Sources of water

Further information: Water supply 1. Groundwater: The water emerging from some deep ground water may have fallen as rain many tens, hundreds, or thousands of years ago. Soil and rock layers naturally filter the ground water to a high degree of clarity and often it does not require additional treatment other than adding chlorine or chloramines as secondary disinfectants. Such water may emerge as springs, artesian springs, or may e e!tracted from oreholes or wells. "eep ground water is generally of very high acteriological quality #i.e., pathogenic acteria or the pathogenic proto$oa are typically a sent%, ut the water may e rich in dissolved solids, especially car onates and sulfates of calcium and magnesium. "epending on the strata through which the water has flowed, other ions may also e present including chloride, and icar onate. There may e a requirement to reduce the iron or manganese content of this water to make it accepta le for drinking, cooking, and laundry use. &rimary disinfection may also e required. Where groundwater recharge is practised #a process in which river water is in'ected into an aquifer to store the water in times of plenty so that it is availa le in times of drought%, the groundwater may require additional treatment depending on applica le state and federal regulations. (. )pland lakes and reservoirs: Typically located in the headwaters of river systems, upland reservoirs are usually sited a ove any human ha itation and may e surrounded y a protective $one to restrict the opportunities for contamination. *acteria and pathogen levels are usually low, ut some acteria, proto$oa or algae will e present. Where uplands are forested or peaty, humic acids can colour the water. +any upland sources have low p, which require ad'ustment. -. .ivers, canals and low land reservoirs: /ow land surface waters will have a significant acterial load and may also contain algae, suspended solids and a variety of dissolved constituents. 0. 1tmospheric water generation is a new technology that can provide high quality drinking water y e!tracting water from the air y cooling the air and thus condensing water vapor. 2. .ainwater harvesting or fog collection which collects water from the atmosphere can e used especially in areas with significant dry seasons and in areas which e!perience fog even when there is little rain. 3. "esalination of seawater y distillation or reverse osmosis. 4. Surface Water: Freshwater odies that are open to the atmosphere and are not designated as groundwater are classified in the )S1 for regulatory and water purification purposes as surface water.

Treatment
The processes elow are the ones commonly used in water purification plants. Some or most may not e used depending on the scale of the plant and quality of the raw #source% water.

Pre-treatment
5. &umping and containment 6 The ma'ority of water must e pumped from its source or directed into pipes or holding tanks. To avoid adding contaminants to the water, this physical infrastructure must e made from appropriate materials and constructed so that accidental contamination does not occur. 2. Screening #see also screen filter% 6 The first step in purifying surface water is to remove large de ris such as sticks, leaves, ru ish and other large particles which may interfere with su sequent purification steps. +ost deep groundwater does not need screening efore other purification steps.
3. Storage 6 Water from rivers may also e stored in ankside reservoirs for periods

etween a few days and many months to allow natural iological purification to take place. This is especially important if treatment is y slow sand filters. Storage reservoirs also provide a uffer against short periods of drought or to allow water supply to e maintained during transitory pollution incidents in the source river. 0. &re7chlorination 6 8n many plants the incoming water was chlorinated to minimi$e the growth of fouling organisms on the pipe7work and tanks. *ecause of the potential adverse quality effects #see chlorine elow%, this has largely een discontinued Widely varied techniques are availa le to remove the fine solids, micro7organisms and some dissolved inorganic and organic materials. The choice of method will depend on the quality of the water eing treated, the cost of the treatment process and the quality standards e!pected of the processed water. pH adjustment &ure water has a p, close to 4 #neither alkaline nor acidic%. Sea water can have p, values that range from 4.2 to 9.0 #moderately alkaline%. Fresh water can have widely ranging p, values depending on the geology of the drainage asin or aquifer and the influence of contaminant inputs #acid rain%. 8f the water is acidic #lower than 4%, lime, soda ash, or sodium hydro!ide can e added to raise the p, during water purification processes. /ime addition increases the calcium ion concentration, thus raising the water hardness. For highly acidic waters, forced draft degasifiers can e an effective way to raise the p,, y stripping dissolved car on dio!ide from the water. +aking the water alkaline helps coagulation and flocculation processes work effectively and also helps to minimi$e the risk of lead eing dissolved from lead pipes and from lead solder in pipe fittings. Sufficient alkalinity also reduces the corrosiveness of water to iron pipes. 1cid #car onic acid, hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid% may e added to alkaline waters in some circumstances to lower the p,. 1lkaline water #a ove p, 4.:% does not necessarily mean that lead or copper from the plum ing system will not e dissolved into the water. The a ility of water to precipitate calcium car onate to protect metal surfaces and reduce the likelihood of to!ic metals eing dissolved in water is a function of p,, mineral content, temperature, alkalinity and calcium concentration.

