Ingrid &e60ir0 has commented that even if animal research resulted in a cure for +I12 -?$+ would

*be against it#* n6: $he point is that reverence for human life must be both the starting point and the reference point for any ethical philosophy and system of law that does not immediately (ecome unhitched from its moorings in civili3ation#
.ith respect to animals and their similarities to humans, SingerUs dismissal of Ofine phrasesO not6ithstanding, the fact that de(ate e7ists a(out the ethical conse<uences of such differences is almost distinction enough# It is we %% humans %% who are having the debate not

animals; and it is a uni'ue feature of humankind to recogni)e ethical subtleties# $his ability to recogni)e gradations and competing interests is what defines the rules that we live by and the system of rights and responsibilities that comprise our legal system# +nimals cannot possess rights because animals are in no way a part MPD::N of any of these processes# On the other hand, any duties 6e may have respecting our treatment of animals derive from the fact that 6e are part of these
processes# n$)

/uman rights shoul !e preferre animals lac$ the capacity for free moral Cu gment )ohen F- Professor = : of 7 +arl, Professor a U ich, http:''spot#colorado#edu'hheath6oo'phil%GDD,SprDE'cohen#pdf

The attri(utes of human (eings from 6hich this moral capa(ility arises have (een descri(ed variously (y philosophers, (oth ancient and modem: the inner consciousness of a free 6ill 8Saint Augustine9= the grasp, (y human reason, of the (inding
character of moral la6 8Saint Thomas9= the self>conscious participation of human (eings in an o(?ective ethical order 85egel9= human mem(ership in an organic moral community 8;radley9= the development of the human self through the consciousness of other moral selves 8 ead9= and the underivative, intuitive cognition of the rightness of an action 8 -richardJ# 8ost influential has been Immanuel

@antBs emphasis on the universal human possession of a uni'uely moral will and the autonomy its use entails# /umans confront choices that are purely moral; humans%%but certainly not dogs or mice%% lay down moral laws for others and for themselves# /uman beings are self%legislative morally autonomous +nimals 8that is, nonhuman animals, the ordinary sense of that 6ord9 lack this capacity for free moral "udgment# $hey are not beings of a kind capable of exercising or responding to moral claims# +nimals therefore have no rights and they can have none. This is the core of
the argument a(out the alleged rights of animals# The holders of rights must have the capacity to comprehend rules of duty, governing all including themselves# In applying such rules, the holders of rights must recogni3e possi(le conflicts (et6een 6hat is in their o6n interest and 6hat is ?ust# Anly in a community of beings capable of self%restricting moral "udgments can the concept of a right be

correctly invoked# /umans have such moral capacities# $hey are in this sense self%legislative are members of communities governed by moral rules and do possess rights# +nimals do not have such moral capacities# $hey are not morally self%legislative cannot possibly be members of a truly moral community and therefore cannot possess rights# In conducting research on animal sub"ects therefore, we do not violate their rights because they have none to violate# :se of nature is moral an solves e&tinction Eoun$ins D Professor = 8heeling Ld6ard, Professor a .heeling, T5L MBA.LD DO+TRI&L OM &ATURLUS I&TRI&SI+ "ABUL, http:''666#<ue(ecoisli(re#org'D4'D4%D%*>%E#htm any environmentalists contend that nature has an intrinsic value , in and of itself, apart from its contri(utions to human 6ell>(eing# They maintain that all created things are e<ual and should (e respected as ends in themselves having rights to their
o6n actuali3ation 6ithout human interference# Lcological egalitarians defend (iodiversity for its o6n sa0e and assign the rest of nature ethical status at least e<ual to that of human (eings# Some even say that the collective needs of nonhuman species and inanimate o(?ects must ta0e precedence over man-s needs and desires# Animals, plants, roc0s, land, 6ater, and so forth, are all said to possess intrinsic value (y their mere e7istence 6ithout regard to their relationship to individual human (eings# Lnvironmentalists erroneously assign human

values an concern to an amoral material sphere # .hen environmentalists tal0 a(out the nonhuman natural 6orld, they commonly attri(ute human values to it, 6hich, of course, are completely irrelevant to the nonhuman realm# Mor e7ample, I nature is incapa(le of (eing concerned 6ith the possi(le e7tinction of any particular ephemeral species# Over FF percent of all species of life that have ever e7isted on earth have (een estimated to (e e7tinct 6ith the great ma?ority of these perishing (ecause of nonhuman factors# &ature cannot care a(out I(iodiversity# 5umans happen to value (iodiversity (ecause it reflects the state of the natural 6orld in 6hich they currently live# .ithout humans, the (eauty and spectacle of nature 6ould not e7ist P such ideas can only e7ist in the min of a rational valuer# These environmentalists fail to reali3e that value means having value to some valuer# To (e a value some aspect of nature must (e a value to some human (eing# People have the capacity to assign and

to create value 6ith respect to nonhuman e7istents# &ature, in the form of natural resources, does not e7ist independently of man# en, choosing to act on their ideas, transform nature for human purposes# All resources are man>made# It is the application of human valuation to natural su(stances that ma0es them resources# Resources thus can (e vie6ed as a function of human 0no6ledge and action# ;y using their rationality and ingenuity, men affect nature, there(y ena(ling them to achieve progress# an-s survival and flourishing depend upon the

study of nature that includes all things, even man himself# 5uman (eings are the highest level of nature in the 0no6n universe# en are a distinct natural phenomenon as are fish, (irds, roc0s, etc# Their proper place in the hierarchical order of nature nee s to !e recognize # Unli0e plants and animals, human (eings have a conceptual faculty, free 6ill, and a moral nature# ;ecause morality involves the a(ility to choose, it follo6s that moral 6orth is related to enhance the lives of individual human (eings# It is therefore morally fitting to ma$e use of nature#

human choice and action and that the agents of moral 6orth can also (e said to have moral value# ;y rationally using his conceptual faculty, man can create values as ?udged (y the standard of enhancing human life# The highest priority must (e assigned to actions that

Anthro 9 Ans%ers )aptivity @oo

Attempts to free animalia oes not pro uce a true free om enclosure is simply a !enign replacement for the harsh natural %orl 4uc$ler F Ph4 in 1iology Neordie, ARTI+BL: T.O A!OR MBA.S OM T5L A&I AB RIN5TS O"L L&T, PhD in ;iology, !D from &orth6estern, %4 Animal B# %EF It is crucial to animal rights advocatesU general theme that they deli(erately overloo0 that evolution shaped the 6ild 6ith a(usive, cruel, predatory, and destructive activities through natural selection# .hile o(servations of the natural 6orld can certainly (e ignored over the short term, the truths they convey cannot ultimately be eluded over the long term# It cannot (e denied that animals, 6hether in the 6ild or in enclosed environments, must live through a constant bevy of unavoidably vicious experiences< microscopic predators erode them; parasites weaken them; vegetation restricts them; substrates degrade them; other animals pirate their resources; toxins invade them; hunger shadows them; their abiotic physical environment strains them; their biotic organic environment burdens them; and conspecifics kin and potential mates exploit them# nEF Through evolutionary processes, the natural world is an environment in which competition for resources makes life unrelentingly harsh and terminate early # It (roo0s no permanent relief from pain and decay# $he careless and intentional acts of other living things in trying to keep their own bodies alive are regularly the cause of each trouble encountered # nKD +n artificial enclosure such as a home, 3oo, la(oratory, 1Q%F)2 or 0ennel, may indeed reduce those impacts or at worst perhaps simply replace those impacts with different ones# &hatever the enclosure opening its door and allowing the animal *to go free* does not send the animal into any more free or favorable environment in any respect worth describing# (emoval from captivity lea s to increase pain an suffering 4uc$ler F Ph4 in 1iology Neordie, ARTI+BL: T.O A!OR MBA.S OM T5L A&I AB RIN5TS O"L L&T, PhD in ;iology, !D from &orth6estern, %4 Animal B# %EF The animal rights movement 6ould rather O(o6dleri3eO evolution (y natural selection or nature 8often unrealistically defined as animal life outside of human influences9 through 6hat science 6riter att Ridley has called Ocondescending sentimentalism* by *desperately playing up the slimmest of clues to animal virtue ### and clutching at straws suggesting that humankind somehow caused aberrant cruelty# O nK% +nimal rights advocates work hard to discount the reduction of the natural horrors that captivity farming and ranching has effected on animals# $hey prefer instead to trumpet the benefits that freedom has brought to humans and then apply the false syllogism that those benefits are readily translatable to animals# In doing so they mistake what life is like for an animal who is *truly free#* $his in turn, threatens to expose animals to higher levels of pain and suffering than they currently experience in captivity on farms on ranches and in our homes# nKG

Anthro 9 Ans%ers 3uffering @oo

Em!racing animal suffering as inevita!le is net#!etter for animal %elfare 4uc$ler F Ph4 in 1iology Neordie, ARTI+BL: T.O A!OR MBA.S OM T5L A&I AB RIN5TS O"L L&T, PhD in ;iology, !D from &orth6estern, %4 Animal B# %EF The animal rights movementUs lauda(le goals include, patently enough, protecting the welfare of a few familiar animals# $he movementBs methods to reach those goals include the promulgation of legislation that penali)es the
neglectful, the a(usive, and the do6nright malicious# The movement contri(utes unevenly to the ongoing pu(lic de(ate over 6hat to do 6ith and a(out animals# n%DG $he moment the movement flounders into rights territory it misapprehends the police power of the

state and the protection of the citi3enry and e7ponentially compounds pro(lems (y offending the (iological understanding of 6hat is an animal# At that moment, the movementBs methods immediately outstrip and disserve its goals # The pro(lem is not that the movementUs analysis in this area is someho6 faulty= the pro(lem is that there is no analysis at all# $ort property contract and ownership laws respecting the ob"ective value of a smallish amount of animal life at the expense and allowance of the destruction of many other animals serve law science logic and *animal welfare* far better by embracing the realities and necessities of complex animal%environmental interactions and attending to the welfare of humans through the vehicle of law#

Anthro 9 Ans%ers AT: Value to Life

Animal e;uality lea s to no value to human life 3chmahmann an Polache$ ,A Partner and Associate in Begal Mirm, GG ;#+# Lnvtl# Aff# B# Rev# E4E
Singer is right, of course, that once one dismisses 5e(re6 thought= nGG the teachings of !esus= nG$ the vie6s of St# A<uinas, St# Mrancis, Renaissance 6riters, and Dar6in= nG4 and an entire Oideology 6hose history 6e have traced (ac0 to the ;i(le and the ancient Nree0sO nG* >> in short, once one dismisses innate human characteristics the ability to express reason to recogni)e moral principles

to make subtle distinctions and to intellectuali)e %% there is no way to support the view that humans possess rights but animals do not# In the end however it is the aggregate of these characteristics that does render humans fundamentally importantly and unbridgeably different from animals even though it is also beyond 'uestion that in individual instances >> for e7ample, in the case of vegetative individuals %% some animals may indeed have higher cognitive skills than some humans# $o argue on that basis alone however that human institutions are morally flawed because they rest on assumptions regarding the aggregate of human abilities needs and actions is to deny such institutions the capacity to draw any distinctions at all# 7onsider the conse'uences of a theory which does not distinguish between animal life and human life for purposes of identifying and enforcing legal rights# Lvery individual mem(er of every species 6ould have recogni3ed claims against human (eings and the state, and perhaps other animals as 6ell# +s the concept of rights expanded to include the *claims* of all living creatures the concept would lose much of its force and human rights would suffer as a conse'uence# Bong (efore Singer 6rote Animal Bi(eration, one philosopher 6rote: If it is once observed that there is no difference in principle between the case of dogs , cats, or horses, or stags, fo7es, and hares, and that of tsetse>flies or tape6orms or the bacteria in our own blood%stream the conclusion likely to be drawn is that there is so much wrong that we cannot help doing to the brute creation that it is best not to trouble ourselves about it any more at all# $he ultimate sufferers are likely to be our fellow men, because the final conclusion is likely to be not that we ought to treat the MPD:6N brutes like human beings but that there is no good reason why we should not treat human beings like brutes# ?xtension of this principle leads straight to =elsen and =uchenwald 1achau and +uschwit) where the >erman and the Qew or -ole only took the place of the human being and the 7olorado beetle# nG)

Anthro 9 Ans%ers Perm

Permutation solves a!solute reCection is unnecessary 1arry ,, Lecturer in Politics !ohn ;arry, Becturer in Politics a Ceele, %FFF, Rethin0ing Nreen politics, pg# $*
.e may thin0 of environmental virtue as having to do 6ith the refinement of moral discernment in regard to the place of nature as a constitutive aspect of the human good# The cultivation of environmental virtues can then (e regarded as a matter of discerning the place nature has 6ithin some particular human good or interest# A more positive statement 6ould (e to say that those 6ho destroy nature are motivated (y an unnecessarily narro6 vie6 of the human good, and that U6hat they count as important is too narro6ly confinedU 85ill, %FK$: G%F9# In so doing the inherent plurality of the Uhuman goodU is occluded# That is, forms of anthropocentrism 6hich narro6 the human good and

human interests can (e critici3ed as vices, or potential vices# At the same time, those 6ho destroy nature also often have a mista0en appreciation of the UseriousnessU 8Taylor, %FKF9 of the human interest or good in the service of 6hich nature is destroyed# 5o6ever, to reCect anthropocentrism is not the solution" (ut is rather itself a vice of 6hich 6e need to (e a6are# A virtue approach is thus anthropocentric in that its reference point is some human good or interest, (ut as argued in the ne7t chapter, this ethical 8as opposed to metaphysical9 anthropocentrism is compati(le 6ith including considerations of non>human interests and 6elfare# The affirmative espouses ecological ste%ar ship this is compati!le %ith an more ethical than 1arry ,, Lecturer in Politics !ohn ;arry, Becturer in Politics a Ceele, %FFF, Rethin0ing Nreen politics, pg# E>K Lcological ste6ardship, unli0e ecocentrism, see0s to emphasi3e that a self>refle7ive, long>term anthropocentrism, as opposed to an UarrogantU or UstrongU anthropocentrism, can secure many of the policy o(?ectives of ecocentrism, in terms of environmental preservation and conservation # As argued in +hapter $, a reformed, refle7ive anthropocentrism is premised on critically evaluating human uses of the non>human 6orld, and distinguishing Upermissi(leU from Uimpermissi(leU uses# That is, an Uethics of useU, though anthropocentric an roote in human interests , see0s to regulate human interaction 6ith the environment (y distinguishing legitimate UuseU from un?ustified Ua(useU # The premise for this defence of anthropocentric moral reasoning is that an immanent criti<ue of Uarrogant humanismU is a much more efensi!le an effective %ay to e7press green moral concerns than re?ecting anthropocentrism and developing a Une6 ecocentric ethicU# As discussed in +hapters G and $, ecocentric demands are premised on an over>hasty dismissal of anthropocentrism 6hich precludes a recognition of the positive resources %ithin anthropocentrism for developing an appropriate and practica(le moral idiom to cover social> environmental interaction# O*LE the perm solves a!solute non#anthro isa!les ALL green politics !y erasing the human a!ility to correct pro!lems %e create 4o!son" '$ P Professor of Politics at the University of Ceele Andre6, INreen Political Thought, $rd ed#, pg# **>*) The reason for d6elling on this is that the green movement may (e doing itself a disservice (y 6hat has (een seen as its insistent distancing from the human# In the first place it is self>contradictory# +harlene Spretna0, for e7ample 6rites that
INreen politics re?ects the anthropocentric orientation of humanism a philosophy 6hich posits that humans have the a(ility to confront and solve the many pro(lems 6e face (y applying human reason and (y rearranging the natural 6orld and the interactions of men and 6omen so that human life 6ill prosper# 8Spretna0 and +apra, %FK*, pg# G$49# There is evidently a reasona(le green re?ection of human>instrumentalism here, (ut also a distur(ing hint that human (eings should a(andon their pretensions to solving pro(lems they have (rought upon themselves# This suspicion is reinforced (y comments of the follo6ing 0ind: IIn the long run, &ature is in control 8Spretna0 and +apra, %FK*, p# G$49# If Spretna0 really (elieves this, one 6onders 6hy she (others to 6rite (oo0s persuading us of the merits of green politics# The fact of her involvement implies a e(leif that she has some control, ho6ever minimal, over the destiny of the planet# Overall, of course, it is the

generali3ed (elief in the possi(ility of change that ma0es the green movement a properly political movement# .ithout such a (elief, the movement-s reason for (eing 6ould (e undermined# Mrom this perspective, the recognition that 6ea0 anthropocentrism is unavoida(le may act as a useful political corrective to the idea that ,&ature is in control- : at least it reintroduces the human on to the agenda@a necessary condition for there to (e such a thing as politics#

Anthro 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails 6mpossi!le

Their ethic is !iologically impossi!le 4uc$ler F Ph4 in 1iology Neordie, ARTI+BL: T.O A!OR MBA.S OM T5L A&I AB RIN5TS O"L L&T, PhD in ;iology, !D from &orth6estern, %4 Animal B# %EF Those of us at the heart of the animal la6 movement envision a 6orld in 6hich the lives and interests of all sentient
(eings are respected 6ithin the legal system, 6here companion animals have good, loving homes for a lifetime, 6here 6ild animals can live out their natural lives according to their instincts in an environment that supports their needs > a 6orld in which animals are not exploited

terrori)ed tortured or controlled to serve frivolous or greedy human purposes # This vision guides in 6or0ing to6ard a far more ?ust and truly humane society# nK$ A 6or0a(le definition of OsentienceO or Osentient (eingsO not6ithstanding, one would have to ignore the last hundred and fifty years of accumulated rigorous scientific study of how evolution by natural selection actually works in the natural world to sincerely make such a MPC9DN plea# nK4 + world *in which animals are not exploited terrori)ed tortured or controlled to serve frivolous or greedy human purposes* nH: is an unobtainable, inherently biologically impossible world# oreover, the world of nature to 6hich Tischler fervently hopes to return animals already is a 6orld in 6hich animals are *exploited terrori)ed tortured or controlled* nHF to serve the frivolous or greedy purposes of other animals including conspecifics and kin# 7orality fails to apply across animalia other animals %on?t respect morality 4uc$ler F Ph4 in 1iology Neordie, ARTI+BL: T.O A!OR MBA.S OM T5L A&I AB RIN5TS O"L L&T, PhD in ;iology, !D from &orth6estern, %4 Animal B# %EF Another e7ample of ethical conflict created (y the animal rights position is that the entire animal 6orld must (e seen to (e inherently immoral (ecause the ne6 OrightsO 6ill never (e respected (et6een and among animals other than humans# nKF >od help the activist who tries valiantly to hold long onto the argument that it is morality that demands legal rights for animals< + basic biology text would stop them absolutely cold at the early chapter describing the ma"or division of all MPC9HN life into prokaryotes and eukaryotes# nFD If activists gleaned
their information from a college science lesson instead of from a religious tome, they 6ould find that pro0aryotes engage in immoral acts:

$hroughout earth history prokaryotes have created immense global *crises of starvation pollution and extinction O nF% that make human parallels appear trivial in comparison# -rokaryotes destroy other organisms by the great multitude routinely transfer genetic material freely from individual to individual fool around with genetic engineering create *chimeras* at a level that our most ill%advised laboratory technicians could only dream about and fundamentally alter the biotic and abiotic world in doing so # nFG

Anthro 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Pragmatism

The alternative is not politically via!le prefer the affirmative?s material protection of the environment Light ' Professor of environmental philosophy Andre6 Bight, professor of environmental philosophy and director of the Lnvironmental +onservation Lducation Program, GDDG, Applied Philosophy Nroup at &e6 :or0 University, LTAP5IBOSOP5:, v$$, n4, !uly, p# 44%
Lven if Cat3 and OechsliUs arguments are technically correct as a possi(le statement of the implications of anthropocentrism in environmental policy and environmental activism, the facts of the case do not (ear out their 6orries# And 6e can imagine this to (e so in many other cases# Lven if sound nonanthropocentric motivations can (e descri(ed for other policies or acts of environmental heroism,

at (est 6e 6ould e7pect that any motivation for any action 6ould (e mi7ed, especially 6hen it is a human performing that action# An environmental ethic that ignored this lesson 6ould (e one that 6ould (e ill fitted to participate in policy decisions 6here the conte7t al6ays involves an appeal to a variety of intuitions and not only to a discrete set# .e must as0 ourselves eventually: .hat is more important, settling de(ates in value theory correct or actually motivating people to act, 6ith the commitment of someone li0e endes, to preserve natureJ The pressing timeframe of environmental pro(lems should at least 6arrant a consi eration of the latter#

Anthro 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Too E&treme

A!solute reCection of use of nature is lu icrous regulation of a!use is sufficient 1arry ,, Lecturer in Politics !ohn ;arry, Becturer in Politics a Ceele, %FFF, Rethin0ing Nreen politics, pg# *E>*K
Mor e7ample, (y claiming part of nature as property people are o(liged to treat it differently than if it 6ere uno6ned# Individuals no6 stand in a different relation to that part of nature, (ecause they no6 stand in a different relation to other humans# Thus, the treatment of nature vie6ed purely as a human resource can (e guided, at least in part, (y ethical considerations# In discussing the <uestion of ho6 6e ought to treat the non> human 6orld the focus should (e on the evaluation of the reasons given for particular types of usage# uch of environmental ethics

concerns itself 6ith esta(lishing that treatment (e premised on the independent moral status of non> humans, rather than focusing on the primacy of the relational character of human'nonhuman affairs# One possi(le

reason for this proprietarian vie6 suggested earlier is the non>anthropocentric conviction that a human>centred environmental ethic, resting on human interests in and valuations of nature, cannot guarantee the a priori preservation of nature from human use that many deep ecologists and environmental ethicists see as the mar0 of any UtrueU environmental ethic# Anthropocentric moral reasoning is held to (e a

insufficient ethical (asis for the protection of nature# If, ho6ever, 6e re?ect the notion that an environmental ethic must (e ?udged (y 6hether or not it secures this a priori protection for the natural 6orld, and instead see the ?o( of any environmental ethic as regulating actual human uses of nature and i entifying a!uses, then anthropocentrism per se 8as opposed to particular conceptions of it9 need not stand accused of (eing part of the pro(lem rather than part of the solution# It is the conviction of those 6ho (elieve that non>
precarious and

anthropocentrism is necessary for an environmental ethic that leads to an emphasis on the non>anthropocentric po6ers, values or capacities, and 6hich mar0s much of 6hat I have called the proprietarian strand of environmental ethics# This nonanthropocentric ethic presents us 6ith a picture of the 6orld in 6hich humans are disinterested valuers# The naturalistic anthropocentrism of an ethic of use sees

humans as Uinterested and partial valuersU, and active transformers of that 6orld # ;ecause a relational vie6

ultimately turns on human interests and concerns, it is vie6ed as capa(le only of an Uethic for the use of the environmentU as opposed to a genuine Uenvironmental ethicU 8Regan, %FKG9, defined as an ethic 6hich gives non>anthropocentric reasons for the protection of nature# .hat I 6ish to do in this section is to argue that an Uethics of useU 6hich regulates social>environmental interaction is a

sensi!le ethical platform upon 6hich actual, concrete human>nature conflicts and decisions can (e resolved, and upon %hich green politics can !ase itself#

Anthro 9 Ans%ers La!s Turn

Turn la!oratory use )ohen F- Professor = : of 7 +arl, Professor a U ich, http:''spot#colorado#edu'hheath6oo'phil%GDD,SprDE'cohen#pdf 5umans o6e to other humans a degree of moral regard that cannot (e o6ed to animals# Some humans ta0e on the o(ligation to support and heal others, (oth humans and animals, as a principal duty in their lives= the fulfillment of that duty may re<uire the sacrifice of many animals# If (iomedical investigators a(andon the calamity# 8The largest animal rights group in the country is People for the Lthical Treatment of Animals= its co> director, Ingrid &e60ir0, calls
research using animal su(?ects OfascismO and Osupremacism#O OAnimal li(erationists do not separate out the human animal,O she says, Oso there is no rational (asis for saying that a human (eing has special rights# A rat is a pig is a dog is a (oy# TheyUre all mammals#O9 $hose who claim

effective pursuit of their professional o(?ectives (ecause they are convinced that they may not do to animals 6hat the service of humans re<uires, they 6ill fail, o(?ectively, to do their duty# Refusing to recogni)e the moral differences among species is a sure path to

to base their ob"ection to the use of animals in biomedical research on their reckoning of the net pleasures and pains produced make a second error e'ually grave# ?ven if it were true >>as it is surely not>>that the pains of all animate beings must be counted e'ually a cogent utilitarian calculation re'uires that we weigh all the conse%uences of the use, and of the nonuse, of animals in la(oratory research# 7ritics relying 8ho6ever mista0enly9 on animal rights may claim to ignore the beneficial results of such research rights being trump cards to which interest and advantage must give way# ;ut
an argument that is e7plicitly framed in terms of interest and (enefit for all over the long run must attend also to the disadvantageous conse<uences of not using animals in research, and to all the achievements attained and attaina(le only through their use#

Turns their morality claim )ohen F- Professor = : of 7 +arl, Professor a U ich, http:''spot#colorado#edu'hheath6oo'phil%GDD,SprDE'cohen#pdf The sum of the (enefits of their use is utterly (eyond <uantification# The elimination of horri(le disease, the increase of longevity, the avoidance of great pain, the saving of lives, and the improvement of the <uality of lives 8for humans and for animals9 achieved through research using animals is so incalcula(ly geat that the argument of these critics, systematically pursued, esa(lishes not their condusion (ut its reverse: to refrain from using animals in (iomedical research is, on utilitarian grounds, morally wrong.

Anthro 9 Ans%ers Vegetarianism Turn

T:(* the alternative lea s to more animal eath eating animals is the most ethical thing to o Pollan - Professor = 1er$eley IAn Animal-s Place, %%>%D, http:''<uery#nytimes#com'gst'fullpage#htmlJ res[F*DDefdE%*$efF$$aG*E*Gc%aF)4FcK()$\page6anted[)# The farmer 6ould point out that even vegans have a UUserious clash of interestsUU 6ith other animals# The grain that the vegan eats is harvested 6ith a com(ine that shreds field mice, 6hile the farmerUs tractor crushes 6oodchuc0s in their (urro6s, and his pesticides drop song(irds from the s0y # Steve Davis, an animal scientist at Oregon State University, has estimated that if America 6ere to adopt a strictly vegetarian diet, the total num(er of animals 0illed every year 6ould actually increase, as animal pasture gave 6ay to ro6 crops# Davis contends that if our goal is to 0ill as fe6 animals as possi(le, then people should eat the largest possi(le animal that can live on the least intensively cultivated land: grass>fed (eef for every(ody #
It 6ould appear that 0illing animals is unavoida(le no matter 6hat 6e choose to eat# .hen I tal0ed to !oel Salatin a(out the vegetarian utopia, he pointed out that it 6ould also condemn him and his neigh(ors to importing their food from distant places, since the Shenandoah "alley receives too little rainfall to gro6 many ro6 crops# uch the same 6ould hold true 6here I live, in &e6 Lngland# .e get plenty of rain, (ut the hilliness of the land has dictated an agriculture (ased on animals since the time of the Pilgrims# The 6orld is full of places 6here the (est, if not the only, 6ay to o(tain food from the land is (y gra3ing animals on it >> especially ruminants, 6hich alone can transform grass into protein and 6hose presence can actually improve the health of the land# The vegetarian utopia 6ould ma0e us even more dependent

than 6e already are on an industriali3ed national food chain# That food chain 6ould in turn (e even more dependent than it already is on fossil fuels and chemical fertili3er , since food 6ould need to travel farther and manure 6ould (e in short supply# Indeed, it is dou(tful that you can (uild a more sustaina(le agriculture 6ithout animals to cycle nutrients and support local food production # If our concern is for the health of nature >> rather than, say, the internal consistency of our moral code or the condition of our souls >> then eating animals may sometimes (e the most ethical thing to o. There is, too, the fact that 6e humans have (een eating animals as long as
6e have lived on this earth# 5umans may not need to eat meat in order to survive, yet doing so is part of our evolutionary heritage, reflected in the design of our teeth and the structure of our digestion# Lating meat helped ma0e us 6hat 6e are, in a social and (iological sense# Under the pressure of the hunt, the human (rain gre6 in si3e and comple7ity, and around the fire 6here the meat 6as coo0ed, human culture first flourished# Nranting rights to animals may lift us up from the (rutal 6orld of predation, (ut it 6ill entail the sacrifice of part of our identity >> our o6n animality# Surely this is one of the odder parado7es of animal rights doctrine# It as0s us to recogni3e all that 6e share

6ith animals and then demands that 6e act to6ard them in a most unanimalistic 6ay # .hether or not this is a

good idea, 6e should at least ac0no6ledge that our desire to eat meat is not a trivial matter, no mere UUgastronomic preference#UU .e might as 6ell call se7 >> also no6 technically unnecessary >> a mere UUrecreational preference#UU .hatever else it is, our meat eating is something very deep indeed#

Anthro 9 Ans%ers 3eperation Brom *ature @oo

/uman separation from nature is inevita!le an goo # the transition to small ag lea s to poverty an environmental estruction 1ailey - Economic Philosopher Ronald, Lconomic Philosopher and Science Lditor for Reason aga3ine, The Bingering Stench of althus, http:''666#reason#com'ne6s'sho6'%%E4K%#html The further good ne6s is that the movement of humanityUs (urgeoning population into the thousand of megacities foreseen that Rif0in is part of a process that ultimately 6ill leave more land for nature# Today cities occupy ?ust G

percent of the earthUs surface, (ut that 6ill li0ely dou(le to 4 percent over the ne7t half century# In order to avoid this ostensi(ly terri(le fate Rif0in proclaims, OIn the ne7t phase of human history, 6e 6ill need to find a 6ay to reintegrate ourselves into the rest of the living Larth if 6e are to preserve our o6n species and conserve the planet for our fello6 creatures#O Actually, heUs got it completely (ac06ards# 5umanity must

not reintegrate into nature>that 6ay lays disaster for humanity and nature# Instead 6e must ma0e ourselves even more autonomous than 6e already are from her# Since nothing is more destructive of nature than poverty stric0en su(sistence farmers, (oosting agricultural productivity is the 0ey to the human retreat from 6ild nature# As !esse Ausu(el, the director for the Program for the 5uman Lnvironment at Roc0efeller University, points out: O If the 6orld farmer reaches the average yield of todayUs US corn gro6er during the ne7t ED years, ten (illion people eating as people no6 on average do 6ill need only half of todayUs cropland# The land spared e7ceeds Ama3onia#O Similarly all of the 6orldUs industrial 6ood could (e produced on an area that is less than %D percent of the 6orldUs forested area today leaving FD percent of the 6orldUs forests for &ature#

Apocalyptic (eps 9 Ans%ers 4iscourse @oo @eneral

4e!ate a!out apocalyptic impacts is crucial to activism an effective policy e ucation 1lain professor of 3ociology ,0 ichael ;lain, R5LTORI+AB PRA+TI+L I& A& A&TI>&U+BLAR .LAPO&S +A PAIN&, Peace \ +hange Peace activism can (e understood as a sociopolitical performance # It enacts a pattern of discourse that can (e rhetorically analy3ed in terms of its strategy of incitement# +s peace activists mobili)ed their forces in the %FKDs, they built up a discourse %% a repertoire of possible political statements for use against nuclear weapons policies# 2uch statements as nuclear annihilation radiation pollution and strategic madness have been the primary incitements to peace activism# +ctivists use language pragmatically# As political actors addressing a pu(lic audience, they know they must speak a language familiar to that audience# &ineteenth>century activists 6ere educated, middle>class 6omen, clergymen, educators, and
(usinessmen 6ith a reform +hristian conscience# T6entieth>century activists have included political leftists and cultural dissidents as 6ell as traditional pacifists and religious li(erals#8n%9 iddle>class professionals have played prominent roles in the peace movement# Mor e7ample, medical activists li0e 5elen +aldicott and Ro(ert Bifton have ela(orated a discourse on the madness of OnuclearismO8nG9 In fact, some analysts interpret the peace movement as a po6er struggle of middle>class radicals and countercultural re(els against the po6er elite#8n$9 This article presents the results of a rhetorical analysis of activistsU discursive practices in a victorious campaign to defeat a U#S# government plan to construct the first ne6 nuclear 6eapons plant in t6enty years in the state of Idaho, the Special Isotope Separator 8SIS9# It sho6s ho6 activists in the Sna0e River Alliance 8SRA9, a ;oise, Idaho, antinuclear organi3ation, mobili)ed hundreds of OIdahoansO to act as Oconcerned citi3ensO and OBife Nuards,O to lobby

testify demonstrate and finally to kill this plan# The article introduces a perspective on ho6 discourse effective movement discourse must accomplish two things : 8%9 knowledge or the constitution of the sub"ects and ob"ects of struggle and 8G9 ethics, or the moral incitement of people to political action# I
functions in political movements# +n 6ill sho6 ho6 this perspective can illuminate ho6 anti>SIS activists developed an effective discourse to 0ill this crucial nuclear 6eapons program# A critical evaluation of this campaign can contri(ute to peace in at least three 6ays: it can cele(rate the artful practices these activists engaged in to achieve their political o(?ectives= it can add a case study of a victorious campaign to the emerging literature on the tactics of nonviolent action= and finally, it can contri(ute to the current de(ate a(out the future of the peace movement in a post>cold 6ar 6orld# The anti> SIS campaign involved an alliance of environmental and peace groups, 6hich suggests one possi(le political strategy for future peace actions# POBITI+AB O"L L&TS AS "I+TI ANL RITUABS -olitical activists must engage in discourse to fight and win power

struggles with their adversaries# In political (attles, such as the anti>SIS campaign, words are weapons with tactical functions#
ichel Moucault clearly articulates this perspective: Indeed, it is in discourse that po6er and 0no6ledge are ?oined together# And for this reason, 6e must conceive discourse as a series of discontinuous segments 6hose tactical function is neither uniform nor sta(le ### as a multiplicity of discursive elements that can come into play in various strategies# It is this distri(ution that 6e must reconstruct ### according to 6ho is spea0ing, his position of po6er, the institutional conte7t in 6hich he happens to (e situated ### 6ith the shifts and reutili3ations of identical formulas for contrary o(?ectives#8n49 A po6er strategy refers to all means, including discursive practices, put into play (y an actor in a particular po6er relationship to influence the actions of others# The language of political movements, including peace activism, is militaristic= activists tal0 strategy, tactics, and o(?ectives# And it is important to see that discourse is itself a part of any po6er strategy# Cenneth ;ur0eUs concepts of victimage rhetoric and rituals can (e used to illuminate this process#8n*9 -olitical activists use victimage rhetoric to mobili)e

people to fight and defeat their adversaries # "ictimage rhetoric is melodramatic in form# It functions to incite those 6ho identify 6ith
it to engage in political acts of ritual scapegoating# Activists mo(ili3e people to engage in activism (y getting them to identify 6ith an actual or impending violation of some communal OidealO>>a pro(lem, concern, or danger# +ctivists mount *education* campaigns to get the

public to identify with the imminent danger# + critical knowledge of the nature of this danger is constructed taking the form of villainous powers inflicting or threatening to inflict some terrible wrong on the world# This
rhetorical practice is tactical in the sense that it is designed to generate intense anger and moral outrage at 6hat has, is, or could (e happening to the values of those 6ho identify 6ith it# These people can then (e mo(ili3ed in a campaign to fight the villain# This effect is intensified (y emphasi3ing the negative features of the actions of the agents and agencies responsi(le for the violation# Once implanted, this 0no6ledge e7erts an ethical incitement to activism# Activists, this model suggests, must develop a discourse that does t6o things: vilify and activate# These t6o functions correspond to t6o moments in a melodramatic victimage ritual# These t6o moments of identification are 8%9 acts of violation or vilification and 8G9 acts of redemptive or heroic action# 8ovement leaders must construct images of both villains and activists

fighting villains# $hey must convince us that acts of violation have occurred or will happen and then they must goad us into doing something about it# This analysis suggests that a movement discourse is a rhetorical system composed of t6o
elements 6or0ing in tandem# One of the main features of motive in victimage ritual is the aim to destroy the destroyer# In the anti> SIS campaign, as 6e shall see, the o(?ective 6as to 0ill a Department of Lnergy 8DOL9 program to (uild a nuclear 6eapons plant# One means of accomplishing that o(?ective 6as to vilify its proponents# The second element in a movement discourse is redemptive or ethical# Once leaders succeed in convincing their follo6ers that there is a real threat, they must then incite those convinced to act# $o accomplish these

ob"ectives peace activists have assembled a discourse charged with peril and power%%a knowledge of the scene they confront and an ethic of political activism# They have constituted a O0no6ledgeO of the dangers posed (y the nuclear arms race and
nuclear 6ar that is infused 6ith a redemptive ethic of political activism# Activists use this 0no6ledge and ethic to goad people into campaigns to achieve antinuclear o(?ectives# Mor e7ample, activists have invo0ed the term po6er in t6o distinct ethical senses# There is the O(adO po6er of the agents of the nuclear arms race 8politicians such as Ronald Reagan or argaret Thatcher= agencies such as the U#S# government, &ATO, or the Department of Lnergy9# And there is the *good* power that activists produce by their concerted political actions

including a sub"ective effect called *empowerment#* +ctivists empower themselves by *taking personal responsibility for the fate of the earth * sacrificing time energy and money to the cause# =y engaging in political activism peace activists say they transcend psychological despair and obtain a sense of personal power#8n)9

Apocalyptic (eps 9 Ans%ers E&tinction (eps @oo

Portraying eco# amage as >e&tinction#level? is a crucial communication act that forestalls complete e&tinction it solves their turn !ecause it spar$s a ne% social ethic Epstein an Jhao , La! of 7e icine = /ong 9ong Richard !# Lpstein and :# Xhao ,F P Ba(oratory of +omputational Oncology, Department of edicine, University of 5ong Cong, The Threat That Dare &ot Spea0 Its &ame= 5uman L7tinction, Perspectives in ;iology and edicine "olume *G, &um(er %, .inter GDDF, use Minal ends for all species are the same, (ut the ?ourneys 6ill (e different# If 6e cannot influence the end of our species, can 6e influence the ?ourneyJ To do so@even in a small 6ay@6ould (e a cro6ning achievement for human evolution and give ne6 meaning to the term civili3ation# Only (y elevating the topic 1Lnd Page %G%2 of human e&tinction to the level of serious professional discourse can 6e (egin to prepare ourselves for the challenges that lie ahead# Ta(le $# 5uman Thin0ing odes Relevant to L7tinction: from Lgo>Thin0 to Lco> Thin0 The difficulty of the re<uired transition should not (e underestimated# This is depicted in Ta(le $ as a painful multistep progression from the GDth>century philosophical norm of Lgo>Thin0@defined therein as a short>term state of mind valuing individual material self>interest a(ove all other considerations@ to Lco>Thin0, in 6hich humans come to adopt a (roader Naia>li0e outloo0 on themselves as (ut one part of an infinitely larger reality# a0ing this change must involve communicating the non>sensationalist message to all glo(al citi3ens that Ithings are serious and I6e are in this together@or, in (lunter language, that the road to e7tinction and its related agonies does indeed lie ahead # +onsistent 6ith this
prospect, the ris0s of human e7tinction@and the cost>(enefit of attempting to reduce these ris0s@have (een <uantified in a recent so(ering analysis 8 atheny GDDE9# Once complacency has (een sha0en off and a sense of collective purpose created, the (attle against self>see0ing anthropocentric human instincts 6ill have only ?ust (egun# It is often said that human (eings suffer from the a(ility to appreciate their o6n mortality@an e7istential agony that has given rise to the great religions@ (ut in the present age of religious decline, 6e must (egin to (ear the added (urden of anticipating the demise of our species# Indeed, as argued here, there are compelling reasons for encouraging this collective mind>shift# Mor in the (est of all possi(le 6orlds, the reali3ation that our species has long>

term survival criteria distinct from our short>term tri(al priorities could spar$ a ne% social ethic to upgrade 6hat 6e no6 all too often dismiss as Ihuman nature 8Tudge %FKF9# 1Lnd Page %GG2 /uman e&tinction is the greatest act of suffering imagina!le using scientific metho s to forestall e&tinction is crucial Epstein an Jhao , La! of 7e icine = /ong 9ong Richard !# Lpstein and :# Xhao ,F P Ba(oratory of +omputational Oncology, Department of edicine, University of 5ong Cong, The Threat That Dare &ot Spea0 Its &ame= 5uman L7tinction, Perspectives in ;iology and edicine "olume *G, &um(er %, .inter GDDF, use 5uman e7tinction is %DD] certain@the only uncertainties are 6hen and ho6 # Bi0e the men and 6omen of

Sha0espeare-s As :ou Bi0e It, our species is (ut one of many players ma0ing entrances and e7its on the evolutionary stage# That 6e generally deny that such e7its for our o6n species are possi(le is to (e e7pected, given the (rutish selection pressures on our (iology# Death, 6hich is merely a (iological description of evolutionary selection, is fundamental to life as 6e 0no6 it# Similarly, death occurring at the level of a species@ e7tinction@is as (asic to (iology as is the death of individual organisms or cells# 5ence, to regard e7tinction as catastrophic@

6hich implies that it may someho6 never occur, provided that 6e are all 6ell (ehaved@is not only specious, (ut self>defeating# an is (oth (lessed and cursed (y the highest level of self>a6areness of any life>form on Larth# This suggests that the process of human e7tinction is li0ely to (e accompanied (y more suffering than that associated 6ith any previous species e7tinction event# Such suffering may only (e eased (y the getting of 6isdom : the same 0ind of 6isdom that could, if applied sufficiently early, postpone e&tinction# ;ut the tragedy of our species is that evolution
does not select for such foresight# an-s dreams of (eing an immortal species in an eternal paradise are unachieva(le not (ecause of original sin @the doomsday scenario for 6hich 6e choose to (lame our Ifree 6ill, there(y perpetuating our creationist illusion of (eing at the center of the universe@(ut rather, in reductionist terms, (ecause paradise is incompati(le 6ith evolution# ore scientific effort in

propounding this central truth of our species? mortality, rather than see0ing spiritual comfort in escapist fantasies, could pay dividends in minimi3ing the eventual cumulative !ur en of human suffering. The 0A) is necessary iscourse com!ating complacency is crucial to halting certain an inevita!le e&tinction Epstein an Jhao , La! of 7e icine = /ong 9ong

Richard !# Lpstein and :# Xhao ,F P Ba(oratory of +omputational Oncology, Department of edicine, University of 5ong Cong, The Threat That Dare &ot Spea0 Its &ame= 5uman L7tinction, Perspectives in ;iology and edicine "olume *G, &um(er %, .inter GDDF, use .e shall not speculate here as to the Iho6 and 6hen of human e7tinction= rather, 6e as0 6hy there remains so little iscussion of this important topic # .e hypothesise that a lethal mi7 of ignorance an enial is (linding humans from the reali3ation that our o6n species could soon 8a relative concept, admittedly9 (e as en angere as many other large mammals 8+ardillo et al# GDD49# Mor not6ithstanding the Iovergro6n Petri dish model of human decline no6 confronting us, the most sinister menace that 6e face may not (e e7trinsic selection pressures (ut complacency# Lntrenched in our culture is a 0nee>?er0 I(oy 6ho cried 6olf s0epticism aimed at any person 6ho voices concerns a(out the future @a s0epticism fed (y a traditionally (ullish, gro6th> addicted economy that esche6s caution 8Ta(le %9# ;ut the facts of e7tinction are less e7citing and ne6s6orthy than the roller>coaster
(ooms and (usts of stoc0 mar0ets#

4eep Ecology 9 Ans%ers )ontra iction Turn

4eep ecology?s attempt to efine value systems in natural o!Cects is irectly contra ictory %ith their criticism it creates the %orst form of anthropocentrism 1o!ertz ,2 Professor of La% ;o(ert3 Ass-t Prof of Ba6, &e(ras0a +ollege of Ba6, %FFE, ;radley +olum(ia !ournal of Lnvironmental Ba6, Be7is Apart from the political dangers Merry associates 6ith deep ecology, he (elieves the philosophy suffers from a fundamental self> contradiction# The argument that natural o(?ects can possess their o6n interests stri0es Merry as Oone of the most a(surd forms of anthropomorphism#O n%DD .e cannot Othin0 li0e a mountain,O to use Aldo BeopoldUs famous phrase,
n%D% (ecause, <uite o(viously, 6e are not mountains# Recalling Sierra +lu( v# orton, n%DG the famous standing case involving a proposal to construct a s0i resort in +aliforniaUs ineral Cing valley, Merry claims that environmentalists Oal6ays suppose that the

interests of o(?ects 8mountains, la0es and other natural things9 are opposed to development# ;ut ho6 do 6e 0no6J
After all, isnUt it possi(le that ineral Cing 6ould (e inclined to 6elcome a s0i slope after having remained idle for millions of yearsJO n%D$ :et fe6 people, including the 6riters Merry la(els as deep ecologists, 6ould disagree 6ith the fact that recogni3ing value in natural

o(?ects is an act of human cognition# Perhaps a person suffering from profound psychosis might claim the a(ility to understand
ho6 a mountain Othin0s,O (ut the 6riters Merry critici3es do not advance such (i3arre claims# n%D4 Mor deep ecologists and environmental ethicists, phrases such as Othin0 li0e a mountainO are metaphorical and heuristic, not literal and agenda>setting#

4eep Ecology 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails

4eep ecology offers no avenue for actual reform the i ea that %e can %ish a%ay the nee for government intervention is unfun e an angerous 1o!ertz ,2 Professor of La% ;o(ert3 Ass-t Prof of Ba6, &e(ras0a +ollege of Ba6, %FFE, ;radley +olum(ia !ournal of Lnvironmental Ba6, Be7is :et even if deep ecologists see0 merely to e7pand our moral field of vision, 6e are still left 6ith the <uestion of 6hat people should do a(out their insights# Mor the most part, deep ecologists are coy on this matter# They hope, along 6ith &aess, that (y changing the 6ay people thin0 a(out nature, the need for government intervention 6ill lessen# ;ut this seems li0e %ishful thin$ing# .e cannot e7pect the teachings of deep ecology to affect so many people that the ideal of sustaina(le development 6ill (e reali3ed 6ithout the need for la6# At times, deep ecologists seem to 6ant it (oth 6ays, to have a fundamental change in culture 6ithout engaging in the irty %or$ of politics# It is as if culture and la6 occupy clean, non>overlapping su(sets of human e7perience, and that changes in culture can occur 6ithout either promptings (y or reflections in the la6# On this point, deep ecologists appear naive#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails @eneral

