Introduction to Hardy Cross

OBJECTIVE The objective of this lab is to learn the Hardy Cross method for determination of flow in a pipe network. EQUIPMENT Spreadsheet PROCEDURE The following diagram is a simple pipe network. The Hazen Williams coefficient 'C' for all pipes is !!. "sing the Hardy Cross method solve for the flow rate and headloss in all pipe sections. #o$ may wish to $se a spreadsheet to assist yo$ in the calc$lations.

Will the pipe flows be the same if the Hazen Williams coefficient was %!& 'n esta actividad se va a resolver la red de t$ber(as mostrada abajo $tilizando el m)todo Hardy*Cross.

Datos del problema: +ongit$d de cada tramo, !!! m. -i.metro interior de las t$ber(as, /!! mm. 0l$ido transportado, ag$a. 1iscosidad cinem.tica, e*2 m%3s. Descripcin del mtodo: 4 5 4%5 485 6$merar los tramos de t$ber(as y asignarles $n sentido 4esta elecci7n es arbitraria5. 'ste paso ya se ha hecho en el dib$jo. 'legir las mallas y $n sentido de recorrido 4ya hecho en el dib$jo5. 9signar $n valor n$m)rico a cada ca$dal de forma :$e se c$mpla la conservaci7n de la masa en cada nodo. 'l signo del ca$dal es negativo si se opone al sentido de recorrido de la malla. Calc$lar el coeficiente Ci de cada l(nea, Ci = coeficiente de p)rdidas de carga lineales K i = f

4/5

Ki ; donde <i es el % A%

L . Se recomienda calc$lar el D %.> coeficiente de fricci7n con la f7rm$la apro=imada f = .!% ( log ?e ) .

4>5

Calc$lar la Ci Qi Qi . Q = !.> Ci Qi

correcci7n

los

ca$dales

de

cada

malla,

425

9plicar la correcci7n de cada malla a los ca$dales :$e la componen. 'n el caso de :$e $n ca$dal pertenezca a dos mallas; la correcci7n de otras mallas tendr. signo negativo si el recorrido de la malla tiene distinto sentido :$e en la primera malla. 'sta sit$aci7n oc$rre con la l(nea . ?epetir la iteraci7n.

4@5

2.2 Suction pipe 2.2.1 NPSH-Values 6ASH*available is determined as follows, LS = Le el s!itc"

#i$ure 2

%"e result is $i en in m usin$ t"e &ollo!in$ alues: Ae Aress$re above s$ction level in Bbar*absB A1ap$r press$re of p$mped li:$id at AT in BbarB p -ensity of p$mped li:$id at AT in Bkg3dmCB Hz;geod. Dinim$m li:$id level at s$ction side in BmB H1S 0riction losses at s$ction side in BmB. <eep as low as possible. CS +i:$id velocity in p$mp s$ction flange Bm3secB HS;geod. Da=im$m s$ction lift BmB g 9cceleration d$e to gravity E;F m3sG 0or operation $nder s$ction lift conditions; $se s$ction lift with * instead of H for H s;geod . 6ASH*re:$ired is determined in the p$mp proposal c$rve. '(amples &or calculatin$ NPSH-a ailable: Handling of non volatile li:$ids Bpe I p-B ) ailable Data: A$mped li:$id, 9cetone; -ensity p = !;@@ kg3dmC Temperat$re AT J /!KC; 1apo$r press$re p- J !;>2 bar Site data, +i:$id level Hz;geod. J ;> m; Aress$re in s$ction vessel pe J bar; abs 4atmospheric press$re5; -ia s$ction pipe !! mm; length ! m ?ated capacity, 2! mC3h Wanted, 6ASH*available #i$ure *

0rom the diagram; we pick the s$ction velocity Cs J %; m3s; 0riction losses per !! m pipe length J !;> m. Hvs for ! m J !;> m. With these data; we calc$late as follows,

b;

Handling of volatile li:$ids Bpe J p-B ) ailable Data: A$mped li:$id, L$tadiene; -ensity p J !;2%E Temperat$re AT J %!KC; 1apo$r press$re p- J %;8 bar Site data, +i:$id level Hz;geod. J %;! m Aress$re in s$ction vessel pe J p- J %;8 bar Wanted, 6ASH*available 0riction losses and velocity in s$ction line as above.