Coagulation and flocculation

;ne of the first steps in a conventional water purification process is the addition of chemicals to assist in the removal of particles suspended in water. &articles can e inorganic such as clay and silt or organic such as algae, acteria, viruses, proto$oa and natural organic matter. 8norganic and organic particles contri ute to the tur idity and colour of water. The addition of inorganic coagulants such as aluminum sulfate #or alum% or iron #888% salts such as iron#888% chloride cause several simultaneous chemical and physical interactions on and among the particles. Within seconds, negative charges on the particles are neutrali$ed y inorganic coagulants. 1lso within seconds, metal hydro!ide precipitates of the aluminum and iron #888% ions egin to form. These precipitates com ine into larger particles under natural processes such as *rownian motion and through induced mi!ing which is sometimes referred to as flocculation. The term most often used for the amorphous metal hydro!ides is <floc.= /arge, amorphous aluminum and iron #888% hydro!ides adsor and enmesh particles in suspension and facilitate the removal of particles y su sequent processes of sedimentation and filtration.:9.(69.1luminum hydro!ides are formed within a fairly narrow range, typically: 2.2 to a out 4.4. 8ron #888% hydro!ides can form over a larger p, range including p, levels lower than are effective for alum, typically: 2.: to 9.2.>:34? 8n the literature, there is much de ate and confusion over the usage of the terms coagulation and flocculation@where does coagulation end and flocculation eginA 8n water purification plants, there is usually a high energy, rapid mi! unit process #detention time in seconds% where the coagulant chemicals are added followed y flocculation asins #detention times range from 52 to 02 minutes% where low energy inputs turn large paddles or other gentle mi!ing devices to enhance the formation of floc. 8n fact, coagulation and flocculation processes are ongoing once the metal salt coagulants are added.B>:4062 ;rganic polymers were developed in the 5?3:s as aids to coagulants and, in some cases, as replacements for the inorganic metal salt coagulants. Synthetic organic polymers are high molecular weight compounds that carry negative, positive or neutral charges. When organic polymers are added to water with particulates, the high molecular weight compounds adsor onto particle surfaces and through interparticle ridging coalesce with other particles to form floc. &oly"1"+1C is a popular cationic #positively charged% organic polymer used in water purification plants.>:33469

Sedimentation
Waters e!iting the flocculation asin may enter the sedimentation asin, also called a clarifier or settling asin. 8t is a large tank with low water velocities, allowing floc to settle to the ottom. The sedimentation asin is est located close to the flocculation asin so the transit etween the two processes does not permit settlement or floc reak up. Sedimentation asins may e rectangular, where water flows from end to end, or circular where flow is from the centre outward. Sedimentation asin outflow is typically over a weir so only a thin top layer of water@ that furthest from the sludge@e!its.

8n 5?:0, 1llen ,a$en showed that the efficiency of a sedimentation process was a function of the particle settling velocity, the flow through the tank and the surface area of tank. Sedimentation tanks are typically designed within a range of overflow rates of :.2 to 5.: gallons per minute per square foot #or 5.(2 to (.2 meters per hour%. 8n general, sedimentation asin efficiency is not a function of detention time or depth of the asin. 1lthough, asin depth must e sufficient so that water currents do not distur the sludge and settled particle interactions are promoted. 1s particle concentrations in the settled water increase near the sludge surface on the ottom of the tank, settling velocities can increase due to collisions and agglomeration of particles. Typical detention times for sedimentation vary from 5.2 to 0 hours and asin depths vary from 5: to 52 feet #- to 0.2 meters%.B9>:?.-?7?.0:B?>:4?:65B5:>:50:6(, 545 8nclined flat plates or tu es can e added to traditional sedimentation asins to improve particle removal performance. 8nclined plates and tu es drastically increase the surface area availa le for particles to e removed in concert with ,a$enDs original theory. The amount of ground surface area occupied y a sedimentation asin with inclined plates or tu es can e far smaller than a conventional sedimentation asin. Sludge storage and removal 1s particles settle to the ottom of a sedimentation asin, a layer of sludge is formed on the floor of the tank. This layer of sludge must e removed and treated. The amount of sludge that is generated is significant, often - to 2 percent of the total volume of water that is treated. The cost of treating and disposing of the sludge can e a significant part of the operating cost of a water treatment plant. The sedimentation tank may e equipped with mechanical cleaning devices that continually clean the ottom of the tank or the tank can e periodically taken out of service and cleaned manually. Floc blanket clarifiers 1 su category of sedimentation is the removal of particulates y entrapment in a layer of suspended floc as the water is forced upward. The ma'or advantage of floc lanket clarifiers is that they occupy a smaller footprint than conventional sedimentation. "isadvantages are that particle removal efficiency can e highly varia le depending on changes in influent water quality and influent water flow rate.:9-263