Ecofeminism %on?t solve# it evalues %omen an %ill not !e accepte !y a larger pu!lic 1retherton 0 # 7A in Latin American 3tu ies +harlotte ;retherton IL+O+L&TRI+ IDL&TIT: A&D TRA&SMOR ATOR: POBITI+S, The International !ournal of Peace Studies, "olume ), &um(er G, Autumn'.inter GDD%
The implications of ecofeminist ideas for human identity are numerous# Mor 6omen, particularly those 8primarily .estern9 6omen 6ho have (ecome alienated from the natural 6orld, there is a need to rediscover their OnaturalO ecocentric'ecofeminine identification# Lcofeminism thus posits, for 6omen, an essentialist ecocentric identity # This 6ould involve not a loss or negation of the self (ut an opportunity to e7perience the fulfilment of recovering oneUs true maternal nature and to em(race the responsi(ilities associated 6ith identification as a saviour of the planet# To some e7tent 6omen have appeared to ta0e up these responsi(ilities# In many parts of the 6orld they have undou(tedly contri(uted significantly to environmental activism# oreover, a num(er of 6omenUs environmental organisations have espoused overtly ecofeminist principles 8;retherton %FF)9# Indeed, ies and Shiva 8%FF$, p#$9 claim, from their conversations 6ith 6omenUs groups in many parts of the 6orld, O6omen, 6orld6ide, felt the same anger and an7iety, and the same sense of responsi(ility to preserve the (ases of life, and to end its destruction#O 5o6ever, this raises the danger that 6omen, 6ho are every6here the least

po6erful mem(ers of society, might (e e7pected to assume disproportionate responsi(ility for cleaning up menUs messes# Rather, an ecocentric identification demands that the OfeminineO <ualities of cooperation and nurturance (e valued and em(raced (y all mem(ers of societies# It demands, too, that the OmasculineO <ualities of competition and dominance (e devalued and re?ected# +onse<uently, it must (e concluded that, in many societies, the adoption of an ecocentric identity 6ould
involve, for men, a change of consciousness very much more fundamental than that re<uired of 6omen# .hile the ma?or focus of an ecofeminine identity is positive identification 6ith the natural 6orld, there are implicitly elements of an identity defined negatively

against the alien other of unreconstructed OmasculineO man# ;ecause of its implied e7clusivity, 6hich reflects a tendency to6ards maternalist essentialism, ecofeminism is unli$ely to provi e the !asis for a universal ecocentric i entity# Lcofeminism is important, nevertheless# It provides a trenchant criti<ue of those cultural norms and values 6hich support the
po6er structures of contemporary societies and 6hich have facilitated the development of a dangerously dysfunctional relationship (et6een human collectivities and the ecosystems of 6hich they are a part# In focusing very specifically upon this latter issue, (ioregionalists 6ould (e 6ell advised to incorporate feminist insights concerning the origin, and persistence, of gendered structures of po6er 8Plum6ood %FF4= ;retherton %FFK9#

Acceptance of ecofeminism reinscri!es une;ual ivision of la!or an evalue %omen?s %or$G even if %ell#intentione " it %ill !e interprete as less important %or$ 7ac@regor D Post oc Bello% Sherilyn acNregor is a postdoctoral fello6 in the Institute for Lnvironment, Philosophy and Pu(lic Policy at Bancaster University, UC# IMrom +are to +iti3enship +alling Lcofeminism ;ac0 To Politics, Lthics \ the Lnvironment F#% 8GDD49 *)>K4
.hat I ma0e of this is that ecofeminist discussions of 6omenUs activism ought not only to recogni3e tensions (et6een mothering and politics (ut also to engage in a critical political economic analysis of 6omenUs unpaid la(or# "ie6ed in light of feminist criti<ues of the femini3ation of caring in capitalist societies and of the current hegemony of ne6 right ideology, it is dangerous for ecofeminists to uncritically cele(rate

6omenUs roles as earth carers# It is dangerous if it affirms rather than challenges the 1Lnd Page )E2 femini3ation and privati3ation of caring %or$. Meminist political economists, on the other hand, have trac0ed the changes in unpaid 6or0 over time

and have analy3ed the gender implications of a capitalist system that depends on the e7ternali3ation of reproductive la(or 8cf# Mol(re %FF$9# This trac0ing is done not to cele(rate the fact that 6omen do this 6or0 (ut to sho6 ho6 6omenUs caring 6or0 is deeply implicated in the dominant political and economic agendas# Scholars have argued that care and care>related practices are evalue in li!eral#

capitalist societies precisely (ecause they are associated 6ith femininity@that is, they are seen as 6omenUs 6or0 8cf# cDo6ell %FFG9# oreover, their theoretical interpretations of empirical data 8such as those gathered in time (udget studies9 suggest that caring is a deeply gendered, that is, femini3ed activity in .estern 8and pro(a(ly many other9 cultures and that the une<ual division of unpaid care 6or0 (et6een men and 6omen has not changed dramatically in the past thirty years 8cf# Lichler %FFE=
Armstrong and Armstrong %FF49#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails @overnment Bocus 9ey

The alternative misi entifies consumption pro!lems lets government an 7*)s off the hoo$ 3cott 2 Professor = Blori a Austin Scott, Professor a Mlorida, Austin L# Scott, University of Mlorida, +oncerning +onsumption: The Lcofeminist Reply to +iti3ens as +onsumers, GDDE .PSA Annual eeting, Bas "egas &", http:''666#allacademic#com''meta'p^mla^apa^research^citation'%'E')'%'%'pages%E)%%$'p%E)%%$>%#php
The a(ove discussion is not meant to dismiss all citi3en responsi(ility 6hen it comes to environmental issues# If individuals (elieved nothing 6as their fault, it could lead to a nihilistic vie6 of ameliorating the environment# y intent is to dra6 attention to the

over6helming tendency to cast responsi(ility for the environment through individuali3ed consumer acts# .hat
is pro(lematic from an ecofeminist account is 6hen 6omen are unfairly made out to (e the saviors of the environment through consumption# Placing the principle and value of environmentalism onto the (ac0s of 6omen simultaneously alleviates the

influences that government" corporations" an patriarchy has in our environmental struggle# ore generally, any attempt to couch Iearthcare in consumption terms is usually done so at the e&pense of structural an systemic political change# &urturing citi3en responsi(ility is accepta(le as long as it does not neglect the

importance of addressing the dominant patriarchal culture that (enefits from 0eeping political transformation out# 4* !ohn ;arry argues that the sphere of consumption could (e a place 6here one can practice ecological virtue= the goal is to cultivate mindful, not mindless, consumption# 4) After all, he maintains, Ione of the most po6erful and radical political acts an individual or group can do in modern, consumption>oriented societies is to refuse to consume# 4E I thin0 this is an important point to consider from an ecofeminist vie6point# .omen, as the

principal domestic consumers, cannot simply refuse to consume since they are responsi(le for much of their family-s needs# They must consider the needs, even 6ants, of other individuals and consume accordingly# A flat>out refusal to consume is a radical act, a(solutely, !ut lac$s via!ility# Murthermore, if 6e consider Casser-s contention that some consuming activity is a0in to addiction, <uitting consumption is much more complicate than ;arry ac0no6ledges#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers Alt Offense

Tons of 4As to the ecofeminist movement >disempo6erment (ecause fail to challenge institutions >not intersectional >causes 5o((esian anarchism that reentrenches patriarchy >causes population gro6th that furthers domination Le%is ,D Professor of Environmental 3tu ies artin, Assistant Professor in the School of Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies a Du0e, Nreen Delusions, pg# $*>$) In more pragmatic 6ays as 6ell, radical eco%feminism and, to a lesser e7tent, mar7ist eco>feminism have profoundly antifeminist implications in practice# $he former movement advises women to turn away from e7isting means of wielding public power# 2ince large%scale institutions are by definition , irredeema(ly patriarchal and e7ploitative, 6omen are called a6ay from

e7isting positions of pu(lic po6er 8Plant %FKF:%KE9# Instead, all feminists 8men as 6ell as 6omen9 are en?oined to retreat into separatist, autonomous communities# ar7ist eco>feminists do not demand such hermetic e7clusion, (ut their philosophy too calls ultimately for struggle against rather than participation 6ithin capitalist society# 2ince institutional science corporations and large public institutions

are despite radicals fondest hopes well entrenched such withdrawal risks disempowering women still further # A refusal to seek positions in such imperfect institutions as presently exist would relegate women to the role of sideline critics undermining their opportunity to be partici pants!and indeed leaders!in the ongoing restructuring of society# In its effort to avoid the appearance of cultural imperialism, radical eco>feminism also flirts 6ith an ethical relativism that could conceiva(ly undermine the feminist agenda at the glo!al scale# To posit that O16?hat counts as se7ism, racism, or classism may vary cross>culturally O 8C# .arren rFFD:%$F9 is to ignore a huge array of deeply se7ist practices e7isting in numerous non>.estern cultures # Minally, the successful reali3ation of the radical eco> feminist dream 6ould threaten 6omen in a very immediate sense# In the anarchic 6orld they envision, men@6ho are certainly more physically po6erful than 6omen and appear to (e more inclined to6ard violence as 6ell@ could easily arrogate po6er at the local level and evise neo#patriarchies# Anarchists argue that human0indUs inherent good 6ould prevent this@a vie6 accessi(le only to those 6earing the deepest of psychological (linders# As 6ill (e sho6n in chapter three, many primal societies, contrary to eco>romantic fantasies, 6ere una(ashedly patriarchal#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers )aring Turn

T:(*##Associating %omen %ith care angerously limits the ethico#political possi!ilities for %omen 7ac@regor D Post oc Bello% Sherilyn acNregor is a postdoctoral fello6 in the Institute for Lnvironment, Philosophy and Pu(lic Policy at Bancaster University, UC# IMrom +are to +iti3enship +alling Lcofeminism ;ac0 To Politics, Lthics \ the Lnvironment F#% 8GDD49 *)>K4 One of the themes in contemporary ecofeminist literature is that 6omenUs care>related perspectives on human>nature relations should (e adopted as a generali3ed normative stance, a form of ecological civic virtue or Oa universal pu(lic caringO 8Salleh %FFE9# This argument is supported (y those ecofeminist theorists 6ho portray caring relationships as models for sustaina(le living and as important sources of political empo6erment for 6omen in the larger social sphere# The 6omen 6ho appear in the narratives that inform ecofeminist alternative visions are variously
referred to as grassroots 6omen, house6ife activists and Ore'sistersO 8Salleh %FFE99 6ho 6or0 voluntarily to sustain life and to fight against the po6ers that put that life in ?eopardy# The vision that their e7periences inspire consists of an integration of diverse

political struggles into one overarching movement for survival that is grounded in everyday material practices at the local
level# So grounded, it is a vision that is fundamentally different from right>6ing ideologies that em(race glo(al capitalism as 6ell as from the philosophies of postmodernism that are said to privilege discourse and discourage activism# .hile there are important aspects to ecofeminist valuations of 6omenUs caring@particularly in light of the 6ay non>feminist ecopolitical discourse ignores the 6or0 of care@I argue that there

are also political ris$s in cele(rating 6omenUs association 6ith caring 8!oth as an ethic an a practice9 and in reducing 6omenUs ethico>political life to care # In vie6 of these ris0s, to (e discussed herein, I thin0 a degree of s0epticism is in order# I <uestion 6hether care is a 6ise choice of metaphor around 6hich to create a feminist political pro?ect for social and ecological change # 5o6 can societal e7pectations that 6omen (e caring
or the e7ploitation of 6omenUs unpaid caring la(or under capitalism (e challenged at the same time that the specificity of 6omenUs caring stance to6ards the environment is held up as an ans6er to the ecological crisisJ .hat does it mean, moreover, for 6omen to enter the realm of the political through a 6indo6 of care and maternal virtueJ 5o6 is this feministJ And ho6, if at all, is it politicalJ It is my position that ecofeminists should see caring through less>than>rosy>glasses, as a parado7ical set of practices, feelings, and moral orientations that are em(edded in particular relations and conte7ts and socially constructed as (oth feminine and private# Revaluing care in the 6ay many

ecofeminists seem to do results in an affirmation of gender roles that are 1Lnd Page *E2 roote in the patriarchal ualisms that all feminisms, on my definition at least, must aim persistently to resist and disrupt# I
support my position (y dra6ing on the 6or0 of some of the feminist philosophers, political economists, and political theorists 6ho have argued that the positive identification of 6omen 6ith caring ought to (e treated cautiously for it o!scures some of the

negative implications of femini3ed care and narro%s our un erstan ing of 6omen as political actors# In the first part of the discussion, I cast dou(t on ecofeminist ideas a(out the Ofeminine principleO (y highlighting some of the criti<ues
of care ethics made (y feminist moral philosophers# I then su(?ect ecofeminist cele(rations of caring la(or to <uestions raised (y feminist political economists a(out its e7ploitation in glo(ali3ing capitalist societies# I also <uestion 6hether claims that 6omen are empo6ered through their care>inspired eco>activism have (een accompanied (y a sufficient consideration of feminist political transformation# That discussion leads into the final part of the paper 6here I loo0 to feminist theorists of citi3enship to develop the argument that ecofeminists 6ould (e (etter served (y using the language of citi3enship instead of the language of care to understand and theori3e 6omenUs engagement in ecopolitics#

E;uating %omen %ith care is morally unaccepta!leGthis notion ensures e&ploitation %omen an is fun amentally oppressive 7ac@regor D Post oc Bello% Sherilyn acNregor is a postdoctoral fello6 in the Institute for Lnvironment, Philosophy and Pu(lic Policy at Bancaster University, UC# IMrom +are to +iti3enship +alling Lcofeminism ;ac0 To Politics, Lthics \ the Lnvironment F#% 8GDD49 *)>K4 5o6ever, there are important <uestions to (e raised a(out the implications of care metaphors and, specifically, care ethics for ecofeminist politics# The first is 6hether invo0ing an inevita(ly and'or intentionally femini3ed ethic of care is an advisa(le
strategy for pro(lemati3ing eco>political and social relationships# +an it lead to a desta(ili3ation of gender codesJ .hat are the ris0s in an approach that cele(rates 6omenUs caring as a pu(lic virtueJ In response to these <uestions, it is instructive to ta0e note of a current in feminist philosophy that has com(ined arguments for valuing the capacity to care 6ith arguments that pro(lemati3e and politici3e 6omenUs caring, to sho6 that caring is not an un<ualified good# Some feminist philosophers maintain that care ethics is a dou(le>edged s6ord for feminism# .hile some (elieve that an ethics of care can offer a 6ay to assert a positive face of feminism 8perhaps one more inspirational than a feminism 6hich d6ells upon 6omenUs e7ploitation under patriarchy9, an uncritical emphasis on 6omenUs care>related morality can also affirm harmful assumptions a(out gender and reify e7clusionary notions a(out the nature of care and, indeed, of carers# Peta ;o6den e7plains the tension nicely: O+ondemnation of caring runs the danger of silencing all those 6ho recogni3e its ethical possi(ilities, and ris0s capitulating to dominant modes of ethics that characteristically e7clude consideration of 6omenUs ethical lives# On the other hand, romantic ideali3ation is also a dangerO 8%FFE, %K>%F9 1Lnd Page )%2 Since the %FKDs, 6hen care ethics 6as in its heyday, <uestions have (een as0ed a(out the validity and implications of care perspectives for feminism# There is resistance in feminist philosophy to the Ostrategy of reversalO that has (een deployed (y cultural feminists 6ho choose to see O6omenUs 6ays of 0no6ing,O Omaternal thin0ingO or Ofeminine ethicsO as superior to menUs 6ays of 0no6ing and masculine ethics and as an ethic that can transform the 6orld# Borraine +ode points out, for e7ample, that Oit is (y no means clear

that a ne6 monolith, dra6n from hitherto devalued practices, can or should (e erected in the place of one that is crum(lingO 8%FF*, %%%9# An important lesson for ecofeminists here is that listening to and validating 6omenUs voices and those of other marginali3ed su(?ects is important (ut does not inevita(ly lead to epistemic privilege 8Davion %FF49# &ot only is the idea that 6omen may have greater access to Othe truthO <uestiona(le on empirical grounds, it is also too ris0y a position to put forth in the conte7t of a masculinist and misogynist culture that (oth creates an e&ploits %omenNs capacity to care # Thin0ing a(out this point in the conte7t of ecofeminist rhetoric +ode 6rites: .omen may indeed have the capacity to save the 6orld , in conse<uence, perhaps, of their cultural>historical relegation to a domain Ucloser to natureU than men, 6hatever that means# :et claims that such a capacity is uni<uely, essentially theirs have consistently served as premises of arguments to sho6 that 6omen should (e the moral guardians (oth of UhumanityU and of nature# Such in?unctions assign 6omen responsi(ilities that are fundamentally oppressive, 6hile e7cluding them from recognition as cognitive agents and creators of social meaning, precisely (ecause of their alleged closeness to nature # An ecofeminism developed in this direction 6ould (e morally>politically unaccepta(le# Em!racing care e&ploits %omen an creates an&iety" pain an suffering for the carer 7ac@regor D Post oc Bello% Sherilyn acNregor is a postdoctoral fello6 in the Institute for Lnvironment, Philosophy and Pu(lic Policy at Bancaster University, UC# IMrom +are to +iti3enship +alling Lcofeminism ;ac0 To Politics, Lthics \ the Lnvironment F#% 8GDD49 *)>K4 Peta ;o6den contends that it is necessary for feminists to ac0no6ledge negative aspects to caring as 6ell as positive ones# She calls them dar0 sides and light sides of caring: the tendency to see the perspectives and concerns arising from maternal and other practices of caring simply in a positive light glosses the dar0 side of these practices: the frustrating, demeaning, and isolating dimensions of their routines# U+areU has a lengthy history in the 8Lnglish>spea0ing9 6est as a (urden, a (ed of trou(le, an7iety, suffering and pain= care ethicists ignore this history , and the
dismal actuality of many contemporary practices of caring, at great ris0# 8%FFE, F9 5ighlighting the relevance of this insight for ecofeminism, +hris +uomo 8%FFK, %GF9 6rites: Oput simply, caring can (e damaging to the carer if she neglects other responsi(ilities, including those she has to herself, (y caring for another#O* +ertainly self>sacrifice, leisure time are

e7ploitation, and loss of autonomy and among the more negative aspects of 6omenUs caring# So is the ina(ility to 6ithhold care or to say OnoO that comes 6ith an internali3ed duty to maintain relationships # It is important to loo0 at 6hy 6omen tend to
have little choice (ut to (e caring#) Meminist criti<ues of 1Lnd Page )$2 violence against 6omen often include the claim that 6omen need to develop a greater sense of autonomy and separation# 8Intimacy and a(use sometimes go hand in hand#9 Such negative aspects provide

reasons to treat 6ith greater scepticism any desire to focus solely on the lighter side of 6omenUs caring and life>affirming values# In recognition of this point, perhaps it is necessary to consider stri0ing a (alance (et6een an ethic of care and an
ethic of ?ustice#E

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers AT: 6ntentions @oo

@oo intentions are irrelevantGinvocation of a rhetoric of care constrains %omen?s agency an lea s to angerous politics 7ac@regor D Post oc Bello% Sherilyn acNregor is a postdoctoral fello6 in the Institute for Lnvironment, Philosophy and Pu(lic Policy at Bancaster University, UC# IMrom +are to +iti3enship +alling Lcofeminism ;ac0 To Politics, Lthics \ the Lnvironment F#% 8GDD49 *)>K4
So Tronto and +urtin 6ish to e7tend care (eyond the private sphere 1Lnd Page E*2 as long as it can (e a politici3ed and de>gendered notion of care# To (e sure, one can thin0 of e7amples 6here caring practices are pu(lic and political , and some that are not strictly femini3ed even though they are still gendered#%) &evertheless,

I tend to agree 6ith those 6ho see the care>politics connection as too closely and unavoida(ly associated 6ith maternalism to (e a good strategy for feminist politics# They see maternalist ?ustifications of 6omenUs citi3enship through arguments a(out care as fundamentally constraining of 6omenUs political agency and contrary to politics # Diet3 8%FK*9 argues, for e7ample, that the ethics of care are inappropriate as (ases for political practice (ecause they are ine7trica(ly lin0ed to personal relationships rather than more a(stract relations of citi3enship #%E Other critics 6arn that politics rooted in caring can very easily (ecome e7clusionary and parochial , 6here care>giving is e7tended only to particular, 6ell>0no6n others 6ho are deemed 6orthy of care# Cathleen ;# !ones 8%FF$9 finds maternalism a Odangerous rhetoricO and so
as0s, Oho6 far can 6e e7tend these moral categories, derived from intimate relations, into the arena of political discourse and pu(lic actionJO 8<uoted in S<uires %FFF, %*)9# It may also (e that the need to protect and care for a particular other 8say a child9 can lead to

actions that are harmful to generali3ed others# This possi(ility is e&tremely relevant to ;uestions of ecological politics# Mor e7ample, 6omen Oearth>carersO in one community could oppose a to7ic 6aste incinerator out of fear for the health of their children, and at the same time fail to OcareO that their opposition might lead to its displacement onto another community 8as tends to happen in &I ;:>type struggles9#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers AT: 3tan points @oo

3tan point narrative is simply a tool use to re#affirm tra itional social rolesGit serves to $eep %omen in their place 7ac@regor D Post oc Bello% Sherilyn acNregor is a postdoctoral fello6 in the Institute for Lnvironment, Philosophy and Pu(lic Policy at Bancaster University, UC# IMrom +are to +iti3enship +alling Lcofeminism ;ac0 To Politics, Lthics \ the Lnvironment F#% 8GDD49 *)>K4 A second significant limitation of ecofeminist Oempo6ermentO stories is that they rarely consider, from a feminist perspective, the process through 6hich 6omen might move (eyond the politics of survival to political resistance and transformation# Popular e7amples of grassroots 6omenUs narratives tend to give a very simplistic portrayal of 6omenUs empo6erment as a process that rarely involves consciousness>raising or self>reflective political resistance to
gender norms# It is entirely possi(le that the 6omen 6ho star in ecofeminist dramas are engaged in processes of political and personal transformation, (ut if they are, this has so far not (een an important point in ecofeminist te7ts# It may (e that in order to (uild a theory of Oem(odied materialismO 8 ellor %FFE9, the story needs to (e that O6omenUs political a6areness is not merely reactive, (ut e7presses <ualities of personal synthesis, initiative, intuition and fle7i(ility, learned in caring la(oursO 8Salleh %FFE, %E*, my emphasis9# This does not sound li0e a process of political transformation to me, (ut rather li0e an affirmation

of social e7pectations of 6hat it means to (e feminine or female@and a claim that political life is not a site for self>0no6ledge #

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers Essentialism Turn

)oalescing politics aroun the i entity of L%omenK occlu es ifference an erases the other 3an lan s ,2 Professor of Environmental 3tu ies +atriona Sandilands, Professor of Lnvironmental Studies a :or0, other Larth, The +y(org, and The Hueer: Lcofeminism and 8 ore9 Huestions of Identity, &.SA !ournal, %FFE These <uestions are neither flippant nor academic Mor feminism, the reliance on the category H%omenH signals a pro(lematic support for a gendered solidity that is the product of po6er>laden discursive OOtheringO and often smac0s of a (lindness to the process of social construction#O The solidity of the identity O6omen O@even, or perhaps especially, if plurali3ed@ functions politically (y concealing the mode of its construction# Niven that in patriarchal discourse the construction is the site of the pro(lem, then that soli ity must !e reCecte # Eco#feminism ris$s essentializing %omen as no!le savages" perpetuating patriarchy (osza$" ,A P on the editorial (oard of the Lcopsychology &e6sletter ;etty, Lcopsychology Do 6e turn a6ay from men, do 6e define ourselves (y se7, revel in Ithe feminineJ The danger is that once more 6e may (ecome self>separated, ghettoi3ed, our culture relegated to I6omen-s su(?ects or I6omen-s studies so easily dismissed (y the male hierarchies , so easily ignored# oreover, there is danger in thin0ing that 6omen as legislators in male>dominated politics can save the 6orld# Lven if all the politicians 6ere 6oman, as long as the institutions and thin0ing remain patriarchal, there can (e no essential change# L7perience has taught us that there is unfortunately nothing magical a(out 6omen in po6er# I suggest 6e cannot accept identity as sym(olic: I6e are not I6oman: 6e are@every one of us@a human (eing 6ith personal characteristics that may or may not appro7imate some statistical norm or some mystical notion 6hat I6oman is# As feminists 6e need to guard as much against a ne6 sentimentali3ed interpretation of 6omen as against the romantici3ation of nature# .e must learn to mistrust a sentimentali3ed vie6 of 6omen, motherhood, the home# In many cultures and religions throughout the 6orld, 6here the mother is venerated, 6omen are suppressed# .hen gender difference in personality and development are considered Iinherent, even though such differences may seem to (e advantageous to 6omen, the patriarchal perspective is (eing perpetuated# Any (iological or Inatural differences among groups can eventually (e s0e6ed to favor the group in po6er# Thus the ne6 field of ecopsychology needs from the start to avoid such assumptions that 6omen are in some sense Icloser
to nature than men and therefore more intuitive, caring, and specially called to Isave the Larth# Until every man accepts and e7presses 6hat has (een called Ithe feminine in his nature, and every 6oman is allo6ed to e7press 6hat has (een called Ithe masculine in hers, 6e must (e

6ary of setting ourselves apart as 6omen in some ne6 version of the no(le savage, 6ho (ears all 6isdom and 6ill redress the 6rongs and in?ustices of the 6orld # Ecofeminist i entity politics lea s to error replication an e&clusion 3an ilan s ,, Professor of Environmental 3tu ies +atriona, Assistant professor of Lnvironmental Studies a &:U, IThe Nood>&atured Meminist p# *
In ecofeminism, the fact of (eing a 6omen is understood to lie at the (ase of one-s e7perience of ecological degradation of one-s interests in ecological protection, and reconstruction, an of one-s Ispecial ecological consciousness# .hether the important elements of that I(eing are seen to reside in (iological, social, ascri(ed, or imposed factors is immaterial to my argument, the crucial thing is that identity,

similarity, and (elonging to a specific group are the primary foci of political speech and the (asis of political legitimacy, and that the achievement of the freedom to e7press identity 6ithout oppression is a 0ey political goal 8as opposed to, say, a focus on individuality and a desire to put specific identity aside to achieve a common good, an e<ually pro(lematic (ut nonetheless different political logic9# .hile an o(vious result of identity politics is an e7clusionary logic@Iyou can-t spea0 a(out this (ecause you do not (elong to the group@there are other deeper pro(lems 6ith the model# Mor e7ample, Identities are inevita(ly partial, and the relevant social categories on 6hich identity politics are (ased can go only so far to descri(e a person, the reduction of any self to a list of categories replicates many of the pro(lems that identity politics set out to address, including the socially e7perienced limits of the identity categories themselves# I 6ill outline 6hat I consider the logic and limits of identity politics later, 6hat said at the outset is that ecofeminists in (asing their political specificity on an identitarian 6omen-s e7perience of nature or environmental degradation or on a specifically 6omen-s set of issues or principles or metaphors, assume a correspondence among ontology, epistemology , and politics@an identity politics@that reduces the relations (et6een feminism and ecology to a highly pro(lematic group e7perience for 6omen and nature#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers AT: 3trategic Essentialism

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers (acism Turn

Ecofeminism is racist" classist an essentializing 3turgeon ,2 &oel, +ultural +ritic and Activist, ILcofeminist &atures, p %GD One perception among &ative American 6omen is that the emphasis on the masculinism of the social and ideological systems involved in environmental destruction implies an essentialist division (et6een 6omen and men, 6hich his pro(lematic for those resisting racism as 6ell as se7ism # .hen I as0ed .inona

BaDu0e, Anishinaa(eg feminist and environmental activist, if she called herself an ecofeminist, if she called herself an ecofeminist, she said that 6hile she 6as glad there 6as an ecofeminist movement developing, she thought of her activism as stemming from her acculturation as a mem(er of her people# arie .ilson, a Nits0an 6oman 6ho is intervie6ed in Healing, e7pressed a similar distance from ecofeminism= I.hen I read a(out ecofeminism I find that the attitudes to6ards 6omen and the feelings inside myself are <uite different# It-s difficult to e7plain, (ut it-s as if 6omen are separate# Though I agree 6ith the analysis, the differences must (e (ecause of 6here I come from# In my mind, 6hen is spea0 a(out 6omen, I spea0 a(out humanity (ecause there is e<uality in the Nit0san (elief: the human is one species (ro0en into t6o necessary parts, and they are e<ual# Such articulations point to different radicali3ed histories of se7ism and of feminism# .hite ecofeminism-s legacy of a

racist and classist feminism>>6hich could unpro(lematically argue for the Imaleness of oppressive structures 6ithout analy3ing the negative conse<uences for poor men or men of color>>(ears strange fruit in the un6illingness of some &ative American 6omen 8or for that matter, some 6or0ing>class 6hite 6omen9 to identify as a Ifeminist of any 0ind# To the e7tent that ecofeminist theory identifies the intersection of se7ism and environmental degradation as a result of Imale thin0ing rather than a particularity of 6hite, .estern, patriarchal capitalist social structures, ecofeminists participate in a 0ind of separatist feminism that has, sine the late %F)Ds, (een identified as a form of racism# Though this 0ind of gender essentialism is not often apparent in the
t6o anthologies under consideration, it has (een on strand 6ithin ecofeminism#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers AT: (oot )ause

Eco#feminism failsG6mpossi!le to i entify root cause of oppression 3licer ,D # Professor of Philosophy De(orah, Assistant Professor of Philosophy a U of ontana , Ecological Feminism, pg# GF The first is the claim that there is some Iroot cause of our multiple social oppressions , including naturism# .hile this particular claim does not appear in all ecofeminist literature, some version of a <uest for historical or conceptual first causes appears often enough and very often either androcentrism or anthropocentrism are identified as the culprits# I try to clarify 6hat various 6riters seem to mean 6hen they ma0e this claim, and I argue that our multiple oppressions are too ine7trica(ly lin0 to identify a root cause and that little of practical or conceptual important actually hangs on doing so# @en er is not the Lroot causeK of environmental egra ationGsuch claims are simplistic an %rong Bo& ,F )enter for Environmental 3tu ies Mello6 a +ent# Lnv Studies, IThe Deep>Lcology>Lcofem de(ate, in ILnvironmental Philosophy ed# Ximmerman, p G$G>$ To (egin 6ith, deep ecologists completely agree 6ith ecofeminists that men have (een far more implicated in the history of ecological destruction than 6omen# 5o6ever, deep ecologists also agree 6ith similar charges derived from other social perspectives: for e7ample, that capitalists, 6hites, and .esterners have (een far more implicated in the history of ecological destruction than pre>capitalist peoples, (lac0s, and non>.esterners #G% If ecofeminists also agree 6ith these points, then the <uestion arises as to 6hy they do not also critici3e deep ecology for (eing neutral 6ith respect to issues concerning such significant social varia(les as socioeconomic class, race, and .esterni3ation# There appears to (e t6o reasons for this# Mirst, to do so 6ould detract from the priority that econfeminists 6ish to give to their o6n concern 6ith androcentrism# Second, and more significantly, these charges could also (e applied 6ith e<ual force to the ecofeminist focus on androcentrism itself#%4 5o6 does one defend the ecofeminist charge against deep ecology 8i#e#, that androcentrism is Othe real rootO of ecological destruction9 in the face of these chargesJO Mor deep ecologists, it is simplistic on (oth empirical and logical grounds to thin0 that one particular perspective on human society identifies the real root of ecological destruction# Lmpirically, such thin0ing is simplistic 8and thus descriptively poor9 (ecause it fails to give due consideration to the multitude of interacting factors at 6or0 in any given situation # 8.hile on a practical level it can (e
perfectly reasona(le to devote most of oneUs energy to one particular Ucause>if only for straightfor6ard reasons to do 6ith time and energy>that, of course, is no e7cuse for simplistic social theori3ing#9 Such

thin0ing falls, in other 6ords, to adopt an ecological perspective 6ith respect to the 6or0ings of human society itself# Bogically, such thin0ing is simplistic 8and thus facile9 (ecause it implies that the solution to our ecological pro(lems is close at hand>all 6e have to do is remove Othe real rootO of the pro(lem>6hen it is actually perfectly possi(le to conceive of a society that is nonandrocentric, socioeconomically egalitarian, nonracist, and nonimperialistic 6ith respect to other human societies, (ut 6hose mem(ers nevertheless remain aggressively anthropocentric in collectively agreeing to e7ploit their environment for their collective (enefit in 6ays that nonanthropocentrists 6ould find thoroughly o(?ectiona(le #
Indeed, the OgreenO criti<ue of socialism proceeds from precisely this recognition that a socially egalitarian society does not necessarily imply an ecologically (enign society#

Ecofem 9 Ans%ers AT: Plum%oo

Plum%oo mistheorizes the nature of po%er an human relationsGher focus on rationalism functions to entrench ominant mo es of thought" preclu ing its li!eratory potential 1ir$elan ,A Professor = )an!erra !anis ;ir0eland U# of +an(erra IDISL&NL&DLRI&N L+OML I&IS Trumpeter, %FF*, http:''trumpeter#atha(ascau#ca'inde7#php'trumpet'article'vie6Mile'$DG'4*%
ost ecofeminists identify the concept of ,gender- 8the social construction of se79as the conceptual glue (et6een the a(ove interloc0ing sets of dualisms, and the term ,patriarchy- to refer to their systemic e7pression in social and institutional structures# Such terms have (een received (y many as highly provocative or even confrontational, (ecause these su(?ects are still ta(oo 8ta(oos (eing things that generally support po6er relations9# Plum6ood instead chooses to su(stitute the term ,mastery- for patriarchal consciousness, and the ,master>slave- dualism for dominance relationships as overarching concepts in her deconstruction of .estern thought# Rather than use gender as a metaphorical icon of value, therefore, she reduces it to the male'female dichotomy, relegating the concept to ?ust another means (y 6hich people are categorised, much in the 6ay that race and class have (een used to marginali3e people# Lcofeminist theory, 6hen framed this 6ay, loses its shoc0 effect > 6hich is ar>gua(ly a good thing# The disengendered terminology ma0es the paradigm more palata(le and academically 0osher# .hile this de>politicised version may (road>en its appeal, ho6ever, it may simultaneously narro6 its true transformative potential# Murther, this disengendered typology may

reinvent the min /!o y ualism upon 6hich Plum6ood focuses and 6hich is nota(ly a(sent from most ecofeminist literature# In this 6or0, therefore, the (iological dimension of hu> man psychology and (ehaviour 8and 6hich 6e share 6ith other animals9 is split off from the cere(ral and disgarded# Plum6ood challenges the limitations of .estern rationalism 6ith a rationalism of the same order, 6hich presents no difficulty, (ut ris0s losing a 0ey ecofeminist insight in the process# After all, the pervasiveness of mastery or

dominance and the use (y the master of dualistic thin0ing in manipulating the populace is not a ne6 idea to those involved in social ?ustice movements= and certainly institutionalised forms of slavery are at least pu(licly disapproved of, even 6hen practiced enthusiastically# The virtues of e<uality and freedom from tyranny have long (een taught in such u(i<uitous sites as the pulpit > yet these e7hortations have done little to reduce hierarchical social relations# .hy 6ould they 6or0 no6J It is the > until recently invisi(le> omnipresence of gender 6ithin these hierarchical dualisms that creates the potential for ne6 insights and the (asis for a ne6 human identity and social transformation# In the desire to displace gender as a pivotal element in her theory, Plum6ood appears to overloo0 the central role of (oth se7 and

gender in the motivations (ehind the see0ing and a(using po6er# Mor e7ample, in Plum6ood-s e7tensive deconstruction of the master>slave relationship, the po6er drive on the part of the master is presumed (ut not theorised# Po6er and dominance are not really defined= they ?ust present themselves as something that pervades human relationships# Perhaps this is (ecause po6er cannot (e ade<uately deconstructed in a gender>(lind and a>se7ual analysis J Surely humans have many (iological and instinctual (ehaviour
patterns related to se7 and reproduction that they share 6ith a mi7 of other animals, though 6e are not as yet a(le to disentangle these phenomena# In Plum6ood-s theory, ho6ever, the human appears connected to nature on the cere(ral plane

only, either (y e7periencing nature e7istentially or (y understanding nature intellec>tually# In her disengendered theory, the human is a creature 6ithout se7 drivesor personal insecurities, moved only (y cere(ral constructs and sensory e7peri>ence# ;ut is this not a denial of the nature 6ithinJ I for one find it hard to (elieve that the po6er drive 6e 6itness daily does not predate the introduction of rational logic in ancient Nreece, as is implied# It seems unli0ely that po6er relations originated in modes of reason or that they can (e e7tirpated (y ne6 conceptualisations alone # This (egs the <uestion as to the strategic
impact of a disengendered ecofem>inism# +an people (e motivated to a(andon relations of personal po6er, and the value systems that legitimise them, (ecause ne6 cere(ral constructs are p>resented 6hich should (e preferred (y rational peopleJ Ironically, Plum6ood-s model of

the human is, in this respect, not that unli0e the rational information processor of traditional management and decision theory 6ho ma0es optimal choices (ased on o(?ective analyses# 5ave not many malestream green theorists already articulated the vie6 that the remedy to dominance relations or mastery is a ne6 6ay of perceiving reality J
It may indeed (e a necessary condition, (ut it is not sufficient# Rational arguments and intellectual frame6or0s are important, (ut if 6e 6ant to motivate people to ta0e on (oard these ne6 insights, 6e need to recogni3e the human as a comple7 (lending of

emotional needs as 6ell as ideologies# In a po6er>(ased society, or ,patriarchy-, many people feel they can only ensure the change#

provision of personal needs 8such as se7, love and (elonging9 through material accumulation and the display of 6ealth# Until 6e face the pro(lem of hyper>masculine identification in the self and the culture, I suspect that there %ill !e no fun amental social

Economic Environmentalism 9 Ans%ers @eneral

+ust !ecause economics %as part of the pro!lem of environmental estruction oes not mean economic rationality shoul !e isavo%e hol s the $eys to all environmental solutions 3corse F Professor of 6nternational 3tu ies !ason, Assistant Professor a onterey Institute of International Studies a iddle(ury +ollege, .hat Lnvironmentalists &eed to Cno6 A(out Lconomics, Online ;oo0 Lnvironmental pro(lems e7ist at varying scales>local, regional, national, and international>yet they almost al6ays share similar
features, (e it air pollution in e7ico +ity or Bos Angeles, ha(itat loss in Cenya or ;ra3il, or fisheries collapse in the Indian, Pacific, or Atlantic oceans# Lnvironmentalists trying to ma0e sense of these issues are posed 6ith difficult <uestions: > .hy do relatively rational actors (uying and selling goods and services very often not ta0e into account the to7ic pollution that results from their choicesJ > .hy do fishermen routinely over> e7ploit the fisheries that they depend onJ > .hy are the ecological services provided (y forests and 6etlands, 6hich produce tangi(le and 6ide> ranging values for society, usually not ta0en into account 6hen decisions are madeJ > 5o6 can there (e such massive pollution and resource use involved in industrial agriculture, and yet food is so cheapJ ?conomists have been studying 'uestioning like these for many

decades and have devised a fairly comprehensive framework for understanding the root causes of environmental problems, 6hich is 6here 6e (egin# $hose who believe that economists have an unalterable faith in the power of markets may be surprised to learn that economists long ago understood that there are conditions under which markets will not lead to socially optimum outcomes especially in the environmental realm# U In fact, in the environmental arena mar0et imperfections are u(i<uitous# Readers may also (e pleasantly surprised to discover that the economic theories that explain why markets fail also hold the eys to solving the myriad environmental problems we face# 0irtually all of the policies being discussed in the political realm ,>A board meetings and on environmental websites can be traced to economic theories that 6ere derived dating (ac0 as early as the %F4Ds, and are still vigorously de(ated in academic settings around the 6orld to the present day# $he three most important sources of environmental problems are CJ market failure 4N the tragedy of the commons and 6N the under%provision of public goods , 6hich I 6ill discuss independently, even though
some of their features overlap#

Applying economic value to the environment is the only %ay to internalize an com!at environmental estruction 3corse F Professor of 6nternational 3tu ies !ason, Assistant Professor a onterey Institute of International Studies a iddle(ury +ollege, .hat Lnvironmentalists &eed to Cno6 A(out Lconomics, Online ;oo0 The atmosphere is a much different type of resource, one that is not actively harvested, (ut the essential logic holds# ;ecause virtually anyone can dump as much greenhouse gases into the atmosphere as they 6ant, there is little incentive for any individual company or nation to restrict their emissions# If they do so it 6ill have only marginal (enefits that are unli0ely to reduce
glo(al 6arming and 6hich are spread out over all of the 6orldUs people# Poorer nations, particularly island nations or those at or (elo6 sea level, 6ho stand to suffer the most from glo(al 6arming, have no recourse 6ith 6hich to demand that emissions (e restricted, (ecause there is no international (ody that has ?urisdiction over the atmosphere#K .hile there are 6ays to address the issue of glo(al 6arming short of creating property rights to the atmosphere 1to (e discussed later9, the 0ey point is that it

is the open access nature of the atmosphere that has created the problem in the first place# This (rings up another essential point# any critics of economics claim that it is the commoditi3ation of the environment and living things that are the root causes of environmental pro(lems= that it is a 6orld that assigns property rights to the 6orldUs environmental heritage and assigns them price tags, 6hich is the greatest threat to a more liva(le future# A careful e7amination, ho6ever, of the areas 6here 6e see some of the greatest environmental threats leads to the exact opposite conclusion# It is the fact that much of the 6orldUs oceans and the atmosphere are freely open to e7ploitation that drives the unsustaina(le levels of (oth fish harvesting and greenhouse gas emissions# The same is true for many areas of the Ama3on rain forest, 6here property rights are non>e7istent, non>transparent,
or not enforced= as a result 6e o(serve massive deforestation#F

Environmental 3ecuritization 9 Ans%ers Ees Accurate

Environmental securitization is necessary to accurately represent the lin$ !et%een climate an conflict 7azo 0< Ph4 in Paleoclimatology from :)LA !effrey a3o, anaging Lditor, Survival and Research Mello6 for Lnvironmental Security and Science Policy at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in Bondon, $>GD%D, I+limate +onflict: 5o6 glo(al 6arming threatens security and 6hat to do a(out it, pg# %G>%$ The e7pected conse<uences of climate change include rising sea levels and population displacement, increasing severity of typhoons and hurricanes, droughts, floods, disruption of 6ater resources, e7tinctions and other ecological disruptions, 6ild> fires, severe disease out(rea0s, and declining crop yields and food stoc0s# +om(ining the historical precedents 6ith current thin0ing on state sta(ility, internal conflict and state failure suggests that adaptive capacity is the most important factor in avoiding climate>related insta(ility# Specific glo(al and regional climate pro?ections for the ne7t three decades, in light of other drivers of insta(ility and state failure, help identify regions and countries 6hich 6ill see an increased ris0 from climate change# They are not necessarily the most fragile states, nor those 6hich face the greatest physical effects of climate change# The glo(al security threat posed (y fragile and failing states is %ell $no%n# It is in the interest of the 6orld-s more afflu> ent countries to ta0e measures (oth to reduce the degree of glo(al 6arming and climate change and to cushion the impact in those parts of the 6orld 6here climate change 6ill increase that threat# &either course of action 6ill (e cheap, (ut inaction 6ill (e costlier# Lfficient targeting of the right 0ind of assistance 6here it is most needed is one 6ay of reducing the cost, and understanding ho% an %hy ifferent societies respon to climate change is one 6ay of ma0ing that possi(le # )limate an security are lin$e 4arfur proves environmental concerns %ere central 7azo 0< Ph4 in Paleoclimatology from :)LA !effrey a3o, anaging Lditor, Survival and Research Mello6 for Lnvironmental Security and Science Policy at the International Institute for Strategic Studies in Bondon, $>GD%D, I+limate +onflict: 5o6 glo(al 6arming threatens security and 6hat to do a(out it, pg# K4>K*
A contrasting illustration is provided (y U&LP-s analysis of conflict and the environment in the Sudan# In this case, the authors are primarily interested in the specific environmental aspects of recovery, reconstruction and development, and they e7plicitly e7clude other factors to focus on the environmental dimensions of conflict# 4$ Bi0e de .aal, they note that environmental pro(lems affecting pasture and farmland occur throughout Sudan and are ,clearly and strongly lin0ed to conflict in a minority of cases and regions only-, (ut that nevertheless , there is

su(stantial evidence of a strong lin0 (et6een the recent occurrence of local conflict and environmental degradation ### in the drier parts of Sudan-# 44 Bi0e de .aal, they discuss the (rea0do6n of traditional systems of mediation and
dispute resolution after %FED and the influ7 of small arms into the region, ,6ith the unfortunate result that local conflicts today are (oth much more violent and more difficult to contain and mediate-# 4* Although they also recognise that land degradation ,does not appear to (e the dominant causative factor in local conflicts-, they conclude that: There is a very strong lin0 (et6een land degradation,

desertification and conflict in Darfur# &orthern Darfur P 6here e7ponential population gro6th and related environmental stress have created the conditions for conflicts to (e triggered and sustained (y political, tri(al or ethnic differences P can (e considered a tragic e7ample of the social (rea0do6n that can result from ecological collapse# Bong>term peace in the region %ill not !e possi!le unless these underlying and closely lin0ed environmental and livelihood issues are resolved#

Bree 7ar$et Environmentalism Ans%ers *o 6mpact

Bree mar$ets on?t create progress they are inefficient an e&clu e ;uestions of natural capital 7ayer 2 Professor of 7anagement ayer Prof of anagement Oa0land University GDDE Don American ;usiness Ba6 !ournal, Be7is +onventional 6isdom tells us that free mar0ets and private enterprise (ring a(out the greatest good through optimally efficient use of resources# The reality is that corporations can (e as (ureaucratic as any government agency 6ith ne6 efficiencies and innovations (eing strangled 6ithin the organi3ation # nFK
+orporate initiatives to conserve energy and materials and to invest in cost>effective and eco>friendly products and efficiencies are not a given for many organi3ations= 6hile there are some emerging corporate e7emplars that 6ill (e discussed in Part III, they are e7ceptional# On a O*'--P more (asic level, claims

that the free mar0et creates greater 6ealth and 6ell>(eing glo(ally 6ill invaria(ly rely on Nross Domestic Product 8NDP9 num(ers that systematically e7clude the accelerating dra6>do6n of natural capital# .hat is natural capitalJ &atural capital is (reatha(le air, drin0a(le 6ater, fertile soil, 6etlands and coastal dunes that mediate storm surges, a<uifers that provide a source for irrigating other6ise unproductive land, rivers and la0es that provide recreation and fishing, and oceans that have provided sustenance and a 6ay of life for people over the centuries# In our economic calculations of ho6 6e are doing in terms of 6ealth creation, the no6>accelerating diminution of natural capital has (een left out of the e<uation# ;ecause the mar0et paradigm recogni3es only priced e7changes, it cannot compute other conditions a(out life, health, or happiness# Thus, 6hile 6e are>>(y standard economic measures>>getting richer, the natural environment that 6e (e<ueath to successive generations is getting poorer # nFF

Bree 7ar$et Environmentalism Ans%ers *o 3olvency @eneral

4oesn?t solve the case 7ingyuan A Professor of La% ingyuan Associate Professor of Ba6 at Tsinghua University School of Ba6 GDD*, .ang Temple !ournal of Science, Technology \ Lnvironmental Ba6, le7is
+ompared to conventional energy resources such as coal and oil, rene6a(le energy resources are generally more environmentally>friendly and, therefore, (enefit (oth the economy and the environment# Unfortunately, 6hile the mar0et mechanism 1Q$*K2 generally may not prove rene6a(le energy economically (eneficial, sometimes the mar0et fails to operate in terms of a specific energy mar0et# That is, the mar0et

fails to operate in the conte7t of energy and rene6a(ly energy# Lnvironmental (enefits resulting from the development and use of rene6a(le energy sources, a form of positive e7ternality or mar0et failure, cannot (e measured (y price signals and, therefore, cannot (e incorporated into the mar0et system # Murthermore, (ecause of the differences of pro?ect scale and the maturity of technology, the costs of developing and using rene6a(le energy are usually more e7pensive and less competitive than costs of fossil fuel energy ,
especially electricity derived from coal>(urning po6er plants#