+alcul NPSH

)ll about NPSH 1,-1M get a lot of e*mail; and an occasional telephone call; from someone that is conf$sed by the term 6ASH. M have p$blished several papers on the s$bject; b$t evidentially M haven't done the job very well; so let me try again, We do not want b$bbles in o$r process fl$id for a lot of reasons,

L$bbles take $p space; ca$sing o$r p$mping capacity to diminish. The head also diminishes beca$se energy has to be e=pended to incease the velocity of the li:$id $sed to fill $p the cavities; as the b$bbles collapse. 9s the velocity goes $p; the head or press$re goes down. '=cessive vibration can occ$r when part of the impeller is handling a li:$id and anoher part is handling a vapor. This vibaration can lead to p$mp fail$re. 9ir is a lo$sy heat transfer medi$m; meaning that the fl$id we are p$mping will get hotter and there is no advantage in heating $p the process fl$id.

9 b$bble is a hole in the li:$id. Mn 'nglish we call a hole a cavity; and it is those cavities that are going to ca$se a cavitation problem that will damage both the impeller and vol$te .

L$bbles or cavities form in a li:$id when the fl$id temperat$re gets too high; or the fl$id press$re gets too low. This is called vaporization; or sometimes boiling. M do not like the word boiling beca$se we associate boiling with hot; and we all know that if yo$ throw dry ice into cold water it will b$bble and vaporize; and no one is going to call that hotN We'll stick with the term BvaporizeB and f$rther state that a fl$id will vaporize any time the press$re falls below its vaporization point. Since temperat$re is a variable with different fl$ids; there are charts that will give yo$ the vapor press$re for any fl$id at its vario$s temperat$res. Take a look at the following chart and yo$ will note that the vapor press$re for 2!*degree 0ahrenheit chlorine is F! psi; and the vapor press$re for 2F*degree 0. fresh water is abo$t !.8 psi. We will need n$mbers like this to calc$late o$r 6ASH available.

#o$ sho$ld know that yo$ can lower a fl$id's press$re several ways,

A$t the fl$id in a container; and then p$ll a vac$$m on the container. This happens in the hot well of condensers. +ater on we will refer to this as a loss of Bpress$re headB +ift the li:$id o$t of a hole. This will diminish the position of the li:$id level in respect to the p$mp centerline. +ater on we will call this a loss of Bstatic headB 9ccelerate the fl$id. 9s its velocity increases its press$re will decrease. This is referred to as Bvelocity headB 9s the fl$id moves thro$gh piping; fittings; restrictions and valving; some friction losses occ$r that will drop the fl$id press$re. We will talk abo$t that as an increase in friction head; res$lting in some loss of Bpositive s$ction head.B

Heating of he incoming fl$id is not $s$ally a problem; b$t it can occ$r several ways,

Mnternal recirc$lation in the p$mp beca$se of worn wear rings or fail$re to make an impeller adj$stment. Aiping; e=posed to the elements; can heat $p the li:$id on hot and s$nny days.

The ne=t step we have to learn is that the word Bpress$reB is going to disappear from o$r vocab$lary whenever we disc$ss centrif$gal p$mps. We are going to s$bstit$te the word Bhead Binstead. We do not know how m$ch press$re a centrif$gal p$mp will develop; b$t we do know the head it can prod$ce. The head is a f$nction of the shaft speed and the impeller diameter. The faster the speed; The larger the diameter; the bigger the head To determine the press$re we have to know the weight or Bspecific gravityB of the fl$id we are p$mping; and since any given centrif$gal p$mp can move a lot of different fl$ids; with different specific gravities; it is simpler to disc$ss the p$mp's head and forget abo$t the press$re. Here are the form$las yo$ can $se to convert from one to the other,

Mn the above form$la,

Head is meas$red in feet 4ft.5 Aress$re is meas$red in po$nds per s:$are inch 4psi.5

The p$mp man$fact$rer has decided how m$ch head his p$mp needs to prevent cold water from vaporizing at different capacities. He p$blishes these n$mbers on his p$mp c$rve. He got these n$mbers by testing the p$mp at different capacities; created by throttling the s$ction side and waiting for the first signs of cavitation. He then noted the press$re; converted it to head; and transferred this information to his p$mp c$rve. He calls this observed n$mber the Bnet positive s$ction head re:$ired 46ASH?5 or sometimes shortens it to the 6ASH. Take a look at the following c$rve and yo$ can see these n$mbers. On the chart they are located at the bottom of the dotted lines and they r$n from % to 2. 9ccording to this graph a 8*inch impeller; r$nning at its best

efficiency point 42!HP5; wo$ld need a 6ASH re:$ired of E feet. 9n *inch impeller r$nning at its best efficiency point wo$ld need @ feet of 6ASH re:$ired. ?emember this re:$irement is for cold water 42F05 only.