Dissolved air flotation

When particles to e removed do not settle out of solution easily, dissolved air flotation #"1F% is often used. Water supplies that are particularly vulnera le to unicellular algae looms and supplies with low tur idity and high colour often employ "1F. 1fter coagulation and flocculation processes, water flows to "1F tanks where air diffusers on the tank ottom create fine u les that attach to floc resulting in a floating mass of concentrated floc. The floating floc lanket is removed from the surface and clarified water is withdrawn from the ottom of the "1F tank.B9>:?.03

Filtration

1fter separating most floc, the water is filtered as the final step to remove remaining suspended particles and unsettled floc. Rapid sand filters

Cutaway view of a typical rapid sand filter The most common type of filter is a rapid sand filter. Water moves vertically through sand which often has a layer of activated car on or anthracite coal a ove the sand. The top layer removes organic compounds, which contri ute to taste and odour. The space etween sand particles is larger than the smallest suspended particles, so simple filtration is not enough. +ost particles pass through surface layers ut are trapped in pore spaces or adhere to sand particles. Effective filtration e!tends into the depth of the filter. This property of the filter is key to its operation: if the top layer of sand were to lock all the particles, the filter would quickly clog.> To clean the filter, water is passed quickly upward through the filter, opposite the normal direction #called backflushing or backwashing% to remove em edded particles. &rior to this step, compressed air may e lown up through the ottom of the filter to reak up the compacted filter media to aid the ackwashing processF this is known as air scouring. This contaminated water can e disposed of, along with the sludge from the sedimentation asin, or it can e recycled y mi!ing with the raw water entering the plant although this is often considered poor practice since it re7introduces an elevated concentration of acteria into the raw water Some water treatment plants employ pressure filters. These work on the same principle as rapid gravity filters, differing in that the filter medium is enclosed in a steel vessel and the water is forced through it under pressure. 1dvantages:

Filters out much smaller particles than paper and sand filters can. Filters out virtually all particles larger than their specified pore si$es. They are quite thin and so liquids flow through them fairly rapidly. They are reasona ly strong and so can withstand pressure differences across them of typically (62 atmospheres.

They can e cleaned # ack flushed% and reused.

Slow sand filters

Slow GartificialG filtration #a variation of ank filtration% to the ground, Water purification plant HIranJ, C$ech .epu lic Slow sand filters may e used where there is sufficient land and space, as the water must e passed very slowly through the filters. These filters rely on iological treatment processes for their action rather than physical filtration. The filters are carefully constructed using graded layers of sand, with the coarsest sand, along with some gravel, at the ottom and finest sand at the top. "rains at the ase convey treated water away for disinfection. Filtration depends on the development of a thin iological layer, called the $oogleal layer or Schmut$decke, on the surface of the filter. 1n effective slow sand filter may remain in service for many weeks or even months if the pre7treatment is well designed and produces water with a very low availa le nutrient level which physical methods of treatment rarely achieve. Kery low nutrient levels allow water to e safely sent through distri ution systems with very low disinfectant levels, there y reducing consumer irritation over offensive levels of chlorine and chlorine y7products. Slow sand filters are not ackwashedF they are maintained y having the top layer of sand scraped off when flow is eventually o structed y iological growth> 1 specific Glarge7scaleG form of slow sand filter is the process of ank filtration, in which natural sediments in a river ank are used to provide a first stage of contaminant filtration. While typically not clean enough to e used directly for drinking water, the water gained from the associated e!traction wells is much less pro lematic than river water taken directly from the ma'or streams where ank filtration is often used.

embrane filtration
+em rane filters are widely used for filtering oth drinking water and sewage. For drinking water, mem rane filters can remove virtually all particles larger than :.( um@including giardia and cryptosporidium. +em rane filters are an effective form of tertiary treatment when it is desired to reuse the water for industry, for limited domestic purposes, or efore discharging the water into a river that is used y towns further downstream. They are widely used in industry, particularly for everage preparation #including ottled water%. ,owever no filtration can remove su stances that are actually dissolved in the water such as phosphorus, nitrates and heavy metal ions.

