Overarching Theme Change through Time Evolution What Evidence is used to Support this Theory?

y? Big Idea The Theory of Natural Selection explains evolution and the diversity of life; the mechanism of evolution has a genetic basis
THE ORIGIN OF LIFE How Did We Get Here? Evidence indicates that a sequence of chemical events preceded the origin of life on Earth and that life has evolved continuously since that time In 1953, Drs. Stanley Miller and Harold Urey performed an experiment they combined together hydrogen gas, methane gas, ammonia gas and gaseous water (to simulate early Earths atmosphere) they then added electricity and ultraviolet light (to simulate an energy source) It resulted in a brown tar-like substance which, after analysis was found to contain some of the same chemicals that make up living things, showed that simple organic molecules can be made from inorganic compounds This experiment is one of several theories that seek to explain how life on earth developed Another theory about how the molecules of life formed includes the primordial soup theory. Suggests that, during early earth, compounds began to link together in various ways to make amino acids, lipids, etc. In shallow pools, droplets of the soup collected and formed a wall or barrier (membrane) to the outside. Over time these became cells. This is an important stage in the evolution of life. The first true cells came into existence 3.5 billion years ago these o Did not require oxygen, likely were prokaryotic and lived near hydrothermal vents o These archaea made energy from inorganic compounds like sulphur = chemotrophic o Photosynthesizing prokaryotes likely evolved soon after, called cyanobacteria o Cyanobacteria eventually produced enough O2 to support formation of the ozone layer and create Earths atmosphere allowing for the appearance of eukaryotic cells EVIDENCE FOR EVOLUTION

Evolution is an observable process and is supported by multiple lines of evidence. A) Direct Evidence The Bones of the Earth - Fossils most often result when an organism dies, sediments build layers over the remains and minerals replace the hard body parts (bones, teeth) - Other geologic processes can preserve animal tracks, tunnels and excrement! - Are usually only found in areas with silt or mud (fine grained sediment) and in stable rock beds (no upheaval) 1|Page

In a rock bed, older rocks (and therefore fossils) lie on the bottom, newer ones at top = the Principle of Superposition, which allows for relative dating of fossils (look at sequence of layers to determine which is older, which is younger) To get accurate dates, we must use radioactive dating methods Problems with the fossil records include o Gaps! (missing links), missing ancestral links cause debate about the pattern of evolution. This can happen when fossils get destroyed, fossils are not found or fossils were never formed (perhaps not correct conditions) o Also, most rock containing fossils is sedimentary rock, which cannot be accurately dated. So igneous rocks found in layers close to fossils are used to assign approximate fossil dates found in.

Learning Activity Complete Evolution of the Horse Activity B) i) Indirect Evidence Oh Baby! Embryology The embryos of many species show a strong similarity as they develop The closer the evolutionary relationship, the more common the embryonic development This is mirrored in the Theory of Recapitulation, which states that ontogeny recapitulates phylogeny OR every organism repeats its evolutionary development in its embryology. Embryonic development of an individual organism (its ontogeny) follows the same path as the evolutionary history of its species (its phylogeny). Shown below are vertebrate embryos, all with a tail and pharyngeal pouches in early stages of development. In fish and amphibians, these develop into gills. In reptiles, birds and mammals, these same structures become parts of the ears, jaws and throat. Though adult forms differ, shared embryonic features suggest vertebrates evolved from a common ancestor.

ii) Body Bits Comparative Anatomy (see handout) - Homologous structures = structures of different species that have the same basic structure and pattern of early growth - Sometimes these structures serve different functions, but structure is similar enough to suggest common ancestral origin

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Evolution predicts that an organisms body parts are more likely to be modifications of ancestral body parts rather than entirely new features. Examples include bat wings, human arm and dolphin fin Analogous structures = anatomically different but serve similar functions, such as a bat wing (skin stretched over elongated finger bones) and a butterfly wing (thin, non-living membrane), likely evidence of convergent evolution rather than indicating a common ancestor Vestigial structures = organs or body parts that serve no purpose or are no longer functional Examples include snake hips, human tail (coccyx), dog thumb, appendix, whale legs, kiwi wings