Bree 7ar$et Environmentalism Ans%ers *o 3olvency 7ar$et Bailure

Purely mar$et economics fails pu!lic goo s" e&ternalities an trage y of the commons 3peth F 4ean of Eale 3chool of Borestry !ames, dean of the :ale School of Morestry and Lnvironmental Studies at :ale University, and Professor in the Practice of Lnvironmental Policy, The ;ridge a the Ldge of the .orld, pg# K4 In ar0ets and the Lnvironment, environmental economists &athaniel Ceohane and Sheila Olmstead call attention to three distinct types of mar0et failure 6here the environment is concerned# Mirst, there are the negative e7ternalities noted a(ove, for e7ample, all the indirect costs of the environmental damage imposed on those do6nstream of polluters and on the pu(lic at large, costs that the unaided mar0et does not re<uire the polluter to pay# The other t6o categories of mar0et failure are pu(lic goods and the tragedy of the commons: OSome environmental amenities, such as (iodiversity, are en?oyed (y lots of people, 6hether or not those people help pay for them# Lconomists call such goods pu(lic goods# A mar0et failure arises (ecause some individuals 6ill end up (eing free riders: Rather than helping to provide the pu(lic good themselves, they merely en?oy 6hat others provide for them# OA third class of environmental pro(lems is 0no6n as the tragedy of the commons# .hen a natural resource@such as a fishery or an underground a<uifer@is made availa(le to all, individuals 6ill tend to e7ploit the resource far !eyon the optimal level. This pro(lem arises (ecause the incentives of individuals diverge from the common good # .e call it a tragedy (ecause everyone 6ould (e (etter off if they could all commit themselves to act less selfishly# Thus individually rational actions add up to a socially undesira(le outcome#

Bree 7ar$et Environmentalism Ans%ers AT: 4#(ule

*ot a 4#rule (ichar s , Ph4 in Philosophy = Princeton !ay Richards, PhD 6ith honors in Philosophy and Theology from Princeton, I oney, Nreed, and Nod: .hy +apitalism Is the Solution and &ot the Pro(lem, pg# *$ The pro(lem isn-t simply that ta7es are too high# After all, not all forms of ta7ation are un?ust# Lvery government has to collect ta7es to fund services (eneficial to all@to maintain courts, pro> tect citi3ens from domestic and foreign predators, enforce traffic la6 and contracts, and so forth# These government functions stem from our inaliena(le rights# .e have a right to protect ourselves from aggressors, for instance, so 6e can delegate that right to government# .e don-t
have the right to ta0e the property of one person and give it to another# Therefore, 6e can-t rightfully delegate that function to the state# Delegated theft is still theft#

@lo!al Local 9 Ans%ers @lo!al Bocus @oo

@lo!al thin$ing promotes local action an chec$s violence 3achs ,' Professor of 3cience = Penn 3tate .olfgang Sachs, Nreen ovement Activist and co>ed# Development guest Prof Science a Penn State, %FFG, Development Dictionary, p# %DF>%%$
;ut recogni3ing the pitfalls of glo(al eco>managernent does not solve the dilemma 6hich 6ill stay 6ith us in the decades to come# ;oth alternatives@ to thin0 in categories of one 6orld as 6ell as not to thin0 in such categories@are e<ually self>destructive# On the one hand, it is a sacrilege in our age of cultural evaporation to apprehend the glo(e as a united, highly integrated 6orld# On the other hand, a vision of the

globe as a multitude of different and only loosely connected worlds cannot dispense with the idea of ecumenism in the face of lurking violence and the devastation of nature # &ot surprisingly, calls for global consciousness a(ound# Niven that local events can affect the conditions of life in remote places, these calls aim at bringing into congruence the range of our responsibility with the range of our effects# ***)ontinues***
People are seldom residents of only one mental space# They have the a(ility to change their point of vie6 and to loo0 6ith the other-s eyes at themselves# in fact, people often hold multiple loyalties at one and the same time# In many instances they com(ine rootedness in a place 6ith affiliation to a larger community# An inha(itant of medieval +ologne 0ne6 ho6 to (e a mem(er of the +hristian +hurch= a villager in Ra?asthan 6as a6are of ;harat, other india= and +roatian peasants as 6ell as the citi3ens of +raco6 6ere part of the 5a(s(urg empire# In a similar vein, the one 6orld may (e thought of in terms of a meta>nation instead of a super>nation# It constitutes the hori3on 6ithin 6hich places live out their density and depth# In this perspective# Lone world is not a design for more global planning but an ever present

regulative idea for local action# 7osmopolitan localism seeks to amplify the richness of a place while keeping in mind the rights of a multi%faceted world# It cherishes a particular place, yet at the same time 0no6s a(out the relativity of all places# Even if there are ris$s" glo!al thin$ing is necessary to chec$ violence an complacency *ayar ,, Professor = 8ar%ic$ !ayan &ayar, Ba6 Prof a .ar6ic0, Mall %FFF, F Transnat-l B# \ +ontemp# Pro(s# *FF, p ln
Bocated 6ithin a site of privilege, and charged to reflect upon the grand <uestions of 6orld>order and the human condition as the third +hristian illennium da6ns, we are tempted to turn the mind to the task of abstract imaginings of *what could be* of our

*world * and *how should we organi)e* our *humanity#* -erhaps such contemplations are a necessary antidote to cynicism and skepticism regarding any possibility of human betterment a necessary revitali)ation of critical and creative energies to check the complacencies of the state of things as they are # n% 5o6ever, imagining 1Q)D%2 possi(ilities of

a(stractions>>O6orld>order,O Ointernational society,O Othe glo(al village,O Othe family of human0ind,O etc#>>does carry 6ith it a ris0# The OtotalO vie6 that is the ta0e>off point for discourses on preferred O6orld>orderO futures ris0s deflection as the a(stracted pro?ections it provo0es might entail little conse<uence for the faces and the names of the humanity on 6hose (ehalf 6e might spea0# So, 6hat do 6e doJ I choose, in this contri(ution to the collective endeavor to6ards Oreframing 6orld>order,O not to e7plore possi(ilities of reform or transformation of the current Oorder#O y pro?ections do not involve the 8re9formulation of O6orld>orderO ideas for the reorgani3ation of the O6orld polity#O They do not see0 to advance 8re9articulations of normative standards appropriate for the Ofamily of human0indO as it confronts the perceived challenges of the coming years 8let alone, the ne7t millennium9# They do not 8re9conceptuali3e the configurations of po6er and responsi(ilities 6orthy of an aspired>for collective civili3ational pro?ect# y reason for this is simple# The pro?ections of Ogood ideasO for the reconstitution of Oglo(alO imaginings 6ithin the mainstream of political>legal discourse are many# &o dou(t such endeavors will continue in search of better

futures# Reference to these articulations and attention to their proposals are indeed necessary as we seek to destabili)e current hegemonies of violence # 5o6ever, a representation of these proposals is not, I (elieve, 6hat I could usefully do
here# Instead, I 6ould li0e to pursue an alternative trac0 of OimagingO human futures, Ore>vie6ingO rather than OreframingO 6orld>order#

@reen Aesthetics 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails/AT: Boucault

Boucaul ian self#reintervention cannot yiel social change their strategy is oome Botopoulos ' Ta0is, Lditor, former senior lecturer in Lconomics at the University of &orth Bondon, DL O+RA+: A&D &ATURL, vK, n%, arch, http:''666#democracynature#org'dn'volK'ta0is^transitional#htm As I mentioned a(ove, 6e may characterise as ,Bifestyle anarchism- strategies all those, spontaneous or not, activities in the economic or (roader social realm, 6hich are not an integral part of a political pro?ect for systemic change # Such
activities may involve the (uilding of communes or ecovillages as 6ell as +ommunity Supported Agriculture, farmers mar0ets, land trusts, BLTS, local economic development and alternative technologies# I 6ill therefore classify as ,lifestyle- activists all those 6ho are involved in such activities for their o6n sa0e, 8even if they use antisystemic slogans to ?ustify them9, rather than 6ith the e7plicit aim to (uild a ne6 political antisystemic movement 6ith a clear vision a(out a future society and a strategy to reach it# Although ;oo0chin, 6ho coined the term ,lifestyle anarchism-, did not specifically descri(e 6hich activities may (e included here I thin0 that the a(ove activities often present many of the characteristics attri(uted (y ;oo0chin to it: assailing organi3ation, programmatic commitment and serious social analysis, as 6ell as re?ecting the need for (uilding a political movement 8unli0e the anarcho>syndicalist movement 6hich in its heyday tried to engage in creating an organi3ed movement as 6e have seen a(ove9 and relying instead on (ringing social change ,(y e7ample- and the corresponding change in values#

The motive (ehind such activities, as ;oo0chin descri(ed it, in fact ,articulates Moucault-s approach of ,personal insurrection- rather than social revolution- #1*$2 Such activities are rampant in countries li0e ;ritain since the %FEDs,
6hen the ideas of +olin .ard 8and others around him9 concerning 6hat they called ,Anarchy in Action- jin fields as diverse as to6n planning, housing, education and allotmentsj (ecame influential# Similar trends are e7pressed today (y various anarchist currents that e7tol the virtues of co>ops, 6hich they consider as ,anarchism in its latest practical manifestation-, since ,they allo6 the practice of anarchism to (e conducted 6ithin the larger capitalist economy-,1*42 or adopt a ,pragmatic- anarchism, 6hich re?ects the traditional antisystemic demands of anarchists to a(olish the mar0et economy and moneyV1**2 5o6ever, it is utterly a>historical to suggest, as some ,pragmatic- 8lifestyle9 anarchists1*)2 do, that in the same 6ay as capitalism evolved out of feudalism, a ne6 li(eratory society could emerge in the future out of the alternative institutions (eing esta(lished today (y activities involved in ,anarchy in action-# The fundamental fla6 in such analysis is that the capitalist society 6as indeed an evolutionary development, (ut not so much as regards its economic and political institutions, in the esta(lishment of 6hich 8as I attempted to sho6 else6here1*E29 the state played a crucial role# In fact, the capitalist society 6as an evolutionary development mainly as regards its heteronomous character, i#e# the fact that a ne6 capitalist elite had simply replaced the old feudal one# 5o6ever, a li(eratory society is an autonomous society, a completely different ,species- of society, that involves the a(olition of the institutional concentration of po6er at the hands of various elites# This is a revolutionary change 6hich can never (e achieved through some 0ind of evolution, even if such evolution could (e speeded up (y the activities of ,anarchists in action-, lifestyle anarchists etc, 6ho are involved in esta(lishing alternative institutions here and there, outside of a political programmatic movement, 6ith its o6n goals, means and strategy# As ;oo0chin stressed, the important differences (et6een life>style and B strategies center around the role of the individual 6ith respect to social change# In life>style strategies,

social change is seen to start from the lifestyle of the individual, and to proceed through (ypassing the state and the mar0et economy, rather than through contesting and attempting to replace them 6ith ne6 social institutions# On the other hand,
the B strategy emphasises the role of the social individual, that is, of the individual 6ho ta0es part in political struggles at the local level and social struggles in general, 6ith the aim to effect social change, not ithrough setting an e7ampleU, (ut through creating a confederation of municipalities 6hich 6ill (e in tension 6ith the nation>state, until the former replaces the latter#1*K2 The ID pro?ect, although of course also stresses the role of social individual in social change, still, it uses a concept of freedom in terms of individual and social autonomy 6hich aims to transcend the duality of individualism versus collectivism1*F2 and, in this sense, is differentiated from the B pro?ect 6hich adopts collectivism# The emphasis assigned to the individual 8rather than to the social individual9 (y lifestyle strategies and the similar ,anarchy in action- strategies has

inevita(ly led to social marginalization, as the almost insignificant social impact of movements inspired (y such strategies has sho6n in the last G* years# Murthermore, this trend, inevita(ly, has not escaped the trap of (eing Iso s0e6ed to6ards the idea of the reforms of the individualUs values and lifestyle, as the primary political route to radical social change, that it ends up seeming positively antipathetic to the notion of the collective1)D2 jthe &e6 Age movement (eing a clear indication of this trap# Murthermore, the activities of the people involved in this sort of ,anarchy in action-'lifestyle anarchism in no 6ay constitute a movement, let alone a political movement# Mirst, there is no common organisation , something that implies that 6e should more accurately call the groups
involved in such activities as spontaneous gatherings of people 6ith similar ideas and values rather than ,organised movements- 6orthy of this name# Second, the activists involved do not share a common 6orldvie6 # Murthermore, as the activists involved in such diverse activities have never put for6ard any 0ind of common program 6ith shared goals, ideology and strategy 6e cannot tal0 a(out a common set of values characterising the participants in these ,movements-# Minally, the activities of many of the participants involved

are in no 6ay related to antisystemic politics 8in the sense of promoting an alternative society9, if indeed they are related to politics at allV In fact, all too often some of the activities involved are so politically harmless that the political elites fre<uently use them for their o6n ends# As I pointed out else6here,1)%2 this sort of activity is utterly ineffective in (ringing a(out a systemic change# Although helpful in creating an alternative culture among small sections of the population and, at the same time, morale (oosting for activists 6ho 6ish to see an immediate change in their lives, this strategy oes not have any chance of success jin the conte7t of today-s huge concentration of po6er@ to create the democratic ma?ority needed for systemic social change# This is (ecause the pro?ects suggested (y this strategy may (e too easily marginali3ed, or a(sor(ed into the e7isting po6er structure 8as has happened many times in the past9 6hile their effect on the
socialisation process is minimal jif not nil# Particularly so, 6hen such strategies usually concentrate on single issues, 6hich are not part of a comprehensive political program for social transformation and, therefore,, do not help in creating the ,anti>systemic- consciousness re<uired for systemic change#

6n ivi ualize ethics cannot create collective change#their alternative results in ;uietism Lu$e ,2 Professor of Political 3cience Timothy, professor of political science at "irginia polytechnic, L+O+RITIHUL: +O&TLSTI&N T5L POBITI+S OM &ATURL, L+O&O :, A&D +UBTURL, p>G4>G*
ultimately, deep ecology is Iutopian ecologism# As a utopia, it presents come alluring moral visions of 6hat might (e= at the same time, It fails to outline practica(le means for reali3ing these moral visions# Deep ecologists are caught in the trap of endorsing ne6 visions

for ne6 ecotopias (ut they do not even have a practical program for future primitive reinha(itiation or (ioregional community (uildings# Political action is displaced into the realm of ethical ideals, ma0ing it ever individuals moral duty to change himself or herself in advancing cultural change# .ithout the opportunity to change collective activity> in the economy, ideology, technology, or policy>this personal moral regeneration might (ecome only a <uietistic postmodern Taoism of finding the right path in an evil society # &aess, for
e7ample, suggests that hig vision of deep ecology is virtually idiosyncratic= others are strongly en?oined to concoct their o6n o6n ecological omelettes# Devall and Sessions conclude that deep ecology stands for these ultimate values= in6ard and out6ard direction, t6o aspects of the same process# .e are not alone# .e are part and parcel of the larger community, the land community# Lach life in its o6n sense is heroic and connected# In the 6ords of ;odhisativa, I&o one is saved until 6e are all saved# This perspective encompasses all notions of saving anything 6hether it (e an endangered species, the community, or your o6n self# Lach life is a heroic <uest# It is a ?ourney of the sport during 6hich 6e discover our purpose# .e have only to em(ar0 to set out in our o6n hearts, on this ?ourney 6e (egan so long ago, to start on the Ireal 6or0 of (ecoming real and of doing 6hat is real# &othing is la(ored, northing forced# The process of developing maturity is simpler than many thin0# Bi0e 6ater flo6ing through the canyons, al6ays yielding, al6ays finding its 6ay (ac0, simple in means, rich in ends# The deep ecologists may claim these values as their final goals# 5o6ever, such principles have little practical utility for staging an ecological

revolution#

@reen Aesthetics 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Too 6n ivi ual

6n ivi ualize aesthetic changes %onQt alter societal !ehaviors legal man ates are necessary to overcome collective action pro!lems 4oremus 5 5olly, Professor of Ba6 and +hancelloris Mello6 at U+>Davis, Lnvirons Lnvironmental Ba6 \ Policy !ournal, vGE, Mall, p# G$F>4D
I am not comparing most environmental violations to murder= o(viously environmental transgressions are not su(?ect to the same harsh and near>universal societal condemnation# I am simply suggesting that environmental protection, li0e other social goals, may re<uire more than a societal consensus# Inevita(ly, some people 6ill (e Ienvironmental deviants# They may disagree 6ith a

society consensus in favor of environmental protection, they may have strong contrary motivations, or they may simply lac0 an effective self>sanctioning mechanism# At least some actions those Ienvironmental deviants 6ould commit could cause grievous Lnvironmental pro(lems are typically collective action pro(lems that cannot (e solved 6ithout the concerted action of a large num(er of persons# 6n ivi ual action is futile= it costs the actor some effort or forgone opportunity 6ithout (ringing the desired environmental gain# Under those circumstances , persons 6ho hold environmentally protective values are li0e not to act on those values 6ithout assurances that others 6ill follo6 suit# In theory, informal, non>legal, social sanctions could ensure sufficient compliance to prevent futility# ;ut in our increasingly anonymous 6orld, social sanctions such as shaming or ostraci3ation may not operate very effectively# Begal mandates can provide confidence that environmentally protective action 6ill not (e futile and that others 6ill (ear their fair share of the (urden

environmental harm and therefore merit deterrence or punishment (y legal sanctions# ;ut in the environmental conte7t there is a stronger and more generally applica(le reason 6hy la6 must persist even if 6e develop a very firm consensus on societal values#

4arierQs alternative oesn?t spillover to societal change 7ur och '$ !onathan, Dept of +ity and Regional Planning, +ardiff University, !ournal of Lnvironmental Policy \ Planning, vG, p#F%
The unfolding of discourse simultaneously (ecomes the play of po6er: as 6ays of tal0ing emerge, so they open and close options, construct and deconstruct structures and o(?ects, ma0e and unma0e people and things# And yet, there is little attention here to the comple7 interplay of discourses #

.hile many contri(utors to Discourses of the Lnvironment are happy to critici3e Igreenspea0, little attention is given to this discourse in its larger discursive conte7t# Perhaps this e7plains 6hy the ipoliticsi that follo6 from these Moucauldian analyses seem so iunpoliticali# A num(er of the contri(utors to 6hat Sandilands calls the ispace for d a genuinely ethical self>transformative practicei 8p#F$9# ;o6er(an0 e7amines self>transformation as iecological identity 6or0i, 6hile Darier sees an environmental ethics 8in the 6a0e of Moucault9 as comprising a constant iself>reflectioni, self0no6ledge, self>e7amination of the e7isting limits of 6hat constitutes the ienvironmenti and the individualis conduct vis>k>vis the environment and vis>k>vis oneself i 8p#GGE9# :et, there is little e7planation of ho6 this emphasis on Iself might translate into a via(le environmental discourse #

7anagement 9 Ans%ers 7anagement @oo @eneral

4omination of the physical universe is $ey to solve poverty" promote nanotech an space control Jey 0 Professor of 1usiness ichael, professor at ontclair State University School of ;usiness and e7ecutive director of the L7pansionary Institute, a research and consulting organi3ation focusing on future trends in technology, society, the economy, politics, I A&US L"OBUTIO&AR: PAT5 I&TO T5L U&I"LRSL The Muturist, "ol# $*, ay GDD% .e must e7amine the many 6ays such developments impact the individual, society, and the economy# And 6e must e7plore the underlying reasons 6hy our species is feverishly 6or0ing to advance the planet and ourselves and transform all 6e encounter # .hen 6e truly understand the depth and strength of manUs over6helming
imperative to gro6 and progress, 6e can more clearly anticipate the future# At first (lush, it 6ould seem that there is little mystery a(out the impulses driving the human species in this <uest: .e engage in such productive activities merely to enhance our material condition# .e invent technologies that 6ill improve our standard of living and ma0e our lives more pleasant and comforta(le# Our species from the earliest periods of prehistory seems compelled not ?ust to survive, (ut to gro6, progress, and enhance itself and its environment# At each ne6 level of our development, 6e endeavor to master our environment as 6ell as the physical dynamics governing our universe# 5umanityUs activities,

including the entire scientific and technological enterprise, represent a unified attempt (y the species to spread OhumannessO to everything 6e encounter# Over the centuries, 6e have la(ored to improve planet Larth, and 6e are no6
preparing to transform the universe into a dynamic entity filled 6ith life# .e 6ill accomplish this (y e7tending our consciousness, s0ills, intellect, and our very selves to other spheres# I la(el the sum total of our speciesU endeavors to improve and change our planetary environment>> and ultimately the universe itself>vitali3ation# "itali3ation is a force that is conditioning human (ehavior# The drive to vitali3e>>to im(ue our planet and eventually the cosmos 6ith a consciousness and intelligence>>is a primary motivation (ehind all human productive activity# "itali3ation is the primary force shaping human (ehavior# 5o6ever, in order to pursue vitali3ation successfully, the human species must master four other forces, 6hat I la(el the O(uilding (loc0s of vitali3ation#O These four processes encompass the e7traordinary advances in areas such as space, medicine, (iogenetics, engineering, cy(ernetics, and energy# The four supporting forces are: Q Dominioni3ation: control over physical forces, such as energy# Q Species coalescence: unity through (uilt systems, such as transportation and communications# Q ;iogenesis: improvement of the physical shell, such as through (ioengineering# Q +y(ergenesis: interconnection 6ith machines to advance human evolution# Lach of these forces plays a critical catalytic role in the achievement of vitali3ation# Dominioni3ation: +ontrolling &ature The term

dominioni3ation refers to the process 6here(y human0ind esta(lishes control over several 0ey aspects of its physical universe# .ith each passing decade, 6e enhance our a(ility to manipulate matter, reshape the planet, develop innovative energy sources, and control fundamental aspects of the physical universe, such as the atom and electromagnetism# Someday, 6e 6ill learn to influence 6eather patterns and climate# In a host of 6ays, dominioni3ation helps humanity vitali3e the planet and eventually the universe# As 6e master the (asic dynamics of nature, 6e are more a(le to shepherd the evolution of our planet as 6ell as others # As 6e develop
novel and po6erful forms of energy, 6e can roc0et from one sphere to another# oreover, (y improving our already formida(le s0ills in moving mountains and creating la0es, 6e 6ill (e (etter a(le to change (oth the topography and the geography of other planets# L7amples of dominioni3ation a(ound# a?or macroengineering pro?ects attest to manUs a(ility to transform the very surface of the earth# ;y constructing man>made la0es, 6e 6ill (e a(le to live in previously uninha(ita(le areas such as intenor Australia# Shimi3u +orporation envisions a su(terranean development called Ur(an Neo Nrid>>a series of cities lin0ed (y tunnels>>accommodating half a million people# In the emerging acro>industrial Lra, 6hose frame6or0 6as esta(lished in the %FEDs and %FKDs, 6e 6ill redefine the concept of O(ignessO as 6e dot LarthUs landscape 6ith immense architectural structures# Ta0ena0a, a !apanese construction firm, has proposed OS0y +ity %DDD,O a $,DDD>foot to6er, to (e (uilt in To0yo# Another firm, Oh(ayashi, plans to erect a *DD>story high>rise (uilding featuring apartments, offices, shopping centers, and service facilities# .e 6ill esta(lish dominion over the very heart of physical matter itself# Through

nanotechnology, our species 6ill attain control over the atom and its tiniest components# Such control 6ill ena(le us to effortlessly OmacromanufactureO from the (ottom up, one atom at a time, any material o(?ect# This 6ill ena(le us to permanently eradicate age>old pro(lems such as scarcity and poverty #

7anagement 9 Ans%ers 7anagement @oo )orporations Turn

Preventing resource estruction !y 7*)?s is $ey to averting every maCor impact an runa%ay glo!alization > &+s 6ill damage the environment (eyond repair >+hec0s runa6ay glo(ali3ation and neoli(eral order 8E+ .orld Lconomic !ustice, http:''666#6orldeconomic?ustice#(logspot#com' ;elo6 is a previe6 of a Documentary Milm titled O&IR OO# ,IR8A is about the link between natural resource plunder and poverty diseases environmental collapse wars ,IR8A exposes the links between natural resource plunder by multinational corporations and resultant mass poverty pandemics environmental degradation social collapse and wars in the world today# This documentary follo6s a .L! movement that starts 6ith a 6al0 to Toronto from ontreal# The documentary
follo6s the t6o friends as the struggle to educate the 6orld that there is an alternative to the a(?ect poverty in the 6orld# A ma?or cause of poverty is that these nations 6hich are rich in resources are (eing ro((ed (y multinational companies# Although a threat to ultinational +orporations, &IR O is the start to the (eginning of ending poverty# &IR O 6ill (ring the countries resource revenue to the hands of itUs people and not corporations# 1L7pected Release Date: Septem(er GDDE2 ,IR8A will highlight the worldBs economic history

and the role of the multinational corporation in natural resource extraction from the %)th century, through colonialism, to the
present day of multilateral institutions such as the .orld ;an0Us INA# "ie6ers 6ill 6itness the vicious cycle of natural resource depletion 6ithin 6hich nations are trapped, 6hich if not chec0ed no6, 6ill leave most countries devoid of any life>sustaining resources, (y the middle of this century# The crisis amounts to economic genocide# The Issue P ass Poverty: Poverty outran0ing smo0ing and AIDS as the 6orldUs leading 0iller# One third of deaths > some %K million people a year or *D,DDD per day > are due to poverty>related causes# That is GED million people since %FFD, roughly e<ual to the population of the United States# Poverty amid Immense &atural Resource .ealth :et, a casual e7amination of OpoorO countries and ,poor- communities reveals that they actually possess immense 6ealth in the form of natural resources# Ather urgent issues

resulting from resource plunder are climate change water pollution soil erosion fish stock collapse lakes/river system drying environmental diseases and other pandemics etc# + ne6 international resource management order 1&IR O2 is therefore the basis for 4Cst century sustainable living empowering people to take charge of social economic political and ecological governance within their respective communities# It is the perfect antidote to runaway globali'ation that leaves dead children in its wake destroys the natural environment beyond repair and causes wars and pandemics that threaten world peace security and biospheric integrity # Once the ne6 international

resource management protocol is adopted, countries 6ould (e (ound to (e signatories to it and apply its principles to natural resource management practices# This 6ould have the effect of reducing mass poverty to negligi(le levels 6ithin a fe6 years of adopting the protocol# The ne6 international resource management protocol 6ill (e presented to the United &ations for discussion in !uly GDDE, along 6ith a petition of %DD,DDD signatures from around the 6orld#

7anagement 9 Ans%ers 7anagement @oo Environment Turn

/uman e&istence necessarily transforms the environment. Our choice is not %hether to intervene" !ut ho% an their style of management e&cuses unlimite ecological estruction 1arry ,, Politics Lecturer = 9eele !ohn, Politics Becturer at Ceele University, RLT5I&CI&N NRLL& POBITI+S: &ATURL, "IRTUL A&D PRONRLSS, p# %D%>%DG In +hapter $, I argued that the ecological niche for humans is created rather than naturally given and that a humani3ed or transformed environment is our natural ha(itat# The collective management, manipulation and intentional transformation of the environment are thus universal features of all human societies # As a universal re<uirement they are, in a sense, pre>political # It is how human socieities create their humani3ed ecological niches, the
various insititutional mechanisms used to maintain a sta(le meta(olism (et6een the social and the natural system , that raise moot political and moral <uestion# In this chapter, collective ecological management is presented as an institutional form regulating this meta(olism (ased on green values and principles# This idea of active ecological management cuts across the deep P shallo6, radical P reformist continuum 6ithin green theory# .hat conceptions of green political theory differ over are the scale, type, institutional structure and normative side>constraints operative upon social>environmental meta(olic states, not the necessity for environmental management and transformation# Mor e7ample, even deep ecologists, for 6hom a pre>emptive hands>off>cum>nature>0no6s>(est position constitutes a central

principle, accept that preserving 6ilderness re<uires active social, and particularly institutional, intervention# In other 6ords, preservation from development, as much as conservation for 8future9 development or ecological restoration,
all ta0e place 6ithin the (road frame6or0 of ecological restoration, all ta0e place 6ithin the (road frame6or0 of ecological management# The deep ecology ideal of 6ilderness preservation, the preservation of the non>human 6orld from a certain type of

collective human transformation 8in the form of development9, parado7ically necessitates another form of human management# In the form of institutional structures, practices, etc# 6hich function as a form of social governance to limit and'or transform development, such that 6ilderness is preserved# .hat appears as non> management at one level is at another level simple another form of management# .al0ing lighter on the earth is as
much a form of ecological management as economic development# The political and normative issue is that collective purposive>transformative interaction 6ith the environment can simply (e more or less e7tensive, have a different character or (e more or less sustaina(le#

7anagement 9 Ans%ers 7anagement @oo E&tinction Turn

7anagement is inevita!le# it?s only a ;uestion of %hat $in of intervention is use . Past interventions %ill result in e&tinction unless actively reverse Levy ,,> PhD a +entre for +ritical Theory at onash &eil, IDiscourses of the Lnvironment, ed: Lric Darier, p# G%* If the ,technological fi7- is unli0ely to (e more successful than strategies of limitation of our use of resources, 6e are, nevertheless una(le simply to leave the environment as it is# There is a real and pressing need for space, and more accurate, technical and scientific information a(out the non>human 6orld# Mor 6e are faced 6ith a situation in 6hich the processes 6e have already set in train 6ill continue to impact upon that 6orld, and therefore us for centuries# It is therefore necessary, not only to stop cutting do6n the rain forests, (ut to develop real, concrete proposals for action, to reverse or at least limit the effects of our previous interventions # oreover, there is another reason 6hy our (ehavior to6ards the non>human cannot simply (e a matter of leaving it as it is, at least in so far as our goals are not only environmental (ut also involve social ?ustice# Mor if 6e simply preserve 6hat remains to us of 6ilderness, of the countryside and of par0 land, 6e also preserve patterns of very une;ual access to their resources an their consolations 8Soper %FF*: GDE9#in fact, 6e ris0 e7acer(ating these ine<ualities# It is not us, !ut the poor of ;ra3il, %ho %ill !ear the !runt of the misery 6hich 6ould result from a strictly enforced policy of leaving the Ama3onian rain forest untouched, in the a(sence of alternative means of providing for their livelihood# It is the development of policies to provide such ecologically sustaina(le alternatives 6hich %e re;uire, as 6ell as the development of technical means for replacing our current greenhouse gas>emitting sources of energy# Such policies and proposals for concrete action must (e formulated (y ecologists, environmentalists, people 6ith e7pertise concerning the functioning of ecosystems and the impact 6hich our actions have upon them# Such proposals are, therefore, very
much the province of Moucault-s specific intellectual, the one 6ho 6or0s ,6ithin specific sectors, at the precise points 6here their o6n conditions of life or 6or0 situate them- 8Moucault %FKDg: %G)9# Mor 6ho could (e more fittingly descri(ed as ,the strategists of life and death- than these environmentalistsJ After the end of the +old .ar, it is in this sphere, more than any other, that man-s ,politics places his e7istence as a living (eing in <uestion- 8Moucault %FE): %4$9# Mor it is in facing the conse<uences of our intervention in the non>human

6orld that the hate of our species, and of those 6ith 6hom 6e share this planet, 6ill (e decidedJ Anti#management results in mass e&tinctions 3oule ,A # Professor of Environmental 3tu ies ichael L#, Professor and +hair of Lnvironmental Studies, U+>Santa +ru3, RLI&"ITI&N &ATURLJ RLSPO&SLS TO POST ODLR& DL+O&STRU+TIO&, Lds: ichael L# Soule and Nary Bease, p# %*F>%)D Should .e Actively anage .ildlands and .ild .atersJ The decision has already (een made in most places# Some of the ecological myths discussed here contain, either e7plicitly or implicitly, the idea that nature is self>regulating and capa(le of caring for itself# This notion leads to the theory of management 0no6n as (enign neglect P nature 6ill do fine, than0 you, if human (eings ?ust leave it alone# Indeed, a century ago, a hands>off policy 6as the (est policy# &o6 it is not# Niven naturesis current fragmented and stressed condition, neglect 6ill result in an accelerating spiral of deterioration# Once people create large gaps in forests, isolate and distur( ha(itats, pollute, overe7ploit, and introduce species from other continents, the via(ility of many ecosystems and native species is compromised, resiliency dissipates, and diversity can collapse # .hen artificial distur(ance reaches a certain threshold,

even small changes can produce large effects, and these 6ill (e compounded (y climate change# Mor e7ample, a storm that 6ould (e considered normal and (eneficial may, follo6ing 6idespread clearcutting, cause disastrous (lo6>do6ns, landslides, and erosion# If glo(al 6arming occurs, tropical storms are predicted to have greater force than no6# 5omeostasis, (alance, and Naia are dangerous models 6hen

applied at the 6rong spatial and temporal scales # Lven fifty years ago, neglect might have (een the (est medicine, (ut that 6as
a 6orld 6ith a lot more (ig, unhumani3ed, connected spaces, a 6orld 6ith one>third the num(er of people, and a 6orld largely unaffected (y chain sa6s, (ulldo3ers, pesticides, and e7otic, 6eedy species# The alternative to neglect is active caring P in todayis parlance, an

affirmative approach to 6ildlands: to maintain and restore them, to (ecome ste6ards, accepting all the domineering (aggage that 6ord carries# Until humans are a(le to control their num(ers and their technologies, management is the only via!le alternative to massive attrition of living nature# ;ut management activities are varia(le in intensity, something
that antimanagement purists ignore# In general, the greater the distur(ance and the smaller the ha(itat remnant, the more intense the management must (e# So if 6e must manage, 6here do 6e loo0 for ethical guidanceJ

7anagement 9 Ans%ers 7anagement @oo 8arming Turn

Only foresighte management can solve glo!al %arming the impact is the case 1erg F A visor = 8orl Be eration of :nite *ations Ro(ert, Senior Advisor .orld Mederation of United &ations Associations, GDDK, Noverning in a .orld of +limate +hange, http:''666#6funa#org'atf'cf']E;K4MDDKDD>DK*L>4F*G>FL)%> DFF%L)*EA4*K]ED';o(;ergUs&e6Paper#doc If, as ,obel .aureate -aul 7rut)en states humanity is now in the +nthropocene ?poch where forever more humanity must manage the environment the scientific community for centuries to come must take a leading social and institutional role# $his places a completely new responsibility on national and glo(al scientific academies# It implies a constructive serious and sustained dialogue 6ith the pu(lic as 6ell as 6ith political leadership# Mran0ly, fe6 scientific academies are yet up to this tas0# ;uilding the capacity of scientists to respond If governments and foundations are far-sighted they will help ensure that national scientific academies are strengthened so that they can become responsible partners in forming public policies in response to climate change# ?ach ecological setting will need specific responses calling for national academies and academic centers to partner with national policy makers# The Open Society Institute and others are 6or0ing to strengthen scientific communities, (ut it is important that scientific communities take even greater leading roles#

7anagement 9 Ans%ers AT: Lu$e

Lu$e conclu es that institutional change is necessary to stop e&tinction their alternative fails Lu$e" ,2 P professor of political science at "irginia polytechnic Timothy, ILcocriti<ue: +ontesting the Politics of &ature, Lconomy, and +ulture, pg %G)>%GE
It may (e true that Ithe actions of those no6 living 6ill determine the future and possi(ly the very survival of the species, (ut it is, in fact, mostly a mystification# Only the actions of a very small handful of the humans 6ho are no6 living, namely, those in significant

positions of decisive managerial po6er in (usiness or central e7ecutive authority in government, can truly do something to determine the future# 5ollander-s (elief that thousands of his readers, 6ho 6ill replace their light (ul(s, 6ater heaters, automo(iles, or toilets 6ith ecologically improved alternatives, can decisively affect the survival of the species is pure ideology# It may sell ne6 0inds of toilets, cars, appliances, and light (ul(s, (ut it does not guarantee planetary survival# 5ollander does not stop here# 5e even

asserts that everyone on the planet, not merely the average consumers in affluent societies, is to (lame for the ecological crisis# Therefore, he maintains, rightly and 6rongly, that Ino attempt to protect the environment 6ill (e successful in the long run unless ordinary people@the +alifornia e7ecutive, the e7ican peasant, the Soviet 1sic2 factory 6or0er, the +hinese farmer@are 6illing to ad?ust their life>styles and values# Our 6asteful, careless 6ays must (ecome a thing of the past# The 6asteful, careless 6ays of the +alifornia e7ecutive plainly must (e ecologically reconstituted, (ut the impoverished practices of e7ican peasants and +hinese farmers, short of 6hat many others 6ould see as their presumed contri(utions to Ioverpopulation, are pro(a(ly already at levels of consumption that 5ollander happily 6ould ratify as ecologically sustaina(le if the +alifornia e7ecutive could only attain and a(ide (y them# As 5ollander asserts, Ievery aspect of our lives has some environmental impact, and, in some sense, everyone he claims, Imust ac0no6ledge the responsi(ility 6e 6ere all given as citi3ens of the planet and act on the hundreds of opportunities to save our planet that present themselves every day# &evertheless, the typical consumer does not control the

critical aspects of his or her e7istence in 6ays that have any ma?or environmental impact# &or do 6e all encounter hundreds of opportunities every day to do much to save the planet# The a(surd claim that average consumers only need to shop, (icycle, or garden their 6ay to an ecological failure merely moves most of the responsi(ility and much of the (lame a6ay from the institutional center of po6er 6hose decisions actually maintain the 6asteful, careless 6ays of material e7change that 5ollander 6ould end (y having everyone recycle all their soda cans#

(eCection of managerialism is Cust as angerous their author Lu$e" ,2 P professor of political science at "irginia polytechnic Timothy, ILcocriti<ue: +ontesting the Politics of &ature, Lconomy, and +ulture, pg# KD Although resource managerialism can (e critici3ed on many levels, it has provisionally guaranteed some measure of limited protection to 6ilderness areas, animal species, and 6atercourses in the United States# And, 6hatever its fla6s, the attempt to e7tend the scope of its oversight to other regions of the 6orld pro(a(ly could have a similar impact# Resource managerialism directly confronts the e7isting cultural, economic, and social regime of transnational corporate capitalism 6ith the fact that millions of Americans, as 6ell as (illions of other human (eings, must (e provisioned from the living things populating Larth-s (iosphere 8the situation of all these other living things, of course, is usually ignored or reduced to an aesthetic <uestion9# And, if they are left unregulated , as history as sho6n, the e7isting corporate circuits of commodity production 6ill degrade the (iosphere to the point that all living things 6ill not (e a(le to rene6 themselves# Other ecological activists can fault resource managerialism, (ut fe6, if any, of them face these present>day realities as forthrightly in actual practice, largely (ecause the prevailing regimes of state and corporate po6er, no6 assuming the forms of the I6ise>use movement often regard even this limited challenge as far too radical# Still, this record of Isuccess is not a license to ignore the fla6ed 6or0ing of resource
managerialism# In fact, this forthright engagement 6ith resource realities raises very serious <uestions, as the glo(al tactics of such agencies as the .orld6atch Institute reveal#

Primitivism 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails (ecultivation 6nevita!le

Primitivism not possi!le recultivation is inevita!le Le%is ,D Professor of Environmental 3tu ies artin, Assistant Professor in the School of Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies a Du0e, Nreen Delusions, pg# )F L7cept in a fe6 (lessed environments, hunting and gathering is possi(le only so long as the human presence remains e&tremely sparse, usually less than one person per s<uare mile# Since many hunter>gatherer populations do increase over time, al(eit very slo6ly, such density thresholds seem to have (een reached many millennia ago in several parts of the 6orld# As this occurred, hunting and gathering modes of life (ecame untena(le, and local populations either crashed or perforce adopted some form of cultivation or pastoralism#

Primitivism 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Elitist 1ac$lash

The affirmative?s nostalgia for a return to rural an local agriculture lea s to an elitist !ac$lash that un ergir s continue environmental estruction an pollution havens that turn the aff Le%is ,D# assistant prof a Du0e School of the Lnvironment and +enter for International Studies artin, Nreen Delusions, pg# KG Radical environmentalists have argued since the late nineteenth century that large>scale economic and political structures are (oth inherently dehumani3ing and deadly to nature 8;ram6ell %FKF9# In the %FEDs the idea that all organi3ations should (e small of scale 6as elo<uently restated (y the economist L#M# Schumacher, 6hose Small is eautiful 8%FE$9 remains an environmental classic# Schumacher and his follo6ers (elieve that e7pansive social entities are invaria(ly governed (y stifling (ureaucracies 6hose rule>(ound (ehaviors lead to environmental degradation and social 6aste# True human values, they aver, can only (e reali3ed in intimate groups# Schumacherians have also argued that the 6isdom of small>scale organi3ation is mirrored in ecological systems, themselves structures around local transfers of energy and matter # The radical environmentalists- e7traordinary faith in decentrali3ed political po6er runs counter to the philosophies of (oth traditional li(eralism and socialism# In the United States, movements espousing the devolution of political po6er, such as the various states rights campaigns, have often (een strategic ploys (y the radical right to counteract reforming tendencies at the national level# On environmental as much as on social issues,
America-s federal government has historically (een more for6ard loo0ing than most local political entities# As Coppes 8%FKK: G4D9 6rites in regard to the history of the American conservation movement: conservationists often found decentrali3ation frustrating

for it tended to reflect the immediate economic interests of po6erful regional elites rather than national priorities# Arguing that natural resources (elonged to the 6hole country, conservationists thus usually tried to have environmental policy
made at the national level# Indeed, the main environmental agenda of the Reagan administration 6as precisely to shift responsi(ility for environmental pro(lems from the federal to the state and local levels 85enning and angun %FKF:E*9# .hile the rhetoric associated 6ith this move may have stressed the desira(ility of local autonomy and freedom from meddling .ashington (ureaucrats, its overriding goal 6as

nothing less than the gutting of environmental regulation# This is not to imply, ho6ever, that decentrali3ation is al6ays
anti>environmental# In certain circumstances a selective shift of authority from the higher to the lo6er levels of a spatial hierarchy can in fact (e highly (eneficial# In recent years, political>environmental theorists have carefully e7amined the ecological conse<uences of decentrali3ation from the federal to the state level# Several scholars advocating a federalist approach have indeed discovered that certain American states often act as environmental pacesetters 8Bo6ry %FFG9# Indeed, the national government has at times attempted to 6ea0en state>level pollution standards# ;ut the federalist approach, stressing a carefully constructed (alance of federal and local 8especially state9 authority, must not (e confused 6ith the radical decentrali3ation advocated (y green e7tremists# It is necessary to recogni3e, as Bo6ry 8%FFG9 demonstrates, that the a(ility of progressive states to enact strong environmental measures is severely hampered 6henever interstate competition intrudes# In other 6ords, in the

a(sence of centrali3ed coordination, pollution>generating firms can often th6art state policy (y departing, or threatening to depart, for less environmentally sensitive ?urisdictions# Lven in economic sectors in 6hich offenders cannot relocate, such as agriculture, the lac0 of centrali3ed authority 6ill severely limit the diffusion of innovative control programs from the more progressive to the less progressive states # And finally, it must (e recogni3ed that some states 6ill simply opt to a(dicate environmental responsi(ility altogether
8Davis and Bester %FKE: *)$9#

Primitivism 9 Ans%ers Environment Turn

/unger#gathering ooms the earth to environmental estruction Pleistocene ie#off proves Le%is ,D Professor of Environmental 3tu ies artin, Assistant Professor in the School of Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies a Du0e, Nreen Delusions, pg# *F>)D Primitivists, the most e7treme eco>radicals, argue that as soon as plants and animals 6ere domesticated true primal harmony (egan to vanish# :et even hunter#gatherers have (een guilty of environmental despoliation# In fact, much indirect evidence suggests that roughly %%,DDD years ago paleolithic hunters perpetrated the earthUs most horrific human>induced ecological tragedy: the e7termination of most large mammals in &orth and South America# Bet us (egin, therefore, in the Pleistocene epoch# Some %%,DDD years ago, a (rief interlude
in geological terms, the Pleistocene Ice Age came to an end# .ith it vanished appro7imately K* percent of all large mammals in &orth America#

These e7tinctions 6ere part of a glo(al 6ave of species death that struc0 6ith greatest severity on the peripheral continents of &orth America, South America, and Australia # Lurasia 6as less seriously affected, Africa least
of all# African e7tinctions occurred at the earliest date, American e7tinctions significantly later, and e7tinctions on remote islands most recently 8 artin and Clein %FK49# The earth has 6itnessed many other episodes of mass e7tinction, (ut the Pleistocene die>off 6as uni<ue in several respects# Its geographical patterns 6ere curiously discontinuous, (ut more unusual 6as its general restriction to large mammals and, to a lesser e7tent, large (irds# ammalian megafauna on the hard>hit continents 6as, ho6ever, devastated# a?or evolutionary lines, such as that of the ground sloths, perished entirely# As appalling as the e7tinctions of plants and arthropods currently occurring in

tropical rainforests is, it has not yet matche the ecological destruction that occurred 6hen several continentsU largest and most 6idespread animal species perished# Since the end of the Pleistocene, &orth America has (een a faunal %astelan # Our mammalian diversity should e<ual that of Africa@as it recently did# A host of large mammals had easily survived the e(( and flo6 of glacial and interglacial climates over the PleistoceneUs many hundred thousand years# .ere is not for this ecological holocaust, mammoths and mastodons, giant ground sloths and gargantuan armadillos, sa(er>toothed tigers and dire 6olves, American camels and American horses, giant (eavers and short>faced (ears, and many other species as 6ell, 6ould have greeted the first Luropeans to land on this continent #

The attempte move to%ar s the agricultural countrysi e %ill only results in increase environmental estruction >pu(lic transportation loses effectiveness >more detached d6ellings >increased long>distance trade patters Le%is ,D Professor of Environmental 3tu ies artin, Assistant Professor in the School of Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies a Du0e, Nreen Delusions, pg# 4F .hile the dream of an anarchic rural utopia may (e simply nafve, opposition to ur(anism per se is directly threatening to nature# As Paehl0e 8%FKF9 carefully sho6s, ur(an living is in a great many respects far less stressful on nature than is rural e7istence# Niven our current political economic structure 86hich despite eco>radical hopes, is in no immediate danger of collapse9, any movement of the American population a6ay from cities to6ard the countryside 6ill result only in a hastening of environmental destruction# Ur(anism-s environmental (enefits are most easily visi(le in the realm of transportation# Pu(lic transport, 6hich is almost al6ays less polluting than travel (y private automo(ile, is feasi(le only in and (et6een cities# The denser a city-s population (ecomes, the more efficiently its pu(lic transport system can operate# oreover, in ur(an core areas,
6al0ing is often the most convenient mode of travel# In America-s countryside, in contrast, the automo(ile is generally the sole feasi(le means of transport# At present, rural Americans seem 6illing to drive ever greater distances to see0 modern

conveniences, small to6ns every6here are decaying as their erst6hile shoppers cruise to the regional centers large enough to support shopping malls or, at least, discount stores# The intrinsic energy efficiency of cities is evident in other aspects of life as 6ell# Detached d6ellings re<uire far more energy to heat than do ro6houses, let alone apartments# +ongeneration, a process (y 6hich industries use 6hat 6ould other6ise (e 6aste heat, is most feasi(le in areas of high density# ore significant is the reduced energy costs of truc0ing goods from (usiness and from (usiness to consumer in the ur(an environment# Simply (y virtue of its energy efficiency, the city pollutes far less on a per capita (asis than does the countryside, given the same living standards# &o7ious (y>products may (e more <uic0ly diluted in rural environs, (ut the total output per person is generally much greater#