Removal of ions and ot!er dissolved substances

)ltrafiltration mem ranes use polymer mem ranes with chemically formed microscopic pores that can e used to filter out dissolved su stances avoiding the use of coagulants. The type of mem rane media determines how much pressure is needed to drive the water through and what si$es of micro7organisms can e filtered out. 8on e!change: 8on e!change systems use ion e!change resin7 or $eolite7packed columns to replace unwanted ions. The most common case is water softening consisting of removal of Ca(L and +g(L ions replacing them with enign #soap friendly% MaL or HL ions. 8on e!change resins are also used to remove to!ic ions such as nitrate, nitrite, lead, mercury, arsenic and many others. &recipitative softening:B9>:5-.5(65-.29 Water rich in hardness #calcium and magnesium ions% is treated with lime #calcium o!ide% andNor soda7ash #sodium car onate% to precipitate calcium car onate out of solution utili$ing the common7ion effect. Electrodeioni$ation:> Water is passed etween a positive electrode and a negative electrode. 8on e!change mem ranes allow only positive ions to migrate from the treated water toward the negative electrode and only negative ions toward the positive electrode. ,igh purity deioni$ed water is produced with a little worse degree of purification in comparison with ion e!change treatment. Complete removal of ions from water is regarded as electrodialysis. The water is often pre7treated with a reverse osmosis unit to remove non7ionic organic contaminants.

Disinfection
"isinfection is accomplished oth y filtering out harmful micro7organisms and also y adding disinfectant chemicals. Water is disinfected to kill any pathogens which pass through the filters and to provide a residual dose of disinfectant to kill or inactivate potentially harmful micro7 organisms in the storage and distri ution systems. &ossi le pathogens include viruses, acteria, including Salmonella, Cholera, Campylobacter and Shigella, and proto$oa, including Giardia lamblia and other cryptosporidia. Following the introduction of any chemical disinfecting agent, the water is usually held in temporary storage 6 often called a contact tank or clear well to allow the disinfecting action to complete. C!lorine disinfection +ain article: Water chlorination The most common disinfection method involves some form of chlorine or its compounds such as chloramine or chlorine dio!ide. Chlorine is a strong o!idant that rapidly kills many harmful micro7organisms. *ecause chlorine is a to!ic gas, there is a danger of a release associated with its use. This pro lem is avoided y the use of sodium hypochlorite, which is a relatively ine!pensive solution that releases free chlorine when dissolved in water. Chlorine solutions can e generated on site y electroly$ing common salt solutions. 1 solid form, calcium hypochlorite, releases chlorine on contact with water. ,andling the solid, however, requires greater routine human contact through opening ags and pouring than the use of gas cylinders or leach which

are more easily automated. The generation of liquid sodium hypochlorite is oth ine!pensive and safer than the use of gas or solid chlorine. 1ll forms of chlorine are widely used, despite their respective draw acks. ;ne draw ack is that chlorine from any source reacts with natural organic compounds in the water to form potentially harmful chemical y7products. These y7products, trihalomethanes #T,+s% and haloacetic acids #,11s%, are oth carcinogenic in large quantities and are regulated y the )nited States Environmental &rotection 1gency #E&1% and the "rinking Water 8nspectorate in the )H. The formation of T,+s and haloacetic acids may e minimi$ed y effective removal of as many organics from the water as possi le prior to chlorine addition. 1lthough chlorine is effective in killing acteria, it has limited effectiveness against proto$oa that form cysts in water #Giardia lamblia and Cryptosporidium, oth of which are pathogenic%. C!lorine dio"ide disinfection Chlorine dio!ide is a faster7acting disinfectant than elemental chlorine. 8t is relatively rarely used, ecause in some circumstances it may create e!cessive amounts of chlorite, which is a y7 product regulated to low allowa le levels in the )nited States. Chlorine dio!ide is supplied as an aqueous solution and added to water to avoid gas handling pro lemsF chlorine dio!ide gas accumulations may spontaneously detonate. C!loramine disinfection The use of chloramine is ecoming more common as a disinfectant. 1lthough chloramine is not as strong an o!idant, it does provide a longer7lasting residual than free chlorine and it wonOt form T,+s or haloacetic acids. 8t is possi le to convert chlorine to chloramine y adding ammonia to the water after addition of chlorine. The chlorine and ammonia react to form chloramine. Water distri ution systems disinfected with chloramines may e!perience nitrification, as ammonia is a nutrient for acterial growth, with nitrates eing generated as a y7product. #$one disinfection ;$one is an unsta le molecule which readily gives up one atom of o!ygen providing a powerful o!idi$ing agent which is to!ic to most water orne organisms. 8t is a very strong, road spectrum disinfectant that is widely used in Europe. 8t is an effective method to inactivate harmful proto$oa that form cysts. 8t also works well against almost all other pathogens. ;$one is made y passing o!ygen through ultraviolet light or a GcoldG electrical discharge. To use o$one as a disinfectant, it must e created on7site and added to the water y u le contact. Some of the advantages of o$one include the production of fewer dangerous y7products and the a sence of taste and odour pro lems #in comparison to chlorination% . 1lthough fewer y7products are formed y o$onation, it has een discovered that o$one reacts with romide ions in water to produce concentrations of the suspected carcinogen romate. *romide can e found in fresh water supplies in sufficient concentrations to produce #after o$onation% more than 5: pp of romate @ the ma!imum contaminant level esta lished y the )SE&1.B5-> 1nother advantage of o$one is that it leaves no residual disinfectant in the water. ;$one has een used in drinking water plants since 5?:3 where the first industrial o$onation plant was uilt in Mice, France. The