iii) Its All in the Genes Comparative Biochemistry - Scientific data shows that common ancestry can be seen in the complex metabolic molecules that many different organisms share - A commonly used comparison looks at cytochrome c, an enzyme that is essential for respiration in all animals - Evolution predicts that molecules in species with a recent common ancestor will share amino acid sequences (the arrangement of a.a. needed to make it). The greater number of sequences shared, the more closely related the species. - Can also compare other biochemical sequences such as DNA, and RNA - Common genes vs. specialized genes which has more specialization? E.g. humans and nematodes (roundworms) share the same genes, but humans have a few others that nematodes lack. - Compare the same place on chromosomes, what percentage difference exists between the placements of DNA bases of two organisms for this gene? The bigger the percentage difference = more accumulated genetic change and therefore have a more distant evolutionary relationship. iv) Where in the World? - Geographic Distribution (Zoogeography) = geographic isolation of organisms over the Earth - As organisms were separated (due to continental drift) the likelihood of genetic differentiation increased - Evolution closely linked to climate and geologic forces; helps explain ancestral relationships and geographic distribution of fossils and living organisms today - Examples - ostriches in Africa, emus in Australia - abundance of marsupials in Australia - differences between Old World (non-prehensile tails, land dwelling) and New World (prehensile tails, tree dwelling) monkeys Learning Activity Complete Comparative Biochemistry Activity

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C) Patterns of Evolution i) Divergent Evolution (Adaptive Radiation) = reproductively isolated populations of the same species in different environments will adapt and evolve in response to the selective pressures unique to that environment. - Eventually, so many differences will exist in the gene pool that the populations can no longer interbreed and become different species- Example: Bats have evolved into fruit-eating, insect eating and blood sucking depending on their environment

ii) Convergent Evolution = geographically isolated populations of different species in similar environments will adapt and evolve towards common/similar physiology - Examples: anteater and aardvark; Tasmanian wolf and grey wolf; shark and dolphin - evolve similarities in body form, physiology and behaviour

iii) Coevolution = when organisms that are closely connected to each other through ecological interactions evolve in response to changes in the other - Can be mutualistic the comet orchid and the moth that pollinates it or can be a coevolutionary arms race such as what occurs between plants and plant-eating insects. The plant evolves a chemical defense against the insects. Natural selection in insects favours genetic traits that can alter, eliminate or withstand the plants chemical defenses. The plant evolves new defenses, the insect responds iv) Gradual Evolution (Gradualism) = a model that states the evolution is a slow, gradual, constant process with speciation (development of new species) happening at a slow, steady rate - so slow that many species remain unchanged after millions of years (e.g. jellyfish, crocodiles) v) Punctuated Equilibrium = a period of little change (due to a stable environment) followed by a period of rapid genetic change - usually in response to a disastrous event such as a big environmental change (ice age, volcanic eruption), when a key species dies out (e.g. dinosaurs) or when a small population becomes isolated from the large population (genetic changes spread more quickly among fewer individuals) - the tempo of evolution likely is a combination of these two 4|Page

THE EVOLUTION OF EVOLUTION Ideas that Shaped Darwins Thinking A) First Things First What is Evolution? - Evolution = change over time, is the process by which modern organism have descended from ancient organisms (i.e. changes in a bunch of organisms over a long time) - Changes have a genetic basis: caused by mutations during DNA replication or gene shuffling that results from sexual reproduction - Evolution affects groups of organisms, but not necessarily the entire species since they may exist in populations spread over the Earth - Population = a group of individuals of the same species occupying a given area at the same time. B) Way Back in the Day - People observed variation but accepted the theory of original divine creation presented by religious organizations - The belief was that everything was created in a perfect, unchanging form that was organized in a hierarchy with sponges at the bottom and humans on top. - most thought that the Earth and all forms of life had been created only a few thousand years ago C) Along Came the Renaissance (14th -17th centuries) - Increased interest in the study of nature, less reliance on simple early interpretations i) daVinci 1400s correctly interpreted fossil finds (of marine organisms found in mountains!) as remnants of animals that had existed but were now extinct, this challenged the creationist viewpoint ii) le Clerk de Buffon 1750s asked how could organisms have been created at the same time when so many organisms are limited to one location? - argued for centres of creation from which creatures underwent modification over time D) First Scientific Theory of Evolution Lamarck early 1800s suggested that organisms possess a vital innate force to change themselves to be more successful in their environment -thought that, in response to a need, animals can produce a new part to meet that need - parts that were used more were passed to offspring, parts used less werent (Law of Use and Disuse and Inheritance of Acquired Traits) - used giraffes necks to support his idea - theory later found to be incorrect, in particular because traits are genetically inherited so an organisms behaviour has no effect on its inherited ch aracteristics - but, he did state a mechanism of evolution, that is, that evolution is a result of adaptation to environmental conditions E) Along Came a Darwin (and a Wallace) - 1850s - Charles Darwin and Arthur Wallace came up with the theory of natural selection at the same time! 5|Page