Primitivism 9 Ans%ers E&tinction Turn

/unter#gathering %ill cause the ne&t great e&tinction the %orl %ill not transition to some harmonious !alance" !ut a more /o!!esian state Le%is ,D Professor of Environmental 3tu ies artin, Assistant Professor in the School of Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies a Du0e, Nreen Delusions, pg# )G>)$ Strong evidence for the over0ill scenario also comes from the fe6 areas that humans did not reach in the Pleistocene# In Lurope, for e7ample, many species survived for a period on editerranean islands that remained inaccessi(le to 5omo

sapiens# OIronically the last Luropean elephants appear to have (een d6arfs occupying oceanic islands, an environment inevita(ly vie6ed (y (iogeographers as especially prone to the ha3ards of natural e7tinctionsO 8P# artin %FK4:$FDV# The evidence is even more clear for adagascar and &e6 Xealand# On those islands, large animals persisted until human (eings arrived some %,DDD to G,DDD years ago, at 6hich point massive e7tinctions ensued# oreover, 6aves of species death follo6ed Polynesian seafarers not ?ust to &e6 Xealand (ut to other Pacific island groups as 6ell, most nota(ly 5a6aii# Minally, the last of the Pleistocene e7tinctions, that of the giant StellerUs sea co6, did not occur until the eighteenth century, 6hen its remote, unpeopled refuge in the ;ering Sea 6as finally discovered (y Russian sailors# In the Pleistocene epoch, this gentle, easily 0illed marine her(ivore had (een 6idespread in coastal 6aters as far south as +alifornia 8on island e7tinctions in general, see the various essays in artin and Clein %FK49# &onspecialists often dismiss the human>agency thesis out of hand # They do so, I (elieve, not

(ecause they can refute its arguments, (ut rather (ecause it contra icts their cherishe myths a(out primitive peoples# Me6 radical environmentalist have (egun to reali3e the e7tent to their error in continuing to imagine that until the advent of Luropeans the &orth American landscape had e7isted in a harmonious and static (alance#

Primitivism 9 Ans%ers @en er E;uality Turn

Primitivism collapses %omen?s rights lea s to %ar an starvation Le%is ,D Professor of Environmental 3tu ies artin, Assistant Professor in the School of Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies a Du0e, Nreen Delusions, pg# ))>)E The assertion that hunter>gatherers are invaria(ly peaceful and se7ually egalitarian is also unsupporta(le# Some of the most egalitarian of small>scale societies have also (een cursed 6ith some of humanityUs highest rates of murder 8Cnauft %FKE9# Among the VCung San@often upheld as the paradigm of primal virtue@men often dominate
6omen 8l+onner and Shosta0 %FK):E%2, 6hile murder rates are similar to those of most modern industrial societies 8+ohen %FKF:FG9# In one central Australian hunter>gatherer society, conditions have (een considera(ly 6orse# As ary Douglas 8%F)):%4%9 e7plains, Ofor the least complaint or neglect of duty, .al(iri %omen are !eaten or speare #O Among the Ls0imo even 6ar 6as not un0no6n, and if (attles 6ere small>scale affairs they could still (e <uite (loody 8+hance %FFD:G*9# ore stri0ing is the incontroverti(ly dominant status of Ls0imo men# ;ir0et>Smith 8%FE%:%*E9 claims that among the &etsili0 tri(es, O the 0illing of female children is so common that

a girl 6ho is not (etrothed at (irth is usually doomed# O The same scholarUs report on &etsili0 adulteryU is e<ually telling: O6hen
a man punishes his 6ife for (eing unfaithful it is (ecause she has trespassed upon his rights= the ne7t evening he 6ill pro(a(ly lend her himselfO 8%FE%:%*K9# any historical hunter>gatherers also ha(itually raided their sedentary neigh(ors # In pre>+olum(ian eso>America, for e7ample, the agrarian cavitations of the ;asin of e7ico suffered repeated devastations at the hands of the northern Ochichimecs,O a congeries of foraging peoples descri(ed as fierce (ar(arians (y anthropologist Richard Adams 8%FEE: G)F9# In the American South6est too, huntcr>gatherers commonly plundered their sedentary neigh(ors, although the enmity (et6een Pue(los and Apaches 6as pro(a(ly e7aggerated (y an earlier generation of scholars 8Nood6in rF)F9# .hile hunter>gatherers are often peaceful among themselves, this does not necessarily preclude them from e7ploiting their less>mo(ile neigh(ors# &or 6ere all hunter>gatherers affluent in the

sense of en?oying a(undant leisure and good health# This thesis rests largely on evidence from the ICung San of the Calahari, a seasonally dry savannah that has (een erroneously called a desert# 5unters living in less>productive environments , such as the arctic tundra, present a grimmer picture# In fact, among virtually all documented hunting and foraging groups, as ar0 +ohen 8%FKF:%$DV demonstrates, Ohunger has clearly (een at least a seasonal pro(lem ## # and
starvation is not un0no6nO 8see also !ohnson and Larle %FKE:$$9#

Primitivism 9 Ans%ers Epistemology Bla%e

Primitivism is !ase on a fla%e epistemology##to oppose civilization Custifies its position of hegemony Van iver 0 Pendleton "andiver, A&AR+5IST LPISTL OBON:, E'GG'D%, http:''theanarchistli(rary#org'5T B'Pendleton^"andiver^^Anarchist^Lpistemology#html The primitivist criti<ue is very important, and cannot (e ignored (y anyone 6ith a green anarchist orientation# :et there are ve7ing contradictions in much primitivist theory, 6hich seem to result from a lac0 of consideration of epistemology# The proponents of this philosophy purport to call into <uestion civili3ation in total # A reliance on anthropological data# If anarcho>primitivism 6ere primarily an immanent criti<ue, e7ploring the aims and methods of
that is (eing posited is totally, <ualitatively other# The

Primitivist Primer (y !ohn oore calls anarcho>primitivism a shorthand term for a radical current that criti<ues the totality of civili3ation from an anarchist perspective, yet they mostly place themselves firmly 6ithin .estern scientific discourse 6ith their civili3ation in order to sho6 that they are inconsistent 6ith one another, perhaps it could afford to rely upon a perspective that is supplied to it (y .estern science# ;ut anarcho>primitivism is purporting to tell us ho6 to go outside of civili3ation, and the outside

fact that this other is (eing defined, from top to (ottom, (y the very institutions that are (eing called into <uestion scarcely seems to pertur( anarcho>primitivist theorists# The ?u7taposition of uncompromising purism and naivetm that is revealed in much primitivist 6riting is often ?arring, even shoc0ing# A <uote from Xer3an-s Llements of Refusal is em(lematic of the unac0no6ledged irony that pervades much of

the anarcho>primitivist criti<ue: In fact, 1primitive2 life 6as lived in a continuous present, 8%G9 underlying the point that historical time is not inherent in reality, (ut an imposition on it# It does not matter 6hat source that little num(er %G is as0ing us to consider# After informing the reader that this indemonstra(le assertion is a Ifact, Xer3an duly provides a footnote to prove itV That the assertion may in some sense (e true, I do not 6ish to contest# The point is that an entirely unscientific, indeed anti>scientific, stance is (eing dressed up in

academic attire in order to give the entire proceeding an air of rigor and methodological legitimacy that can only seem congruous to the superficial reader# The thesis itself, that time is the primal cause of alienation, is 6orth considering, and indeed Xer3an is a 6onderful 6riter 6ho often says important things# :et epistemologically, 6e are getting into hot 6ater 6hen 6e simultaneously challenge the very e7istence of civili3ation 6hile accepting its methodology and its conclusions# Indeed, the entire primitivist pro?ect is saddled 6ith the unfortunate onus of a purist theory that is riddled 6ith impurities it does not even see0 to address# The primitivist tendency to valori3e nature over culture is naive (ecause it forgets that culture necessarily defines nature# The definition of nature as anything that is not culture is al6ays going to (e useful to po6er, (ecause it e<uates nature 6ith everything that is already su(?ugated and offers its opponents the opportunity to identify themselves 6ith the defeated# This is a suc0ers game, and provides the necessary conditions 6ithin 6hich an un6ittingly loyal opposition can form around the most ostensi(ly radical criti<ue# To completely oppose civili3ation as it defines itself is to grant it hegemony over everything it claims as its o6n# If 6e 6ish to destroy civili3ation, 6e should also see0 to define it on

our terms @ 6hich an anarchist epistemology 6ould see0 to provide# Primitivists have hitched their 6agon to a star, and it 6ould (ehoove them to loo0 at the tra?ectory of that star if they 6ant to see 6here they are headed# Thirty years ago, anthropologists painted a very different picture of 6hat primitive life 6as li0e= thirty years from no6, the picture is also li0ely to loo0 different# In that case, the entire social philosophy of anarcho> primitivism 6ill li0e6ise change# 5o6 can a criti<ue 6hich purports to (e so radical allo6 itself to (e compromised (y direct intimacy 6ith the very institutions it claims to opposeJ Unless primitivist theory confronts the <uestion of epistemology, it 6ill not remain a vital force in anarchism#

Primitivism 9 Ans%ers Ev 6n ict @eneral

Prefer our evi ence primitivism has no scientific or aca emic !asis Le%is ,D Professor of Environmental 3tu ies artin, Assistant Professor in the School of Lnvironment and the +enter for International Studies a Du0e, Nreen Delusions, pg# K% +onclusion A large proportion of eco>radicals fervently (elieve that human social and ecological pro(lems could (e solved if only 6e 6ould return to a primal 6ay of life# Ultimately, this proves to (e an article of faith that receives little support from the historical and anthropological records # Although many radical environmentalists are an7ious to find empirical groundings for their primal visions, their marshaling of evidence is far too selective to satisfy the demands of scholarship# ean6hile, in academia the tide has finally turned# The contemporary vie6 of careful scholars Is
6ell summari3ed (y Timothy Silver, 6ho concludes that American Indians on the 6hole 6ere neither despoilers nor preservers of nature, and that Osince his arrival in &orth America, man0ind has remained apart from, and altered, the natural 6orldO 8%FFD:)), %FE9#

3ocial Ecology 9 Ans%ers Environment Protection )onsistent/AT: 1oo$chin

Environmental protection is consistent %ith social ecology 1oo$chin ,< urray, American anarchist \ environmentalist, Institute for Social Lcology, The Philosophy of Social Lcology: Lssays on Dialectical &aturalism, p# %) Admittedly, I have simplified the alternatives# ;ut I have done so only to reveal their logic and implications# Mor one thing, I do not 6ish to deny that even li(eral environmentalism and the value of instinctive sensi(ility have their roles in resisting a po6erful technology that has (een placed in the service of mindless gro6th, accumulation, and consumption# A stand against the construction of a nuclear reactor, a ne6 high6ay, an effort to clear>cut mountains, or a ne6 condo
development that threatens to deface an ur(an landscape@all represent impact acts, ho6ever limited, to prevent further environmental deterioration# Band, 6ildlife, scenic natural (eauty, and ecological variety that is preserved from the (ull do3er and profit>oriented predators, are important enclaves of nature and aesthetics that must (e preserved 6here 6e can do so# It re<uires no great theoretical or

ideological 6isdom to recogni3e that almost everything of 6onder and (eauty, from a statues<ue tree to a (urro6ing mammal, has its place in the 6orld and function in the (iosphere # Even 1oo$chin says %e shoul o %hat %e can to stop more environmental harms onQt reCect the plan 1oo$chin ,0 urray, Institute for Social Lcology, Defending the Larth: a Dialogue ;et6een urray ;oo0chin and Dave Moreman p#EK Bet me ma0e it clear, ho6ever, that (y counterposing reform environmentalism to the possi(ility of a truly radical ecology movement, I am not saying that 6e should desist from opposing the construction of nuclear po6er plants or high6ays today and sit (ac0 passively to a6ait the coming of an ecological millennium# To the contrary, the e7isting ground must (e held on to tenaciously, every6here along the 6ay# .e must try to rescue 6hat 6e still have so that 6e can at least reconstitute society 6ith the least polluted and least damaged environment possi(le# To (e effective, ho6ever, 6e must (rea0 a6ay from conventional

reformism and energetically adopt much more po6erful nonviolent direct>action resistance strategies# Murthermore, 6e need to go 6ell (eyond tin0ering 6ith e7isting institutions, social relations, technologies, and values and (egin to fundamentally transform them# This doesn-t mean that 6e don-t organi3e around a minimum program 6ith clear immediate o(?ectives or even that 6e never participate in local elections# I have argued for such measures in my (oo0s and articles on li(ertarian municipalism# It does mean, ho6ever, that the immediate goals 6e see0 and the means 6e use to achieve them should orient us to6ard the radical fundamental changes that are needed instead of to6ards co>optation and containment 6ithin the e7isting, hopelessly destructive system#

3ocial Ecology 9 Ans%ers (acism Turn

Turn their proCect creates a political voi that %oul !e fille %ith racist forms of local po%er 9ovel ,F 8!oel, Professor of Social Studies at ;ard +ollege, I&egating ;oo0chin, in SO+IAB L+OBON: AMTLR ;OOC+5I&, Ld: Andre6 Bight, p#4)9 The issue is no longer hierarchy as such, (ut hierarchy as it (ecomes domination P and domination as it is undone
to (ecome emancipation# 5ere a criterion is at hand in the notion of dialectic as the emergence of (eing through negation# Is this occluded or th6artedJ Then 6e have an instance of domination# Is the occlusion undone so that negations emerge, proliferate, e7pand, and more to6ard universalityJ Then domination is to that degree overcome, 6hile emancipation supervenes# Such an approach fosters concrete

engagement 6ith points of resistance and transformation as they spontaneously emerge# The a(stract denunciation of hierarchy as such favors an e<uivalently a(stract 0ind of politics, 6ith the a(straction filling up 6ith the locali3ation of %hoever enunciates it# Thus social ecologyis municipalism, rigidly advanced (y ;oo0chin, is a doctrine una(le to (e shared 6ith or to learn from that FD] and more of the 6orld population 6ho do not share in the (lessings of the "ermont to6n , Nerman philosophy, or the emancipatory heritage of the 6hite .est# There is, in short, a 0ind of cryptofacism inherent in social ecology as ;oo0chin develops the notion, no matter ho6 antiracist its individual practitioners may (e#

***/E64E@@E( A*38E(3

/ei egger 9 Ans%ers Ontology Bocus 1a

Pure ontological focus preclu es politics lea s to en less ;uestioning an inaction 8olin ,< Professor of European /istory Richard .olin, Professor of odern Luropean Intellectual 5istory at Rice, %FFD, The Politics of ;eing, pg# %%E> %%K
oreover, as 5arries indicates, 5eideggerUs theory of the state as a O6or0O is modeled upon his theory of the 6or0 of art# Thus, as 6e have seen, in 5eideggerUs vie6, (oth 6or0s of art and the state are e7amples of the Osetting>to>6or0 of truth#O In essence, the state (ecomes a giant work of art! li0e the 6or0 of art, it participates in the revelation of truth, yet on a much more grandiose and fundamental scale, since it is the "esamtkunstwerk 6ithin 6hich all the other su(>6or0s enact their preassigned roles# 5o6ever, the idea of (asing political ?udgments on analogy 6ith aesthetic ?udgments is an e7tremely tenuous proposition# Though 6e may readily accept and even 6elcome

5eideggerUs claim that 6or0s of art reveal the truth or essence of (eings 8OThe 6or0 1of art2 ### is not the reproduction
of some particular entity that happens to (e present at any given time,O o(serves 5eidegger= Oit is, on the contrary, the reproduction of the thingUs general essenceO9,)) 6e must <uestion the attempt to transpose aesthetico>metaphysical criteria to the realm of

political life proper# Is it in point of fact meaningful to spea0 of the Ounveiling of truthO as the raison dUetre of politics in the same 6ay one can say this of a 6or0 of art or a philosophical 6or0J Is not politics rather a nonmetaphysical sphere of human interaction, in 6hich the content of collective human pro?ects, institutions, and la6s is articulated, discussed, and agreed uponJ Is it not , moreover, in some sense angerous to e7pect Ometaphysical resultsO from politicsJ Mor is not politics instead a sphere of hu man plurality, difference, and multiplicity= hence, a realm in 6hich the more e7acting criteria of philosophical truth must play a su(ordinate roleJ And thus, 6ould it not in fact (e to place a type of totalitarian constraint on politics to e7pect it to deliver over truth in such pristine and unam(iguous fashionJ And even if 5eideggerUs
o6n conception of truth 86hich 6e shall turn to shortly9 is sufficiently tolerant and pluralistic to allay such fears, shouldnUt the main category of political life (e ?ustice instead of truthJ Undou(tedly, 5eideggerUs long>standing pre?udices against Ovalue>philosophy

prevented him from seriously entertaining this proposition = and thus, as a category of political ?udgment, ?ustice 6ould not stand in sufficiently close pro7imity to ;eing# In all of the aforementioned instances, 6e see that 5eidegger-s political philosophy is over!ur ene %ith ontological consi erations that end up stifling the inner logic of politics as an independent sphere of human action# Bocusing on ontology o!fuscates recognition of the truth a!out the %orl G6t encourages relativist accounts of i entity" %hich serve the interests of the mar$etGThis lea s to environmental estruction" mass poverty an violent oppression @raham ,, Professor of 7anagement Phil Nraham, Nraduate School of anagement , University of Hueensland, 5eidegger-s 5ippies: A dissenting voice on the Ipro(lem of the su(?ect in cy(erspace, Identities in ActionV %FFF, http:''666#philgraham#net'55^conf#pdf 5alf the 6orld-s people have never made a phone call# In reality, the Asian Imiracle 6asn-t# In reality, the world is worse off now than it was thirty years ago# $hese are facts of life # .hich (rings me to another stic0y point: fact# ?thics morality and social "ustice are 8separate9 notions that have buckled under the weight of a consciousness%free totalitarian work ethic # $hey have disappeared from the public agenda, e7cept for those 6ho 6ish to point out that 6e really can-t afford to have any, economically spea0ing# $hats a fact# 2ymbol worship has replaced 'uestions of reality ethics, and (eauty# $he problem of the sub"ect is a dumb issue of ontology that has been settled innumerable times throughout history , (oth in the Last and the .est, if I may ma0e the crass distinction# Of course, if we do not look back at history 6hich gives the clearest vie6 of humanity-s progress, then we may not realise this# $he various relativisms that plague notions of reality have placed the burden of proof on existence itself % a tas0 that 5eidegger 0ic0>started in a 8seemingly successful9 effort to 6ipe out pu(lic thought in %F$$# In reality 5#C percent of the worlds people own a computer# If this is the constituency of the global information society it is a very small society indeed# =ut computers of course, are "ust a small part of the informationalism story# 8ultinational companies, especially multinational media companies, are generally much more powerful than nation%states these days Pe7cept, perhaps, in the United States 6here the one is almost indistinguisha(le from the other# Regardless, (usiness tells
government 6hat it should and should not do, and it gets paid good money for its fla6ed and self>interested advice# In reality, (y %FFE, the $*K richest people in the 6orld o6ned more than the poorest G#$ (illion 8;auman, %FFK9# $he ine'uality is increasing# $hese are not

controversial statements, 6hich ma0es them all the more alarming# $he market continues to go about its socially and environmentally destructive work largely unhindered by any coherent opposition the remnants of which are either (eing financially assuaged intellectually confused or violently silenced# I5armony and understanding are the public order of the day in the information age# +ommunity consciousness in the &est is a function of propaganda# Identity is a mere commodity Ka thing# $he media fix is the pu(lic consciousness in action# It is the symbol worship the ritual, myth, and
ceremony of everyday life at the end of the second +hristian millenium#

Bocus on ontology forces an in%ar su!Cectivist turnGthis prevents emancipation an limits the role of the social @raham" >,, Phil Nraham, Nraduate School of anagement , University of Hueensland, 5eidegger-s 5ippies: A dissenting voice on the Ipro(lem of the su(?ect in cy(erspace, Identities in ActionV %FFF, http:''666#philgraham#net'55^conf#pdf
Of course, Ithe pro(lem of the su(?ect is not specific to the information age# Indeed, it found its roots, li0e most recurring philosophical pro(lems, in ancient Nreece: The po6er of a(straction reached ne6 levels 6hen 5eraclitus concentrated attention on the 0no6ing of things rather than the thing 0no6n# As thought constitutes the thin0er it controls phenomena# Since thought controls all things the universe 6as intelligi(le# The 6hole 6as a perpetual flu7 of change# The cosmos 6as the dynamics of e7istence# ;eing 6as a perpetual (ecoming# In attempting to meet the pro(lem of correlating (eing and (ecoming or space and time Parmenides declared the t6o mutually e7clusive and that only (eing 6as real# 5is philosophical a(solute 6as Ithe unsha0en heart of 6ellrounded truth# 8Innis %F*%: %%%9 To state their positions more succinctly: ,5eraclitus maintained that everything changes: Parmenides retorted that nothing changes- 8Russell %F4): ))9# ;et6een them, they delineated the dialectical e7tremes 6ithin 6hich the Ipro(lem of the su(?ect has (ecome manifest: in the e7tremes of <uestions a(out ontology, the nature of I;eing, or e7istence, or ,L7isten3- 8Adorno %FE$: %%D>G*9# 5istorically, such arguments tend to6ards internalist hocus pocus: The popular success of ontology feeds on an illusion: that the state of the intentio recta might simply (e chosen (y a consciousness full of nominalist and su(?ective sediments, a consciousness 6hich self>reflection alone has made 6hat it is# ;ut 5eidegger, of course, sa6 through this illusion d (eyond su(?ect and o(?ect, (eyond concept and entity# ;eing is the supreme concept Pfor on the lips of him 6ho says I;eing is the 6ord, not ;eing itself Pand yet it is said to (e privileged a(ove all conceptuality, (y virtue of moments 6hich the thin0er thin0s along 6ith the 6ord I;eing and 6hich the a(stractly o(tained significative unity of the concept does not e7haust# 8Adorno %FE$: )F9 Adorno-s 8%FE$9 thoroughgoing criti<ue of 5eidegger-s ontological metaphysics plays itself out (ac0 and forth through the 5eideggerian concept of a universalised identity Pan essentialist, universalised (eing and (ecoming of consciousness, elided from the constraints of the social 6orld# +dornos argument can be

summed up thus: there can be no universal theory of being in and of itself (ecause 6hat such a theory posits is, precisely, non> identity# It obscures the role of the social and promotes a specific kind of politics Pidentity politics 8cf# also Cennedy %FFK9: 1evoid of its otherness, of 6hat it renders e7traneous, an existence which thus proclaims itself the criterion of thought will validate its decrees in authoritarian style, as in political practice a dictator validates the ideology of the day# $he reduction of thought to the thin0ers halts the progress of thought; it (rings to a standstill 6ould thought 6ould need to (e thought, and 6hat su(?ectivity 6ould need to live in# As the solid ground of truth, sub"ectivity is reified d Thin0ing (ecomes 6hat the thin0er has (een from the start# It becomes tautology a regressive form of consciousness # 8Adorno %FE$: %GK9# Identity politics > the ontological imperative % is inherently authoritarian precisely because it promotes regression, internalism, sub"ectivism and most importantly (ecause it negates the role of society# It is simplistic (ecause it focuses on the thingliness of people: race, gender,

ethnicity# It tries to resolve the tension of the social>individual (y smashing the pro(lem into t6o irreconcila(le parts# Identity politics- current popularity in sociological thought, most 6ellevidenced (y its use and popularity in IThird .ay politics, can (e traced (ac0 to a cohort I have called 5eidegger-s 5ippies Pthe failed, half>hearted, 6ould>(e Irevolutionaries of the )Ds, an incoherent collection of middle>class, neo>li(eral malcontents 6ho got caught up in their o6n hyper(ole, and 6ho are no6 the administrators of a ,totally administered- society in 6hich hyper(ole has (ecome (oth lingua franca and 6orld currency 8Adorno %F)4'%FE$%FE$9#

/ei egger eclare the en of ogmatic thought an i eology free politics 8hile this soun s !enign" this voi allo%e for the ascension of /itler @raham ,, Phil Nraham, Nraduate School of anagement , University of Hueensland, 5eidegger-s 5ippies: A dissenting voice on the Ipro(lem of the su(?ect in cy(erspace, Identities in ActionV %FFF, http:''666#philgraham#net'55^conf#pdf
Societies should get 6orried 6hen .agner-s music (ecomes popular (ecause it usually means that distorted interpretations of &iet3sche-s philosophy are not far a6ay# L7istentialists create pro(lems a(out 6hat is, especially identity 85eidegger %F4E9# ?xistentialism inevitably

leads to an authoritarian worldview: this, my Dionysian 6orld of the eternally self>creating, the eternally self>destroying, this mystery

6orld of t6ofold voluptuous delight, my I(eyond good and evil, 6ithout a goal, unless the ?oy of the circle itself is a goal= 6ithout 6ill, unless a ring feels good 6ill to6ards itself P do you 6ant a name for this 6orldJ A solution to all its riddlesJ A light for you, too, you (est>concealed, strongest, most intrepid, most midnightly menJ P This 6orld is the 6ill to po6er P and nothing (esidesV And you yourselves are also this 6ill to po6er P and nothing (esidesV 8&iet3sche %F)E'%FFE9# +rmed with a volume of ,iet)sche, some considerable oratory skills, several .agner records, and an e7istentialist University Rector in the form of artin /eidegger /itler managed some truly astounding feats of strategic identity engineering 8cf# ;ulloc0, %FF%9# Upon (eing appointed to the Mrei(erg University, /eidegger pronounced the end of thought, history, ideology, and civilisation: ,,o dogmas and ideas will any longer be the laws of your being# $he 3uhrer himself, and he alone, is the present and future reality for >ermany 8in ;ulloc0 %FF%: $4*9# /eidegger signed up to an ideology%free politics< 5itler-s ,Third .ay- 8Lat6ell %FFE9# The idealised identity, the ne6 sym(ol of mythological 6orship, &iet3sche-s Luropean Superman, 6as to rule from that day hence# /itler took control of the means of propaganda: the media= the means of mental production: the education system= the means of violence: the police, army, and prison system= and pandered to the means of material production: industry and agriculture= and proclaimed a &e6 (eginning and a &e6 6orld order# /e ordered >ermany to look forward into the next thousand years and forget the past# 5eidegger and e7istentialism remain

influential to this day, and history remains (un0 8e#g# Niddens4, %FF%, +hapt# G9# Niddens-s claims that ,humans live in circumstances of d e7istential contradiction-, and that ,su(?ective death- and ,(iological death- are someho6 unrelated, is a an ultimately repressive a(straction: from

/istory is in fact the simple and straightforward answer to the problem of the sub"ect# $he problem is also a handy device for confusing entertaining and selling trash to the masses # By emphasising the problem of the ontological self 8Niddens %FF%: 4F9, informationalism and ,consumerism- confines the navel%ga)ing Lnarcissistic masses to a permanent present which they self%consciously sacrifice for a Gtopian future 8cf# Adorno %FE$: $D$= 5itchens %FFF= Basch %FK4: G*>*F9# 8eanwhile transnational businesses go about their work raping the environment= swindling each other and whole nations= and inflicting populations with declining wages declining working conditions and declining social security# 2lavery is once again on the increase 8+astells, %FFK= Nraham, %FFF= IBO, %FFK9# $here is no problem of the sub"ect ?ust as there is no Iglo(al society; there is only the mass amnesia of utopian propaganda , the strains of 6hich have historically accompanied revolutions in communication technologies# ?ach persons identity is 'uite simply their sub"ective account of a uni'ue and o(?ective history of interactions 6ithin the o(?ective social and material environments they inha(it, create, and inherit# $he identity of each person is their most intimate historical information and they are its material expression< each person is a record of their own history at any given time# $hus each person is a recognisably material identifiable entity< an identity # This is their condition# People are not theoretical entities; they are people. As such they have an intrinsic identity with an intrinsic value # ,o amount of theory or propaganda will make it go away# $he widespread multilateral attempts to prop up consumer society and hypercapitalism as a valid and useful means of sustainable growth, indeed, as the path to an inevita(le international democratic Gtopia are already showing their disatrous cracks# $he problem of sub"ective death threatens to give way , once again, to unprecedented mass slaughter# $he numbed condition of a narcissistic society rooted in a permanent now a blissful state of /eideggerian 1asein threatens to wake up to a world in which sub"ective death and ontology are the least of all worries#
that perspective, life is merely a series of su(?ective deaths, as if death 6ere the ultimate motor of life itself 8cf# Adorno %F)4'%FE$9#

/ei egger 9 Ans%ers /umanism @oo

Li!eral humanism li!erates more than it estroys an stops the %orst oppression in history the 8est?s fight against communism proves 9ors 0 Professor of /istory Alan Cors, Professor of 5istory at University of Pennsylvania and Senior Mello6 at the Moreign Policy Research Institute, GDD%, ITriumph 6ithout Self>;elief, Or(is, Summer, L;S+O
Mor generations, and to this day, the great defenders of the humane conse<uences of the allocation of capital (y free mar0ets>>Bud6ig von ises, Mriedrich 5aye0, and ilton Mriedman, for e7ample>>have remained une7plored, marginali3ed, or dismissed as a(surd (y most American intellectuals# The lioni3ed intellectuals 6ere and are, in sentimental memory, those 6ho dreamed a(out and de(ated ho6 one 6ould ma0e the transition from unproductive and un?ust capitalism to the cornucopia of central planning# Mor a full generation, academic intellectual culture a(ove all generally vie6ed the .estUs anticommunist military strength, let alone its 6illingness to pro?ect that strength, as the great o(stacle to international ?ustice and peace, and derided the doctrine of peace through strength as the slogan of the demented# Mor at least a generation, .estern intellectual contempt for the .est as a civili3ation, a set of ideals, and the o(?ect of hope for the potentials of humanity has (een the curriculum of the humanities and OsoftO social sciences# Niven these ineffa(ly sad phenomena, the seeming triumph of the .est 8(oth the collapse of neo> ar7ist theory at universities outside the .est, and especially the do6nfall of the Soviet empire9 6ill (e understood (y .estern intellectuals as sho6ing, in the latter case, ho6 a(surd .estern fears 6ere from the start, and, in (oth cases, not so much a victory for the .est as merely the economic collapse of communists 6ho in various 6ays (etrayed their ideals or failed to temper them 6ith ade<uate pragmatism or relativism# One must recall, ho6ever, the years %FE*>E) in the 6orld of the intellectual Beft: the ?oy at American defeat in Indochina= the e7citement over Lurocommunism= the anticipation of one, ten, a hundred "ietnams= the contempt for !ean>Mrancois RevelUs The Totalitarian Temptation= the u(i<uitous theories of moral e<uivalence= the thrill Of hammers and sic0les in Portugal= the ?ustifications of the movement of +u(an troops into those great hopes for man0ind, Angola and o3am(i<ue= the loathing of all efforts to preserve .estern strategic superiority or even parity# One must recall, indeed, the early %FKDs: the romantici3ation of the 0leptomaniacal and antidemocratic +astroite Sandinistas and the homicidal megalomaniac engistu of Lthiopia= the demoni3ation of ReaganUs foreign policy= the outrage 6hen Susan Sontag declared the audience of ReaderUs Digest (etter informed than readers of The &ation a(out the history of the USSR= the moc0ery of the presidentUs description of the Soviet Union as the Oevil empireO and of communism as a vision that 6ould end on Othe dust(in of historyO= and the academic associations that approved politically correct resolutions for a nuclear free3e# The latter included the American 5istorical Association, 6hich voted in over6helming num(ers to inform the American government and pu(lic that, as professional historians, they 0ne6 that ReaganUs rearmament program and deployment of missiles in Lurope 6ould lead to a severe 6orsening of U#S#>Soviet relations, end the possi(ilities of peace, and culminate in an e7change of 6eapons in an inelucta(le conflict# All of that 6ill (e re6ritten, forgotten, indirectly ?ustified, and incorporated into a 6orld vie6 that still portrays the .est as empire and the rest of the 6orld as victim# The initial appeal of communism and

romantici3ed Third .orld leaders>>C6ame &0rumah, !ulius &yerere,

ao Xedong, 5o +hi

inh, Midel +astro, Se0ou Toure, and

reflected the .estern pathology 6here(y intellectuals delude themselves systematically a(out the non>.est, a(out that OOtherO standing against and apart from the society that does not appreciate those intellectualsU moral and practical authority and status#
Daniel Ortega>>6ho 6ould redefine human 6ell>(eing and productivity 86ell, they certainly redefined something9 5o6ever, 6hen an enemy arose that truly hated .estern intellectuals>>namely, fascism>>and 6hose defeat depended upon the .estUs self>(elief, .estern intellectuals <uic0ly (ecame masters of ?udgments of a(solute superiority and had no difficulty in defining a contest (et6een good and evil# +ognitive dissonance is an astonishing phenomenon, and in academic circles, it prevents three essential historical truths from (eing told# Mirst, the most murderous regime in all of human history, the ;olshevi0s in po6er, has fallen: its agents

6ere guilty of irredeema(le crimes against humanity, and its apologists should do penance for the remainder of their lives# Anticommunists 6ithin the la6 6ere 6arriors for human freedom= communists and anti>anticommunists, 6hatever their intentions, 6ere 6arriors for human misery and slavery# The most that can (e said in communismUs favor is that it 6as capa(le of (uilding, (y means of# slave la(or and terror, a simulacrum of Nary, Indiana, once only, 6ithout ongoing maintenance, and minus the good stuff# Secondly, voluntary e7change among individuals held morally responsi(le under the rule of la6 has demonstra(ly created the means of (oth prosperity and diverse social options# Such a model has (een a precondition of individuation and freedom, 6hereas regimes of central planning have created poverty, and 8as 5aye0 foresa69 inelucta(le developments to6ard totalitarianism and the 6orst a(uses of po6er# Dynamic free>mar0et societies, grounded in rights>(ased individualism, have altered the entire human conception of freedom and dignity for formerly marginali3ed groups# The entire Osocialist e7periment,O (y contrast, ended in stasis, ethnic hatreds, the a(sence of even the minimal preconditions of economic, social, and political rene6al, and categorical contempt for (oth individuation and minority rights# , Thirdly, the

6illingness to contain communism, to fight its e7pansion overtly and covertly, to sacrifice 6ealth and often lives against its heinous efforts at e7tension>>in Lurope, "ietnam, +entral Asia, +entral America, Corea, Baos, +am(odia, and, indeed, Nrenada>>6as, 6ith the struggle against &a3ism over a much (riefer period, the great gift of American ta7payers and the American people to planet earth# As ;ritain under +hurchill 6as Othe .estO in %F4D, so 6as the United States from %F4* to %FKF, dra6ing from its values to stand against 6hat 6as simultaneously its mutant offspring and its antithesis# In the t6entieth century, the .est met and survived its greatest trial# On the 6hole, ho6ever.estern intellectuals do not revel in these triumphs, to say the least# .here is the cele(rationJ !ust as important, 6here is the accountingJ On the Beft, to have either 6ould (e to implicate oneUs o6n thought and 6ill in the largest crime and folly in the history of man0ind# .e have seen myriad documentaries on the collective and individual suffering of the victims of &a3ism, (ut 6here is the Shoah, or the &ight and Mog, let alone the &urem(erg trails of the postcommunist presentJ As Sol3henitsyn predicted repeatedly in The Nulag Archipelago, the countless victims 6ho fro3e to

death or 6ere maimed in the Arctic death camps 6ould go unremem(ered= the officers and guards 6ho (ro0e their (odies and often their souls 6ould live out their lives on pensions , unmolested= and those 6ho gave the
orders 6ould die peacefully and unpunished# Our documentary ma0ers and moral intellectuals do not let us forget any victim of the 5olocaust# .e hunt do6n ninety>year>old guards so that the (ones of the dead might have ?ustice, and properly so# The (ones of BeninUs and

StalinUs and ;re3hnevUs camps cry out for ?ustice, as do the (ones of &orth "ietnamUs e7terminations, and

those of Poi PotUs millions, and

aoUs tens of millions # In those cases, ho6ever, the same intellectuals cry out against>>6hat is their phraseJ>>O6itch>hunts,O and as0 us to let the past (e the past# .e cele(rated the millennium 6ith ?u(ilation= 6e have not yet cele(rated the triumph of the .est# As0 American high school or even college students to num(er 5itlerUs victims and +olum(usUs victims, and they 6ill ans6er, for (oth, in the tens of millions# As0 them to num(er StalinUs victims and, if my e7perience is typical, they 6ill ans6er in the thousands# Such is their education, even no6# The a(sence of cele(ration, of teaching the lessons learned, and of demands for accounta(ility is perhaps easily understood on the Beft# +onvinced that the .est a(ove all has (een the source o f artificial relationships of dominance and su(servience, the commodification of human life, and ecocide, leftist intellectuals have little interest in o(?ectively analy3ing the manifest data a(out societies of voluntary e7change , or in coming to terms
6ith the slo6ly and ne6ly released data a(out the conditions of life and death under the ;olshevi0s and their heirs, or in confirming or refuting various theories on the outcome of the +old .ar 8let alone, given their contemporary concerns, in analy3ing ecological or gender politics under communist or Third .orld regimes9# Bess o(vious, (ut e<ually stri0ing in some 6ays, has (een the a(sence of cele(ration on so much of the intellectual Right, (ecause it is not at all certain something 6orth calling .estern civili3ation did in fact survive the t6entieth century#

/ei egger 9 Ans%ers AT: )alculations 1a

)alculative thought is necessary in or er to secure Custice in the face of specific forms of oppression that eny L!eingK or LalterityK )amp!ell ,, Professor of 6nternational Politics David, Prof of Int-l Politics a Univ# of &e6castle, oral Spaces, p# *D>*%
In pursuing Derrida on the <uestion of the decision, a pursuit that ends up in the supplementing of Derridean deconstruction 6ith Bevinasian ethics, +ritchley 6as concerned to ground political decisions in something other than the OmadnessO of a decision, and 6orried that there could (e a Orefusal of politics in DerridaUs 6or0O (ecause the emphasis upon undecida(ility as the condition of responsi(ility contained an implicit re?ection of politics as Othe field of antagonism, decision, dissension, and struggle,O the Odomain of <uestioning s :et from the a(ove discussion, I 6ould argue that DerridaUs account of the procedure of the decision also contains 6ithin it an account of the duty, o(ligation, and responsi(ility of the decision 6ithin deconstruction# oreover, the undecida(le and infinite character of ?ustice that fosters that duty is precisely 6hat guarantees that the domain of politics (ears the characteristics of contestation rightly pri3ed (y +ritchley# .ere everything to (e 6ithin the purvie6 of the decida(le, and devoid of the undecida(le, then 8as Derrida constantly reminds us9 there 6ould (e no ethics, politics, or responsi(ility, only a program, technology, and its irresponsi(le application# Of course, for many 8though +ritchley is clearly not among them9, the certainties of the program are synonymous 6ith the desires of politics# ;ut if 6e see0 to encourage recognition of the

radical interdependence of (eing that flo6s from our responsi(ility to the other, then the provocations give rise to a different figuration of politics, one in 6hich its purpose is the struggle for%or on behalf of% alterity, and not a struggle to efface, erase, or eradicate alterity# Such a principle >one that is ethically transcendent if not classically universal>is a powerful starting point for rethin0ing, for e7ample, the <uestion of responsi(ility vis>avis OethnicO and OnationalistO conflicts#Un) ;ut the concern a(out politics in Derrida articulated (y +ritchley is not a(out politics per se, nor a(out the possi(ilities of political analysis, (ut a(out the prospects for a progressive, radical politics, one that 6ill demand >and thus do more than simply permit>the decision to resist domination, e7ploitation, oppression, and all other conditions that seek to contain or eliminate alterity# :et, again, I 6ould argue that the a(ove discussion demonstrates that not only
does Derridean deconstruction address the <uestion of politics, especially 6hen Bevinasian ethics dra6s out its political <ualities, it does so in an affirmative antitotalitarian manner that gives its politics a particular <uality, 6hich is 6hat +ritchley and others li0e him most 6ant 8and rightly so, in my vie69# .e may still (e dissatisfied 6ith the prospect that DerridaUs account cannot rule out forever

perverse calculations and un?ust la6s# ;ut to aspire to such a guarantee 6ould (e to 6ish for the demise of politics, for it 6ould install a ne6 technology, even if it 6as a technology that (egan life 6ith the mar0ings of progressivism and radicalism# Such dissatisfaction, then, is not 6ith a Derridean politics, (ut 6ith the necessities of
politics per se, necessities that can (e contested and negotiated, (ut not escaped or transcended#

/ei egger 9 Ans%ers Perm

A!solutist reCection fails Pas;uale A Ph4 in Anthrolology Mran0 B#, Ph#D#, a cultural anthropologist Secular 5umanist ;ulletin, Me(# %D "olume GD, &um(er $# A(solute Thin0ing in an Ina(solute .orld http:''secularhumanism#org'inde7#phpJ section[li(rary\page[pas<uale^GD^$\(ac0[http:''secularhumanism#org'li('list#php]$Mpu(lication ]$Dsh( certainty# 2uch thinking has led to great achievements but also untold destruction # It provided an impetus for great

Mor my o6n part, I have gro6n 6eary of e7tremist thin0ing, 6hether purely right'6rong, (lac0'6hite, good'evil, either'or, us'them, a(solute, or a(solutely relative# &estern history and philosophy sometimes seem to me a succession of presumptuous pretensions to adventure and oppressive imperialism# It envisioned shining cities on a hill, and a purified Irace of superior humans 8minus those deemed Iunfit9# $o view ourselves as absolutely unchangeably pre"udiced "udgmental selfish oppressive or evil is as

dangerous and as empirically indefensible as to think ourselves perfect or capable of perfection # ;y doing so, 6e lapse (ac0 into an age>old ha(it of framing the 6orld in dueling a(solutes# 8Remem(er anichaeanismJ 5o6 a(out ;ushismJ9 =ut we are not absolutely good nor absolutely evil; we are capable of both and generally interested in improving# &e make small advances here and lapse back there# Aur ethics and values are neither fixed and eternal nor absolutely relative but an approximate reflection of our nature 8such as 6e dimly perceive it at this point in species evolution9, our needs, and our shared aspiration to live lives 6orth living# .hile it is essential that 6e remain s0eptically a6are of our many failings and foi(les, 6e should not deny our incremental advancements, our ethical aspirations, or our potential for goodness and no(ility, imperfect as these may (e# At the very least, to deny such advancements is to negate the contri(utions of those 6hose lives 6ere devoted to promoting a precious self>fulfilling prophecy of human decency and ?ustice, regardless of po6er, class, culture, s0in color, or metaphysical stance# At the 6orst, it is to frame a dismal

6orld and a self>fulfilling prophecy 6here po6er alone is the greatest Igood, 6here 6e are forever consigned to an original sin of destructive ?udgmentalism 6ithout hope of improvement, and 6here all Ireligious people and phenomena constitute a uniform evil that must (e o(literated 6ithout a trace# I had thought that humanism represented a repudiation of such thin0ing, (ut perhaps I 6as mista0en#

/ei egger 9 Ans%ers Authoritarianism Turn

The alternative results in authoritarian ogmatism Thiele 5 Professor of Political 3cience Beslie Paul, Professor of Political Science a Mlorida, IThe Lthics and Politics of &arrative, Moucalt and 5eidegger: +ritical Lncounters,
The pursuit of 0no6ledge continues una(ated for the s0eptic# :et it proceeds 6ith a suspicious eye# There are inherent limitations to@ and a price to pay for@the pursuit of 0no6ledge# +harles Scott descri(es MoucaultUs efforts in this regard: IMar from the s0epticism that argues that nothing is really 0no6a(ledgenealogies em(ody a sense of the historical limits that define our capacities for 0no6ing and (elieving# Things are 0no6n# ;ut they are 0no6n in 6ays that have considera(le social and cultural costs# K ;oth 5eidegger and Moucault maintain that there is no legitimate (asis for the radical s0epticUs conviction that 0no6ledge is impossi(le or un6orthy of pursuit# This sort of s0epticism, 5eidegger states, consists merely in an Iaddiction to dou(t# F The s0eptical nature of political philosophical thought , in contrast, is

grounded in the imperative of en less in;uiry# The point for 5eidegger and Moucault is to in<uire not in order to sustain dou(t, (ut to dou(t that one might (etter sustain in<uiry# At the same time, in<uiry is tempered 6ith a sensi(ility of the ethico>political costs of any I0no6ledge that is gained# Doing political philosophy of this sort might (e li0ened to 6al0ing on a tightrope# If vertigo is e7perienced, a precarious (alance may (e lost# Malling to one side leaves one mired in apathy, cynicism, and apoliticism# This results 6hen s0eptical in<uiry degenerates into a radical s0epticism, an addictive dou(t that denies the value of 8the search for9 0no6ledge and undermines the engagements of collective life, 6hich invaria(ly demand commitment 8(ased on tentatively em(raced 0no6ledge9# Malling to the other side of the tightrope leaves one mired in dogmatic (elief or (lind activism# Authoritarian ideologies come to serve as sta(le foundations, or a reactive iconoclasm leads to irresponsi(le defiance# Apathy, cynicism, and apoliticism, on the one side, and dogmatic authoritarianism or reactive iconoclasm, on the other, are the dangerous conse<uences of losing oneUs (alance# These states of mind and their corresponding patterns of (ehavior relieve the vertigo of political philosophical
in<uiry, (ut at a prohi(itive cost# It has (een argued that Moucault did not so much 6al0 the tightrope of political philosophy as straddle it, at times leaving his readers hopeless and cynical, at times egging them on to an irresponsi(le mon0ey6renching# Mor some, the Moucauldian flight from the u(i<uitous po6ers of normali3ation undermines any defensi(le normative position# 5opelessness accompanies lost innocence# +ynicism or nihilism (ecome the only alternatives for those 6ho spurn all ethical and political foundations# ;y refusing to paint a picture of a (etter future, Moucault is said to undercut the impetus to struggle# Others focus on MoucaultUs development of a Itool 0it 6hose contents are to (e employed to deconstruct the apparatuses of modern po6er# :et the danger remains that MoucaultUs Ihyperactive tool>0it users 6ill (e unprincipled activists, Buddites at (est, terrorists at 6orst# In either case, Moucault provides no overarching theoretical vision# Indeed, Moucault is upfront a(out his re?ection of ethical and political theories and ideals# II thin0 that to imagine another system is to e7tend our participation in the present system, Moucault stipulates# IRe?ect theory and all forms of general discourse# This need for theory is still part of the system 6e re?ect# %D One might 6orry 6hether action is meant to ta0e the place of thought# If Moucault occasionally straddles the tightrope of political philosophy, 5eidegger o(viously stum(led off it# In the %F$D*, 5eidegger enclosed himself %ithin an

authoritarian system of thought grounded in ontological reifications of a Ifol$K an its history# 5eideggerUs historici3ation of metaphysics led him to (elieve that a ne6 philosophic epoch 6as a(out to (e inaugurated# It implicitly called for a philosophical Muehrer 6ho could put an end to t6o millennia of ontological forgetting # %% The temptation for 5eidegger to identify himself as this intellectual messiah and to attach himself to an authoritarian social and political movement capa(le of sustaining cultural rene6al proved irresisti(le # .hether 5eidegger ever fully recovered his (alance has (een the topic of much discussion# Some argue that 5eideggerUs prerogative for political philosophi3ing 6as 6holly undermined (y his infatuation 6ith fol0 destiny, salvational gods, and political authority # %G