).S. Food and "rug 1dministration has accepted o$one as eing safeF and it is applied as an anti7micro iological agent for the treatment, storage, and processing of foods. %ltraviolet disinfection )ltraviolet light #)K% is very effective at inactivating cysts, in low tur idity water. )K lightOs disinfection effectiveness decreases as tur idity increases, a result of the a sorption, scattering, and shadowing caused y the suspended solids. The main disadvantage to the use of )K radiation is that, like o$one treatment, it leaves no residual disinfectant in the waterF therefore, it is sometimes necessary to add a residual disinfectant after the primary disinfection process. This is often done through the addition of chloramines, discussed a ove as a primary disinfectant. When used in this manner, chloramines provide an effective residual disinfectant with very few of the negative effects of chlorination. &arious portable met!ods of disinfection +ain article: &orta le water purification 1vaila le for disinfection in emergencies or in remote locations. "isinfection is the primary goal, since aesthetic considerations such as taste, odor, appearance, and trace chemical contamination do not affect the short7term safety of drinking water. Solar water disinfection ;ne low7cost method of disinfecting water that can often e implemented with locally availa le materials is solar disinfection #S;"8S )nlike methods that rely on firewood, it has low impact on the environment. ;ne recent study has found that the wild Salmonella which would reproduce quickly during su sequent dark storage of solar7disinfected water could e controlled y the addition of 'ust 5: parts per million of hydrogen pero!ide.B

'dditional treatment options

5. Water fluoridation: in many areas fluoride is added to water with the goal of preventing tooth decay.> Fluoride is usually added after the disinfection process. 8n the ).S., fluoridation is usually accomplished y the addition of he!afluorosilicic acid,B(5> which decomposes in water, yielding fluoride ions. Water conditioning: This is a method of reducing the effects of hard water. 8n water systems su 'ect to heating hardness salts can e deposited as the decomposition of icar onate ions creates car onate ions that precipitate out of solution. Water with high concentrations of hardness salts can e treated with soda ash #sodium car onate% which precipitates out the e!cess salts, through the common7ion effect, producing calcium car onate of very high purity. The precipitated calcium car onate is traditionally sold to the manufacturers of toothpaste. Several other methods of industrial and residential water treatment are claimed #without

general scientific acceptance% to include the use of magnetic andNor electrical fields reducing the effects of hard water> 2. &lum osolvency reduction: 8n areas with naturally acidic waters of low conductivity #i.e. surface rainfall in upland mountains of igneous rocks%, the water may e capa le of dissolving lead from any lead pipes that it is carried in. The addition of small quantities of phosphate ion and increasing the p, slightly oth assist in greatly reducing plum o7 solvency y creating insolu le lead salts on the inner surfaces of the pipes.
3. .adium .emoval: Some groundwater sources contain radium, a radioactive chemical

element. Typical sources include many groundwater sources north of the 8llinois .iver in 8llinois. .adium can e removed y ion e!change, or y water conditioning. The ack flush or sludge that is produced is, however, a low7level radioactive waste. 0. Fluoride .emoval: 1lthough fluoride is added to water in many areas, some areas of the world have e!cessive levels of natural fluoride in the source water. E!cessive levels can e to!ic or cause undesira le cosmetic effects such as staining of teeth. +ethods of reducing fluoride levels is through treatment with activated alumina and one char filter media.