- They shared information but since Darwin was wealthy, college-educated and in society he got the credit. - At age 22, Darwin was appointed the gentleman naturalist on the H.M.S. Beagle which was a round the world mapping expedition, during which he observed and catalogued many previously unknown specimens - he observed patterns of diversity and recognized organisms were well suited for their unique environments - his visit to the Galapagos Islands, a series of isolated volcanic islands in the Pacific Ocean off the coast of Ecuador, proved to be most influential on his developing theory. Animals on these islands showed more similarity to South American specimens than to those on islands in similar latitudes, but they were not the same as those in South America e.g. finches and iguanas. He began to wonder if animals he observed had once been members of the same species and had evolved from a single ancestor v) Lets Think About It Other Ideas in the 1800s - Perfect unchanging forms idea put forth by creationists blown out of the water by breeders who produced variation in plants and animals through artificial selection. - Breeders would select for specific sets of alleles that produced desired characteristics (e.g. increased milk production in cows, specific traits in dogs) - Fossil evidence some fossils were found that had no living equivalent - Geological evidence found by Hutton (1780s) and Lyell (1830s) determined that the Earth was much older than previously thought and that the earth itself has been changed and rearranged through geological processes - This made Darwin ask If the Earth could change over time, might life change as well? - Darwin put all this stuff together in his theory Evolution by Natural Selection that states: The struggle for existence means favourable variations are preserved and unfavourable conditions are eliminated in the adaptation of a population to the environment. This eventually may lead to enough modification to cause origin of a new species. DARWINS THEORY OF NATURAL SELECTION Includes the following five components 1. Variation - natural variation, caused by genetic mutations, exists in all populations and is passed to successive generations - eg. Some sunflowers are taller than others and pass these traits to offspring 2. Competition - organisms face a struggle for existence and must compete for limited resources (e.g. food, space, mates, water, shelter) this results in some members of a population surviving and others not - eg. In some habitats, shorter sunflowers survive more easily than tall ones because they dry out less quickly 3. Overproduction - populations produce more offspring than can survive 6|Page

- eg. Each sunflower produces 100s of seeds, most of which will not germinate or will be eaten by animals 4. Survival of The Fittest - individuals with particular traits more suited to their environment are more likely to survive and reproduce and will pass on these favourable traits to offspring - nature/environment is the selector, determining the organisms that will survive - eg. In some habitats, shorter sunflowers survive and reproduce more successfully. Over time the average height of the sunflower population is short if this trend continues. 5. Origin of New Species - over numerous (=takes a long time) generations, a new species may arise due to increased genetic variation - eg. After many generations, the short sunflowers may become a new species if they are not able to breed with the original ones, tall ones may become extinct

TYPES OF SELECTION 7|Page

A) Natural Selection (see above!) Compare Lamarck to Darwin Lamarck -species change over long periods of time -environment causes the change in the organism -theory of Acquired Characteristics and Law of Use and Disuse - knew that traits were passed to offspring, but did not know the exact mechanism

Darwin species change over long periods of time -environment chooses/selects the favourable variation -variation exists because of differing genetic composition of the population - knew that traits were passed to offspring, but did not know the exact mechanism

B) Artificial Selection - using the principles of natural selection to domesticate wild organisms - choosing desirable characteristics and selectively breeding organisms - Examples: dog varieties for hunting, racing, herding, etc., also plants selected for pest resistance, productivity, etc. D) Accidental Selection - humans create unintentional changes in the genetic characteristics of organisms - DDT (chemical pesticide) resistant insects - Antibiotic resistant bacteria (superbugs) TYPES OF ADAPTATIONS Adaptations= traits or characteristics that make a species better suited to its environment, favourable variations A) Structural - arrangement of body parts - examples include - animal forelimbs; human grasping and holding bats flying seals swimming - plants Venus flytrap and pitcher plants have modified leaves for catching insects for food B) Physiological - includes chemicals within an organism such as - pheromones used for mate attraction and alarm signals - enzymes (biological catalysts) - venom or toxins C) Behavioural - actions by an organism to stay alive and reproduce such as - migration 8|Page