/ei egger?s philosophy has moral conse;uences an lea s to paralysis 6t Custifies sitting !ac$ an allo%ing for the /olocaust %hile criticizing the technology use to $ill the +e%s 1oo$chin ,A Professor = (amapo )ollege urray ;oo0chin, Mounder of the Institute for Social Lcology and Mormer Professor at Ramapo +ollege, %FF*, Re>enchanting 5umanity, p# %)K>%ED
OInsofar as 5eidegger can (e said to have had a pro?ect to shape human life6ays, it 6as as an endeavor to resist, or should I say, demur from, 6hat he conceived to he an all>encroaching technocratic mentality and civili3ation that rendered human (eings UinauthenticU in their relationship to a presuma(ly self>generative reality, UisnessU, or more esoterically, U;eingU #Sein$. &ot unli0e many Nerman reactionaries, 5eidegger

vie6ed ,modernityU 6ith its democratic spirit, rationalism, respect for the individual, and technological advances as a UfallingU 8Nefallen9 from a primal and naive innocence in 6hich humanity once Ud6elled,remnants of 6hich he (elieved e7isted in the rustic 6orld into 6hich he 6as (orn a century ago# UAuthenticityU, it can (e said 6ithout any philosophical frills, lay in the pristine Teutonic 6orld of the tri(al Nermans 6ho retained their ties 6ith ,the Nods-, and 6ith later peoples 6ho still tried to nourish their past amidst the (lighted traits of the modern 6orld# Since some authors try to muddy 5eideggerUs prelapsarian

message (y focusing on his assumed (elief in individual freedom and ignoring his hatred of the Mrench Revolution and its egalitarian, UherdU>li0e democracy of the UTheyU, it is 6orth emphasi3ing that such a vie6 6ithers m the light of his denial of individuality# The individual (y himself counts for nothingU, he declared after (ecoming a mem(er of the &ational Socialist party in %F$$# UThe fate of our "ol0 m its state counts for everything#UGG As a mem(er of the &a3i party, 6hich he remained up to the defeat of Nermany t6elve years

later, his antihumanism reached strident, often (latantly reactionary proportions# &e6ly appointed as the rector of the University of Mrei(urg upon 5itlerUs ascent to po6er, he readily adopted the Muehrer> principle of Nerman fascism and preferred the title Re0tor>Muhrer, hailing the spirit of &ational Socialism as an antidote to Uthe dar0ening of the 6orld, the flight of the gods, the destruction of the earth 1(y technology2, the transformation of men into a mass, the hatred and suspicion of everything free and creative#-GK 5is most unsavory remar0s 6ere directed in the lectures, from 6hich these lines are ta0en, Ufrom a metaphysical point of vie6U,
against Uthe pincersU created (y America and Russia that threaten to s<uee3e Uthe farthermost corner of the glo(e ### (y technology and ### economic e7ploitation#UGF Technology, as 5eidegger construes it, is Uno mere means# Technology is a 6ay of

revealing# If 6e give heed to this, then another 6hole realm for the essence of technology 6ill open itself up to us# It is the realm of revealing, i#e#, of truth#-$D After 6hich 5eidegger rolls out technologyUs transformations, indeed mutations, 6hich give rise to a mood of an7iety and finally hu(ris, anthropocentricity, and the mechanical coercion of things into mere o(?ects for human use and e7ploitation# 5eideggerUs vie6s on technology are part of a larger 6eltanschauung 6hich is too multicolored to discuss here, and demands a degree of interpretive effort 6e must forgo for the present in the conte7t of a criticism of technopho(ia# Suffice it to say that there is a good deal of primitivistic animism in 5eideggerUs treatment of the UrevealingU that occurs 6hen techne is a UclearingU for the Ue7pressionU of a crafted material > not unli0e the Ls0imo sculptor 6ho (elieves 8<uite 6rongly, I may add9 that he is U(ringing outU a hidden form that lies in the 6alrus ivory he is carving# ;ut this issue must (e seen more as a matter of metaphysics than of a spir itually charged techni<ue# Thus, 6hen 5eidegger praises a 6indmill, in contrast to the UchallengeU to a tract of land from 6hich the ,hauling out of coal and oreU is su(?ected, he is not (eing UecologicalU# 5eidegger is concerned 6ith a 6indmill, not as an ecological technology, (ut more metaphysically 6ith the notion that Uits sails do indeed turn in the 6ind= they are left entirely to the 6indUs (lo6ingU# The 6indmill Udoes not unloc0 energy from the air currents, in order to store itU#$% Bi0e man in relation to ;eing, it is a medium for the Ureali3ationU of 6ind, not an artifact for ac<uiring po6er# ;asically, this interpretation of a technological interrelationship reflects a regression > socially and psychologically as 6ell as metaphysically P into <uietism# 5eidegger advances a message of passivity or passivity conceived as a human activity, an endeavor to let things (e and UdiscloseU themselves# UBetting things (eU 6ould (e little more than a trite aoist and ;uddhist precept 6ere it not that 5eidegger as a &ational Socialist (ecame all too ideologically engaged, rather than Uletting things (eU, 6hen he 6as (usily undoing Uintellectualism,U democracy, and techno logical intervention into the U6orldU# +onsidering the time, the place, and the a(stract 6ay in 6hich 5eidegger treated humanityUs UMallU into technological ,inauthenticity- P a ,Mall- that he, li0e Lllul, regarded as inevita(le, al(eit a metaphysical, nightmare > it is not hard to see 6hy he could triviali3e the 5olocaust, 6hen he deigned to notice it at all, as part of a techno>industrial ,condition-# UAgriculture is no6 a motori3ed 8motorsierte9 food industry, in essence the same as the manufacturing of corpses in the gas cham(ers and e7termination camps,U he coldly o(served, Uthe same as the (loc0ade and starvation of the countryside, the same as the production of the hydrogen (om(s#-$G In placing the industrial means (y 6hich many !e6s 6ere 0illed (efore the ideological ends that guided their &a3i e7terminators, 5eidegger essentially isplaces the !ar!arism of a specific state apparatus" of 6hich he 6as a part, (y the technical proficiency he can attri(ute to the 6orld at largeV These immensely revealing offhanded remar0s, dra6n from a speech he gave in ;remen m %F4F, are (eneath contempt# ;ut they point to a 6ay of thin0ing that gave an autonomy to techni<ue that has fearful moral conse<uences 6hich 6e are living 6ith these days in the name of the sacred, a phraseology that 5eidegger 6ould find very congenial 6ere he alive today# Indeed, technopho(ia, follo6ed to its logical and crudely primitivistic conclusions, finally devolves into a ar$ reactionism P and a paralyzing ;uietism# Mor if our confrontation 6ith civili3ation turns on passivity (efore a ,disclosing of ;eing-, a mere ,d6elling- on the earth, and a ,letting things (e-, to use 5eidegger-s ver(iage P much of 6hich has slipped into deep ecology-s voca(ulary as 6ell P the choice (et6een supporting (ar(arism and enlightened humanism has no ethical foundations to sustain it# Mreed of values grounded in o(?ectivity, 6e are lost in a <uasi>religious antihumanism, a spirituality that can 6ith the same e<uanimity hear the cry of a (ird and ignore the anguish of si7 million once>living people 6ho 6ere put to death (y the &ational Socialist state#

/ei egger 9 Ans%ers E&tinction Turn

/ei egger?s philosophy is reminiscent of *ietzhe?s nihilism reCecting all technology ma$es life meaningless" culminating in e&tinction /ic$s 5 Professor of Philosophy = Rueens Steven "#, Professor of Philosophy a Hueens, I&iet3sche, 5eidegger, and Moucault: &ihilism and ;eyond, Moucault and 5eidegger: +ritical Lncounters, Ld# Alan ilchman and Alan Rosen(erg, p# %DF, Huestia .hy a Iphilosphical shoc0J The ans6er, in part, may (e that from MoucaultUs perspective, 5eideggerUs insightful reading of &iet3sche and the pro(lem of nihilism is itself too ascetic# 5eideggerUs emphasis on Isilence as proper to DaseinUs (eing, his fre<uent use of <uasireligious 8even Schopenhauerean9 terms of Igrace and Icall of conscience, his many references to the destiny of the Nerman "ol0, his avoidance of politics and the serious I<uietistic tone of 5eideggerian Nelassenheit are all reminiscent of the life# enying ascetic ideal &iet3sche sought to avoi # )* oreover, Moucault seems to ?oin 6ith Derrida and other Ineo> &iet3scheans in regarding 5eideggerUs idea of Iletting ;eing (e@his vision of those 6ho have left traditional metaphysics (ehind and 6ith it the o(session 6ith mastery and technology that drives contemporary civili3ation@as too passive or apathetic a response to the legitimate pro(lems of post> &iet3schean nihilism that 5eideggerUs o6n analysis uncovers# )) 5ere 6e have arrived at a 0ey difference (et6een
5eidegger and Moucault: for Moucault, 5eidegger ta0es insufficient account of the playful and even irreverent elements in &iet3sche and of &iet3scheUs criti<ue of the dangers of the ascetic ideal# Moucault ?oins 6ith other ne6 &iet3scheans in promoting, as an alternative to 5eideggerian Nelassenheit, the more &iet3schean vision of Iplaying 6ith the te7t@6hich in MoucaultUs case means promulgating active and 6illful images of resistance and struggle against particular practices of domination, re(ellion against Imicro>po6ers, and (latant disregard for tradition 8cf# DP, GE9# )E This conte7t>specific, unam(iguously confrontational nature of MoucaultUs criti<ue of the forms of domination and technologies of po6er lodged in modern institutions offers a more &iet3sche>li0e response than the one 5eidegger offers to the nihilistic pro(lems of .estern civili3ation# As Moucault sees it, the lessons 5eidegger 6ould have us dra6 from &iet3sche thro6

us (ac0 to the passive Inihilism of emptiness that &iet3sche feared# .hile not predicting the emergence of (etter times, Moucault tries to offer a (etter 8less passive, less ascetic9 model for reforming our I(ac0ground practices and for cultivating an affirmative attitude to6ard life that he and other neo>&iet3scheans thin0 may (e Iour only chance to 0eep from e&tinguishing life on earth altogether#

/ei egger 9 Ans%ers @enoci e Turn

3imply uncovering 1eing provi es no metho for com!atting violence lea s to genoci e (oc$more ,0 P Prof of Philosophy Tom, On 5eidegger-s &a3ism and Philosophy Dus<uesne University Prof of Phil http:''pu(lishing#cdli(#org'ucpresse(oo0s'vie6JdocId[ft)<Gn($6h=(rand[ucpress 5eideggerUs failure to denounce, or even to ac0no6ledge, &a3i practice can (e interpreted as an o(li<ue resistance to the practical conse<uences of his theoretical commitment # 5e 6as o(viously un6illing to ac0no6ledge
the failure of his turn to &a3ism, not for mere psychological reasons, (ut on good philosophical grounds= for his turn to &a3ism 6as grounded in his o6n theory of ;eing, 6hich he never a(andoned# Mor the same reason, he was also unwilling to abandon ,ational 2ocialism or

at least an ideal form of it because of his continued interest in certain points where his thought converged with ,a)ism, including the coming to (e of the Nermans as Nerman and the confrontation 6ith technology# /eideggerBs insensitivity to the effects of ,a)ism in practice is coupled then with a residual theoretical enthusiasm for a form of ,a)ism in theory #
In 5eideggerUs 6ritings on technology, at least t6o passages indicate a stri0ing insensitivity to human suffering# 5eidegger, 6ho understood technology as a form of disclosure, 6as careful to conceal and not to reveal some of his most deeply held vie6s a(out the technological process# There is a passage in the original version of 5eideggerUs essay, OThe Huestion concerning Technology,O 6hich originated as a lecture in %F4F under the title OLnframingO (ut 6hich 6as altered in the version pu(lished in %F*4#1%G)2 In the version pu(lished during 5eideggerUs lifetime, the te7t, 6hich 6as clearly changed to conceal an earlier formulation, retains only seven 6ords in the translation, five in the revised te7t: OAgriculture is no6 the mechani3ed food industry#O1%GE2 This (anal point hardly reveals the startling claim em(edded in the original manuscript, 6hich only (ecame availa(le some seven years after 5eideggerUs death# The original passage reads as follo6s: OAgriculture is no6 a mechanised food industry, in essence the same as the manufacturing of corpses in gas cham(ers and e7termination camps, the same as the (loc0ade and starvation of nations, the same as the production of hydrogen (om(s#O1%GK2 Mrom a strictly 5eideggerian point of vie6, this passage is literally correct, since he maintains that all of modernity suffers from the turn a6ay from ;eing 6hich leads to the hegemony of technology# :et this passage is distur(ing, in part (ecause of 5eideggerUs manifest insensitivity, in a period 6hen he emphasi3es the Lreignis , to the most catastrophic moral Lreignis of our time: the 5olocaust# /eidegger who is sensitive to =eing is startlingly insensitive to

human being# There is further a manifest conceptual mista0e in simply considering all forms of technology as indistinguisha(ly ali0e# Mor /eidegger has failed to consider and certainly failed to comprehend the relation of technology to the event of the /olocaust: the unparalleled 6ay in 6hich all availa(le technological resources 6ere harnessed, and ne6 ones 6ere invented, specifically to commit genocide # ,o amount of li(eral handwringing at this late date should be allowed to obscure /eideggerBs incapacity, not only to respond to, (ut even to comprehend, the 5olocaust through his theory of technology#1%GF2 /is theory, hence, fails the test of e7perience#

***/6LL7A* A*38E(3

/illman 9 Ans%ers AT: *um!ing 6mpact

*um!ing oes not occur shoul apply to all threats %hich empirically isproven 3ummers ,0 +raig Summers# ount Allison University# Revie6 of +hernus, Ira# &uclear adness: Religion and the Psychology of the &uclear Age# &uclear Te7ts and +onte7ts# &o# )# Spring %FF%# http:''666#6su#edu'h(rians'ntc'&T+)#pdf This (oo0 attempts to e7plain political psychology in the nuclear age through nuclear imagery and psychiatrist R# !# .iftons 8%F)E9 construct of psychic numbing# To start 6ith an image of my o6n, the nuclear threat could (e characteri3ed (y t6o men
8gender intended9, each holding a gun to the other-s head as a means of security# The inherent danger and illogic in this is of course mad= a madness defined (y utual Assured Destruction 8 #A#D#9# The (oo0 dra6s heavily on metaphors of madness in attempting to e7plain this situation, and in attempting to Ipoint to ne6 political possi(ilities that 6ill lead (eyond the nuclear trap and void 8p# ED9# $he logic

followed in the book is that psychic numbing causes us to shut off any thoughts about a fundamental threat to our existence# .e therefore develop no images of nuclear doomsday, and this is essentially 6hy 6e do not act to prevent it# It is not completely clear, ho6ever, why numbing makes us inactive regarding the nuclear threat but not about other threats# 7ertainly death is a more immediate threat to blacks in 2outh +frica or to those in bread lines in Lastern Lurope and the U#S#S#R# Iet rather than being numbed into paralysis these victims defy government threats of bloodshed to hold public rallies# &um(ing may not (e the cause of general inactivity regarding the nuclear threat= unli0e demonstrations against foodlines and
racism, 6e may ?ust find it too longterm, large and impro(a(le to deal 6ith in our day>to>day lives#

/illman 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails/Offense

L6magining ourselves in %arK increases the li$elihoo of mass mur er >inverts ethics to ma0e 0illing virtuous Basching ,5 P prof of religion a U South Mlorida Darrell, The ethical challenge of Ausch6it3 and 5iroshima, p# %)%
After Ausch6it3, says Irving Nreen(erg, O&othing dare evo0e our a(solute, un<uestioning loyalty, not even our Nod, for this leads to possi(ilities of SS loyalties# OI The path from Ausch6it3 to 5iroshima and nuclear AD>ness only reinforces the truth of Nreen(ergUs o(servation# L<uating authentic religious self>transcendence 6ith the total surrender of the self in un<uestioning o(edience is ethically and politically ha3ardous# Such an e<uation occurs 6ithin a narrative conte7t that interprets life as 6arfare# $he conditions of war are uni'ue, in that during them

we suspend ordinary ethical conventions and invert ordinary ethical norms to make a virtue out of illing in order to heal# ,arratives of warfare invert the symbolism of the holy%infinite so as to sacrali)e some finite order now rendered more sacred than the dignity of the stranger# ,arratives of warfare inevitably cast an impending conflict in apocalyptic terms seeing the struggle as a sacred tas whose purpose is to eliminate the profane other 8Be#, the stranger9 who threatens the sacred order of the society of the elect 8i#e#, those 6ho are the same9# They are %rong a!out the psychological effect of conflict people %ill respon to the alternative !y enjoying mass carnage 3tevens F, > Royal +ollege of Psychiatrists Anthony, Roots of 6ar: a !ungian perspective, p# G>$
To us, living after t6o 6orld 6ars under the threat of nuclear annihilation, such statements seem grotes<ue anachronisms= yet 6e too readily forget that, 6ithin the memory of people still alive, the outbreak of &orld &ar I in ?urope in C9CE was greeted with rapturous

enthusiasm in 3rance =ritain >ermany and +ustria# Rupert =rook captured this brief moment of "oy in his incredible sonnet celebrating the end of -eace : &o6, Nod (e than0ed .ho has matched us 6ith 5is hour And caught our youth, and
6a0ened us from sleeping, , .ith hand made sure, clear eye, and sharpened po6er, To turn, as s6immers into cleanness leaping, , Nlad from a 6orld gro6n old and cold and 6eary, Beave the sic0 hearts that honour could not move And half>men, and their dirty songs and dreary, , And all the little emptiness of loveV 3ew, it seemed, dissented from this )oyful anticipation of the carnage to come# $hose who did

found themselves in a despised minority< *I discovered to my ama)ement that average men and women were delighted at the prospect of war * wrote =ertrand Russell 8%F)E9 in his Auto(iography# OI had fondly imagined 6hat most

pacifists contended, that 6ars 6ere forced upon a reluctant population (y despotic and achiavellian governments#O ;ut the terri(le truth of the matter is that the opposing armies of %F%4>%K could never have gone on slaughtering one another 6ith such dreadful efficiency had they not (een given massive popular encouragement# And so Luropean civili3ation 6as shattered and millions maimed or slaughtered, ostensi(ly (ecause a student murdered an Archdu0e in a sleepy ;al0an to6n#

The alternative oesn?t lea to resistance to real %ar 3tevens F, > Royal +ollege of Psychiatrists Anthony, Roots of 6ar: a !ungian perspective, p# *
It seems that organi3ation for a common goal (rings its o6n deep satisfaction# +ooperation and colla(oration, 6hether for a military

operation, a team game, huntingO or clearing the (ush, yields a po6erful sense of (elongingness and self>importance 6ithin the group#
destructive, there

Uniting for a common purpose is a means of su(merging self>interest in the interests of the common 6eal# This is particularly true 6hen the shared purpose is one of survival# Thus 6ar puts us in a painful dou(le>(ind: although 6e hate it as (rutal, cruel, and 6antonly

is something evilly seductive a(out it 6hich, under certain circumstances, renders it difficult to resist# As a result, armed conflict has repeatedly and remorselessly afflicted every part of our planet 6here men have come into contact 6ith one another>not only in recent times (ut, in all pro(a(ility, since our species came into e7istence#

***3E):(6TE A*38E(3

3ecurity 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Anti Americanism 6nevita!le

Anti#Americanism is inevita!le foreign po%ers %oul use any e&cuse to !lame America (u!in an (u!in D ;arry and !udith, professor at the Interdisciplinary +enter 8ID+9 in 5er3liya, Israel, the Director of the Nlo(al Research in International Affairs 8NBORIA9 +enter of the ID+, and a senior fello6 at the Interdisciplinary +enterUs International Policy Institute for +ounter>Terrorism, 5ating America, Noogle ;oo0
This (oo0 in no 6ay see0s to suggest that all criticism of America constitutes anti>Americanism or is invalid# One reason 6hy it is impor> tant to e7amine the history of this de(ate is to see 6hat can (e learned a(out the real defects of the United States, as 6ell as 6ays to com> municate its virtues (etter# Similarly, those governments, classes, groups, ideologies, and individuals 6ho have held anti>American vie6s can (e (etter understood (y investigating the reasons for these attitudes# In this (oo0 we have carefully defined anti%+mericanism as (eing limited to having one or more of the follo6ing characteristics: An antagonism

to the Gnited 2tates that is systemic seeing it as completely and inevitably evil# + view that greatly exaggerates +mericaBs shortcomings# $he deliberate misrepresentation of the nature or policies of the Gnited 2tates for political purposes# + misperception of +merican society policies or goals which falsely portrays them as ridiculous or malevolent # .e have also restricted our

discussion to anti>American vie6s held (y non>Americans 8or in a fe6 cases to Americans 6ho lived a(road for so long as to (ecome virtually part of this category9# Other6ise, the issues that must (e dealt 6ith more properly fall into the sphere of domestic political and partisan de(ate# Of course, opposition to specific +merican actions or policies is easily understandable and may well be "ustifiable but

anti%+mericanism as a whole is not# The reason for this conclusion is simply that the Gnited 2tates is not a terrible or evil society whatever its shortcomings# It does not seek world domination and its citi)ens do not take pleasure in de% liberately in"uring others# There are many occasions 6hen decisions inevita(ly have dra6(ac0s and (ad effects# There are e<ually many
times 6hen mista0es are made#

Policy changes can?t influence Anti#Americanism it?s !ase on misinterpretation an misinformation of even !enign :3 policies (u!in an (u!in D ;arry and !udith, professor at the Interdisciplinary +enter 8ID+9 in 5er3liya, Israel, the Director of the Nlo(al Research in International Affairs 8NBORIA9 +enter of the ID+, and a senior fello6 at the Interdisciplinary +enterUs International Policy Institute for +ounter>Terrorism, 5ating America, Noogle ;oo0
On one hand, the United States 6as portrayed as a (ad society, es> pecially dangerous since its model might displace the Ara(' uslim cul> ture and 6ay of life# On the other hand, the United States had an evil foreign policy, antagonistic to Ara(' uslim interests (ecause it sought to in?ure, con<uer, and dominate the iddle Last# $he root of anti% +mericanism in the 8iddle ?ast then is not so much the

substance of +merican 6ords or deeds but the deliberate reinterpretation of +merican words or deeds to make them seem hostile and evil# .hat 6ere some of the causes that made iddle Lastern anti> Americanism so intenseJ Mirst, and ironically, 6as the fact that anti% +mericanism developed later in the 8iddle ?ast than in ?urope or .atin +merica largely because that regionBs significant contacts with the Gnited 2tates only took place in relatively recent times # It came onto
the stage at the time of that phenomenonUs highest, most intense, phase# iddle Lastern vie6s of America 6ere formed at the time in 6hich that country 6as a glo(al po6er and seen mainly in that light# Second, and perhaps even more significant, 6as that cultural distance made it far easier to distort the nature and motives of the United States# Lurope and Batin America 0ne6 they shared a great deal in common 6ith America# Ultimately, the United States 6as only a variation>even if some considered it a perverted one>of their o6n civili3ation# Mor the +rab and

8uslim world however the Gnited 2tates was not only far more alien but also often seen as the embodiment of the entire &estern world# + third key element was the entwining of anti%+mericanism with the +rab worldBs , and later IranUs, political system# +t the root of this version of anti%+mericanism was less a factually based set of grievances than a campaign far more systematic and keyed to political advantage than else% where in the world# 8ost of the ruling and opinion%making elite%even those whose countries maintained good relations with the Gnited 2tates , as in Saudi Ara(ia or Lgypt>had strong political motives for endorsing anti%+merican views and making them a key part of their strategy for retaining power# As in the Soviet Union and &a3i Nermany, anti>Americanism 6as a state>supported doctrine# The

reason 6as that in the Ara( 6orld and Iran, ruling ideologies>Ara( nationalism and Islamism, respectively> sa6 themselves as alternative models of ho6 society should (e organi3ed# Mor them, America 6as a rival for the loyalties of their o6n people and the preservation of the 6ay of life they 6anted# +onse<uently, it had to (e discredited and defeated in order for their vision to triumph# Unli0e in Lurope or Batin America, these dictatorial and ideological regimes controlled all social institutions, including the media, mos<ue, and schools, using them to spread systematically their version of the United States# Also in comparison to other places, the li(eral forces that had al6ays (een the main foes of anti> Americanism in Lurope and Batin America 6ere far 6ea0er there# 3ourth the 8iddle ?astern regimesB visible failures made

them need to wield anti%+mericanism all the more# /ow else could they explain their own inability to unite the +rab world destroy Israel bring rapid economic development or give their people more freedom than by citing G#2# sabotage( $o survive they needed to persuade their people that the main threat came from a powerful and evil external enemy which re% 'uired them to unite around their government to fight # Policy %on?t change Anti#Americanism Elshtain 5 !udith, Professor of Social and Political Lthics at the University of +hicago Divinity School, !ust .ar Against Terror: The ;urden of American Po6er In a "iolent .orld There is a Ocrisis 6ithin Islam,O as one scholar of Islam after another has put it in the 6a0e of Septem(er %%# U.ho spea0s in the name of Is> lamJ .Uho govems in the name of IslamJ It is no e7aggeration to say that the future of humanity turns
importantly on the ans6ers to these <uestionsh particularly in light of the fact that, in Oan Islamic state, there is in principle no la6 other than the s(ariUa, the 5oly Ba6 of Islam#O .omenUs rights have suffered Othe most serious reverses in countries 6here fundamentalists of various types have influence or 6here ### they rule# Indeed, ### the emancipation of 6omen (y moderni3ing rulers 6as one of the main grievances of the radical fundamentalists, and the re> versal of this trend is in the forefront of their agenda#OG) .e cannot treat the violation of 6omenUs rights as a minor peccadillo6 hen respect for womenBs rights is a key reason +merica I2 number one on the ene% mies list of radical

Islamists# +uthentic cultural dialogue can go forward only when the threat of terror is remove d# uch of this dialogue 6ill clarify our differences# Per> haps 6e 6ill also come to see our commonalities# In the meantime, those who use their religion to underwrite the brutal treatment of women as a mandated cultural practice and who despise the free exercise of religion cannot as a matter of principle find common ground with those who ab% hor abuse and second%class citi)enship (or no citi)enship at allJ based on gender and who embrace religious and political liberty , It is naive folly to assume that rational grievances in reaction to +merican policy or even American lie at the root of the terrorist threat# &hatever +mericas sins and shortcomings Islamist fundamentalism re'uires none of these to turn people into ideological fundamentalists with whom dia% logue is impossible%as a matter of principle not merely prudence%and who are not content to *live and let live #O

Anti#Americanism is !ase on culture not policy (u!in an (u!in D

;arry and !udith, professor at the Interdisciplinary +enter 8ID+9 in 5er3liya, Israel, the Director of the Nlo(al Research in International Affairs 8NBORIA9 +enter of the ID+, and a senior fello6 at the Interdisciplinary +enterUs International Policy Institute for +ounter>Terrorism, 5ating America, Noogle ;oo0 iddle Lastern anti%+mericanism is thus based on a comprehensive criti'ue of +merica based on such issues as +mericaBs history its society and analogies with its behavior elsewhere in the world # In some cases, these ideas are dra6n
(y Luropean sources, either read or a(sor(ed dur> ing studies there, though increasingly they may come from the direct e7perience of those 6ho attended universities in the United States# 8any of these sentiments arise from cultural clashes , a pattern similar to nineteenth> century Luropean anti>Americanism# Indeed, even on is> sues 6here Ara(> uslim differences to the .est in general are the greatest, there is still a stri0ing similarity (et6een the anti>American reactions of Ara(s and uslims and the e7pressions of horror at America (y those from conservative Luropean perspectives# 2uch is the case with the view of womenBs role in +merica # Hut(Us discussion of this issue positively drips 6ith a sense of sensual danger, a frightening po6er that might over6helm the pious and su(vert Ara(> uslim society as the social e<uivalent of a nuclear 6eapon # 5e###descri(es the American female as a temptress, acting her part in a system Hut( descri(ed as O(iologicalO: OThe American girl is 6ell ac<uainted 6ith her (odyUs seductive capacity# She 0no6s it lies in the face, and in e7pressive eyes, and thirsty lips# She 0no6s seductiveness lies in the round (reasts, the full (uttoc0s, and in the shapely thighs, slee0 legs>and she sho6s all this and does not hide it#JUV Bi0e their Luropean counterparts, 8iddle ?astern critics also viewed +merica as a country where

women suffered from the loss of their proper role and an excess of social power# Islamist IranBs spiritual guide Ali al> 5usseini al>CharneneUi explained that this was why women were better off in his country than in +merica #O A secular
Lgyptian ?ournalist used an argument identical to Islamists and nineteenth>century Luropean anti>Americans: since the United States 6as controlled (y Omoney and se7 ### the materialistic am(ition of some American 6omen ends 6ith # # # (ro0en hearts and homes, and sic0, e7hausted souls, and 6ith them dro6ning their 6retchedness in drugs and alcohol#OJO If +merican women had subverted their own

men to destruction they could also be portrayed as playing that same role of seducing +rab men into cultural surrender# The secular leftist Lgyptian Sherif 5etata 6rote a novel entitled The %et in %FKG6ith a plot li0e a Soviet +old .ar story# The

Lgyptian hero is tempted (y a glamorous, mysterious American 6oman spy to leave a state>run pharmaceutical company to 6or0 for an American multinational# 5e also a(andons his 6ife, 6ho represents tra> ditional Lgyptian virtues# ;ut the evil AmericanUs real purpose is to de> stroy the Lgyptian left# The love affair ends in disaster, the 6oman is murdered, and her Lgyptian victim is e7ecuted as a traitor# The moral is that Lgypt 6ill face disaster if it heeds the siren call of a falsely glittering (ut treacherous America#O $his idea of a disgusting society

inevitably producing a repellent for% eign policy often appears in 8iddle ?astern anti%+mericanism#

And so 6hile the political side of anti>Americanism is more commonly e7pressed than the cultural>civili3ational side, this is in no small part due to the fact that the latter is ta0en for granted# In a remar0a(le passage, Saddam 5ussein (rought the t6o aspects together 6hen he told his su(?ects, OThe United States e7ports evil, in terms of corruption and criminality, not only to any place to 6hich its armies travel, (ut also to any place 6here R # O%F Its movies go# Ironically, the main architect of Ara( nationalist anti>Americanism, the secularist Lgyptian President Namal A(del &asser, 6as the man 6ho e7ecuted Hut( on charges of fomenting an Islamist revolution against himself# As the Ara( 6orldUs leader and 6ould>(e unifier, &asser 0ne6 that the United States 6ould not (ac0 his plans to sei3e control of the region and overturn all the other regimes# Therefore: he had

to dedicate +merica as the enemy of the +rabs in general and stir up hostility to i t# Even !enign policies pro uce Anti#Americanism (u!in an (u!in D ;arry and !udith, professor at the Interdisciplinary +enter 8ID+9 in 5er3liya, Israel, the Director of the Nlo(al Research in International Affairs 8NBORIA9 +enter of the ID+, and a senior fello6 at the Interdisciplinary +enterUs International Policy Institute for +ounter>Terrorism, 5ating America, Noogle ;oo0 The second variety of complaint contained a parado7# If the Gnited 2tates was critici)ed when it went against +rab states it was also con- demned for cooperating with them# As one 6riter put it, +rabs said that their governments were so *corrupt and authoritarian* because the Gnited 2tates gave them billions of dollars each year so they must be G#2# puppets ###R ;ut the only country to 6hich the United States gave large>scale aid 6as Lgypt, 6hich ill turn promoted anti Americanism (ecause,
it complained, America 6as not helping the Ara(s enough# The United States 6as constantly said to dominate everythin and through conspiracies, to (e (ehind every government or event# it 6as (lamed for supporting OunpopularO or OrepressiveO regimes even (y those 6ho themselves represented the 6orst e7amples of this genre# Cha> meneUi, ChcmeiniUs successor as IranUs spiritual guide, complained in %FFE, OThe American government spea0s of ### democracy and sup> portls2 some of the most despotic regirnes#ve Lven high>ran0ing Saudi officials complained that the United States (ac0ed OautocratsO and Oop> pressiveO regimes#6 ;ut 6hat OdespoticO and OoppressiveO Ara( regimes did they have in mind as (eing (ac0ed (y the United StatesJ $he most brutal +rab rulers were also the most energetic advocates of

anti%+mericanism yet many +rabs believed that the Gnited 2tates was so powerful that it controlled even those most outwardly hostile to it# Thus, Saddam, Arafat, Chomeini, Asad, and others 6ere said to (e American agents# After all, it 6as e7>
plained, the United States could easily remove those it really opp#osed, Thus, the United States 6as not only (lamed (y the dictatorships (ut (lamed for them as 6ell# Iet whenever it pressed regimes for reform or moderate policies they accused it of a bullying

imperialism; when it dealt with them as legitimate rulers they accused it of blocking democracy and keeping tyrants in power# In fact, during the twentieth centuryBs second half no +rab govern% ment existed because of G#2# backing# Incumbent rulers retained power without its help# +t most G#2# policy gave occasional protection to more moderate +rab regimes against foreign attack, a tradition culminating 6ith an American>led coalition freeing Cu6ait from Ira<i aggression in %FF%# If anything the story of us# policy in the 8iddle ?ast has proven how little it was able to affect the policy of +rab regimes or Islamist Iran, for that matter# L<ually, on no occasion did Ara( governments get direct U#S# help against
internal threats# In contrast to Batin America, counterinsurgency against radicals>at least until after Septem(er %%th# .ith U#S# assistance or at American (ehest# Mor e7ample, It 6as ;ritain that aided Oman to (attle a ar7ist insurgency in the %FEDSand Mrance that helped Algeria fight

Islamist revolutionaries in the %FFD*# Aside from fighting Ira< in %FF% as part of a U&>mandated, Ara( league>endohsed coalition, there had (een only t6o short>lived U#S# military interventlOhs into Be(anon>in %F*Kand %FKG>that had little effect on that countrys internal politics#

Anti#Americanism is falsifie to pacify omestic pro!lems internationally (u!in an (u!in D ;arry and !udith, professor at the Interdisciplinary +enter 8ID+9 in 5er3liya, Israel, the Director of the Nlo(al Research in International Affairs 8NBORIA9 +enter of the ID+, and a senior fello6 at the Interdisciplinary +enterUs International Policy Institute for +ounter>Terrorism, 5ating America, Noogle ;oo0 The United States cannot find a solution for iddle Lastern anti> Americanism (ecause the ans6er is not 6ithin its grasp# The pro(lem is a product of the regional system itself, of the governing regimes and ideologies that find anti>Americanism to (e so useful for their o6n needs# In this sense, it is like the state% sponsored anti%+mericanism of 7om% munism and fascism and different from the far more marginal varieties seen in ?urope and .atin +merica# /atred of +merica is thus used to "ustify a great deal that is bad in the Ara( 6orld and helps keep it politically dominated by dictatorships socially unfree # and economically less successful# =laming national short% comings on +merica means that the +rab debate avoids dealing with the internal problems and weaknesses that are the real cause of their prob% lems #It ?ustifies the vie6 that the only (arrier to complete success ,pros> perity# and ?ustice for the Ara( 8and Islamic9 6orld is the United States# Instead of dealing with privati)ation womenBs e'uality# democracy# civil society# freedom of speech due process of law# and twenty other issues the +rab world needs to address attention can be diverted to con"uring +merican conspiracies and threats # In discussing the GDD$ 6ar in Ira<, the relatively moderate
!ordanian Mahd al>Mani0 claimed# OThe 6orld has not 6itnessed such (latant ag> gression since the days of the Tartars #### .hile pretending to save the Ira<i people it 6ill in fact murder them# Oel And a Nulf ne6spaper insisted that the United States should leave Ira< after murdering % million people there in OUan unla6ful em(argo and a colonial 6ar#O That article ends (y as0ing# OAre the Americans 6illing to admit their mista0esJ This is the most important <uestion of the nst century# since much of the 6orldUs safety depends on it# O$4 :et the Gnited 2tates

has always been willing%even eager%to admit mistakes # It is part of that penchant for self>improvement and constant change that

some of the 6orld finds admira(le and others find dangerous or sinful# One might (etter say that much of the 6orldUs safety and the course of the t6enty>first century 6ill depend on 6hether the 6orld is 6illing to admit its mista0es a(out mis?udging and hating the United States#

3ecurity 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Evolutionary 1iology

The alternative cannot overcome securitization. /umans )A**OT change the orientation of terror to%ar s threats. 6t?s a natural pro uct of evolution Pyszczyns$i et al Tom, Prof# Psych# P U# +olorado, Sheldon Solomon, Prof# Psych# P S0idmore +ollege, !eff Nreen(erg, Prof# Psych# P U# Ari3ona, and olly a7field, U# +olorado, Psychological In<uiry, IOn the Uni<ue Psychological Import of the 5uman A6areness of ortality: Theme and "ariations %E:4, L(sco Cir0patric0 and &avarette-s 8this issue9 first specific complaint 6ith T T is that it is 6edded to an outmoded assumption that human beings share 6ith many other species a survival instinct# They argue that natural selection can only (uild instincts that respond to specific adaptive challenges in specific situations, and thus could not have designed an instinct for survival (ecause staying alive is a (road and distal goal 6ith no single clearly defined adaptive response# Aur use of the term survival instinct was meant to highlight the general orientation toward continued life that is expressed in many of an organisms bodily systems 8e#g#, heart, liver, lungs, etc9 and the diverseapproach and avoidance tendencies that promote its survival and reproduction ultimately leading to genes (eing passed on to fu> ture generations# Our use of this term also reflects the classic
psychoanalytic, (iological, and anthropological influences on T T of theorists li0e ;ec0er 8%FE%, %FE$, %FE*9, Mreud 8%FE), %FF%9, Ran0 8%F4*, %F)%, %FKF9, Xil(org 8%F4$9, Spengler 8%FFF9, and Dar6in 8%FF$9# .e concur that natural selection, at least initially, is unli0ely to design a unitary survival instinct, (ut rather, a series of specific adaptations that have tended over evolutionary

adaptations as a series of discrete mechanisms or a general overarching tendency that encompasses many specific systems, 6e thin0 it hard to argue 6ith the claim that natural selection usually orients organisms to approach things that facilitate continued existence and to avoid things that 6ould li0ely cut life short#
time to promote the survival of an organism-s genes# 5o6ever, 6hether one construes these
This is not to say that natural selection doesn-t also select for characteristics that facilitate gene survival in other 6ays, or that all species or even all humans, 6ill al6ays choose life over other valued goals in all circumstances# Our claim is simply that a general orientation to6ard continued life e7ists (ecause staying alive is essential for reproduction in most species, as 6ell as for child rearing and support in mammalian species and many others# "ie6ing an animal as a loose collection of independent modules that produce responses to specific adaptively>relevant stimuli may (e useful for some purposes, (ut it overloo0s the point that adaptation involves a variety of inter>related mechanisms 6or0ing together to insure that genes responsi(le for these mechanisms are more numerously represented in future generations 8see, e#g#, Tattersall, %FFK9# Mor e7ample, although the left ventricle of the human heart li0ely evolved to solve a specific adaptive pro(lem, this mechanism 6ould (e useless unless 6ell>integrated 6ith other aspects of the circulatory system# .e (elieve it useful to thin0 in terms of the overarching function of the heart and pulmonary>circulatory system, even if specific parts of that system evolved to solve specific adaptive pro(lems 6ithin that system# In addition to specific solutions to specific adaptive pro(lems, over time, natural selection favors integrated systemic functioning8Da60ins, %FE)= ithen, %FFE9# It is the improved survival rates and reproductive success of lifeformspossessing integrated systemic characteristics that determine 6hether those characteristics (ecome 6idespread in a population# Thus, 6e thin0 it is appropriate and useful to characteri3e a glucose>approaching amoe(a and a (ear>avoiding salmon as oriented to6ard self>preservation and reproduction, even if neither species possesses one single genetically encoded mechanism designed to generally foster life or insure reproduction, or cognitive representations of survival and reproduction# This is the same position that Da60ins 8%FE)9 too0 in his

$he obvious first priorities of a survival machine and of the brain that takes the decisions for it are individual survival and reproduction# R +nimals therefore go to elaborate lengths to find and catch food; to avoid being caught and eaten themselves; to avoid disease and accident; to protect themselves from unfavourable climatic conditions= to find mem(ers of the opposite se7 and persuade them to mate= and to confer on their children advantages similar to those they en?oy themselves# 8pp# )GP)$9 All that is really essential to
classic (oo0, The selfish gene: T T is the proposition that humans fear death# Some6hat ironically, in the early days of the theory,6e felt compelled to e7plain this fear (y positing a very (asic desire for life, (ecause many critics adamantly insisted, for reasons that 6ere never clear to us, that most people do not fear death# Our e7planation for the fear of death is that 0no6ledge of the inevita(ility of death is frightening (ecause people 0no6 they are alive and (ecause they 6ant to continue

1o ,avarrete and 3essler (455:J really believe that humans do not fear death( +lthough people sometimes claim that they are not afraid of death and on rare occasions volunteer for suicide missions and approach their death this re'uires extensive psychological work typically a great deal of anxiety and preparation and immersion in a belief system that makes this possible 8see T T for an e7planation of ho6 (elief systems do this9# .here this desire for life comes from is an interesting
living#

<uestion, (ut not essential to the logic of the theory# Lven if Cir0patric0 and &avarrete 8this issue9 6ere correct in their claims that a unitary self>preservation instinct 6as not, in and of itself,

# + desire to stay alive and a fear of anything that threatens to end ones life are likely emergent properties of these many discrete mechanisms that result from the evolution of sophisticated cognitive abilities for sym(olic, future> oriented, and self>reflective thought# As ;atson and Stoc0s 8GDD49
selected for, it is indisputa(le that many discrete and integrated mechanisms that 0eep organisms alive 6ere selected for have noted, it is (ecause 6e are so intelligent, and hence so a6are of our lim(ic reactions to threats of death and of our many systems oriented to6ard 0eeping us alive that 6e have a general fear

L2uch constant expenditure of psychological energy on the business of preserving life would be impossible if the fear of death were not as constant 8p# 4)E9# Mor literature (uffs, acclaimed novelist Maul0ner 8%FFD9 put it this 6ay: If aught can (e more painful to any intelligence a(ove that of a child or an idiot than a slo6 and
of death# 5ere are three <uotes that illustrate this point# Mirst, for psychologists, Xil(oorg 8%F4$9, an important early source of T T: gradual confronting 6ith that 6hich over a long period of (e6il> derment and dread it has (een taught to regard as an irrevoca(le and unplum(a(le finality, I do not 0no6 it# 8pp# %4%P%4G9 And perhaps most directly, for daytime T" fans, from The :oung and the Restless 8GDD)9, after a roc0y plane flight: Phyllis: I learned something up in that plane &ic0: .hatJ Phyllis: I really don-t

# +n important conse'uence of the emergence of this general fear of death is that humans are susceptible to anxiety due to events or stimuli that are not immediately present and novel threats to survival that did not exist for our ancestors such as +I12, guns, or nuclear weapons# Regardless of how this fear originates it is abundantly clear that humans do fear death# +nyone who has ever faced a man with a gun a doctor saying that the lump on ones neck is suspicious and re'uires further diagnostic tests or a drunken driver swerving into ones lane can attest to that# If humans only feared evolved specific death>related threats li0e spiders and heights, then a lump on an 7>ray, a gun, a cross(o6, or any num(er of 6eapons pointed at one-s chest 6ould not cause panic= (ut o(viously these
6ant to die
things do# Of 6hat use 6ould the sophisticated cortical structures (e if they didn-t have the a(ility to instigate fear reactions in response to such threatsJ

Evolutionary theory is !est !ecause it?s falsifia!le" irect" an scientific# prefer our ev Thayer '$ ;radley A#, Senior Analyst a &ational Institute for Pu(lic Policy, ;ringing in Dar6in: Lvolutionary Theory, Realism, and International Politics, &nternational Securit', "ol# G*, &o# G# 8Autumn, GDDD9, pp# %G4>%*% Lvolutionary theory provides a (etter foundation for realism than the theological or metaphysical arguments advanced (y &ie(uhr or orgenthau for three reasons# 3irst it is superior as "udged by the common metrics in philosophy of science developed (y +arl 5empel and
Carl Lvolutionary theory meets all of 5empelUs criteria of the deductive>nomological 8D>&9 model of scientific e7planation, unli0e &ie(uhrUs evil or (y PopperUs criteria>developed in his theory of critical rationalism> 6hat evidence 6ould not verify the theory#)E &ie(uhrUs and orgenthauUs animus dominandi# easured

evolutionary theory is also superior because it is falsifiable# That is, scholars 0no6 orgenthauUs ultimate causes are noumenal 8i#e#, outside the realm of scientific investigation9# Second, evolutionary

theory offers a widely accepted scientific explanation of human evolution thus giving realism the scientific foundation it has lac0ed# Third, realists can use evolutionary theory to advance arguments supporting offensive realism without depending on the anarchic international system# Offensive realists argue that states see0 to ma7imi3e po6er (ecause competition in the international system to achieve security compels them to do so#)K Realism based on evolutionary theory reaches the same conclusion but the causal mechanism is at the first image (the individualJ rather than the third image (the international system 9# State decisionma0ers
are egoistic and strive to dominate others# In international politics they do so (y ma7imi3ing state po6er#)F Mocused, empirical testing is re<uired to determine 6hich insights an offensive realism (ased on evolutionary theory provides# This in turn may inform e7planations of 6hy state leaders choose to e7pand and 6hy they are often a(le to generate popular support for e7pansion 6ith relative ease, or 6hy e7ternal or internal threats have (een such po6erful motivators in (uilding national solidarity and mo(ili3ing a societyUs resources#

8e can?t stop caring a!out our survival. The O*LE %ay humans can eal %ith the terror of inevita!le eath is to manage it %ith or er an enial. The alternative L6TE(ALLE ma$es life unliva!le Pyszczyns$i D Tom, Prof# Psych# P U# +olorado, Social Research, I.hat are 6e so afraid ofJ A terror management theory perspective on the politics of fear, .inter, http:''findarticles#com'p'articles'mi^mGG)E'is^4^E%'ai^n%$KDE4EK'
T T starts 6ith a consideration of ho6 human (eings are (oth similar to, and different from, all other animals# .e start 6ith the assumption that, like all other animals humans are born with a very basic evolved proclivity to stay alive and that fear

and all the biological structures of the brain that produce it evolved at least initially to keep the animal alive# This, of course, is highly adaptive, in that it facilitates survival, and an animal that does not stay alive very long has little chances of reproducing and passing on its genes# =ut as ourspecies evolved, it developed a 6ide range of other adaptations that helped us survive and reproduce, the most important (eing a set of highly sophisticated intellectual abilities that ena(le us to: a9 think and communicate with symbols, 6hich of course is the (asis for language, (9 pro)ect ourselves in time and imagine a future including events that have never happened (efore, and c9 reflect back on ourselves and ta0e ourselves as an o(?ect of our o6n attention>>self>

a6areness# These are all very adaptive a(ilities that play central roles in the system through 6hich humans regulate their (ehavior>>usually referred to as the self 8cf# +arver and Scheier, %FFK9# These a(ilities made it possi(le for us to survive and prosper in a far 6ider range of environments than any other animal has ever done, and accomplish all that 6e humans have done that no other species ever has (een capa(le of doing# 5o6ever, these uni<ue intellectual a(ilities also created a ma"or problem< they made us aware that although we are

biologically programmed to stay alive and avoid things that 6ould cut our life short, the one a(solute certainty in life is that we must die# .e are also forced to reali3e that death can come at any time for any num(er of reasons, none of 6hich are particularly pleasant>>a
predator, natural disaster, another hostile human, and an incredi(le range of diseases and natural processes, ranging from heart attac0s and cancer to AIDS# If 6e are Oluc0yO 6e reali3e that our (odies 6ill ?ust 6ear out and 6e 6ill slo6ly fade a6ay as 6e gradually lose our most (asic functions# &ot a very pretty picture# T T posits that this clash of a core desire for life 6ith a6areness of the inevita(ility of death created the potential for paraly3ing terror# Although all animals e7perience fear in the face of clear and present dangers to their survival, only humans 0no6 6hat it is that they are afraid of, and that ultimately there is no escape from this ghastly reality# .e suspect that this potential for terror

would have greatly interfered with ongoing goal%directed behavior and life itself if it were left unchecked# It may even have made the intellectual abilities that make our species special unviable in the long run as evolutionary adaptations>>and there are those 6ho thin0 that the fear and an7iety that results from our sophisticated intelligence may still eventually lead to the e7tinction of our species# 2o humankind used their newly emerging intellectual abilities to manage the potential for terror that these a(ilities produced (y calling the understandings of reality that 6ere emerging as a result of these a(ilities into service as a 6ay
of controlling their an7ieties# The potential for terror put a OpressO on emerging e7planations for reality, 6hat 6e refer to as cultural 6orldvie6s, such that any (elief system that 6as to survive and (e accepted (y the masses needed to manage this potential for an7iety that 6as inherent in the recently evolved human condition# 7ultural worldviews manage existential terror by providing a meaningful orderly

andcomforting conception of the world that helps us come to grips with the problem of death# +ultural 6orldvie6s provide a meaningful e7planation of life and our place in the cosmos ; a set of standards for 6hat is valua(le (ehavior, good and evil, that give us the potential of ac<uiring self>esteem, the sense that we are valuable, important, and significant contri(utors to this meaningful
reality= and the hope of transcending death and attaining immortality in either a literal or sym(olic sense# Biteral immortality refer to those aspects of the cultural 6orldvie6 that promise that death is not the end of e7istence, that some part of us 6ill live on, perhaps in an ethereal heaven, through reincarnation, a merger of our consciousness 6ith Nod and all others, or the attainment of enlightenment>> beliefs in literal

immortality are nearly universal, 6ith the specifics varying 6idely from culture to culture# 7ultures also provide us with the hope of attaining symbolic immortality (y (eing part of something larger, more significant, and more enduring than ourselves, such as
our families, nations, ethnic groups, professions, and the li0e# ;ecause these entities 6ill continue to e7ist long after our deaths, 6e attain sym(olic immortality (y (eing valued parts of them#