Le s$re to keep in mind that any disc$ssion of 6ASH or cavitation is only concerned abo$t the s$ction side of the p$mp. There is almost always plenty of press$re on the discharge side of the p$mp to prevent the fl$id from vaporizing.

Mf we go back to o$r form$la and p$t the !.8 psi vapor press$re for 2F degree water into the n$mbers; it come o$t to !.@; or less than foot of head is re:$ired to stop the water from vaporizing and forming cavities. So why does the 6ASH re:$ired increase as the capacity is increasing& Mt's beca$se the velocity of the li:$id is increasing; and as we learned; anytime the velocity of a li:$id goes $p; the press$re or head comes down.

6ow that we know what head is re:$ired; we can calc$late the head we have available; and remember we are only interested in the s$ction side of the p$mp. Mt t$rns o$t yo$ will be looking at three kinds of head,

The static head meas$red from the li:$id level to the centerline of the p$mp. Mf the li:$id level is above the p$mp centerline yo$ will have a positive n$mber. Mf the level is below the centerline yo$ will have a negative n$mber. The press$re head. Here we will be $sing only absol$te n$mbers. Mn other words atmospheric press$re is /.@ psi at sea level so yo$ will add that n$mber 4converted to feet; $sing o$r form$la5 to the static head if yo$ have an open tank.

Mf the fl$id is $nder vac$$m we will convert the absol$te press$re reading to head and $se that n$mber; instead of atmospheric press$re. 1ac$$m is often read in inches of merc$ry so yo$ will need a form$la to convert it to head. Here is the form$la,

The friction loss in the piping will be a min$s n$mber. #o$ get the n$mber from charts showing pipes size vs flow; and flow thro$gh fittings and valves. The ne=t thing we have to do s$btract the vapor press$re of o$r fl$id 4converted to feet of li:$id5 $sing the first form$la M gave yo$. 9ll of the above; added together is the 6ASH available. Mf this n$mber is e:$al to; or more than the 6ASH re:$ired by the p$mp man$fact$rer; the li:$id will not form b$bbles or cavities on the s$ction side; and the p$mp will not cavitate.

Mn s$mmary; 6ASH 9vailable is defined as, 6ASH9 J 9tmospheric press$re H static head H press$re head * the vapor press$re of yo$r prod$ct * loss in the piping; valves and fittings. #o$ can learn abo$t the act$al mechanism of cavitation by clicking here. Mf yo$ wo$ld like to learn how to make the calc$lations for 6ASH available; click here Mf yo$ want to see the charts that will help yo$ calc$late the friction loss in the piping; valves and fittings; click here. S./0'+% : +alculatin$ net positi e suction "ead 1NPSH2 in non-metric units 1112. The definition of 6ASH9 is simple, Static head H s$rface press$re head * the vapor press$re of yo$r prod$ct * the friction losses in the piping; valves and fittings. L$t to really $nderstand it; yo$ first have to $nderstand a co$ple of other concepts,

Cavitation is what net positive s$ction head 46ASH5 is all abo$t; so yo$ need to know a little abo$t cavitation. 1apor Aress$re is another term we will be $sing. The prod$ct's vapor press$re varies with the fl$id's temperat$re. Specific gravity play an important part in all calc$lations involving li:$id. #o$ have to be familiar with the term. #o$ have to be able to read a p$mp c$rve to learn the 6.A.S.H. re:$ired for yo$r p$mp. #o$ need to $nderstand how the li:$id's velocity affects its press$re or head. Mt is important to $nderstand why we $se the term Head instead of Pressure when we make o$r calc$lations. Head loss is an awkward term; b$t yo$ will need to $nderstand it. o #o$ will have to be able to calc$late the head loss thro$gh piping; valves and fittings. #o$ m$st know the difference between gage press$re and absol$te press$re.