#t!er water purification tec!ni(ues

;ther popular methods for purifying water, especially for local private supplies are listed elow. 8n some countries some of these methods are also used for large scale municipal supplies. &articularly important are distillation #de7salination of seawater% and reverse osmosis.
1. *oiling: *ringing it to its oiling point at 5:: PC #(5( PF%, is the oldest and most

effective way since it eliminates most micro es causing intestine related diseases, ut it cannot remove chemical to!ins or impurities.B(0> For human health, complete sterili$ation of water is not required, since the heat resistant micro es are not intestine affecting.> The traditional advice of oiling water for ten minutes is mainly for additional safety, since micro es start getting eliminated at temperatures greater than 3: PC #50: PF%. Though the oiling point decreases with increasing altitude, it is not enough to affect the disinfecting process. 8n areas where the water is GhardG #that is, containing significant dissolved calcium salts%, oiling decomposes the icar onate ions, resulting in partial precipitation as calcium car onate. This is the GfurG that uilds up on kettle elements, etc., in hard water areas. With the e!ception of calcium, oiling does not remove solutes of higher oiling point than water and in fact increases their concentration #due to some water eing lost as vapour%. *oiling does not leave a residual disinfectant in the water. Therefore, water that is oiled and then stored for any length of time may acquire new pathogens. (. Granular 1ctivated Car on filtering: a form of activated car on with a high surface area, adsor s many compounds including many to!ic compounds. Water passing through activated car on is commonly used in municipal regions with organic contamination, taste or odors. +any household water filters and fish tanks use activated car on filters to further purify the water. ,ousehold filters for drinking water sometimes contain silver as metallic silver nanoparticle. 8f water is held in the car on lock for longer period,

microorganisms can grow inside which results in fouling and contamination. Silver nanoparticles are e!cellent anti7 acterial material and they can decompose to!ic halo7 organic compounds such as pesticides into non7to!ic organic products.> -. "istillation involves oiling the water to produce water vapour. The vapour contacts a cool surface where it condenses as a liquid. *ecause the solutes are not normally vaporised, they remain in the oiling solution. Even distillation does not completely purify water, ecause of contaminants with similar oiling points and droplets of unvapourised liquid carried with the steam. ,owever, ??.?Q pure water can e o tained y distillation.
4. .everse osmosis: +echanical pressure is applied to an impure solution to force pure

water through a semi7permea le mem rane. .everse osmosis is theoretically the most thorough method of large scale water purification availa le, although perfect semi7 permea le mem ranes are difficult to create. )nless mem ranes are well7maintained, algae and other life forms can coloni$e the mem ranes.
5. The use of iron in removing arsenic from water. See 1rsenic contamination of

groundwater. 3. "irect contact mem rane distillation #"C+"%. 1pplica le to desalination. ,eated seawater is passed along the surface of a hydropho ic polymer mem rane. Evaporated water passes from the hot side through pores in the mem rane into a stream of cold pure water on the other side. The difference in vapour pressure etween the hot and cold side helps to push water molecules through.
7. "esalination 7 is a process y which saline water #generally sea water% is converted to

fresh water. The most common desalination processes are distillation and reverse osmosis. "esalination is currently e!pensive compared to most alternative sources of water, and only a very small fraction of total human use is satisfied y desalination. 8t is only economically practical for high7valued uses #such as household and industrial uses% in arid areas. 9. Gas hydrate crystals centrifuge method. 8f car on dio!ide or other low molecular weight gas is mi!ed with contaminated water at high pressure and low temperature, gas hydrate crystals will form e!othermically. Separation of the crystalline hydrate may e performed y centrifuge or sedimentation and decanting. Water can e released from the hydrate crystals y heating ?. 8n Situ Chemical ;!idation, a form of advanced o!idation processes and advanced o!idation technology, is an environmental remediation technique used for soil andNor groundwater remediation to reduce the concentrations of targeted environmental contaminants to accepta le levels. 8SC; is accomplished y in'ecting or otherwise introducing strong chemical o!idi$ers directly into the contaminated medium #soil or groundwater% to destroy chemical contaminants in place. 8t can e used to remediate a variety of organic compounds, including some that are resistant to natural degradation