3ocial hierarchy an omination are part of human nature# attempts to resist them inevita!ly increase aggression# group o!servation proves Thayer '$ ;radley A#, Senior Analyst a &ational Institute for Pu(lic Policy, ;ringing in Dar6in: Lvolutionary Theory, Realism, and International Politics, International Security, "ol# G*, &o# G# 8Autumn, GDDD9, pp# %G4>%*%

domination usually means that particular individuals in social groups have regular priority of access to resources in competitive situations# Mor most social mammals, a form of social organi)ation called a *dominance hierarchy* operates most of the time#4* The creation of a dominance hierarchy may (e violent and is almost al6ays competitive# + single leader, almost al6ays male 8the alpha male9, leads the group# $he ubi'uity of this social ordering strongly suggests that such a pattern of organi)ation contributes to fitness# $wo principal types of behavior are evident among social mammals in a dominance hierarchy: dominant and submissive# Dominant mammals have enhanced access to mates, food, and territory, thus increasing their chances of reproductive success#4) +c'uiring dominant status usually re'uires aggression # Dominance, ho6ever, is an unsta(le condition=
Lvolutionary theory can also e7plain the trait of domination# In evolutionary theory, to maintain it, dominant individuals must (e 6illing to defend their privileged access to availa(le resources as long as they are a(le# Lthologists Richard .rangham and Dale Peterson e7plain 6hy an individual animal vies for dominant status: OThe motivation of a male chimpan3ee 6ho challenges anotherUs ran0 is not that he foresees more matings or (etter food or a longer life#O4E

rewards explain why # # # selection has favored the desire for power but the immediate reason he vies for status # # # # is simply to dominate his peers#*EH 1ominant animals often assume behavior reflecting their status# Mor e7ample, dominant 6olves and rhesus mon0eys hold their tails higher than do other mem(ers of their group in an effort to communicate dominance# + dominant animal that engages in such displays is better off if it can gain priority of access to resources without having to fight for it continuously# 2ubmissive social mammals recogni)e what is permitted and forbidden given their place in the hierarchy# They often try to (e as inconspicuous as possi(le# This (ehavior signals that the su(ordinate accepts its place in the dominance hierarchy and at least temporarily 6ill ma0e no effort to challenge the dominant animal# Lthologists and socio(iologists argue that dominance hierarchies evolve because they aid defense against predators promote the harvesting of resources and reduce intragroup conflict# *D + species that lives communally has two choices< either it accepts organi)ation 6ith some centrali3ation of po6er, or it engages in perpetual conflict over scarce resources, 6hich may result in serious in?ury and thus deprive the group of the (enefits of a communal e7istence# Lthological studies have confirmed that a hierarchical dominance system 6ithin a primate (and minimi)es overt aggression; aggression increases however when the alpha male is challenged# $he dominance hierarchy has had a profound effect on human evolution# As cognitive psychologist Denise Dellarosa +ummins argues, O$he fundamental components of our reasoning architecture evolved in response to pressures to reason about dominance hierarchies , the social organi3ation that characteri3es most social mammals#O*G 5er study and others have found that dominance hierarchies contribute to the evolution of the mind which in turn contributes to fitness#
Rather Othose

3ecurity 9 Ans%ers /egemony Turn

3ecuritization $ey to hegemony *oorani A :aseen, Assistant Professor in &ear Lastern Studies at the University of Ari3ona, The Rhetoric of SecurityO +R: The &e6 +entennial Revie6 *#% 8GDD*9 %$>4% use Any threat to the e7istence of the United States is therefore a threat to the e7istence of the world order, 6hich is to say, the values that ma0e this order possi(le# It is not merely that the Gnited 2tates as the most powerful nation of the free world is the most capable of defending it# It is rather that the Gnited 2tates is the supreme agency advancing the underlying principle of the free order# $he Gnited 2tates is the world order's fulcrum, and therefore the 0ey to its e7istence and perpetuation# &ithout the Gnited 2tates freedom peace civil relations among nations the possibility of civil society are all under threat of extinction# $his is why the most abominable terrorists and tyrants single out the Gnited 2tates for their schemes and attacks# They 0no6 that the United States is the guardian of li(eral values# In the rhetoric of security, therefore, the survival of the Gnited 2tates, its sheer e7istence, becomes the content of liberal values # In other 6ords,
6hat does it mean to espouse li(eral values in the conte7t of the present state of 6orld affairsJ It means to desire fervently and promote energetically the survival of the United States of America# .hen the 6orld order struggles to preserve its Oself,O the self that it see0s to preserve, the primary location of its (eing, is the United States# +onferring=this status upon the United States allo6s the rhetoric of security to insist upon a threat to the e7istence of the 6orld order as a 6hole 6hile confining the non>normative status that arises from this threat to the United States alone# The United States>as the self under threat>remains e7ternal to the normative relations (y 6hich the rest of the 6orld continues to (e (ound# $he Gnited 2tates is both a specific national existence struggling for its life and normativity itself which

makes it coextensive with the world order as a whole # Mor this reason, any challenge to G#2# world dominance would be a challenge to world peace and is thus impermissible# . e read in The &ational Security Strategy that the United States 1Lnd Page
$G% 6ill Opromote a (alance of po6er that favors freedomO 8&ational Security GDDG, %9#And later, 6e find out 6hat is meant (y such a (alance of po6er#

:3 military primacy is comparatively !etter than the alternative *oonan 0< !ohn, %'4, The .ee0ly Standard, O(amaUs &u0e>Mree "ision Impacts 6ith Reality If the .hite 5ouseUs stance on disarmament is indeed that elementary, 6e might have a real pro(lem# 3or better or for worse +mericaBs mighty strategic vanguard has served as one of the most powerful global stabili)ation tools in history# &e shouldnBt abandon it simply to appease a gaggle of Scandanavian peaceniks nor should we sacrifice +mericaBs security because weBre off chasing utopian fantasies# A!solute reCection of security !ase politics lea s to glo!al inCustices only :3 forces can prevent glo!al violence Elshtain 5 !ean ;eth0e, Baura Spelman Roc0efeller Professor of Social and Political Lthics at the University of +hicago Divinity School, and is a contri(uting editor for The &e6 Repu(lic, !ust .ar Against Terror Peace is a good, and so is ?ustice, (ut neither is an absolute good# ,either automatically trumps the other save for those pacifists who claim that violence is never the solution , Ifighting never settled anything, and Iviolence only (egets more violence# Does itJ &ot al6ays, not necessarily# Ane can point to one historical example after another of force being deployed in the name of "ustice and leading to not only a less violent world but a more )ust one# 7onsider the force used to combat Qapanese militarism in &orld &ar II# 1efeating Qapan in the war occupying Qapan in its aftermath and imposing a constitutional order did not incite further Qapanese aggression of the sort 6itnessed in its full horror in 6hat came to (e 0no6n as Ithe rape of anchuria# &hat emerged instead was a democratic Qapan # Are there living !apanese 6ho (elieve
it is time to return to a violent 6orld of militarist dominance or the 6orld of violent self>help associated 6ith the samurai traditionJ .hen the great !apanese 6riter :u0io ishima called for a mass uprising and restoration of the old militarism in %FED, only a couple of pathetic disciples responded# ishima-s (i3arre fantasy of the return of a more violent 6orld 6as regarded (y the !apanese as daft and nigh>unintelligi(le# All violence, including the rule>governed violence of 6arfare, is tragic# =ut even more tragic is permitting gross in"ustices and

massive crimes to go unpunished# !ust 6ar stipulates that the goods of settled social life cannot be achieved in the face of pervasive and unrelenting violence# $he horror of todays so%called failed states is testament to that basic re'uirement of the tran'uility of order# In 2omalia as warlords have "ostled for power for more than a decade people have been abused cynically and routinely# Anyone at anytime may (e a target# $he tragedy of +merican involvement in 2omalia is not that G#2# soldiers were sent there but that the +merican commitment was not sufficient to restore minimal civic peace and to permit the Somalian people to (egin to re(uild their shattered social frame6or0# 7an anyone doubt that a sufficient use of force to stop predators from killing and starving people outright would have been the more "ust course in 2omalia and in the long run the one most conducive to civic peace(

3ecurity 9 Ans%ers 6mperialism Turn

)riticizing :3 po%er istracts from eterring glo!al imperial po%ers that actually trigger the impact 3ha% ' artin Sha6, professor of international relations at University of Susse7, April E, Uses and A(uses of Anti> Imperialism in the Nlo(al Lra, http:''666#martinsha6#org'empire#htm It is fashiona(le in some circles, among 6hich 6e must clearly include the organi3ers of this conference, to argue that the global era is seeing Ba new imperialismB > that can (e (lamed for the pro(lem of Ufailed statesU 8pro(a(ly among many others9# Different contri(utors
to this strand of thought name this imperialism in different 6ays, (ut novelty is clearly a critical issue# The logic of using the term imperialism is actually to esta(lish continuit' (et6een contemporary forms of .estern 6orld po6er and older forms first so named (y ar7ist and other theorists a century ago# $he last thing that critics of a new imperialism wish to allow is that &estern power has changed

sufficiently to invalidate the very application of this critical concept# ,or have many considered the possibility that if the concept of imperialism has a relevance today it applies to certain aggressive authoritarian regimes of the non-1estern world rather than to the contemporary 1est # In this paper I fully accept that there is a concentration of much 6orld power > economic, cultural, political and military > in the hands of &estern elites# In my recent (oo0, Theor' of the "lobal
State, I discuss the development of a Uglo(al>.estern state conglomerateU 8Sha6 GDDD9# I argue that Uglo(alU ideas and institutions, 6hose significance characteri3es the ne6 political era that has opened 6ith the end of the +old .ar, depend largely > (ut not solely > on .estern po6er# I hold no (rief and intend no apology for official .estern ideas and (ehaviour# And yet I propose that the idea of a new imperialism is a

profoundly misleading indeed ideological concept that obscures the realities of power and especially of empire in the twenty%first century# $his notion is an obstacle to understanding the significance extent and limits of contemporary &estern power# It simultaneously serves to obscure many real causes of oppression suffering and struggle for transformation against the 'uasi%imperial power of many regional states # In order to e7plore the intellectual

and political pro(lem that Ua ne6 imperialismU poses it is necessary to do several things# O(viously, 6e must e7plore the old imperialism, (ut (efore 6e can do that 6e must loo0 at the roots of the concept in the idea of empire itself# Indeed, my argument is that the coherence of the concept of (imperialism( la' partl' in its connection with the idea of empire # In analysing imperialism, classic ar7ist 6riters 8see Ta(le %9 lin0ed the ne6 economic relations of late nineteenth>century 6orld capitalism to the phenomenon of political empire# Bate t6entieth>century anti>imperialists have struggled 6ith the pro(lem that modern &estern power has almost entirely abandoned formal empire# 5ence the idea of neo>imperialism, rooted in economic e7ploitation (uttressed only (y indirect political dominance, has already a history of half a century# The pro(lem that these critics have faced is that their chosen concept has (ecome more and more a(stracted from the real politics of empire# I argue that in the glo(al era, this separation has finally become critical # This is for t6o related reasons# On the one hand, .estern po6er has moved into ne6 territory, largely uncharted >> and I argue uncharta(le >> 6ith the critical tools of anti>imperialism# On the other hand, the politics of empire remain all too real , in classic forms that recall (oth modern imperialism and earlier empires, in

many non-1estern states and they are revived in many political struggles today # Thus the concept of a Une6 imperialismU fails to deal 6ith (oth 0ey post>imperial features of .estern po6er and the <uasi>imperial character of many non>.estern states# $he concept overstates 1estern power and understates the dangers posed by other more authoritarian and imperial centres of power# -olitically it identifies the &est as the principal enemy of the worldBs people when for many of them there are far more real and dangerous enemies closer to home# I shall return to these political issues at the end of this
paper#

4issi ent 6( loc$s in glo!al e&ploitation political action is necessary to change material con itions of oppression Agathangelou S Ling ,2
Anna #, Director of the Nlo(al +hange Institute in &icosia and Mormer Assistant Professor of .omen-s Studies and Politics at O(erlin= B#5# #, Institute of Social Studies at the 5ague, STUDILS I& POBITI+AB L+O&O :, v*4, Mall, p# E>K :et, ironically if not tragically, dissident

IR also paraly)es itself into non%action# &hile it challenges the status 'uo dissident IR fails to transform it# Indeed, dissident IR claims that a coherent paradigm or research program P even an alternative one P reproduces the stifling parochialism and hidden power%mongering of sovereign scholarship# IAny agenda of glo(al
politics informed (y critical social theory perspectives, 6rites !im Neorge, Imust forgo the simple, al(eit self>gratifying, options inherent in ready>made alternative Realisms and confront the dangers, closures, parado7es, and complicities associated 6ith them# ?ven references

to a real world dissidents argue, repudiate the very meaning of dissidence given their sovereign presumption of a universali3a(le,
testa(le Reality# .hat dissident scholarship opts for, instead, is a sense of disciplinary crisis that Iresonates 6ith the effects of marginal and dissident movements in all sorts of other localities# 1espite its emancipatory intentions this approach effectively leaves the

prevailing prison of sovereignty intact# It doubly incarcerates when dissident IR highlights the layers of power that oppress without offering a heuristic not to mention a program for emancipatory action# 8erely politici)ing the supposedly non>political neither guides emancipatory action nor guards it against demagoguery# +t best dissident IR sanctions a detached critically rooted 8ironically9 in .estern modernity# ichael Shapiro, for instance, advises the dissident theorist to ta0e Ia critical distance or Iposition offshore from 6hich to Isee the possi(ility of change# =ut what becomes of those who know they are burning in the hells of exploitation racism sexism starvation civil war and the like while the esoteric

dissident observes critically from offshore( &hat hope do they have of overthrowing these shackles of sovereignty( In not answering these 'uestions dissident IR ends up reproducing , despite avo6als to the contrary, the sovereign outcome of discourse divorced from practice analysis from policy deconstruction from reconstruction particulars from universals and critical theory from problem%solving#

3ecurity 9 Ans%ers (ealism @oo

The alternative to realism is an i ealism that results in morally groun e intervention# this inevita!ly lea s to genoci e an insta!ility 1acevich A Andre6 !# ;acevich is a professor of international relations at ;oston University, ;oston Nlo(e, %%>)>D*, http:''666#(oston#com'ne6s'glo(e'ideas'articles'GDD*'%%'D)'the^realist^persuasion'Jpage[% In fact, when it comes to moral issues realism has gotten a bum rap# As the events of the post>+old .ar era have reminded us, idealism>6hether the left li(eral variant that emphasi3es humanitarian interventionism or the neoconservative version that urges using American po6er to promote American values>provides no escape from the moral pitfalls of statecraft# If anything it exacerbates them# >ood intentions detached from prudential considerations can easily lead to enormous mischief both practical and moral# In 2omalia efforts to feed the starving culminated with besieged G2 forces gunning down women and children# In Cosovo, protecting ethnic Al(anians meant colla(orating 6ith terrorists and (om(ing do6nto6n ;elgrade# In Ira' a high%minded crusade to eradicate evil and spread freedom everywhere has yielded torture and prisoner abuse thousands of noncombatant casualties and something akin to chaos# >iven this do%gooder record of achievement realism "ust might deserve a second look#

(ealism !est preserves hegemony" solves overstretch" an avoi s conflict# it avoi s %ar e&cept as a last resort 1acevich A Andre6 !# ;acevich is a professor of international relations at ;oston University, ;oston Nlo(e, %%>)>D*, http:''666#(oston#com'ne6s'glo(e'ideas'articles'GDD*'%%'D)'the^realist^persuasion'Jpage[% Realists in the American tradition are similarly circumspect 6hen it comes to po6er# On the one hand, they pri3e it# On the other hand, they view it is a fragile commodity# The prudent statesman deploys po6er 6ith great care# These realists appreciate that UUgreatnessUU is
transitory# The history of Lurope from %F%4 to %F4* testifies to the ease 6ith 6hich a fe6 arrogant and short>sighted statesmen can fritter a6ay advantages accumulated over centuries, 6ith

realists cultivate a lively awareness of what power%especially military power%can and cannot do# They agree 6ith Cennan, principal architect of the +old .ar strategy of containment, 6ho 6rote in his (oo0 UUAmerican DiplomacyUU 8%F*D9, that BBthere is no more dangerous delusion###than the concept of total victory#BB +t times war becomes unavoidable# =ut realists advocate using force as a last resort%hence the dismay with which they view the =ush doctrine of preventive war# $o the extent war can be purposeful realists see its utility as almost entirely negative# .ar is death and destruction# Politically, it can
horrific conse<uences# Determined to hus(and po6er, reduce, <uell, eliminate, or intimidate# ;ut to 6age 6ar in order to spread democracy, as President ;ush says the United States is doing in Ira<, ma0es a(out as much sense as starting a forest fire to (uild a village: It only gets you so far, and the costs tend to (e e7or(itant# In the formulation of foreign policy, realists emphasi3e the importance of UUsolvency#UU Bippmann, 6ho in maturity a(andoned the .ilsonian vie6s of his youth to advocate realism, gave particular 6eight to this theme# This means ensuring that a nationUs commitments donUt outstrip its resources#

7osts matter because resources are finite#

Anti#(ealist metho s of pre iction are fla%e an universalize our historical preCu ices# this turns the $riti$ an ma$es their impact claims suspect 3olomon ,- se& e ite 5ussein, Senior Researcher, 5uman Security Pro?ect, Institute for Defence Policy, OIn Defence of Realism,O African Security Revie6, "ol *, &o G, http:''666#iss#co#3a'pu(s'ASR'*&oG'*&oG'InDefence#html
oreover, in the last years of Dulles- life, he came to see that internal changes 6ithin communist states might alter their e7ternal (ehaviour more rapidly than the deli(erate application of pressure 6ithout#*4 5istory has proven Dulles correct in asserting that economics and ethnicity, internal as opposed to e7ternal forces, 6ill result in the demise of the Soviet superpo6er# .hat the a(ove illustrates is the lie in Neorge-s statement that from a realist perspective there can (e no ,rational e7planation for Soviet (ehaviour in peacefully relin<uishing its po6er status and systemic authority other than in traditional po6er politics terms#- ;ut the <uestion is, did the post>modernists predict the demise of the Soviet superpo6er and the end of the +old .arJ This <uestion, ho6ever, raises another one: what sort of methodology do critics of

realism employ in order to Lob"ectively predict the future( Since Naddis is <uoted (y Neorge, a(ove, as revealing the essential ,na0edness- of traditional international relations theory, it is to his methodology that 6e turn# >addis posits the view that individuals and nations have Llimited capacity for self%analysis# + good way of putting things into proper perspective is by stepping back to ta0e in a 6ider vie6# Mor Naddis ,stepping back means moving forward in time or as he puts it *### imagining ourselves at some point in the future ### looking back on the present and the se)uence of e*ents that led to it.O** ;y
employing this ,method- Naddis asserts that 6e 6ill O... gain insights into our present condition from the detachment of temporal distance... O*)

$rying to apply such a Lmethod to serious academic discourse is foolhardy in the extreme# M/uN8an is a temporal and a spatial being and wish as much as we can we cannot negate that fact# It is difficult to (elieve that 6ere 6e simply to pro?ect ourselves for6ard in time and loo0 (ac0 6e 6ould gain o(?ectivity# &ere we to pro"ect ourselves into the future we would also be pro"ecting our individual t6entieth century pride and pre"udices 8our patterns of socialisation, if you 6ill9 with us#
.hile this may (e an imaginative 6ay of vie6ing things, it is a ,method- left (est to the realm of imagination#

3ecurity 9 Ans%ers Threat )onstruction @oo

(espon ing to threats is necessary the alternative is isolationist pacifism 3ch%eller D Randall, Professor of Political Science a The OSU, Unans6ered threats: political constraints on the (alance of po6er, Noogle ;oo0
;alancing (ehavior re<uires the e7istence of a strong consensus among elites that an e7ternal threat e7ists and must (e chec0ed (y either arms or allies or (oth# As the pro7imate causal varia(le in the model, elite consensus is the most necessary of necessary causes of (alancing (ehavior# Thus, 6hen there is no elite consensus, the prediction is either un(alancing or some other non(alancing policy option# Developing such a consensus is difficult, ho6ever, (ecause balancing, unli0e e7pansion, is not a (ehavior motivated (y the search for gains and profit# It is instead a

strategy that entails significant costs in human and material resources that could be directed toward domestic programs and investment rather than national defense # In addition, when alliances are formed the state must sacrifice some measure of its autonomy in foreign and military policy to its allies# In the absence of a clear ma"ority of elites in favor of a balancing strategy, therefore, an alternative policy, and not necessarily a coherent one, will prevail# This is (ecause a weak grand strategy can be supported for many different reasons 8e#g#, pacifism isolationism pro%enemy sympathies, collective security, a (elief in conciliation, etc#9# +onse<uently, appeasement and other forms of underbalancing will tend to triumph in the absence of a determined and broad political consensus to balance simply because these policies represent the path of least domestic resistance and can appeal to a broad range of interests along the political spectrum# Thus, underreacting to threats, unli0e an effective (alancing strategy, does not re<uire over6helming, united, and coherent support from elites and masses= it is a default strategy#

***V6(6L6O A*38E(3

Virilio 9 Ans%ers Environment Out%eighs

Plan solvesGVirilio conce es the environmental movement criti;ues progressT connecting the estruction of the environment to the prevalence of romology solves the acci ent. 3mith <, ILcology ;eyond Lcology: Bife After the Accident in Octavia ;utlerUs oenogenesis Trilogy Rachel Nreen6ald Smith 8;#A#, Sarah Ba6rence +ollege 8GDD%9 #A#, Rutgers University 8GDD49 Ph#D#, Rutgers University 8GDDK9, Mocus on T6entieth and t6enty>first century American literature and culture, ecocriticism and environmental literature, aesthetics, theories of emotion, materialist approaches to literature, and critical theory#9 MS odern Miction Studies, "olume **, &um(er $, Mall GDDF, pp# *4*>*)* 8Article9 Pu(lished (y The !ohns 5op0ins University Press DOI: %D#%$*$'mfs#D#%)GE http:''muse#?hu#edu#pro7y#li(#umich#edu'?ournals'modern^fiction^studies'vD**'**#$#smith#html .hile eschatology an ecology might seem to ma0e odd companions, "irilio suggests that they share a crucial attention to the isasters of the present: an ecological stance offers an analysis of the imme iate conse;uences of our myria acci ents" 6hile an eschatological vie6 turns to our prospects for the future# This startling claim for the relevance of spiritual concepts of eschatology to ecological criti;ues of technological progress has far reaching conse;uences for the aims an scope of ecocritical thought. Environmentalism" Virilio posits" is the only e&isting political movement that offers a sustaine criti;ue of progress. It does so !y recognizing the relationship !et%een human technological progress an isasters" (oth natural and
artificial#% The e7tension of the scope of environmental politics to address the diverse accidents of the present, ho6ever, involves rethin0ing the (oundaries of ecology itself# 6n

light of the acceleration of glo!al information flo%s , for instance, "irilio points to the

necessity of incorporating a%areness of temporal ecology into traditional concepts of ha(itat that tend to focus on place as a condition of e7istence and conse<uently ignore the repercussions of spacio>temporal changes in the environment for living organisms# "irilio (roadens this definition

emonstrating the interconnecte ness of e&periences of time %ith the material an spatial su!stances of nature, noting that Oalongside the pollution of su(stances 8of air, 6ater, fauna and flora9, there is emerging the sudden
(y pollution of the distances and intervals that ma0e up the very density of our daily reality= of that real space of our activities 6hich the interactivity of the real time of instant e7changes has ?ust a(olishedO 8%DFP%D9#G !ust as natural resources are polluted (y artificial chemicals, so do more

fun amental ontological con itions of space an time !ecome pollute !y the technologies that continue to spee up every ay life. The sun is o!scure !y particulate matterT the temporal e&perience of anticipation issolves in a %ash of instant communication. The loss of certain 0inds of spacio>
temporal e7perience that comes 6ith the increased pace of travel, information, and communication is for "irilio an ecological pro(lem insofar as it concerns the conditions that constrain and permit life# As a result, he posits the necessary conceptuali3ation of Othe Ugrey ecologyU of the pollution of the natural scale,O 6hich Orounds out the Ugreen ecologyU of the pollution@(y chemical or other products@of natureO 8%%D9# The 6orld, in this conception, is destroyed (y constricting the spacio>temporal distances (y 6hich it is e7perienced ?ust as it is torn apart (y the degradation of ecosystems# This OgreyO addition to ecological concepts emphasi3es the centrality of the acceleration of capital flo6s, information net6or0s, and glo(al trade to ecological

the social effects of ne% me ia communications@ therefore !ecome central to ecological thought ;ut 6hy turn to eschatologyJ One of VirilioNs greatest achievements is in pointing to possi(le alliances !et%een environmentalism an a range of movements that a ress the multifarious effects of glo!alization# The anger of the increasing %orl %i e interconnecte ness !ecomes" for "irilio, the increasing anger of %hat he terms the integral acci ent. 5e 6rites: .hereas, in the past, the local accident 6as still precisely situated 8in situ9 # # # the glo(al accident no longer is,
matters# +oncerns that Smith *4E appear to (e separate from environmental issues@such as d6indling free time and and its fall>out e7tends to entire continents# .aiting in the 6ings is the integral accident, 6hich may, some day soon, (ecome our only ha(itat, 6ith the deleterious effects of Progress e7tending this time not merely to the 6hole of geophysical space, (ut, most importantly, to a time span of many centuries# 8G*9

Virilio 9 Ans%ers @lo!alism @oo

@lo!alism goo ### interconnecte ness allo%s real political change. )onnolly '<<<ISpeed, +oncentric +ultures, and +osmopolitanism Author8s9: .illiam L# +onnolly# 8Lisenho6er Professor, !ohns 5op0ins University Political Theory, International Relations ;#A#, University of ichigan, Mlint Ph#D#, University of ichigan, Ann Ar(or Recent +ourses and Research Interests: +apitalism and +hristianity Perception, The edia, Politics &iet3sche and 5is Interlocutors9 Revie6ed 6or08s9:Source: Political Theory, "ol# GK, &o# * 8Oct#, GDDD9, pp# *F)>)%KPu(lished (y: Sage Pu(lications, Inc#Sta(le URB: http:''666#?stor#org'sta(le'%FGGFD #

The nee to ay is to challenge the closures of nationalism an civilizopolism %ith a more rhizomatic or net%or$ conception of political culture. T he idea is not to delegitimi3e concentric identifications s such, for you need to participate in the family that nourishes you and the state that governs you# 6t is to appreciate ho% concentric circles of political culture are complicate an compromise !y numerous crosscutting allegiances, connections, and modes of colla(oration# Lven more" it is to ta$e a vantage of the possi!ilities create !y the compression of istance to enact a more vi!rant plurality of connections e&cee ing the concentric mo el# Mor e7isting patterns of identification, allegiance and colla(oration already e7ceed the concentric image of them# :ou might
cultivate ties to ecologists or feminists in South America that are more significant than those you share on these t6o issues 6ith some neigh(ors, in>la6s, or corporate leaders in your o6n state# Eou

might support cross#country citizen net%or$s esigne to protect rain forests in several countries 8including your o6n9 or to reduce to7ic emissions in the 6orld, doing so to nourish the future of life
any6here and every6here on the planet#% G :oU might cultivatee 7tra>state lines of identification 6ith a(original peoples, targets of state torture, refugees, or (oat people, partly (ecause you e7trapolate from e7periences of minority standing in your o6n state to these more radical conditions, partly (ecause your state may have helped to produce the in?uries involved, and partly (ecause you reali3e that cross>state citi3en pressure is often needed to modify oppressive state, interstate, and international corporate practices# In these cases, and numerous others,

your participation may

involve creative political tactics" such as the formation of e>mail net6or0s to protect the rain forests, or a cross>country citi3en
divestment movement to end apartheid, or the organi3ation of cross>country (oycotts against corporate use of child la(or,o r the introduction of cross> country la(or negotiations 6ith international auto corporations, or

the creation of glo!al tri!unals to try tyrants #% $

Virilio 9 Ans%ers 3pee @oo

Totalizing alterantive ignores positive !enefits of spee )onnolly '<<<ISpeed, +oncentric +ultures, and +osmopolitanism Author8s9: .illiam L# +onnolly# 8Lisenho6er Professor, !ohns 5op0ins University Political Theory, International Relations ;#A#, University of ichigan, Mlint Ph#D#, University of ichigan, Ann Ar(or Recent +ourses and Research Interests: +apitalism and +hristianity Perception, The edia, Politics &iet3sche and 5is Interlocutors9 Revie6ed 6or08s9:Source: Political Theory, "ol# GK, &o# * 8Oct#, GDDD9, pp# *F)>)%KPu(lished (y: Sage Pu(lications, Inc#Sta(le URB: http:''666#?stor#org'sta(le'%FGGFD # ;ut 6hat if the compression of distance through spee has effects "irilio records 6hile some of those effects also improve the prospects for emocratic pluralization% %ithin the state an a cosmopolitanism across states that spea$s affirmatively to issues of ecology, peace, indigenous minorities, the legitinmation of ne6 identities and rights, and the protection of ol rightsJ Then acceleration 6ould carry positive possi(ilities as 6ell as dangers# And a single#min e attac$ on its angers %oul forfeit access to its positive possi!ilities . Thus, to summari3e for no6 a fe6 contentions: Mirst, the contemporary accentuation of tempo in interterritorial communications , entertainment, tourism, trade, and population migration e&poses numerous settle constituencies to the historical !asis of %hat they are an the comparative contesta!ility of faiths an i entities they have ta$en to !e universal or incontesta!le# Second, the acceleration of acci ent and surprise, listed (y "irilio as effects of spee " can also function over time to isrupt close mo els of nature" truth" an morality into %hich people so rea ily !ecome encapsulate " doing so in 6ays that support ne% para igms of natural science an careful reconsi eration of the inCuries to ifference supporte !y ogmatic conceptions. Third" VirilioNs i entification of the territorial nation as repository of democratic unity and of slo6ness as the temporal condition of national deli(eration epreciates the value of a more e&pansive practice of pluralism that spea$s generously to the multi imensional iversity of life already operative o n most territories today# Speed can (e dangerous# At a certain point of acceleration, it ?eopardi3es freedom and shortens the time in 6hich to engage ecological issues# 1ut the cra%l of slo% time contains inCuries" angers" an repressive ten encies too. 6t may !e %ise therefore to e&plore spee as an am!iguous me ium that contains some positive possi!ilities. The
positive possi(ilities are lost to those 6ho e7perience its effects only through nostalgia for a pristine time governed (y the compass of the centered nation, the security of sta(le truth, the idea of nature as a purposive organism or a set of timeless la6s, and the stolidity of thic0 universals# ironically, the

To ay,

most virulent attempts to slo% things o%n ta$e the form of national and religious fun amentalisms that eploy media sound (ites and military campaigns of ethnic cleansing to reinstate a slo%" centere %orl . Indeed, the am(iguity of speed finds its most salient manifestation in the parado7ical contest ta0ing place (efore our eyes
(et6een the plurali3ation and the fundamentali3ationo f pu(lic cultures#T he politics to plurali3e culture along several dimensions and the politics to fundamentali3e hegemonic identities form t6o contending responses to late>modem speed# Lach propensity intensifies under the same temporal

emocratic pluralists must em!race the positive potentialities of spee %hile %or$ing to attenuate its most angerous effects
conditions# As this contest proceeds, it also (ecomes clear 6hy

Virilio 9 Ans%ers Perm

Only !y reshaping LprogressK !y realizing the ymanicism of life an utilizing the mutations of the psyche can %e avert the Acci ent. 3mith <,ILcology ;eyond Lcology: Bife After the Accident in Octavia ;utlerUs oenogenesis Trilogy Rachel Nreen6ald Smith 8;#A#, Sarah Ba6rence +ollege 8GDD%9 #A#, Rutgers University 8GDD49 Ph#D#, Rutgers University 8GDDK9, Mocus on T6entieth and t6enty>first century American literature and culture, ecocriticism and environmental literature, aesthetics, theories of emotion, materialist approaches to literature, and critical theory#9 MS odern Miction Studies, "olume **, &um(er $, Mall GDDF, pp# *4*>*)* 8Article9 Pu(lished (y The !ohns 5op0ins University Press DOI: %D#%$*$'mfs#D#%)GE http:''muse#?hu#edu#pro7y#li(#umich#edu'?ournals'modern^fiction^studies'vD**'**#$#smith#html Nros3 sei3es on the 4eleuzian concept of repetition#%ith#a ifference an lin$s it to the 6or0 of +harles 4ar%in" 6hich, she 6rites, Ooffers an account of the genesis of the ne% from the play of repetition an ifference %ithin the ol . . . an e&planation of the ynamism" gro%th" an transforma!ility of living systems" the impulse to6ard a future that is un0no6n in, and uncontained (y, the present and historyO 8%F9# Nros3 argues that Dar6inUs concept of life epitomi3es the Deleu3ian alternative to thin0ing of the future as a repetition of identities, offering instea a version of futurity that sees life as full of potential for surprise" ifference" an rupture # Dra6ing from a legacy of
thin0ers that reaches (ac0 to Spino3a and e7tends through &iet3sche, ;ergson, and Deleu3e, Nros3 develops a concept of life that she sees as infinitely generative of the ne6# Reading Dar6in through these other thin0ers, she demonstrates that his philosophy offers a

vision of life that is H efinitively lin$e to the movement of time an the force of the unpredicta(le, even random, future#O In this vision, Hlife is this very openness to the ynamism of time" an active response to timeNs provocation to en ureO 8$E9# The usefulness of this concept of life to political pra7is is, for Nros3, immanent# She e7plains: 4ar%inNs ontological provocation in philosophy is also a provocation to all those discourses involved in or inde(ted to philosophical concepts of identity, (eing, su(stance, materiality, culture, and so on: he !e;ueaths to us all a challenge to un erstan ynamism" movement" en less !ecoming as the con itions , not the limits" of life. 5e gives us a concept of life larger than itself, open to and directed (y otherness, (y forces and energies that imply ne6ness and invention . The tas$ ahea is to utilize such an invigorate concept of life to rethin$ po%er" politics" an struggle in ne% terms # 84G9 Nros3Us move here, 6hile different from ShivaUs, also poses a certain concept of life against political and economic norms# Suggesting that the logic of life itself is one of continual innovation" ne%ness" crisis" an change , Nros3 posits that this ynamism inherent to life processes might !e seize on pro uctively %ithin the political sphere #
Mor her and the tradition she em(races, forces of life tend to6ard creativity and change, and political systems of domination merely o(struct those other6ise revolutionary possi(ilities# In short, she argues that the reproduction of life, understood in Dar6inian terms, produces une7pected futures, surprise mutations, and catastrophic inventions#K @roszNs

concept of Hlife larger than itselfH that promises iscontinuity an !ecoming as an ontological con ition poses an alternative to prevailing concepts of progress# It calls attention to the political need for concepts of futurity that stress discontinuity and rupture@ concepts of futurity that ans6er the threat of crisis in the present 6ith the threat of a crisis for present structures of po6er and ideology: an eschatological position that insists on the en of the %orl as %e $no% it in or er to prevent the en of the %orl itself. 6f %e are" as "irilio suggests" propelling ourselves %ith increasing spee to%ar an integral acci ent" an eschatological position does not simply imagine the end times as the catastrophic result of the philanoia of the present, (ut must also imagine the end times 6ithin our time@6hat .alter ;en?amin calls the Ono6>timeO@ that offers the possi!ility to ra ically alter the course of our actions !eyon the seeming inevita!ility of neoli!eral control and its conse<uences for our ecologies of distance, of time, and of relations among diverse forms of life#F .hile Nros3Us
evolutionary (ecomings are figured as emerging out of the material conditions of the present, they also promise radical (rea0s# :et these (rea0s, ho6ever necessary, have under>e7amined implications insofar as the potential violence they might entail# Lvolution might occur through une7pected (eginnings and untimely endings, (ut 6hat of the (ranch of the evolutionary tree that is so (rutally lopped offJ If our current practices are unsustaina(le, if the future of the 6orld depends on an intrusion of the changea(ility of life on our e7pectations, are 6e prepared for 6hat might ensueJ It is this violence that "irilioUs O useum of the AccidentO unrelentingly emphasi3es# "ast fields (urn, 6hile else6here trains crash through seemingly impenetra(le stone facades# Oil spills span (eyond the hori3on, tidal 6aves ?ump suddenly from seemingly calm seas, high6ays topple in the 6a0e of earth<ua0es or (om(s, and the iconic atomic mushroom cloud looms indistinguisha(ly from the cloud of ash hovering over a recently erupted volcano# In "irilioUs 6or0, the confusion (et6een the natural disaster and the manmade disaster emphasi3es not only the dangerous conse<uences of the continuation of (usiness as usual, (ut also the terrifying fact of the u(i<uitous catastrophes that constitute the continuation of life@a dar0er side of the potential ruptures that produce, for (etter or for 6orse, change#

Perm o !oth solves !etter )ooper '

1Simon, Senior Becturer at the University of Sunderland, OTechnoculture and +ritical Theory: In the Service of the Press, Page %G42''S5 achineJO GDDG, Psychology

"irilioUs description of the relationship (et6een speed and inertia serves as a useful corrective to more nafve appraisals of the revolutionary capacities of information technologies# &evertheless, he fails to e7plore in more depth the contradictory nature of BspeedB# It is possible to think about BspeedB more productively in terms
of the levels of a(straction argument# Mor instance, the e7citement of UspeedU depends upon the continuing sense of em(odied limitation# In this sense it is very similar to the e7citement of Ucy(erse7U# +n approach that reflexively theori)ed these levels%in%contradiction , 6here(y 6e recogni)es

that the benefits of technological speed are best achieved by allowing more concrete forms of interaction to limit the degree to which disembodied exchanges become the dominant mode of engaging the world presents a more constructive approach that 0irilo is able to furnish#

Virilio 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails @eneral

The alt oesnNt solve it retrenches the impacts )ooper '
1Simon, Senior Becturer at the University of Sunderland, OTechnoculture and +ritical Theory: In the Service of the Press, Page %GF, ellipses 6ere part of original te7t, nothing 6as removed2''S5 Despite an e7tensive catalogue of the negative effects of technology e7tending to over seven (oo0s, achineJO GDDG, Psychology

0irilio has not elaborated on how we might engage differently with technology beyond simply criti'uing its negative aspects# As +onley points out B0irilio does not see any issue beyond resistance through denunciationB 8+onley %FF$:KE9# On this point, it is instructive to compare
"irilio 6ith an earlier Mrench theorist of technology, !ac<ues Lllul, 6ho constructed a similarly over6helming portrait of technological domination and advocated resistance through denunciation and heroic self>assertion# "irilio too, see0s resistance through as similarly assertive process# &hen faced with progressivist ideologies of technology 0irilioBs simplest strategy is : Uas a +hristian, I do the opposite, I say

noB= or Ulet us not trustU the false freedoms that technology promises 8"irilio %FKFa: %%F9# L7panding this position, he has staged the problem of resistance in terms reminiscent of ByotardUs technoanarchism< the 'uestion of freedom is thus central

to the pro(lem of techno>scienced too 6hat e7tent can the individual still avoid sensory confusionJ To 6hat e7tend 6ill he (e a(le to 0eep his distance 6hen faced 6ith the hyperstimulation of his senseJ .hat ne6 type of dependency or addiction 6ill (e produced in the near future 8"irilio %FF*: %%F, emphasis added9 On one level, these are important and insightful <uestions and it is not my intention to <uestion their validity# Instead I 6ish to e7amine the 6ay they are framed in terms of individual UfreedomU, the a(ility to avoid technological contamination, and hence, them metaphors of distance and addiction# $he 'uestion of resistance is clothed in the rhetoric of heroic freedom : the repeated references to Stoic philosophy help to confirm this impression# $he

'uestion of resistance revolves around a stoical ability to remain uncontaminated not to BtrustB the ideology of techno%fundamentalism to say BnoB to further technological mediation# Iet such resistance operates within its own disempowering metaphysic# $o denounce technology by asserting oneBs own relative freedom is to fall into a similar trap as that faced (y Lllul, in so far as Bfreedom remains a metaphysical concept tied to sub"ectivity and control 8Theile %FF*:G%)9#$ -lacing the 'uestion of resistance within such a metaphysic ignores the 'uestion of constitutive framing, 6hich on one level "irilio is so intent on e7ploring in terms of its
dispersal# Perhaps this is unavoida(le in "irilioUs 6or0 as a result of the terminology he employs#

VirilioNs terminology preclu es resistance it constructs an ontology trappe in the system )ooper '
1Simon, Senior Becturer at the University of Sunderland, OTechnoculture and +ritical Theory: In the Service of the Press, Page %$D, ellipses 6ere part of original te7t, nothing 6as removed2''S5 achineJO GDDG, Psychology

The pro(lem lies in "irilioUs analytical terms such as speed vectors and disappearance all of which implicitly construct a one%dimensional ontology trapped within the confines of the very technological system he opposes# Mor instance 6e can <uestion the overemphasis given to the term UdisappearanceU# +ll too often in 0irilioBs work the reconstituting capacity of technology is e'uated wit the disappearance of something # "irilio himself has stated that UI have al6ays (een
interested in missing thingsd people, time, historyU# As Cor0er perceptively notes: "irilio can 6rite The +esthetics of ,isappearance (ecause all his te7ts have focused on Ua(sentedU su(?ects: from the a(sented city of unker +rchaeolog' and the a(sented (odies of speed and -olitics to the a(sented human9 vision of .inema and /ar and the Sight 0achine# 8Cro0er %FFG: 4G9 One might 6ell add the a(sence of the UhumanU altogether 6ith the pu(lication of the +rt of the 0otor. ;ut there are serious problems in conflating technological reconstitution with

disappearance# T6o in particular revolve around the use of a term li0e disappearance# The first is overstatement: time space bodies do not simply disappear but rather their meanings are reconstituted they still exist but their meanings unfold through a more abstract framework# 2uch overstatement also precludes the construction of a space for resistance based around the 'uestion of ontological contradiction# In other 6ords, people may not wish for so easy an ac'uiescence in such disappearance; or they may attempt to reclaim or preserve prior frameworks of meaning outside the sphere of technological abstraction which initiates such disappearance 8The current U(ac0lashU against the Internet may (e a case in point9# Second, by framing BdisappearanceB around the aesthetic 0irilio ignores the existence of several constitutive levels within the social# 2ocial relations with the other can occur at a face%to%face level and at an extended and abstracted level 8in "irilioUs terms Utele>pro7imityU9# $he second level does not entail the disappearance of the first , indeed it draws its meaning from the prior framework which structure the significance of intersub"ective activity# Iet the twin axes of co%existence and drawing upon a prior framework are elided by 0irilio who conflates and aestheticieses this process around the 'uestion of disappearance# At this point, one might 6ell consider ho6 to read the epigraph <uoted at the (eginning of this

chapter: U162ill Larth (ecome humanityUs phantom lim(JU "irilio %FF*: %GE9# A reading (ased around the <uestion of disappearance 6ould lament the severing of humanity from the more earthly grounding 6hich once constrained and supported the meanings of su(?ective action# .hile a po6erful lament, this doesnUt suggest any via(le alternative to its o6n pessimistic conclusion# This 6ould (e "irilioUs reading, at least as I have argued for it here# A second reading, more in line 6ith this (oo0, might concentrate on the metaphor of the glo(e and its relation to locality# One can argue that prior modes of (eing have not simply UdisappearedU under the rule of technologyU rather they remain and structure activates that ta0e place on more a(stracted, technologically mediated levels# This reading 6ould focus on the ontological importance of the means of perspective#4 ;y placing prior modes of constitutive (eing 6ithin the category of the aesthetic nature of their disappearance, "irilio elides the productive role of these UphantomsU# + similar observation can be made about the use of BvectorB and Bspeed#B =oth terms

structurally preclude a consideration of the 'ualitative differences which occur between actions that arise within different constitutive frameworks# Mor instance, a communicative BvectorB, esta(lished in a relation of presence of tangi(ility, is

'ualitatively different from the movement of information on the Internet, or images transmitted through the vectors of the glo(al media# Iet the term UvectorU tends to collapse these different levels in to a single level , through 6hich all vectors pass 8as does ByotardUs description of the su(?ect as a Unodal pointU9# 2imilarly BspeedB can only describe 'uantitative but not 'ualitative difference thereby eliding 'uestions of how we could create frameworks that would allow a differentiated sense of temporality to unfold# In this way 0irilioBs terminology remains complicit , and an analytic level, with that which he opposes#

Virilio 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Tech @oo

*o alt solvency# transition %oul !e an apocalypse an %oul never result in the un erstan ing of truthGonly the realization of its impossi!ility. Only !y utilizing technology can reality truly !e achieve . Otero#Pailos '<<<IBiving or Beaving the Techno>Apocalypse: Paul "irilioUs +riti<ue of Technology and Its +ontri(ution to Architecture Author8s9: !orge Otero>Pailos 8&e6 :or0 Architect, tenured Associate Professor of 5istorical Preservation at +olum(ia University, pu(lished in Art in America, Artforum, and Architectural Record9 8Revie6ed 6or08s9:Source: !ournal of Architectural Lducation 8%FK4>9, "ol# *4, &o# G 8&ov#, GDDD9, pp# %D4>%%DPu(lished (y: ;lac06ell Pu(lishing on (ehalf of the Association of +ollegiate Schools of Architecture, Inc#Sta(le URB: http:''666#?stor#org'sta(le'%4G**FE
In The Open Sptiny and ils Lnemies, Popper claims civili3ation 6as (orn in the shoc0 of moving from a Itri(al or ,closed society- 6hich su(mitted to magical forces, to the ,open society- 6hich set free the critical po6ers of man# ,.here he sets himself apart from Popper# ho6ever, is in his apocalyptic