- hibernation or torpor = (usually short-term) state of decreased physiological activity in an animal, usually characterized by a reduced body temperature and rate of metabolism - tropisms in plants, phototropism (response to light), chemotropism (response to chemicals), geotropism (response to gravity) MECHANISMS OF EVOLUTION Evolution occurs at the population level with genes as the raw material. i) The Role of Genetics - many different genes control all the features of an organism - the different variations of a given gene are called alleles - in a population, all the available alleles are referred to as the gene pool - if members of a population displaying a certain allele had a survival disadvantage, they would die and the frequency of that allele would decrease, causing other alleles to increase in frequency -this change in gene frequencies in a population is the modern view of evolution ii) Sources of Genetic Variation A) Mutations = any change in a sequence of DNA , caused by replication errors (incorrect pairing of bases) or as a result of radiation or chemicals in the environment - most mutations are either benign or put an individual at a survival disadvantage, however a few may provide an advantage and would increase in frequency in a gene pool B) Gene Shuffling = process that occurs during gamete production in sexual reproduction - each chromosome moves independently during meiosis, in humans with 23 pairs of chromosomes, gene shuffling can result in 8.4 million different combinations of genes!!! - produces many different combinations of genes but does not change relative frequencies of each type of allele in a population iii) Agents of Evolutionary Change its not just natural selection anymore! Evolutionary theories continue to evolve and be refined as scientists learn new information. If the frequency of genes in the gene pool changes, evolution has occurred. A) Mutations see section above B) Genetic Drift any change in allelic frequencies in a population that is due to chance, occurs only in small populations when individuals carrying a specific allele may leave more descendants than other individuals just by chance C) Gene Flow very few populations are closed systems (no organisms in/out) so in most situations the random movement of individuals between populations, or migration, reduces differences in allelic frequencies between populations D) Non-Random Mating rarely is mating completely random in a population, usually organisms mate with individuals in close proximity or through sexual selection (females choosing to mate with males with specific traits), this selection process changes allelic frequencies in a gene pool E) Natural Selection yup, Darwins ideas still hold true, natural selection acts by selecting the individuals best adapted for survival and reproduction, and thus alters allelic frequencies

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EXTINCTION = the permanent disappearance of a species from the Earth as a result of environmental events or human actions - in terms of Natural Selection, means that the species was unfit for its habitat and its gene pool was removed from nature never to reappear again - mass extinctions have occurred at least 5 times in Earths history, means that over 80% of all species become extinct in a relatively short time period -the last mass extinction occurred 65 m.y.a., when the last dinosaurs died out A) What Killed the Dinosaurs? Several possible theories including - Change in climate (ice age) - Change in vegetation, rapid evolution of plants caused development of plant toxins, dinosaurs didnt evolve as rapidly - Competition, small, scavenging mammals and birds were faster than dinosaurs and ate most of food, as well as dinosaur eggs - Catastrophic event i. Crashing of asteroid, evidence found in Yucatan peninsula of Mexico where a huge crater has been found (9.6 km across and 300 m deep) ii. Super-Volcanic eruption, evidence found of a massive eruption in India 65 m.y.a., would have blanketed Earths atmosphere with fine particles, thus blocking the suns rays and dramatically lowering temperatures B) Extinction Rates - The gradual process of species becoming extinct is known as background extinction - Stable ecosystems can be altered by the activity of other organisms, climate changes or natural disasters - extinction rates seem to be on the rise, some scientists estimate that the current rate of extinction is 1000x the normal background extinction rate - reducing biodiversity will likely have serious long-term effects on the biosphere C) Reasons for Extinction - loss and fragmentation of habitat results in lack of food and lack of breeding/nesting sites, main cause of species extinction today - overhunting/overfishing exploited organisms not given time/numbers/habitat needed to replenish populations - climate change (how long will polar bears last if the sea ice disappears?) - pollution changes in the composition of air, water and soil, often biomagnifies in higher trophic levels Learning Activity Complete Evolution Review Sheets Confirm your learning work on Barbellus Project, due ___________ Connection to Biological Theme 10 | P a g e

How do biologists explain the similar shapes of sharks and dolphins? = convergent evolution, have evolved similar adaptations/characteristics because have evolved in similar (not the same) habitats What is natural selection? -individuals with traits best suited for the environmental conditions will be selected for and will survive and reproduce, this passes on these traits to offspring and alters allelic frequencies. How is the process of survival of the fittest related to a populations environment? -the environment provides the selection pressure, those organisms with traits best suited for the specific environment are more fit and will be selected for Explain the process by which living things naturally change over time. -variation exists in each population, some traits are more fit for the specific environment allowing the organism with these traits to survive and reproduce -this alters allelic frequencies in the population = evolution -variation is naturally caused by genetic mutations and gene shuffling during sexual reproduction -changing of allelic frequencies is caused by; mutations, gene flow, genetic drift, non-random mating and natural selection

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