Attempts. li$e Virilio?s" to eal %ith society as a %hole, ,leaving no stone unturned# are suspecte of 6hat Pop per calls ,utopian sedal engineering> Through Poppet-s lens, 6e find in the shado6 of Virilio?s thin$ing a angerous an a more or less %himsically aesthetic L!lueprint for society.K 6hich, in or er to !e achieve " must era icate from the %orl all that it oes not anticipate# Li$e all utopian engineering" it presupposes 8or at least desires9 a ta(ula rasa or an apocalypse#T The danger of such reasoning is that, (eing (orn out of an aesthetic vision, it is !e yon the scope of scientific analysis. In its more physical e7pres sions, it can lea to the sort of irrational violence that characterizes most revolutions# In its more a(stract e7pressions# such as "irilio-s criti<ue of technology" this thin$ing is !ur ene !y the same teleological metaphysics of history an stan s e;ually outsi e of the realm of reason" e&cept that the violence is no% performe on concepts # not on (odies# Popper (elieves that the utopian thin0er-s desire for apocalyptic events is the precondition for the esta(lishment of their o6n 0ingdom on earth# ;ut as 6e have seen, Virilio?s apocalypse is negativeT it oes not hol the promise of a !etter future. /is final moment does not disclose the truth of history= on the contrary, it veils it completely# 5o6 then can 6e understand "irilio as a critic of technology and not ust as a fatalist or a
rhetoric# Popper-s 6or0 is in fact aimed at e7posing the dangers of such modes of historici3ing# pessimistJ .here is his (lueprint for societyJ It is implicit in his historical construction# 5o6ever, in his case, the ne6 order cannot result from the current technologically driven history# .ar and cintma is an attempt to prove that 6estern history has fulfilled itself (y defeating itself# It has ended# This is ho6 "irilio gets out of the historiographic im mo(ility proposed (y his o6n theoretical 6e(# Precisely to the de gree that the historical drive of technology don riot result in an apocalyptic disclosure of truth# (ut in a negative apocalypse 6here the final resolution of history is endlessly postponed and truth veiled, technology reveals the truth of its a6n artificiality "irilio-s final moment of history holds no future, (ut it does offer an insight, that of its o6n lie# The doer that "irilio as0a u#s to step through in order to free ourselves has II am not reality= reality is on the other side 6ritten across the lintel# .ar and +inema is an attempt to a6a0en the 6orld to this ne6 reality# "irilio-s (lueprint is defined as a re?ection of technology: .e must loo0 a6ay from technology, a6ay from the Ihell of images# and see0 to e7perience the 6orld and history, rime and place directly, (odily, 6ithout me diation# The pro(lem is, I hope to have made apparent in this essay, that the immediacy "irilio desires in e7perience is not the qdeali,ed essence he .ants it to (e#

6n or er to emote technology. Virilio has elivere the %hole of reality" inclu ing himself" over to it. 6t is no coinci ence that architects an technophiles shoul enCoy the %on erful catalogue of? technological facts he presents" an ignore his criti;ue: /is argument un oes itself.
It is not 6aiting# pure and a(so lute, outside of history# In fact# the pro(lem of getting out of his@ tory is a historical pro(lem#

1lan$et reCection of tech fails the aff is proof that tech can !e eploye to !enefit humanity )ooper '
1Simon, Senior Becturer at the University of Sunderland, OTechnoculture and +ritical Theory: In the Service of the achineJO GDDG, Psychology Press, http:''(oo0s#google#com'(oo0sJid[oBTo:)C3%D +\printsec[frontcover\source[g(s^at(rv[onepage\<\f[false2 ore than any other theorist discussed in this (oo0 8e7cept perhaps 5eidegger9, 0irilio has focused on the role of technology as a reconstituting agent, in relation to em(edded social and cultural meanings# In this sense, his work

is vital in that he sketches out the ground on which we can assess the impact of technological change# /owever his work never goes beyond this point# So 6hile 0irilio is valua(le for one part of my argument 8criti<ue9, it is severely limited in terms of outlining the ground for a more reflexive theory of technology# Indeed, this limitation at times makes 0irilio partially complicit with the trends and ideologies he opposes# "irilioUs aphoristic (rilliance allo6s his theoretical insights to reveal themselves spectacularly, li0e the
technological UaccidentsU 6hich (riefly counter the prevailing technological telos# As 6ith the nature of accidents, ho6ever, "irilioUs rapid fire missive fade almost as <uic0ly as they appear# This (oo0 as argued for a need to conceive of the social as an intersection of levels, each more or less a(stract# It is the e7istence and often contradictory relationship (et6een these levels that is do6nplayed in 0irilio, remaining only implicitly availa(le through his category of UdisappearanceU# 5ence, he develops

only a one%dimensional criti'ue on that cannot determine how technology might be deployed critically or show how effective forms of resistance might be

allowed to unfold (eyond a mere strategy of invocation# I hope to sho6 this through an e7tended analysis of "irilioUs 6or0, arguing that his pessimism and lack of alternative is a structural problem rather than a 'uestion of individual inflection# This structural
difficulty can (e further highlighted through an analysis of the 6riting of cCen3ie .ar0, 6ho attempts to use "irlioUs 6or0 to gesture to6ards an alternative conception of technology lac0ing in "irilio himself# Ultimately, I 6ant to say that (oth 0irilioBs overwhelming negative

analysis and .ar0Us optimism are insufficient because they fail to go beyond the construction of a one%dimensional ontology that overstates the extent of technological reconstitution# 2uch an ontology can only move between a technologically determined nihilism 8"irilio9 and the celebration of heterogeneous fragmentation 8.ar0#9 (eCection of tech ma$es the impact %orse chec$s arenNt esta!lishe Lomas F
1&atasha, intervie6ing Ray Cur36eil, Ph#D from IT, internationally reno6n inventor, OH\A: Cur36eil on tech as a dou(le>edged s6ord,O %%'%F'K, http:''ne6s#cnet#com'K$D%>%%$K)^$>%D%DGGE$>E)#html2 In my vie6, relin'uishing these technologies

is a bad idea for three reasons: one it would deprive us of these proponed benefits and thereBs still a lot of suffering in the world that we need to overcome# Secondly it would re'uire totalitarian government to implement a ban# +nd thirdly it wouldnBt work, and I thin0 thatUs really the 0ey point>>weBd "ust drive these technologies underground where they would be even more dangerous more out of control# So my vie6 is the correct response is t6ofold: one, ethical standards to prevent accidental problems by responsible practitioners###and secondly developing a rapid response system that can deal with people who donBt follow the guidelines who are trying to be destructive like terrorists# $he good news is we now have the tools to do that# .e can no6 se<uence a (iological virus in one
day#

4e!ating a!out our technology allo%s us to change it an avoi the impact of the 9 9atz et al 5
1Lric, professor of philosophy and director of the Science, Technology, and Society Program at the &e6 !ersey Institute of Technology, Andre6 Bight, assistant professor of environmental philosophy and director of the Lnvironmental +onservation Lducation Program at &e6 :or0 University, .illiam Thompson, professor emeritus of philosophy at SU&: +ollege, O+ontrolling Technology,O GDD$, Prometheus ;oo0s, Page 4D$2''S5 One approach to this <uestion is to suggest that the

public needs to be more involved with technology not merely as thoughtful consumers but as active participants in its design # .e can find an e7ample of this approach in the 6or0 of Andre6 Meen(erg# As he argues, most nota(ly in his recent (oo0 +lternati*e 0odernit'! the Technical Turn in -hilosoph' and Social Theor', the advantage of technical politics of greater public participation in the design of technological ob"ects and technologically mediated services such as health care, is to open up this process to the consideration of a wider sphere of values than if the design process were to be left up to bureaucrats and professionals , 6hose main concern is 6ith preserving efficiency# Democratic values such as personal autonomy and individual agency are part of this 6ider sphere# Mor Meen(erg, the route of technological reform and the preservation of democracy thus runs directly through the intervention of nonprofessionals in the early stages of the development of technology

Even if tech is angerous" itNs the only %ay to prevent e&tinction 1ostrom '
1&ic0, Professor, Maculty of Philosophy, O7ford University, OL7istential Ris0s Analy3ing 5uman L7tinction Scenarios and Related 5a3ards,O GDDG, http:''666#nic0(ostrom#com'e7istential'ris0s#html2 In com(ination, these indirect arguments

add important constraints to those we can glean from the direct consideration of various technological risks although there is not room here to elaborate on the details# ;ut the (alance of evidence is such that it would appear unreasonable not to assign a substantial probability to the hypothesis that an existential disaster will do us in# y su(?ective opinion is that setting this probability lower than 4:S would be misguided and the best estimate may be considerably higher# =ut even if the probability were much smaller (say TCSJ the sub"ect matter would still merit very serious attention because of how much is at stake # In general, the greatest existential risks on the time>scale of a couple of centuries or less appear to be those that derive from the activities of advanced technological civili)ations# .e see this (y loo0ing at the various e7istential ris0s 6e have listed# In each of the four categories, the top ris0s
are engendered (y our activities# The only significant e7istential ris0s for 6hich this isn-t true are Isimulation gets shut do6n 8although on some versions of this hypothesis the shutdo6n 6ould (e prompted (y our activities 1GE29= the catch>all hypotheses 86hich include (oth types of scenarios9= asteroid or comet impact 86hich is a very lo6 pro(a(ility ris09= and getting 0illed (y an e7traterrestrial civili3ation 86hich 6ould (e highly unli0ely in the near future9#1%F2 It may not (e surprising that e7istential ris0s created (y modern civili3ation get the lion-s share of the pro(a(ility# After all, 6e are no6 doing some things that have never (een done on Larth (efore, and 6e are developing capacities to do many more such things# If non>anthropogenic factors have failed to annihilate the human species for hundreds of thousands of years, it could seem unli0ely that such factors 6ill stri0e us do6n in the ne7t century or t6o# ;y contrast, 6e have no reason 6hatever not to thin0 that the products of advanced civili3ation 6ill (e our (ane# .e shouldn-t (e too <uic0 to dismiss the e7istential ris0s that aren-t human>generated as insignificant, ho6ever# It-s true that our species has survived for a long time in spite of 6hatever such ris0s are present# ;ut there may (e an o(servation selection effect in play here# The <uestion to as0 is, on the theory that natural disasters sterili3e Larth>li0e planets 6ith a high fre<uency, 6hat should 6e e7pect to o(serveJ +learly not that 6e are living on a sterili3ed planet# ;ut may(e that 6e should (e more primitive humans than 6e areJ In order to ans6er this <uestion, 6e need a solution to the pro(lem of the reference class in o(server selection theory 1E)2# :et that is a part of the methodology that doesn-t yet e7ist# So at the moment 6e can state that the most serious e7istential ris0s are generated (y advanced human civili3ation, (ut 6e (ase this assertion on direct considerations# .hether there is additional support for it (ased on indirect considerations is an open <uestion# &e should not blame civili3ation or technology for imposing (ig existential risks# ;ecause of the 6ay 6e have defined e7istential ris0s, a

failure to develop technological civili)ation would imply that we had fallen victims of an existential disaster 8namely a crunch, Itechnological arrest9# &ithout technology our chances of avoiding existential risks would therefore be nil# &ith technology we have some chance although the greatest risks now turn out to be those generated by technology itself#

1enefits out%eigh the costs %e can prevent misuse 1ostrom 5

1&ic0, Professor, Maculty of Philosophy, O7ford University, OThe Transhumanist MAH,O GDD$, http:''666#transhumanism#org'resources'MAHvG%#pdf2

The position that 6e ought to relin<uish research into ro(otics, genetic engineering, and nanotechnology has been advocated in an article (y ;ill !oy 8GDDD9# !oy argued that some of the future applications of these technologies are so dangerous that research in those fields should be stopped now # Partly (ecause of !oy-s previously technophiliac credentials 8he
6as a soft6are designer and a cofounder of Sun icrosystems9, his article, 6hich appeared in .ired maga3ine, attracted a great deal of attention# any of the responses to !oy- s article pointed out that there is no realistic prospect of a worldwide ban on these

technologies; that they have enormous potential benefits that we would not want to forgo; that the poorest people may have a higher tolerance for risk in developments that could improve their condition = and that a ban may actually increase the dangers rather than reduce them both by delaying the development of protective applications of these technologies and by weakening the position of those who choose to comply with the ban relative to less scrupulous groups who defy it# + more promising alternative than a blanket ban is differential technological development , in 6hich 6e 6ould see0 to influence the se<uence in 6hich technologies developed# On this approach, we 6ould strive to retard the development of harmful technologies and their applications while accelerating the development of beneficial technologies, especially those that offer protection against the harmful ones# 3or technologies that have decisive military applications unless they can be verifiably banned we may seek to ensure that they are developed at a faster pace in countries we regard as responsible than in those that we see as potential enemies # 8.hether a (an is verifia(le and enforcea(le can change over time as a result of developments in the international system or in surveillance technology#9 G) In the case of nanotechnology the desirable se'uence of development is that nanotech immune systems and other defensive measures be deployed before offensive capabilities become available to many independent powers# Ance a technology is shared by many it becomes extremely hard to prevent further proliferation # In the case of (iotechnology, we should seek to promote research into vaccines anti%viral drugs protective gear sensors and diagnostics and to delay as long as possible the development and proliferation of biological warfare agents and the means of their 6eaponi3ation# 3or artificial intelligence a serious risk will emerge only when capabilities approach or surpass those of humans# At that point one should see0 to promote the development of friendly AI and to prevent unfriendly or unrelia(le AI systems# 2uperintelligence is an example of a technology that seems especially worth promoting because it can help reduce a broad range of threats# 2uperintelligent systems could advise us on policy and make the progress curve for nanotechnology steeper thus shortening the period of vulnerability between the development of dangerous nanoreplicators and the deployment of effective defenses # If 6e have a choice, it seems prefera(le that superintelligence (e
developed (efore advanced nanotechnology, as superintelligence could help reduce the ris0s of nanotechnology (ut not vice versa# Other technologies that have 6ide ris0>reducing uses include intelligence augmentation, information technology, and surveillance# These can ma0e us smarter individually and collectively or ma0e enforcement of necessary regulation more feasi(le# + strong prima facie case therefore exists

for pursuing these technologies as vigorously as possible# ,eedless to say we should also promote non%technological developments that are beneficial in almost all scenarios such as peace and international cooperation# In confronting the hydra of existential limited and endurable risks glaring at us from the future, it is unlikely that any one silver bullet will provide ade'uate protection# Instead an arsenal of countermeasures will be needed so that we can address the various risks on multiple levels# The first step to tac0ling a ris0 is to recogni3e its e7istence# 8ore research is needed and existential risks in particular should be singled out for attention because of their seriousness and because of the special nature of the challenges they pose# Surprisingly little 6or0 has (een done in this area 8(ut see e#g# Beslie 8%FF)9, ;ostrom 8GDDG9, and Rees 8GDD$9 for some preliminary e7plorations9# $he strategic dimensions of our choices must be taken into account given that some of the technologies in 'uestions have important military ramifications # In addition to scholarly studies of the threats and their possi(le countermeasures, public awareness must be raised to enable a more informed debate of our long%term options# Some of the lesser e7istential ris0s, such as an apocalyptic asteroid impact or the highly speculative scenario
involving something li0e the upsetting of a metasta(le vacuum state in some future particle accelerator e7periment, could (e su(stantially reduced at relatively small e7pense# Programs to accomplish this P e#g# an early detection system for dangerous near>earth o(?ects on potential collation course 6ith Larth, or the GE commissioning of advance peer revie6 of planned high>energy physics e7periments P are pro(a(ly cost> effective# 5o6ever, these lesser ris0s must not deflect attention from the more serious concern raised (y more pro(a(le e7istential disasters 1see IAren- t these future technologies very ris0yJ +ould they even cause our e7tinctionJ 2# In light of how superabundant the human

benefits of technology can ultimately be it matters less that we obtain all of these benefits in their precisely most optimal form and more that we obtain them at all# 3or many practical purposes it makes sense to adopt the rule of thumb that 6e should act so as to ma7imi3e the pro(a(ility of an accepta(le outcome, one in 6hich 6e attain some 8reasona(ly (road9 reali3ation of our potential= or, to put it in negative terms, that we should act so as to minimi)e net existential risk# *o %ay to ;uestion technology all spheres of human perception are alrea y implicate !y technology 4ra$e ,2

1 ichael, Ph#D, teachs political and historical sociology, social and political theory at the University of 5ull, O The Huestion of ilitary Technology: Apocalyptics or PoliticsJ,O %'$D'FE, http:''nideffer#net'pro?'^SPLLD^'%#4'articles'dra0e#html2 In contrast, "irilio <uestions technology in the 5eideggerian sense, and through this coming to its inherent association 6ith the military pro?ect# In a sense, then, 0irilio seeks to work through the problem of how to 'uestion technology as to what is becoming

revealed in a technologisation which simultaneously constitutes the militarisation of the world# $he great problem of this programme is, as !ean>Buc &ancy has recently noted in his reflection on the Nulf .ar, that of how we can locate and occupy the space from which such a 'uestioning could be undertaken 8&A&+: %FF49# If BmilitaryB is indistinguishable from BcivilianB technology in the sense that with technologisation and total war all resources are incorporable in the military pro"ect then it is not possible to 'uestion military technology in particular, nor to adopt the position of BcivillianB to do so# The ploughshare is as much a military technology as the s6ord, as the past millenium of .estern colonisation illustrates# $he problem is not merely one of distinguishing a civilian from a military perspective however but of distinguishing a position which is not already implicated in technologisation and hence incorporable in military systems# VirilioNs %rong a!out military tech @rove 00
1!arius "ictor, Ph#D#, GD%%, Department of Political Science, !ohns 5op0ins University# Dou(le a?or: International Relations= Political Theory, O+hapter %: A Schmittian +enturyJ: Mrom &uclear Beviathan to &uclear>Sovereign>Assem(lage,O $'%E'K, http:''(ecoming6ar#(logspot#com'GDDK'D$'chapter>%>schmittian>century>from#html2 Initially nuclear 6eapons seemed to solidify even complete the decisionistic model of sovereignty once and for all# In "irilio-s reading of Schmitt-s the state of emergency (ecame permanent and democracy ended once it (ecame possi(le for a single individual to decide to got to 6ar and to finish that 6ar in $D minutes# +t first glance 0irilios apocalyptic diagnosis seems accurate# ,uclear weapons at

their current numbers could destroy the entire planet and given the structure of the United States nuclear command any +ongressional or popular attempt to stop the 6ar 6ould (e in vain# $his is the backbone of 0irilios argument# -olitics and a democratic balance of power re'uire time# $ime to react time to respond time to debate time to strategi)e time to implement and I7=82 nullify time# =ut 0irilio is wrong# $he threat of the extreme case has obscured the actual or present case that presents new opportunities for intervention# -olitics , 6hether micro or macro, does not begin and end with the sovereign decision; the sovereign decision 8(oth e7pressively and in its enactment9 emerges from a relay of forces connections and other previous decisions resonances forces and actants that are presupposed in each su(se<uent iteration of the sovereign decision and layered in multiple streams of time# ?ven an increasingly automated nuclear arsenal re'uires the participation of literally millions of people and countless networks ob"ects tectonic stability stable solar flare activity and on and on# $he decision only appears singular when 0irilio truncates time to the moment the president Lpushes the button# .e are not as of yet in that moment so other temporal rhythms a(ound and each part of the
nuclear assem(lage follo6s a different temporal course#

Tech is net goo there are chec$s :3A To ay 00

1&e6s source, intervie6ing Ray Cur36eil, Ph#D from IT, internationally reno6n inventor, OA#I# e7pert Ray Cur36eil pic0s computer in U!eopardyU match,O G'K'%%, http:''666#usatoday#com'tech'ne6s'GD%%>DG>DF>0ur36eilDF^ST^&#htm2''S5 A: $echnology

has always been a double%edged sword @ ever since fire, 6hich coo0ed our food and 0ept us 6arm (ut also 6as used right answer is to create a rapid%response system# &e do that with software viruses# &e donBt "ust sit back and say no one would ever write a destructive software virus# It happens every day# =ut we have technology along with humans that actually helps defend us # H: Is it 6orth the ris0J A: I 6ould say overall we benefit more than weBre harmed# Read Thomas 5o((es a(out 6hat human life 6as li0e a fe6 centuries ago# It 6as short, (rutish,
as a 6eapon of destruction# In my mind, the disaster>prone, disease>filled# .eUve come a long 6ay#

Tech is goo an the !enefits out%eigh %e can stop misuse Aca emy of Achievement '$
1non>profit organi3ation that aims to (ring high profile, successful people from various fields, intervie6ing Ray Cur36eil, Ph#D from internationally reno6n inventor, ORay Cur36eil Intervie6,O )'%E'DD, http:''666#achievement#org'autodoc'page'0ur%int>)2 I thin0 we movement emerged in the Lnglish te7tile industry t6o centuries ago >> calls IT and

have no choice but to proceed# I mean, there have been calls recently >> and there have, actually, ever since the Buddite for relin'uishing technology that is "ust too dangerous# I thin0 we have no choice because thereBs a great economic imperative to move forward , and itUs a road paved 6ith gold, and we have received tremendous benefit from technology# 2hort of creating a totalitarian system that 6ould (an any form of economic incentive, weBre going to be advancing technology# I think the right way to deal with it is to be very concerned with the ethical dimension and with the application of technology , and I thin0 itUs not something thatUs done
in one field of technology ethics# I thin0 itUs something that every(ody, and not ?ust the technologist, needs to (e actively concerned 6ith, (ecause 6e have the po6er to actually create our future 6orld, very literally, including really redesigning our (odies and (rains and our e7periences at very profound levels# So itBs something that everybody needs to understand and contribute to that dialogue so that we do

advance our human values# ,ot that we have a consensus on what those are but I think there is at least at some levels emerging consensus on what human values are# @iving up on tech is %orse magnifies the harms P)8orl D
1glo(al computer maga3ine, intervie6ing Ray Cur36eil, Ph#D from IT and internationally reno6n inventor, OThree inutes .ith Ray Cur36eil,O %%'%'4, http:''666#pc6orld#com'article'%%K$E*'three^minutes^6ith^ray^0ur36eil#html2 :ou donUt have to loo0 further than the GDth century to see the deeply intert6ined promise and peril of technology# .e had over %DD million people die in GDth>century 6ars made possi(le (y technology# On the other hand, how many would really want to go back one or

two centuries to the labor%filled disease% and disaster%prone lives that people lived( /uman life expectancy was 6D years in CH55# $he 4Cst%century technologies have the potential to overcome problems that humanity has struggled with for eons# As mentioned, (iotechnology and nanotechnology have the potential to overcome disease and to vastly e7tend human health
and longevity# &anotechnology can also produce radical 6ealth creation in that 6e 6ill (e a(le to manufacture essentially any physical product from ine7pensive ra6 materials costing pennies per pound# $here are many other profound benefits to come# =ut these

technologies are also introducing new perils# $he capability exists right now in a routine college biotechnology laboratory to create a bioengineered virus that could spread easily and stealthily >>that is, have a long incu(ation period so it spreads far and 6ide (efore (eing detected>>and could (e deadly# 2elf%replicating nanobots would essentially be a nonbiological cancer that could threaten the (iomass# As for strong +I, artificial intelligence at human levels and (eyond, this could be the most daunting challenge of all if it does not remain *friendly #O 1Mor more on Cur36eil and AI, see Cur36eilAI#net#2 =ut relin'uishing these future technologies is not the answer# $hat would eliminate the benefits while actually making the dangers worse by driving development underground where responsible practitioners would not have ready access to the tools needed to develop the defensive technologies# =road relin'uishment would also be impossible except in a worldwide totalitarian system# &eBve actually done well with the test case of software viruses# +lthough they remain a problem and always will be a problem the technological *immune system* that has developed in response has managed to keep pace# If we do as well with biological viruses self%replicating nanotechnology and other future dangers we will be able to keep a step or two ahead of the perils#

Virilio 9 Ans%ers Too Pessemistic

Virilio only can see the negative effects of technology !y assuming all tech is militaristic. )onnolly '<<<ISpeed, +oncentric +ultures, and +osmopolitanism Author8s9: .illiam L# +onnolly# 8Lisenho6er Professor, !ohns 5op0ins University Political Theory, International Relations ;#A#, University of ichigan, Mlint Ph#D#, University of ichigan, Ann Ar(or Recent +ourses and Research Interests: +apitalism and +hristianity Perception, The edia, Politics &iet3sche and 5is Interlocutors9 Revie6ed 6or08s9:Source: Political Theory, "ol# GK, &o# * 8Oct#, GDDD9, pp# *F)>)%KPu(lished (y: Sage Pu(lications, Inc#Sta(le URB: http:''666#?stor#org'sta(le'%FGGFD # And the danger is great# Bittle dou(t a(out that# 6f you treat the %ar machine as the para igm of spee " as Virilio oes" it seems that sometime during the %F)Ds, the a!ility to eli!erate emocratically a!out military action %as Ceopar ize (y the imperative to automati3e split>second responses to preemptive stri0es a minute or less a6ay from their targets# y concern, nonetheless, is that Virilio allo%s the military para igm to over%helm all other mo alities an e&periences of spee . Virilio remains transfi&e !y a mo el of politics insufficiently attune to the positive role of spee in intrastate emocracy an cross#state cosmopolitanism # /e un erplays the positive role spee can play in esanctifying close an ogmatic i entities in the omains of religion, sensuality, ethnicity, gender, and nationality, and he remains so committe to the memory of the nation as the place %here emocratic eli!eration occurre that he ismisses the pro uctive possi!ilities 8I do not say pro(a(ilities9 of cosmopolitanism in the late#mo ern time # Bet us
listen to some moves in "irilioUs presentation of the correspondences (et6een speed, temporality, territory, democratic deli(eration, nationhood, and (elonging#

*o impact Virilio is too pessimistic an ignores the !enefits of technology 9ellner ,F

1Douglas, Ph#D#, Philosophy, +olum(ia University, O "irilio, .ar, and Technology: Some +ritical Reflections,O %%'E'%FFK, http:''666#uta#edu'huma'illuminations'0ellGF#htm2

"irilio misses a 0ey component of the drama of technology in the present age and that is the titanic struggle between national and international governments and corporations to control the structure flows and content of the new technologies in contrast to the struggle of individuals and social groups to use the new technologies for their own purposes and pro?ects# $his optic posits technology as a contested terrain as a field of struggle between competing social groups and individuals trying to use the new technologies for their own pro"ects# Despite his humanism, there is little agency or politics in 0irilioBs conceptual universe and he does not delineate the struggles between various social groups for the control of the new technologies and the new politics that they will produce# 2imply by damning, demoni3ing and condemning new technologies 0irilio substitutes moralistic criti'ue for social analysis and political action reducing his analysis to a lament and "eremiad rather than an ethical and political criti'ue s la Lllul and his tradition of +atholic criti<ue of contemporary civili3ation, or critical social theory# 0irilio has no theory of "ustice no politics to counter reconstruct reappropriate or transform technology no counterforces that can oppose technology# $hus the increasing shrillness of his lament the rising hysteria and sense of futile impotence#

***J6JE9 A*38E(3

Jize$ 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails (e uctionism

Psychoanalysis is re uctive an ignores ifference >>means not root cause, their theory is not predictive and 6e should loo0 at different places 8culture, (iology, sociology, etc#9 to determine policy 3harpe 0< P lecturer, philosophy and psychoanalytic studies, and Noucher, senior lecturer, literary and psychoanalytic studies P Dea0in University atthe6 and Neoff, tiue0 and Politics: An Introduction, p# G$% P G$$
.e realise that this argument, 6hich 6e propose as a ne6 ,<uilting- frame6or0 to e7plain tiue0-s theoretical oscillations and political prescriptions, raises some large issues of its o6n# .hile this is not the place to further that discussion, 6e thin0 its analytic force leads into a much 6ider criti<ue of ,Theory- in parts of the latert6entieth> century academy, 6hich emerged follo6ing the ,cultural turn- of the %F)Ds and %FEDs in the 6a0e of the collapse of ar7ism# tiue0-s paradigm to try to generate all his theory of culture , su(?ectivity, ideology, politics

and religion is psychoanalysis# ;ut a similar criticism 6ould apply, for instance, to theorists 6ho feel that the method !ac<ues Derrida developed for criticising philosophical te7ts can meaningfully supplant the methodologies of political science, philosophy, economics, sociology and so forth, 6hen it comes to thin0ing a(out ,the political-# Or, differently, thin0ers 6ho opt for Deleu3e 8or Deleu3e-s and Nuattari-s9 &iet3schean Spino3ism as a ne6 metaphysics to e7plain ethics, politics, aesthetics, ontology and so forth, seem to us candidates for the same type of criticism, as a reductive passing over the empirical and analytic distinctness of the different o(?ect fields in comple7 societies. In truth, 6e feel that Theory, and the continuing line of ,master thin0ers- 6ho regularly appear particularly in the Lnglish> spea0ing 6orld, is the last gasp of 6hat used to (e called Mirst Philosophy# The philosopher ascends out of the city, Plato tells us, from 6hence she can espie the 5igher Truth, 6hich she must then (ring (ac0 do6n to political earth# Mrom outside the city, 6e can 6ell imagine that she can see much more 6idely than her (enighted political contemporaries# ;ut from these philosophical heights, 6e can e<ually suspect that the ,master thin0er- is also al6ays in danger of passing over the salient ifferences and features of political life P differences only too evident to people ,on the groun ?# Political life, after all, is al6ays a more comple7 affair than a (unch of ideologically duped fools staring at and enacting a 6all 8or ,politically correct screen-9 of ideologically produced illusions, from Plato-s timeless cave
allegory to tiue0-s theory of ideology# .e 0no6 that Theory largely understands itself as avo6edly ,post> metaphysical-# It aims to erect its ne6 claims on the gravestone of Mirst Philosophy as the .est has 0no6n it# ;ut it also tells us that people very often do not 0no6 6hat they do# And so it seems to us that too many of its proponents and their follo6ers are mourners 6ho remain in the graveyard, propping up the

gravestone of .estern philosophy under the sign of some totalising account of a(solutely everything P en?oyment, diffmrance, (iopo6er # # # Perhaps the time has come, 6e 6ould argue, less for one more 6ould> (e glo(al, allpurpose e7istential and political Theory than for a multi# imensional and inter isciplinary critical theory that 6ould challenge the chaotic specialisation neoli(eralism speeds up in academe, 6hich mirrors and accelerates the splintering of the Beft over the last four decades# This 6ould mean that 6e 6ould have to shun the hope that one method , one perspective, or one master thin0er could single> handedly decipher all the comple7ity of socio> political life , the concerns
of really e7isting social movements P 6hich specifi cally does not mean mindlessly cele(rating difference, marginalisation and multiplicity as if they could (e suffi cient ends for a ne6 politics# It 6ould (e to reopen critical theory and non> analytic philosophy to the other intellectual disciplines, most of 6hom today pointedly re?ect Theory-s legitimacy, neither reading it nor ta0ing it seriously#

Jize$ 9 Ans%ers Alt Bails Psychoanalysis 3pecific

Psychoanalysis can?t !e scale up to e&plain society or politics they can?t e&plain our impacts an efinitely can?t solve 3harpe 0< P lecturer, philosophy and psychoanalytic studies, and Noucher, senior lecturer, literary and psychoanalytic studies P Dea0in University atthe6 and Neoff, tiue0 and Politics: An Introduction, p# %KG>%K*
+an 6e (ring some order to this host of criticismsJ It is remar0a(le that, for all the criticisms of tiue0-s political Romanticism, no one has argued that the ultra> e7tremism of tiue0-s political position might reflect his untena(le attempt to shape his model for

political action on the curative final moment in clinical psychoanalysis# The differences (et6een these t6o realms, listed in Migure *#%, are nearly too many and too great to restate P 6hich has perhaps caused the theoretical oversight# The 0ey thing is this# Bacan-s notion of traversing the fantasy involves the radical transformation of people-s su(?ective structure: a refounding of their most elementary (eliefs a(out themselves, the 6orld, and se7ual difference# This is underta0en in the security of the clinic, on the (asis of the analysands- voluntary desire to
overcome their inhi(itions, symptoms and an7ieties# As a clinical and e7istential process, it has its o6n independent importance and authenticity# The analysands, in transforming their su(?ective 6orld, change the 6ay they regard the o(?ective, shared social reality outside the clinic# ;ut they o not transform the 6orld# The political relevance of the clinic can only (e 8a9 as a supporting moment in ideology criti<ue or 8(9 as a fully> fl edged model of politics, provided that the political su(?ect and its social o(?ect are ultimately identical# Option 8b9, tiue0-s option, rests on the idea, not only of a su(?ect 6ho (ecomes 6ho he is only through his 8mis9 recognition of the o(?ective sociopolitical order, (ut 6hose

,traversal of the fantasy- is immediately identical 6ith his transformation of the socio> political system or Other# 5ence, according to tiue0, 6e can analyse the institutional em(odiments
of this Other using psychoanalytic categories# In +hapter 4, 6e sa6 tiue0-s resulting elision of the distinction (et6een the 8su(?ective9 Lgo Ideal and the 8o(?ective9 Sym(olic Order# This leads him to analyse our entire culture as a single su(?ectPo(?ect, 6hose perverse 8or perhaps even psychotic9 structure is e7pressed in every manifestation of contemporary life# tiue0-s decisive political> theoretic errors, one su(stantive and the other methodological, are different 8see Migure *#%9 The su(stantive pro(lem is to e<uate any

political change 6orth the name 6ith the total change of the su(?ectPo(?ect that is, today, glo(al capitalism# This is a type of
change that can only mean e<uating politics 6ith violent regime change, and ultimately em(racing dictatorial government, as tiue0 no6 fran0ly avo6s 8&,1. 4%GP%F9# .e have seen that the ultra> political form of tiue0-s criticism of everyone else, the theoretical Beft and the

6ider politics, is that no one is sufficiently radical for him P even, 6e 6ill discover, +hairman ao# .e no6 see that this is (ecause tiue0-s model of politics proper is modelled on a pre> critical analogy 6ith the total transformation of a su(?ect-s entire su(?ective structure, at the end of the tal0ing cure# Mor 6hat could the concrete conse<uences of this governing analogy (eJ .e have seen that tiue0 e<uates the individual fantasy 6ith the collective identity of an entire people# The social fantasy, he says, structures the regime-s ,inherent transgressions-: at once su(?ects- ha(itual 6ays of living the letter of the la6, and the regime-s myths of origin and of identity# If political action is modelled on the Bacanian cure, it must involve the complete ,traversal- P in 5egel-s terms, the a(stract versus the determinate negation P of all these lived myths, practices and
ha(its# Politics must involve the periodic founding of entire ne6 su(?ectPo(?ects# Providing the model for this set of ideas, the fi rst tiue0ian political su(?ect 6as Schelling-s divided Nod, 6ho gave (irth to the entire Sym(olic Order (efore the (eginning of time 8 &,1. %*$= O %44PK9# ;ut can the political theorist reasona(ly hope or e7pect that su(?ects 6ill simply give up on all their inherited

6ays, myths and (eliefs, all in one 6orld> creating momentJ And can they (e legitimately as0ed or e7pected to, on the (asis of a set of ideals 6hose legitimacy they 6ill only retrospectively see, after they have acceded to the Nreat Beap Mor6ardJ And if they do not P for tiue0 laments that today su(?ects are politically disengaged in unprecedented 6ays P 6hat means can the theorist and his allies use to move them to do soJ Psychoanalysis has zero e&planatory po%er at the stat level 3harpe 0< P lecturer, philosophy and psychoanalytic studies, and Noucher, senior lecturer, literary and psychoanalytic studies P Dea0in University atthe6 and Neoff, tiue0 and Politics: An Introduction, p# %K)
R So here is the force of the second, methodological component to tiue0-s untena(le erasure of the difference (et6een politics and psychoanalysis# ;y loo0ing at the contemporary 6orld as a contemporary su(?ectPo(?ect in need of the theorist-s

li(erating ,psychoanalysis-, tiue0 is una(le to ma0e a series of 0ey sociotheoretical distinctions long recognised in political and socialtheoretical literature on comple7 societies# R The 0ey one of these, as 6e sa6 in ,"anishing ediations-, is the distinction (et6een the life6orld of su(?ects 8their lived 6orld of meanings 6herein a psychoanalytic ideology criti<ue can (e highly informative9 and the media> steered su(systems P principally the economy> > 6hose 6or0ings demand an o(?ectifying social> scientific analysis , not a psychoanalytic account# R The pro(lem tiue0 elides, in the 6ords of his o6n teacher Althusser, is that modern post> traditional societies are a comple7 totality of ,relatively autonomous- instances P in Althusser-s thin0ing, the economy, the ideological and the political instances# R Then there is the
<uestion of 6hich instance or level might (e the predominant one in any particular historical regime# One practical conse<uence of this

theoretical o(servation is that the peoples 8say, the ideological level9 may

or potentials that might (e either ,symptomatic- or particularly vital at one level (e either 6ell integrated or 6holly disempo6ered at the other levels#

All of their evi ence relies on la! stu ies that?s useless for 6( 7c4ermott et al#, 00 P professor of political science a ;ro6n University Rose, IApplying Psychology to International Studies: +hallenges and Opportunities in L7amining Traumatic Stress, International Studies Perspectives, "ol# %G Iss# G, ay +oncern a(out the e7ternal validity 8that is, generali3a(ility9 of applying psychological constructs to real>6orld situations is a fundamental issue that has long (een noted as pro(lematic, as Irving B# !anis noted over 4D years ago 8%F*K9# The Igold standard for research in psychology is the la(o ratory e7periment# These setting are often dissimilar to real>6orld political situations in multiple 6ays, including the distilled nature of the hypothetical la(oratory

situation as 6ell as the nature of the sample population, 6hich is often comprised of college undergraduates# Also, psychological studies are dissimilar to real>6orld political situations in their operationali3ation of varia(les, 6hich are often assessed (y simple (ehaviors, such as choosing from an inventory of foreign policy choices in reaction to a ne6s report in a study of fictional 6arring nations 8;eer, Sinclair, 5ealy, and ;ourne %FF*9# Such psychological research also tends to (e dissimilar to real>6orld situations in its setting 8often occurring 6ithin a la(oratory in a psychology department of a university9, timeframe 8typically e7amining (ehavior occurring 6ithin a period of less than an hour9, num(er of actors 8often involving as fe6 as t6o or three9, and motivations of the participants 8often for a modest payment or course credit9# 5o6ever, such la(oratory studies also offer the (enefit that they allo6 for control of the independent varia(les in 6ays

that cannot (e replicated in the analysis of comple7 real>6orld cases# Such control offers unrivalled possi(ilities for dra6ing accurate causal inferences# Political science often offers a 6ay to test the e7ternal validity of ideas

esta(lished in psychological la(oratory e7periments 6ithin real>6orld conte7ts# Increasingly, political scientists and psychologists have com(ined some of the strengths of rigorous e7perimental methods in the conte7t of either em(edded nationally representative surveys 8Cu0lins0i, Sniderman, Cnight, Pia33a, Tetloc0, Ba6rence, and ellers %FFE9 or in field e7periments (oth 6ithin the United States 8Ner(er and Nreen GDDD9 as 6ell as a(road 85a(yarimana, 5umphreys, Posner, and .einstein GDDE9# 5o6ever, the <uestion of the value of la(oratory vs field e7perimentation, li0e the larger issue of internal as opposed to e7ternal validity 6hich it reflects, e7tends (eyond <uestions of generali3a(ility to incorporate ethical concerns as 6ell# Lven the most sophisticated e7perimental designs in a la(oratory cannot come even close to generating the 0ind of traumatic e7perience that a person 6ould endure if they 6ere to lose a loved one in a 6ar, nor should such a replication ever (e sought# 5o6ever, as a result, scientists- a(ility to appro7imate the real>6orld e7periences of something li0e , say, traumatic

stress 6ill (e necessarily limited to either lesser forms of induced stress, or the study of those 6ho have endured such events in their real lives# In the latter case, <uestions of self>selection and un0no6n pre>mor(id e7periences and vulnera(ilities 6ill al6ays complicate the analysis and limit the degree of generali3a(ility to the larger population 6e see0 to characteri3e# ethods outside of the la(oratory@such as surveys@are fre<uently used in applying psychological and political constructs to international issues and can also incorporate e7perimental manipulations that allo6 for control of the independent varia(les 8for e7ample, Coopman, Snyder, and !ervis %FFD= Cu0lins0i et al# %FFE9# 5o6ever, every methodological approach has its limitations, 6ith the findings yielded (y surveys also (rought into
<uestion (ecause of possi(le (iases in sampling due to large num(ers of potential respondents 6ho refuse to participate and possi(le (iases in the responses 8for e7ample, social desira(ility9 that can affect the internal validity of the results# The application of psychological

interpretations to analy3ing actual political cases is not 6ithout limitations# Inevita(ly, methodological limitations raise concerns in using any availa(le methodology to apply psychological perspectives to real> 6orld situations in the international conte7t. Jero vali ity outsi e of the la! setting @or on 0 P D, Psychotherapist Paul, Psychoanalysis and Racism: The Politics of Defeat, Race +lass GDD% 4G: %E
The pro(lem 6ith the application of psychoanalysis to social institu tions is that there can (e no testing of the claims made# If someone says, for instance, that nationalism is a form of loo0ing for and see0ing to replace the (ody of the mother one has lost, or that the popular appeal of a particular 0ind of story echoes the pattern of our earliest relationship to the maternal (reast, ho6 can this (e provedJ The pioneers of

psychoanalysis, from Mreud on6ards, all derived their ideas in the conte7t of their 6or0 6ith individual patients and their ideas can (e e7amined in the everyday la(oratory of the therapeutic encounter 6here the validity of an interpretation , for e7ample, is a matter for dialogue (et6een therapist and patient# Outside of the consulting room, there can (e no such verification process, and the further one moves from the individual patient, the less purchase psychoanalytic ideas can have# Outside the therapeutic encounter, anything
and everything can (e true, psychoanalytically spea0ing# ;ut if every thing is true, then nothing can (e false and therefore nothing can (e true#

)an?t scale#up psycho#analysis to the state level Epstein 0< P senior lecturer in government and IR P University of Sydney +harlotte, I.ho spea0sJ Discourse, the su(?ect and the study of identity in international politics, Luropean !ournal of International Relations oo8o9 %PG4
To (e clear, this move is not intended to deny the intimate lin0s (et6een discourse and su(?ectivity# The earlier foray into Bacanian thought served precisely to underline the centrality of discourse to (oth the ma0ing and su(se<uent analysis of the su(?ect# ;ut (y the same to0en it also

dre6 out 6hat is re<uired to 6ield the discourse approach effectively in IR# Indeed Bacan-s

analysis emphasi3es the sheer comple7ity of the dynamics of a highly individual phenomenon 8identity9, and conse<uently the difficulties in ta0ing this level as the starting point for analysing all other levels at 6hich identity is politically at play.%$ As the discipline that positions itself at the highest level of analysis 8the supranational9, IR cannot maintain its focus at the level 6here some of the finer de(ates around su(?ectivity ta0e place 8see for e7ample, ;utler, %FFE9# The issue here is one of discipli> nary specificity, or, in other 6ords, e<uipping IR for 6hat it 6ants to do= and the solution proposed is one of suspension or (rac0eting# To restate this important point differently, at the individual level, su(?ectivities and su(?ect>positions remain coe7tensive# The distinction (et6een su(?ect>positions and su(?ectivities (ecomes operative once the analysis shifts (eyond the individual level# This distinction thus offers a theoretically cogent 6ay of studying identity 6hile (rac0eting some of its more un6ieldy
dimensions that may, moreover, not (e pertinent at the levels at 6hich IR casts its focus# It renders the discourse approach operative for IR, (ecause it ma0es it possi(le to study state identities, 6ithout having to presume that states have feelings, or indeed enter into <uestions of ho6 much e7actly are they li0e people, or 6hat 0ind of selves do they possess# .hat the discourse approach analyses, then, is the 6ays in 6hich actors @ crucially, 6hether individuals or states @ define themselves (y stepping into a particular su(?ect>position carved out (y a discourse# In ta0ing on the ,I'6e- of that discourse, actors- identities are produced in a very specific 6ay# In doing so, they are esta(lishing themselves as the su(?ects of particular discourses, such as the anti>6haling discourse, and there(y mar0ing themselves as ,anti>6halers-# 5o6, then, do discursive su(?ect> positions differ from .endt-s 8%FFF: GGEPGGF9 role identities, 6here the actor is similarly seen as stepping into institutionali3ed roles 8such as professor and student9J The crucial difference is that the concept of su(?ect>position does not har(our any assumption

a(out any primordial self supporting these roles. Importantly, this is not to say that the self does not e7ist @ that the professor or student have no selves @ (ut simply that the concept is not relevant to the analysis of the discursive construction of identity, especially 6hen ta0en to the interstate level#

Jize$ 9 Ans%ers Alt )auses Violence

Alternative oesn?t solve only en s in violence )ritchley" , 8Simon +ritchley, professor of philosophy at the &e6 School, studied philosophy at the University of Lsse7 and the University of &ice, Ph#D# in philosophy, +hief Philosopher of the International &ecronautical Society, O"iolent Thoughts A(out Slavo? Xi3e0O, 666#na0edpunch#com'articles'$F9 ;ut, in a final t6ist, Xi3e0 counsels us to do nothing in the face of the o(?ective, systemic violence of the 6orld# .e should ,?ust sit and 6ait- and have the courage to do nothing # The (oo0 ends 6ith the 6ords, ,Sometimes, doing nothing is the most violent thing to do-# True enough, (ut 6hat can this possi(ly mean J Bet me (riefly turn to the governing concept of
Xi3e0-s recent 6or0, the paralla7, and 6hat is purportedly his magnum opus, The Paralla7 "ie6#142 The concept of paralla7 is a 6ay of giving e7pression to, at its deepest, the radical non>coincidence of thin0ing and (eing# Such is Xi3e0-s metaphysics# If Parmenides and the entire onto> theological tradition that follo6s him, famously recovered (y 5eidegger, claims that it is the same thing to thin0 and to (e, then Xi3e0 disagrees#

;et6een thin0ing and (eing, (et6een, in his parlance, the tic0lish su(?ect and the tic0ling o(?ect, there e7ists a radical non>coincidence, a constitutive lac0 of identity # Such is, of course, nothing more than the teaching of

Bacan and the paralla7 vie6 is the e7pression of the pas>tout, the not>all that circles around the traumatic 0ernal of the Real# In the conclusion to The Paralla7 "ie6 8pp#$E*>K*9, although it is suggested throughout the (oo0, Xi3e0 claims that the paralla7 vie6 opens onto a politics, 6hat he calls > echoing ;adiou > a su(tractive politics, e7pressed in the figure of elville-s ;artle(y, 6ho reappears as the hero in the closing pages of "iolence#8pp#%KD>K$9 .hat interests Xi3e0 in ;artle(y is his insistent ,I 6ould prefer not to-, 6here Xi3e0 places the emphasis on the ,not to- or the ,not to do-, on ;artle(y-s impassive, inert and insistent (eing, 6hich hovers uncertainly some6here (et6een passivity and the vague threat of violence# So, at the level of politics, it is ultimately the politics of ;artle(y-s smile, of his ,not- that Xi3e0 6ants to oppose to other forms of thin0ing a(out politics# .hich other formsJ .ell, mine for e7ample, (ut 6e-ll come (ac0 to that# At the core of Xi3e0-s relentless , indeed manic, production of (oo0s, articles and lectures is a fantasy, I thin0, 6hat my psychoanalyst friends 6ould call an o(sessional

fantasy, a very pure version of the o(sessional fantasy# On the one hand, the only authentic stance to ta0e in dar0 times is to do nothing, to
refuse all commitment, to (e paraly3ed li0e ;artle(y# On the other hand, Xi3e0 dreams of a divine violence, a cataclysmic, purifying violence of the sovereign ethical deed, something li0e Sophocles- Antigone# ;ut Sha0espearean tragedy is a more illuminating guide here than its ancient Nree0 predecessor# Mor Xi3e0 is, I thin0, a Slovenian 5amlet, utterly paralyze (ut dreaming of an avenging violent act for 6hich, finally, he lac0s the courage# In short, (ehind its shimmering dialectical inversions, Xi3e0-s 6or0 leaves us in a fearful and fateful deadloc0, (oth a transcendental>philosophical deadloc0 and a practical>political deadloc0: the only thing to do is to do nothing# .e should ?ust sit and 6ait# Don-t act, never commit, and continue to dream of an a(solute, cataclysmic revolutionary act of violence# Thus spea0s the great o(sessional# As 5amlet says, ,Readiness is all-# ;ut the truth is that Xi3e0 is never ready# 5is 6or0 lingers in endless postponement and over>production# 5e ridicules others- attempts at thin0ing a(out commitment, resistance and action > people li0e me and many others >

6hile doing nothing himself# .hat sustains his 6or0 is a dream of divine violence, cruelty and force# I hope that one day his dreams come true# Q Bet me (egin to try and deepen and perhaps depolemici3e matters (y going (ac0 to the source of Xi3e0-s notion of divine violence in ;en?amin-s dense, difficult and massively over>interpreted essay, ,+riti<ue of "iolence- 8Derrida, Agam(en and !udith ;utler have all (een over this essay 6ith a fine tooth>com(9# The first thing to 0eep in mind, and this 6ill (e my main point in 6hat follo6s is that ;en?amin-s essay is called ,criti<ue of violence-, and I 6ant to thin0 a(out 6hat that might mean in relation to the topic of non>violence# The essay is a criti<ue of the violence of the la6, 6here ;en?amin 6rites, ,violencedis the origin of the la6-8p#G4G9# This is e7emplified in the death penalty as the violence over life and death, and em(odied in the activity of the 0ey e7ecutive institution of the modern state, the police# In the act of violence, then, the essence of the la6 is manifested, as 6ell as P to use 5amlet-s 6ord P revealing something rotten, et6as orsches, a(out the la6# As many of you 6ill 0no6, ;en?amin advances some fascinating, (ut slightly o(scure, conceptual distinctions: (et6een la6>ma0ing and la6> preserving violence, (et6een the political and the general stri0e, and (et6een mythic and divine violence# Bet-s ta0e them in turn and use them to unravel the argument of ;en?amin-s essay# The first distinction (et6een a violence that is rechtset3end and rechtserhaltend is, for ;en?amin, internal to the theory and practice of la6# The claim is that all la6 is either la6>ma0ing or la6>preserving and that (oth these forms are violent# ;en?amin ma0es a fascinating aside a(out the violent origin of every contract,8p#G4$9 6hich recalls Shyloc0-s undermining of Antonio-s ideali3ation of la6 as mercy (y returning it to the (rute materiality of the contract, of the (ond, of the pound of flesh, cut from close to the heart# The same 6ould also go for constitutional la6, it re<uires a violent cut, a moment of decision and the assertion of po6er, say, for e7ample, in a revolution or a period of dramatic social transformation# .hat Xi3e0 misses, and I suspect he deli(erately misses, is the fact that the operation of la6>ma0ing and la6>preserving violence raises a <uestion# ;en?amin 6rites, ,dthe <uestion poses itself 6hether there are no other than violent means for regulating conflicting human interests-#8p#G4$9 At the (eginning of the ne7t paragraph, he 6rites, ,Is any non>violent resolution of conflict possi(leJ-8p#G4$9 5is ans6er is that such a non>violent resolution of conflict is indeed possi(le in 6hat he calls ,relationships among private persons-, in courtesy, sympathy, peacea(leness and trust# This leads ;en?amin to conclude that ,dthere is a sphere of human agreement that is non>violent to the e7tent that it is 6holly inaccessi(le to violence: the proper sphere of Iunderstanding, language, 8,die Sprache9-#8p#G4*9 .ithout 6anting to get into the comple7ities of 6hat ;en?amin means (y language, particularly his idea of a pure language 8reine Sprache9 6e can already see that he is not simply arguing, li0e Xi3e0, that all human life is utterly pervaded determined at every level (y systemic or o(?ective violence, (ut that a sphere of non>violence is availa(le, at the private or 6hat ;en?amin calls the ,su(?ective- level# Against Xi3e0, I 6ant to defend this sense of the su(?ective# ;en?amin continues (y turning to Neorges Sorel-s account of the general stri0e and ma0es a distinction (et6een t6o forms of stri0e: the political stri0e and the proletarian general stri0e# .hereas the political stri0e is la6>ma0ing, that is, it simply reinforces state po6er, the latter attempts to destroy state po6er and argue for ,a 6holly transformed 6or0, no longer enforced (y the state-# As such P and readers of Infinitely Demanding 6ill perhaps see 6here I am heading 6ith this line of thought P 6here the political stri0e is la6>ma0ing, the proletarian general stri0e is, to use ;en?amin-s 6ord, ,anarchistic-#8p#G4)9 That is, it is revolutionary rather than reformist, committed to non> violence rather than the violence of la6, moral rather than governed (y la6 and the state, and su(?ective rather than o(?ective# Such anarchism does not re<uires the violence of contracts or indeed constitutions, (ut aims at the e7tra>legal resolution of conflict, ,Peacefully and 6ithout contracts-, as he 6rites, ,On the analogy of agreement (et6een private persons-#8p#G4E9 It is not difficult to imagine 6hy Xi3e0 chooses to avoid and suppress this crucial aspect of ;en?amin-s essay# .hat he 6ants is ;artel(ian inertia, on the one hand, and the se7y

e7citement of the prospect of a dose of ultra>violence, on the other# 5e 6ants to live his o(sessional deadloc0 and not give up on his desire for postponement and lac0 of readiness, a desire that fuels his over>production# 5o6ever, 6hat I have ?ust tried to e7plain a(out ;en?amin-s essay is the conceptual (ac0ground against 6hich he introduces his 0ey concept of divine violence # Bet-s no6 turn to that idea# ;en?amin ma0es t6o 0ey assumptions#

Mirstly, he 6rites, ,Since, ho6ever, every conceiva(le solution to human pro(lems, not to spea0 of deliverance from the confines of all the 6orld> historical conditions of e7istence, o(taining hitherto, remains impossi(le if violence is totally e7cluded in principle, the <uestion necessarily arises as to 6hat 0inds of violence e7ist other than those envisaged (y legal theory#-8p#G4E9 So, 6e cannot e7pect a radical change in the state of human (eings in the 6orld if 6e e7clude violence as a matter of principle# I thin0 this is a crucial point and it has also led to misunderstandings of my defence of non>violence and neo>anarchism in Infinitely Demanding# To (e clear, I do not thin0 that in the sphere of politics it ma0es sense to assert and hold to some principled and a priori conception of non>violence# The standard o(?ection to anarchism al6ays turns on this point: ho6 can you ?ustify your use of violenceJ Shouldn-t you (e committed to non>violenceJ If you resort to violence, don-t you (egin to resem(le the enemy you are fighting againstJ Of course, non>violence is the aim of anarchist politics, (ut 6hy should anarchists (e the only political agents 6ho have to decide (eforehand that they 6ill not (e violent, 6hen the specific circumstances of a political situation are still un0no6nJ To this e7tent, the a(stract <uestion of violence versus non>violence ris0s reducing anarchism to 6hat !aco( ;lumenfeld has called the politics of the spectator position 6here non>violence (ecomes an a(stract value , principle or categorical imperative#1*2 In specific political se<uences, and it is al6ays and only a case of such specifics > an evental site, as ;adiou might say > the move to violence is often entirely understanda(le# The turn to violence (y protestors, critics and opponents of a regime is most often simply a response to the provocations of the police and legal violence# Also, it is crucial here to distinguish violence against property from violence against persons# I have no moral pro(lem 6ith the former, (ut a lot of pro(lems 6ith the latter# As a character in Nodard-s &otre usi<ue 6rites, ,To 0ill a human (eing in order to defend an idea is not to defend an idea, it is to 0ill a human (eing-# y pro(lem, then, is not so much 6ith violence as 6ith armchair or 6riting chair romantic heroici3ations of revolutionary violence of the 0ind that one finds in Xi3e0-s mannerist Beninism# So, to go (ac0 to ;en?amin-s 6ords, if violence cannot (e e7cluded in principle from any social transformation, then 6hat forms of violence e7ist other than those in legal theory, namely la6>ma0ing and la6>preserving violenceJ +an 6e perhaps even spea0 of 6hat !udith ;utler has called, in her highly compelling reading of ;en?amin-s essay, a ,non>violent violence-J1)2 .e 6ill come (ac0 to that#

The alt results in mass suici esGJize$ a vocates self#sacrifice as the ultimate fi elityGturns VTLGhe also a vocates *azism +ohnson" 00 8Alan !ohnson, founder and editor of Democratiya, online ?ournal of international politics, 6or0s at the ;ritain Israel +ommunications and Research +entre, professor in the Department of Social and Psychological Sciences at Ldge 5ill University, co>author of the Luston anifesto, OSlavo? Xi3e0-s Theory of Revolution: A +riti<ueO, ay %F, GD%%, glo(al>discourse#com'contents'slavo?>3i3e0-s>theory>of>revolution>a> criti<ue>(y>alan>?ohnson>6ith>reply>(y>paul>(o6man'9 The doctrine that Xi3e0 has transformed into a total ideology is , as 6e have seen, a crude mish>mash of one>dimensional Beninism, spiritualist aoism, and psychoanalytic Stalinism# 5is recent 6riting is saturated 6ith the idea that the only authentic life is one given up in self>sacrificial fidelity to the ,Lvent#- Inevita(ly, this has le Jize$ to valorize an aestheticise martyr om# Mor e7ample, Ro(espierre-s ,su(lime greatness- lies in the fact that he 6as ,not afraid to die- and vie6ed his o6n death at the hands of the revolution as ,nothing#- Xi3e0 has plainly come to find death more interesting , authentic, and meaningful than 8merely (ourgeois9 life# Again and again his ga3e falls lovingly on death# Thus, ao-s insouciance in the face of the threat of nuclear 6ar is
lauded, as is +he Nuevara-s 6illingness to ris0 nuclear 6ar during the +u(an issile +risis# ,There is definitely something terrifying a(out this attitude,Xi3e0 admits, ,ho6ever, this terror is nothing less that the condition of freedom- 8GDDK:%ED9# The revolutionary-s role is to adopt the ,proper attitude of a 6arrior to6ards death- as illustrated (y, of all people, the Xen Priest :amamoto !ocho# Xi3e0 <uotes r !ocho approvingly: ,Lvery day 6ithout fail 1the 6arrior2 should consider himself as dead d This is not a matter of (eing careful# It is to consider oneself as dead (eforehand#- Xi3e0 even praises those !apanese soldiers 6ho, during .orld .ar T6o, performed their o6n funerals (efore they left for 6ar# It is tempting to laugh at this and assume Xi3e0 is ?o0ing# Resist= he isn-t# 5e tells us this ,pre>emptive self>e7clusion from the domain of the living- is ,constitutive of a radical revolutionary position8GDDK:%ED9# Bin0sfaschismus indeed# 1%D2 Befort points out that totalitarian ideology esta(lishes the supreme la6 6hich is e7alted far a(ove la6>as>such, 6hich shrin0s to mere command, indistinguisha(le from terror 8%FFK:%49# ;ecause Xi3e0-s revolution is a ,magic moment of enthusiastic unity of a collective 6ill- then even

mass mur er can !e Custifie %hen carrie out in the name of that enthusiasm" in a spirit of fi elity to the Lvent# ao-s Red Nuards, for e7ample, may have 0illed half a million people during the
+ultural Revolution (ut for Xi3e0 all is redeemed (ecaused it ,sustained revolutionary enthusiasm-= indeed, it 6as ,the last (ig installment in the life of this Idea- 8GDDK:GDE9# Xi3e0

invites his readers to ,heroically accept this I6hite intellectual-s (urden, o(serving that 5eidegger 6as great ,not in spite of, (ut (ecause of his *azi engagement? 8GDDK:%DE,%%F9 6hile Moucault-s support for the Iranian Islamists is to (e applauded (ecause ,162hat matters is not the misera(le reality that follo6ed the upheavals d (ut the enthusiasm that the events in Iran stimulated in the e7ternal 8.estern9 o(server, confirming his hopes in the possi(ility
of a ne6 form of spiritualised political collective- 8GDDK:%DK9#

Alternative replicates violence (o!inson an Tormey D 8Andre6 Ro(inson, University of &ottingham, +entre for the Study of Social and Nlo(al !ustice, Simon Tormey, professor of Politics and +ritical Theory at The University of Sydney, former 5ead of the School of Politics and International Relations an founding Director of the +entre for the Study of Social and Nlo(al !ustice at the University of &ottingham UC, PhD from University of .hales, OXi3e0Us Benin 8pre>pu(lication9 > later version pu(lished in 5istorical aterialism# +o>authored 6ith Simon Tormey: .hat is &ot to (e DoneV Lverything you 6anted to 0no6 a(out Benin, and 8sadly96eren-t afraid to as0 Xi3e0O, Octo(er K, GDD4, andyro(insontheory(log#(logspot#com'GDD4'%D'3i3e0s>lenin>pre>pu(lication>later#html9

Xi3e0-s Benin ta0es his place amongst the various elements in Xi3e0-s theory 6hich operate as a conservative pull on the possi(ility of a transformative politics# ;asically, Xi3e0 is telling left radicals to a(andon the notion of the state > even an authoritarian or totalitarian state > as a source of un6anted violence and oppression# Instead, he urges his readers to see the state as part of the solution to, rather than the pro(lem of, reorganising social life# The state is a useful ally (ecause it is the instrument through 6hich to impose the Nood Terror# Xi3e0 denounces anti>statism as idealistic and hypocritical

5e does not offer any alternative to the violence of the e7isting state, or rather, the alternative he offers is 8in his o6n phrase9 a replacement of 1a %ith 8orse# In Xi3e0-s 6orld, to mis<uote an anarchist slogan, ,6hoever you fight for, the state al6ays 6ins-# Opponents of imperialist 6ar and the arms trade, of police racism and repression against demonstrators, 6ill find no alternative in Xi3e0= 6hile he may oppose the acts of e7isting states, his o%n preferre institutions loo$ remar$a!ly similar # 5e offers no alternative to statist violence, only a ne6 militarism, a Nood Terror and yet another +he0a# In this, he goes further even than Benin, 6ho at least has a commitment on paper to the eventual elimination of the state # 5ere is one a(solute Xi3e0 never suspends, the universal 6hich remains operative at the very heart of his o6n theory#
8RB %), MA %E%, DSST GE%9, and he attac0s the anti>capitalist movement for its lac0 of political centralisation 8RB GD9#

Jize$ 9 Ans%ers Alt )e es Political

Alternative ce es political +ohnson" 00 8Alan !ohnson, founder and editor of Democratiya, online ?ournal of international politics, 6or0s at the ;ritain Israel +ommunications and Research +entre, professor in the Department of Social and Psychological Sciences at Ldge 5ill University, co>author of the Luston anifesto, OSlavo? Xi3e0-s Theory of Revolution: A +riti<ueO, ay %F, GD%%, glo(al>discourse#com'contents'slavo?>3i3e0-s>theory>of>revolution>a> criti<ue>(y>alan>?ohnson>6ith>reply>(y>paul>(o6man'9
Today, the pro?ect of the Beft desperately needs theoretical resources that help it to do t6o things: deepen and e7tend the democratic revolution (egun in the %Kth century 6hile completing 6hat the Mrench antitotalitarian 6riter Pierre Rosanvallon calls the ,reconceptualisation of the political in the light of the totalitarian e7perience- 8GDD)9# Slavo?

Xi3e0-s theory of revolution sunders the political pro?ect of the left from (oth# It reprises as an academic farce in this century 6hat 6as a genuine tragedy in the last, 6hen, in the plangent 6ords of Al(ert +amus, ,The great event of the t6entieth century 6as the forsa0ing of the values of freedom (y the revolutionary movements# Since that moment a certain hope has disappeared from the 6orld and a solitude has (egun for each and every
man- 8<uoted in 5o6e %FKG:%$G>$9# Xi3e0 may ma0e us laugh# ;ut he does not restore that hope, nor lift that solitude#

Jize$ 9 Ans%ers AT: Epistemology

Jize$ e&plicitly avoi s peer revie% heNs totally ignorant on relevant topics" ignore evi ence from him @il!ert 2 P Senior Becturer in +ultural Studies !eremy, Senior Becturer in +ultural Studies, University of Last Bondon, IAll the Right Huestions, All the .rong Ans6ers, The Truth of Xi3e0, ed ;o6man, p )K>F Xi3e0Us ideal reader, then, 6ould seem to (e someone 6ho 0no6s too little a(out the topics on 6hich he comments to <uestion his authority, 6ho does not loo0 to other, competing sources for either corro(oration 86hich 6ould (e difficult to find9 or alternative opinions: in other 6ords, the ideal reader implied (y Xi3e0Us te7ts is a U(rand>loyalU Xi3e0 reader, assenting to the assumption that Xi3e0Us fame is a sufficient guarantee of <uality that other competing products in the
intellectual mar0etplace need not trou(le their attention# Perhaps 6e should not (e surprised, and even less outraged, that such a phenomenon should occur at the present time# .hat

6e see here is simply the logic of cele!rity culture and deep commodification e7tended to the field of UintellectualU pu(lishing, and it is virtually a truism today to ac0no6ledge that cele(rity culture is one of the most stri0ing manifestations of the commodifying and individuali3ing logics of neo>li(eral capitalism, logics 6hose 6idespread operation is symptomatic of the secure hegemony of neo>li(eralism almost throughout the non>Islamic
6orld 8Bittler GDD49# The hegemony of neo>li(eralism produces and is secured (y a process 6hich posits the autonomous individual in competition 6ith others as the (asic and irreduci(le unit of human e7perience and 6hich su(?ects as many areas of social life as possi(le to the logic of commodification, constituting autonomous, unrelated monads and placing them into competition 6ith each other in fields as diverse as cuisine and education 85arvey GDD*9# !ust as the e7istence of 6ell>defined culinary traditions and the era of culinary UmovementsU is replaced (y one in 6hich individual UstarU chefs compete for pu(lic attention, the neo>li(eral approach to education is to (rea0>up coherent systems of interconnected institutions, putting individual schools into competition 6ith each other in an open mar0et place, struggling to outshine each other as Ucentres of e7cellenceU and even 8in the UC case9 e7plicitly see0ing to attract UstarU head teachers 8.hitfield GDDD9# Of course, the operation of a compara(le UstarU system in the field of philosophy is nothing ne6# At least since Socrates and +onfucius, philosophy has (een identified 6ith the names of individuals and has tended to generate personality cults# In many 6ays, the lives of intellectuals in earlier periods seem to prefigure the fate of todayUs millions of mo(ile, insecure 0no6ledge>6or0ers @ ?ust thin0 of the poor (ut highly mo(ile scholars of medieval Lurope, such as Duns Scotus @ and these conditions 6ill al6ays encourage those su(?ected to them to see0 to secure their precarious positions 8socially and financially9 (y promoting the idea of their individual and irreduci(le genius# Murthermore, the names of authors have al6ays functioned as the mar0er of the uni<ue intervention that they ma0e in a field of thought 8Derrida %FKK= Moucault %FEE: %%$>$K= Deleu3e \ Nuattari %FF4: )%>K$9# 5o6ever, it is also true that one of the impulses (ehind the development of a range of institutions of intellectual life since the iddle Ages has (een precisely to protect intellectual 6or0 from (oth the relentless logic of the mar0et and the intrusive influence of patronage and government# .hile this is o(viously true of traditional institutions such as academic tenure 8formally a(olished in the UC during the first 6ave of aggressive neo>li(erali3ation and further undermined (y the casuali3ation of higher education in the %FFDs9, one can also argue that institutions such as the traditional apparatus of reference and citation serve a similar function, rendering all claims to 0no6ledge pu(licly accounta(le and formally ac0no6ledging the e7tent to 6hich the production and legitimation of U0no6ledgeU is al6ays a colla(orative and interte7tual e7ercise# If academic institutions such as citation, tenure, peer>revie6, etc# have al6ays in part served to

protect intellectual 6or0 from the direct intrusion of (oth the state and mar0et forces, then 6e should (e particularly concerned
a(out their erosion at a moment 6hen the pro?ect of neo>li(eralism is precisely to use the mechanisms of government to intensify the reach and u(i<uity of mar0et relations in spheres such as the university sector 8.hitfield GDD)a9# The state and the mar0et are no longer t6o definite (ut distinct dangers for institutions li0e the university today: instead the institutions of government are no6 colla(orating to6ards a single common goal, doing all they can to ensure that the mar0et meets 6ith no inconvenient o(stacles in the drive to commodity everything 85arvey GDD*9# In this conte7t, a form of 0no6ledge production 6hich esche6s these traditional protections in favour of an intellectual pro?ect legitimating itself in terms of cele(rity

and (rand>loyalty is precisely 6hat neoli(eral strategies might have (een formulated to generate, and they certainly meet 6ith no 0ind of resistance in the formation of such a pro?ect# And such a pro?ect has !een the career to date of Slavo? Xi3e0# ;ut 6hy then, any reader may fairly as0, does he continue
to attract so much attentionJ

The criticism is ahistorical gar!age /art" 5 8.illiam David 5art, critical theorist of religion, associate professor of religious studies at The University of &orth +arolina Nreens(oro, Ph#D#, Princeton University O+an a !udgment ;e ReadJ A Response to Slavo? Xi3e0O, &eplanta: "ie6s from the South 4#% 8GDD$9 %F%>%F4, Pro?ect use9 According to tradition, 6hen as0ed 6hy he ro((ed (an0s, the notorious .illie Sutton is reputed to have said: I;ecause thatUs 6here the money is# An honest e7pression of his motives, no dou(t, and a logic that is easy to understand, (ut hardly a persuasive ethical>political argument for ro((ing (an0s, 6hich isnUt to say that a good argument for ro((ing (an0s, for reimagining the very notion of 6ealth creation and distri(ution, cannot (e made# Similarly, I do not dou(t Slavo? Xi3e0Us honesty and sincerity 6hen he descri(es himself, in his response pu(lished 6ith my essay in &epantla $#$, as a left>Lurocentrist# .hat I do dou(t is the cogency of his so>called argument# A forthright ac0no6ledgment that one is a Lurocentrist is hardly an argument for Lurocentrism# It is
merely a confession# This confession may (e good for Xi3e0Us soul# It may (e a 6ay for him to hold his ethical>political commitments and the remnants of his religious commitments in a unified vision# .hether

it is good for Ius, ho6ever, is an ethical and political <uestion, 6hich has to (e put to a historical, empirical, and theoretical test# y complaint is that Xi3e0 ignores history altogether# 5is analysis operates on the most a(stract and rarefied level# 5e is guilty of the fallacy of misplaced

a(straction@the notion that historical>empirical <uestions can (e addressed primarily, if not solely, on the level of a(stract theory# This is not an argument against theory# ;y definition, theory a(stracts# That is 6hat it is supposed to do# ;ut li0e anything that illuminates, it can also (lind# Xi3e0 is (linded (y 1Lnd Page %F%2 the light of his I+hristian, Lurocentrist I?ust so story# Bi0e all I?ust so stories, Xi3e0Us account evades the messy and nasty comple7ities of history # Since Xi3e0 adopts a
certain didactic tone in his response to my essay, 6hich has the rhetorical function of Ipulling ran0, I shall respond in 0ind# Xi3e0 accuses me of 0noc0ing on a door@his self>designation as a Lurocentrist@that he opened# This is an odd claim, this notion of opening and openness, since there are good reasons for 0eeping the door to the outhouse closed# I have no desire to 6al0 through the door that Xi3e0 has opened# On the contrary, I 6ant him to (e honest a(out the history (ehind that door, 6hich under6rites my argument for 6hy the door should remain closed# +ontra Xi3e0 ,

I am not ma0ing an argument for purity# ine is an argument for ho6 6e ac0no6ledge our impurities, complicities, and historical contingency 6ithout adopting a reactionary rhetoric mas<uerading under the honorific la(el of Beft# I
ta0e left>Lurocentrism to (e ?ust that 0ind of mas<uerade, a (urles<ue of the very notion of the Beft# y goal is to I(um rush the party and tear the mas0 off the Isuc0a@off Xi3e0Us notion of a progressive Lurocentrism# Xi3e0Us argument, such as it is, has three main points# Mirst, I dismiss his claims for !udaism and +hristianity 6ithout providing a Iproper ?udgment of their merits# Second, I underestimate his vast 0no6ledge of 5egel, of the many uses of the 5egelian narrative, indeed, of my argumentUs every line, since li0e the O6l of inerva, he has (een there and done that# Third, he castigates my ethical>political stance: IIt is 5artUs ,postcolonialU ideology that is hegemonic in todayUs academia, and he dismisses me not (y specific argumentation, (ut ultimately (y simply stating that I donUt agree 6ith this hegemonic ideology@it is his voice that is the asterUs "oice# I must confess, as I ta0e Xi3e0Us aster is an uncanny e7perience# Actually, Xi3e0Us argument is more ridiculous than uncanny, since the uncanny has much in common 6ith the su(lime # ;ut alas, there is nothing su(lime a(out Xi3e0Us polemical assertions# They lac0 the force of argument, 6hich is more than a little ironic since it is precisely this defect in specific argumentation that he attri(utes to me# I suppose that 6e could get into a spitting contest points in reverse order, that (eing placed in the su(?ect position of the a(out the asterUs "oice and 6hether the postcolonial voice is hegemonic in the academy# ;ut there is something manifestly silly a(out confusing the alleged hegemony of the academic, postcolonial voice 6ith the hegemony of those 6ho command nuclear arms, run international institutions, and dominate the 6orld mar0et 86hich collectively and effectively maintains an international division of la(or that privileges the old imperial 1Lnd Page %FG2 po6ers9# I have a snea0ing suspicion 8call me cra3y9 that their voice is the voice of Lurocentrism, even left>LurocentrismV Lurocentrism is an ideology that ran0>orders nations, races, and cultures# At its 6orst, it consecrates imperial domination (oth retrospectively and prospectively# Xi3e0 is incapa(le of distinguishing (et6een Lurocentrism and a critical appropriation of Luropean sources@for e7ample, ManonUs appropriation of 5egelUs master'slave dialectic# Thus the fact that 5egelUs 6or0 produces am(ivalent and am(iguous responses on (oth sides of the imperial divide, 6hich is true of any 6or0 of depth, is seen (y Xi3e0 as a deep mystery re<uiring the ministrations of priestly analysts such as he# The

only thing deep or mysterious here is Xi3e0Us (elief that there is a deep mystery re<uiring e7plication# If there (e a mystery, it is a cheap, (aro<ue mystery, an artifact of the autohypnotic character of Xi3e0Us defective analysis# Eou shoul care a!out evi ence Jize$ oesn?t (o!inson an Tormey D 8Andre6 Ro(inson, University of &ottingham, +entre for the Study of Social and Nlo(al !ustice, Simon Tormey, professor of Politics and +ritical Theory at The University of Sydney, former 5ead of the School of Politics and International Relations an founding Director of the +entre for the Study of Social and Nlo(al !ustice at the University of &ottingham UC, PhD from University of .hales, OXi3e0Us Benin 8pre>pu(lication9 > later version pu(lished in 5istorical aterialism# +o>authored 6ith Simon Tormey: .hat is &ot to (e DoneV Lverything you 6anted to 0no6 a(out Benin, and 8sadly96eren-t afraid to as0 Xi3e0O, Octo(er K, GDD4, andyro(insontheory(log#(logspot#com'GDD4'%D'3i3e0s>lenin>pre>pu(lication>later#html9 As a historical account, Xi3e0-s reading of Benin is pro(lematic# 5e often seems to feel he has little need for evidence to (ac0 his claims# 5e is satisfied to read contingent events in e7tremely a(stract 6ays 8for instance, interpreting the Stalinist Terror as a ,suicide- (y a collective su(?ect9, and the evidence he provides is highly selective# One finds , for instance, that his discussion of the Stalinist Terror is (ased on only a single te7t 6hich he em(races (ecause it shares his theoretical reference>points 8.P+S9# This attitude is not too surprising# It is, after all, the ,Benin- signifier and not the ,historicalBenin 6hich interests Xi3e0, if one can still spea0 of the ,historical Benin- in today-s postmodern times# At one point, Xi3e0 even confirms the suspicion that he ,gets from Benin more or less ?ust the name- 8RN $%G9# One should 0eep in mind, ho6ever, that the usefulness of the ,Benin- signifier cannot (e separated entirely from the historiography of the Russian Revolution# In short, if the ,historical- Benin did not accomplish something a0in to a Xi3e0ian Act, Xi3e0-s

entire account (ecomes little more than a historical sophism # Xi3e0 might (e permitted a fictive Benin, (ut not a fictional one# .e 6ould suggest that there is something in Xi3e0-s analysis of Benin, (ut that one might nevertheless ;uery the vali ity of Jize$?s account on a %hole range of points. Ara! 3pring proves

@allo%ay an 9acem 00
Ale7ander R# Nallo6ay, associate professor in the Department of +ulture and +ommunication at &e6 :or0 University, and ehdi ;elha? Cacem, a Mrench>Tunisian 6riter and philosopher# 5e is the author of three

novels and several 6or0s of philosophy, IA Tunisian Renaissance: Intervie6 6ith ehdi ;elha? Cacem, !an $%, GD%%, http:''666#lacan#com'thesymptom'Jpage^id[%D4) AN: There seem to (e two arguments in the &est, (oth of 6hich cast a haughty cynicism over these lands: either Tunisia and Lgypt are
Imerely the final moments of a revolutionary cycle inaugurated t6o decades ago at the fall of the ;erlin 6all to push out the sclerotic tyranny of t6entieth>century strongmen= or as some on the .eft have argued these rebellious 8uslims in seeking their liberal

freedoms are only trying to be like us the children of +oca>+olaPas Nodard put itPand hence will only ever gain the false freedoms of neoliberal consumerist democracy# .hat do you say to these criticsJ ;C: Id really like to know who the imbeciles are who have the gall to say those things # ;ut I can-t spea0 for them# Mirst, the Tunisian event has nothing to do 6ith the
fall of the ;erlin .all, 6hose ground6or0 6as laid in advance (y Nor(achev-s politics in the USSR# &othing prepared for the Tunisian revolution= the unrest 6as very significant from Decem(er %4th, GD%D, on# I understood, I-ll say it again, that something very important 6as happening 6hen people, everyone, started saying, I.e-re not afraid anymore# That came out of no6here, so to spea0# That-s 6hy it 6as a real event: the people had no support for 6ee0s and 6ee0s, during 6hich everyone consciously, I5egelianly, ris0ed their lives# +s a $unisian I

was already tired of the haughty contempt of those always from important bourgeois universities who have never stepped foot in a dictatorship but nonetheless think from a distance that 7hinese concentration campsKtheyre "ust great the same thing as .acans couch# I had had enough of the position typical of seventies leftism the contempt for the .aw this way of saying that when all is said and done capitalist dictatorship is the same everywhere# +t best its ridiculous at worst obscene# This Ihatred of democracy, as Rancivre puts it, 6hich for the last fe6 years has (een eating a6ay at the Mrench intellectual e7treme>left and (eyond# This haughty contempt, as you put it, for formal Ifreedoms# Its always from within a democracy that one plays the trendy provocateur thumbing his nose at democracy# Its always when one is protected by the .aw that one can say from the perspective of the political truth dreamed up in ones office or some prestigious academic chair that .aw has no importance# Its always when one already en"oys formal freedoms that one can scorn them elsewhere # There are no fe6er rich on the side of Iradical chic than on the right, and in (oth cases,
as if (y chance, all those 6ho ma0e these 0inds of remar0s come from the grand (ourgeoisie, and so give themselves a6ay, even if they (randish the little red (oo0 to shoc0 the gallery# $hose who make these kinds of remarks are no better than those who during the

$unisian revolution and now elsewhere claim to see Islamism everywhere# That-s 6hat Adorno said to the Mran0furt students
6hen they 6ould <uote ao to him, I?ust li0e your grandparent-s <uoting the Prince of poets# 5e 6ould tell them that he 0ne6 I6hat it 6as li0e to have someone ring at your door at si7 o-cloc0 in the morning, not 0no6ing if it-s the (a0er or the Nestapo#The Tunisians have ended t6enty years during 6hich every day they 0ne6 6hat Adorno meant# Adorno added that (ourgeois Ba6 had a positive side vis>k>vis communism itself, in conte7ts 6here its a(sence (rought only Ithe idiotic (rutality of leftist fascisms,nota(ly in the USSR and in aoist +hina# That-s 6hat I had come to last year# I had had enough of this senile ru((ish from the leftist ghetto of Iradical chic# ;ut I didn-t e7pect that a crucial event, arising in the country of my (irth, 6ould prove me so right# To get straight to the heart of the matter: I-d (een 6ondering for years if it 6asn-t necessary <uite simply to forget nearly all of t6entieth>century politics# That is, to forget the failure of Beninism and its deep causes# +oncretely, over several 6ee0s Tunisia has (ecome a +ommune spanning a 6hole nation# As far as food is concerned, ru((ish disposal, and a(ove all the organi3ation of neigh(ourhoods against the fascist militias left (y ;en Ali to destroy the country, once again, all this represents a small miracle# The savvy and enormous ingenuity displayed (y the Tunisian population in limiting to an incredi(le e7tent the damage that could other6ise have driven us to civil 6arPit-s really a heroic feat: and it-s still far from over# Lvery night 6e have to get home (efore the curfe6= 6e tal0 6ith people from the neigh(ourhood getting ready to 0eep 6atch all night carrying metal (ars, flashlights and 6histles to protect themselves from ;en Ali-s militias# The +ommune 6asn-t a Idictatorship of the proletariat, that is, an illuminated, armed avant>garde k la Benin, (ut a real direct ta0eover (y the people# Self>management, in food, protection and information# The ar7ist and Beninist not to mention Stalinist and aoist deviation in their interpretation of the conse<uences of the Mrench revolutionPit meant imposing e<uality dictatorially 6ithout ever giving a thought to freedom# As for the American Revolution, it meant e7changing freedom for e<uality# $he twentieth century proved that by and large

people still preferred freedom without e'uality to e'uality without freedom# +nd here again its /egels turn to gloat< the sole and uni'ue form in which the revolutionary con'uest of freedom becomes effective is as Right # Therein lies one of the essential components of the current Tunisian Renaissance# $his is a fact that the =adious and the Ui)eks of the world mustnt make us forget, and especially not a Tunisian in GD%%: the 2talinist and 8aoist regimes were thoroughly abominable# A +hinese 6oman 6hose family actively participated in the +ultural Revolution told me that for her it 6as 6orse than Ausch6it3#
As far as that-s concerned, one really has to (e6are of the shortcuts one ta0es, playing at a trendy leftist in the comfort of a (ourgeois academic apartment# The I;adiou affair may very 6ell (lo6 up in our faces ?ust as much as the I5eidegger affair# .hat I-ve read from ;adiou and Xi3e0 on the Tunisian revolution is # Tunisian philosophers have told me they regret that a Deleu3e, a Moucault, a Derrida isn-t still around# They 6ould have found the right, resonant 6ords to ta0e the measure of the event# I find the silence of people li0e &ancy and Rancivre regretta(le# Their sensitivity is totally right for 6hat has happened# Its obvious that =adiou and Ui)ek who

a!solutely useless

reacted very late to the first positive event of historical and global scope of the twenty%first century know absolutely nothing about the situation although, in =adiou-s case, it-s truly spectacular: almost li0e Sar0o3y he manages to talk about the $unisian revolution as if it were no more than some riots# 5e says: Imay(e some interesting utterances 6ill

come out of this, let-s 6ait and seed 5e-s completely out of it# Mrom 6here I sit, there are Iinteresting utterances a(solutely every6here# One need only 6al0 do6n 5a(i( ;ourgui(a Avenue, 6hich has (een transformed into a giant agora over the last three 6ee0s# .hat (others ;adiou-s (ureaucratic leftism is that the t6enty>first century has (egun 6ith the master>signifiers Ifreedom and Idemocracy and not 6ith Icommunism or Ie<uality# ;adiou manages the feat of not even mentioning the 6ord Ievent, even though this is the first ma?or, a(solute event of the t6enty> first century# 5e doesn-t mention the 6ord Irevolution either, even though that-s 6hat it is# Lven me, li0e most of the thin0ers on the Ifar>left, I had nearly stopped (elieving in the 6ord and the concept IrevolutionV Then revolution returned to the real, the real of my native country# ;adiou o(viously doesn-t mention the 6ord Idemocracy, 6hich the Tunisian people and a ma?ority of Ara(s have only had the right to say for the last three 6ee0s# That-s the profound dead>end of ;adiou-s philosophy and, therefore, of his history of the event# Mor him, history stopped in Shanghai in %F)E# I live in GD%%, in Tunis# If =adiou and Ui)ek make fools of themselves 6ith their reflections on the event, it-s

because they havent understood that a crucial event has made it such that $unisia in 45CC is in a state of philosophical>political

a6areness and in a more advanced state in general, if I may say so, than post> aoist +hina and post>Stalinist Russia are today# The Tunisian

Revolution is an event (ecause the 6hole Tunisian people, as a people, are e7periencing freedom, here and no6# All the social (arriers are falling a6ay, ?ust li0e in -)K# Lvery voice is free# The Russian or +hinese people, in GD%%, as a people, have still not e7perienced freedom# They 6ent directly from a medieval system to an armed dictatorship of e<ualityP6hat Adorno called Ileft fascism# That-s the reason 6hy the $unisian

event is already a historic event: the Tunisians are collectively e7periencing freedom and, in the truth of the event, 6e see that a people
that e7periences freedom also e7periences e<uality# That-s the hard lesson that the Tunisian event gives to our academic Stalinist dinosaurs# Co?vve said, rather humorously: IThey ta0e me for a leftist 5egelian# ;ut I-m a right>6ing ar7ist# 5e said that Mordism 6as part of ar7ist politics and that he-s the one 6ho thought up the arshall plan# I-d rather (e that 0ind of right>6ing ar7ist than a postmodern leftist fascist#

****E@

Virilio 9 Alt (eCect *eoli!eral 4iscourse

Eou must reCect the affNs neoli!eral iscourse of technology specifically in e!ate roun s Armitage ,,
1!ohn, teaches politics and media studies at the University of &orthum(ria, OResisting the &eoli(eral Discourse of Technology,O $'%'FF, +theory, international peer>revie6ed ?ournal of theory, technology, and culture, http:''666#ctheory#net'articles#asp7Jid[%%%2''S5

Resisting the unconstrained development of the neoliberal discourse of technology is vital because such resistance impedes the contemporary development of the virtual class# To some of its mem(ers, li0e Douglas +oupland, the reigning

technological discourse constitutes the narcissistic flo6ering of long>held personal am(itions, 6hile to others, li0e .iredUs neoli(eral evangelist &icholas &egroponte, it represents the (eginning of a ne6 techno>religion# To Alvin \ 5eidi Toffler, the neoli(eral discourse heralds the emergence of a 6hole ne6 civili3ation 6hile to ;ill Nates and Cevin Celly it means material 6ealth and political influence (eyond measure# %) +ertainly, it is possible to characterise the present period of self%consciously *spectacular* technological innovation as

being driven primarily by pan%capitalismBs need to arm itself against the onset of virtual class warfare# %E .ithout dou(t, the virtual class must at some stage > and pro(a(ly 6ith the ac<uiescence, if not the full participation of glo(al technocratic, political and military elites > confront living labour actual communities tangible spaces material environments and physical breathing bodies# $he neoliberal discourse of technology therefore represents an attempt by the virtual class to open up a new period in the cybernetic carnival that is pan>capitalism# $he unfolding of the neoliberal discourse of technology is thus the unfolding of virtual class relations# $his is the true nature of social communications in the contemporary era# Mor these reasons it is essential to advance unorthodox bottom%up explanations of the evolution of the neoliberal discourse of technology# The chief aim ought to (e the e<uipping of the digitally dispossessed 6ith counter arguments
and active political strategies that 6ill 6or0 against 6hat the late +hristopher Basch might have called Othe revolt of the 8virtual9 elites and the (etrayal of 8electronic9 democracy#O %K a0e no mista0e, "R and cy(erspace have not simply opened up ne6 6ealth generating possi(ilities for the virtual elites# They have also opened up ne6 political prospects for those 6ho 6ish to see the spectacular representational systems of crash culture disappear# &hat is important in the interim, then, is to challenge the pronouncements of the virtual class wherever

they appear and "oin with others in a comprehensive and detailed criti'ue of the neoliberal discourse of technology in a variety of fields ranging from "R to cy(er6arfare and (eyond# %F Murther, such challenges need to involve a multiplicity of individuals and groups# $hese might range from school kids and students disenchanted with the increasing replacement of education by mere technocratic information to disaffected computer industry workers or simply local communities seeking control over their own technological environments# 0irtual politics therefore should be founded on defying the neoliberal discourse of technology currently being fashioned by the virtual class# It is crucial to
ensure that the political genealogy of technology, of virtual reality, of the reality of virtuality, is uncovered (y numerous individuals, groups, classes, and ne6 social movements# Indeed, without such excavations the increasingly institutionalised neoliberal discourse

of technology currently (eing promoted (y the virtual class will rapidly become a source of immense social power# $his is why concrete corporeal and ideological struggles over the nature and meaning of technology are so important in the realm of virtual politics# It is also 6hy the specifically neoli(eral discourse of the virtual class needs to (e countered# The pan> capitalist revolution and the development from industrial to virtual production have generated the neoliberal discourse of technology# It provides the virtual class with an ideological rationale for the ever increasing manufacture of virtual distractions 8e#g#, movies, "R, and interactive video games9# +onse<uently, many human activities are no longer simply mediated through technology# Indeed, they are so utterly *possessed* by technology that the distinction between virtual activities and actual activities borders on the incomprehensible# GD The am(itions of the neoli(eral discourse of technology are not only unremitting (ut also potentially infinite# $otalitarianism is latent in technology# It is not simply the virtual class that is totalitarian# $otalitarianism is always present in technology itself# 0irilioBs acute observations on technology are therefore essentially correct< his theoretical analysis indicates that while we are indeed in the midst of some kind of technological transition, it is impro(a(le that such a transition 6ill usher in a ne6 era of digital democracy# G% On this vie6, then, humanity is not on the verge of the kind of technological and democratic revolution envisaged by the neoliberals# &hat separates a critical interpretation of technology from that of global technological entrepreneurs and leading politicians is a determination to forge a radical understanding of technologyBs conse'uences# The advantage of this 0ind of
analysis is that it focuses on 0ey aspects of technology that are rarely, if ever, voiced (y computer manufacturers and political pundits# Indeed,

the general absence of a critical understanding of technology is one of the chief reasons why so many people seem to be so baffled by the *mysteries* of technology# $hus it is vital to resist (oth the neoliberal discourse of technology and the contemporary development of pan>capitalism# In the specific context of the political debates over the discourse of cy(erculture, then, it is important to 'uestion the uncritical and antidemocratic conception of technology presently being elaborated and disseminated by the virtual class in its 'uest for actual wealth and power# &hile technology is o(viously an e7tremely important and determining force it is crucial to remember that it is not the only force or agent of change# $he virtual class is not simply an assortment of technological and visual representations# In fact, it is all too real# It is the class that at this moment is rewriting the history of virtual and other technologies while simultaneously controlling their organi)ed production distribution and consumption# As a result of itUs monopolistic control of technology, the virtual class is presently being courted by the newly ascendant virtual political class 8of 6hich

&e6t Ningrich in the US and Tony ;lair in the UC are e7amples9# $his

class opposes all those who resist the neoliberal discourse of technology in whatever form it takes 8e#g#, anti>road (uilding and animal rights protests (y young people9# It is time then to radically rethink redefine and reinterpret the very meaning of technology politics and cyberculture in the age of the virtual class#

Virilio 9 Alt Paper 4e!ate

The alternative is to resist the se uction of spee through paper e!ate 3maCic 0
1Srd?an, Professor at Tulane University, OThe Lcstasy of Speed,O GDD%, http:''pmc#iath#virginia#edu'te7t>only'issue#FD%'%G#%#r^sma?ic#t7t2 )# 0irilio, more than anyone else I can thin0 of, makes

us feel that the printed word is a remnant of an earlier slower sleepier and happier age< it is 'uaint archaic>>one 6ould (e tempted to say prehistoric, e7cept that the relative slowness and linearity of print ought to remind us of the relative slowness and linearity of historic time , that is, of the fact of history itself# Print is therefore not prehistoric (ut precisely historical# E# It is the logic of print technology%%its relative slowness in the age of light%speed televisual information%%that keeps open a path of resistance to the logic of chronostrategy and the seduction of speed# $he speed at which one is informed 8or even misinformed9 through print will always be inferior to the speed at which one passively registers televisual images , (ut (ecause of this the <uality of reception, as it 6ere, is su(stantially in favor of print# $he book as a physical ob"ect becomes a site of resistance to speed# It transforms viewers back into readers# It slows down the transmission of information# It leaves time for active participation in communication and meaningful dialogue# =ecause print moves at the speed of cognition , (ecause it is cognition and comprehension that ma0e it move along, control its progress, and determine its durations, one can never be bombarded by print in the same way that one can be harassed and paraly)ed by the blinding explosion of televised images # K# ?ven though words on a computer terminal look very much like their hard%copy counterparts they behave very differently%%or we behave differently as readers scrolling and clicking rather than skimming and page%turning# $he fact that so many cannot see the difference or remember how things used to be, "irilio 6ould insist, is indicative of the global loss of critical discernment and the degeneration of public and private memory# $he twin activities of clicking and forgetting have become a way of life#1$2 .e have internali3ed the process so thoroughly that the acme of artificiality seems no6 perfectly natural, even (iologically preprogrammed# The hominoid has replaced the human 8$49# In comparison to cyberspatial texts and televised images print appears more dignified and humane# Lven if "irilio 6ould surely agree that all types of media are al6ays ideologically suspect, 6riting for print is perhaps one way to stand up against *the intermittent eclipse of the speaking beings that we are* 8*G9#

Virilio 9 7isc
Technology cannot !e remove from its political implications 9atz et al 5
1Lric, professor of philosophy and director of the Science, Technology, and Society Program at the &e6 !ersey Institute of Technology, Andre6 Bight, assistant professor of environmental philosophy and director of the Lnvironmental +onservation Lducation Program at &e6 :or0 University, .illiam Thompson, professor emeritus of philosophy at SU&: +ollege, O+ontrolling Technology,O GDD$, Prometheus ;oo0s, Page $%$2''S5 The preceding analysis evaporate the claims of technological o(?ectivity and value>neutrality# $he

nature of a societyUs technology is intimately related to issues of power and control and reflects the dominant paradigm in terms of which reality is interpreted# + society in which economic growth is highly valued necessitates a particular kind of technology K one with a high level of innovation, <uite independent of social need# Policies leading to economic e7pansion have to (e reflected in the particular form of technology through 6hich this e7pansion is achieved# /ierarchical forms of social control become reflected in the technology# $he presumed neutrality of technology then lends legitimacy to social policies however repressive#