1ac$$m is often a part of the calc$lations; so yo$ are going to have to be familiar with the terms we $se to describe vac$$m.

Lets loo3 at eac" o& t"ese concepts in a little more detail :

Cavitation means cavities or holes in li:$id. 9nother name for a hole in a li:$id is a b$bble; so cavitation is all abo$t b$bbles forming and collapsing. o L$bbles take $p space so the capacity of o$r p$mp drops. o Collapsing b$bbles can damage the impeller and vol$te. This makes cavitation a problem for both the p$mp and the mechanical seal. 1apor press$re is abo$t li:$ids boiling. Mf M asked yo$; Bat what temperat$re does water boil &B #o$ co$ld say % %K 0. or !!K C.; b$t that is only tr$e at atmospheric press$re. 'very prod$ct will boil 4make b$bbles5 at some combination of press$re and temperat$re. Mf yo$ know the temperat$re of yo$r prod$ct yo$ need to know its vapor press$re to prevent boiling and the formation of b$bbles. Mn the charts section of this web site yo$ will find a vapor press$re chart for several common li:$ids. Specific gravity is abo$t the weight of the fl$id. "sing /KC 48EK 05 as o$r temperat$re standard we assign fresh water a val$e of one. Mf the fl$id floats on this fresh water it has a specific gravity is less than one. Mf the fl$id sinks in this water the specific gravity of the fl$id is greater than one. +ook at any p$mp c$rve and make s$re yo$ can locate the val$es for head; capacity; best efficiency point 4L.'.A.5; efficiency; net positive s$ction head 46ASH5; and horse power re:$ired. Mf yo$ cannot do this; have someone show yo$ where they are located. +i:$id velocity is another important concept. 9s a li:$id's velocity increases; its press$re 4E!K to the flow5 decreases. Mf the velocity decreases the press$re increases. The r$le is , velocity times press$re m$st remain a constant. BHeadB is the term we $se instead of press$re. The p$mp will p$mp any li:$id to a given height or head depending $pon the diameter and speed of the impeller. The amo$nt of press$re yo$ get depends $pon the weight 4specific gravity5 of the li:$id. The p$mp man$fact$rer does not know what li:$id the p$mp will be p$mping so he gives yo$ only the head that the p$mp will generate. #o$ have to fig$re o$t the press$re $sing a form$la described later on in this paper. Head 4feet5 is a convenient term beca$se when combined with capacity 4gallons or po$nds per min$te5 yo$ come $p with the conversion for horsepower 4foot po$nds per min$te5. BHead loss thro$gh the piping; valves and fittingsB is another term we will be $sing. Aress$re drop is a more comfortable term for most people; b$t the term Bpress$reB is not $sed in most p$mp calc$lations so yo$ co$ld s$bstit$te the term Bhead dropB or Bloss of headB in the system. To calc$late this loss yo$ will need to be able to read charts like those yo$ will find in the Bcharts yo$ can $seB section in the home page of this web site. They are labeled 0riction loss for water and ?esistance coefficients for valves and fittings. Qage and absol$te press$re. 9dd atmospheric press$re to the gage press$re and yo$ get absol$te press$re. 1ac$$m is a press$re less than atmospheric. 9t sea level atmospheric press$re is /.@ psi. 4@2! mm of Derc$ry5. 1ac$$m gages are normally calibrated in inches or millimeters of merc$ry.

To calc$late the net positive s$ction head 46ASH5 of yo$r p$mp and determine if yo$ are going to have a cavitation problem; yo$ will need access to several additional pieces of information,

The c$rve for yo$r p$mp. This p$mp c$rve is s$pplied by the p$mp man$fact$rer. Someone in yo$r plant sho$ld have a copy. The c$rve is going to show yo$ the 6et Aositive S$ction Head 46ASH5 re:$ired for yo$r p$mp at a given capacity. 'ach p$mp is different so make s$re yo$ have the correct p$mp c$rve and $se the n$mbers for the impeller diameter on yo$r p$mp. <eep in mind that this 6ASH re:$ired was for cold; fresh water. 9 chart or some type of p$blication that will give yo$ the vapor press$re of the fl$id yo$ are p$mping. #o$ can find a typical vapor press$re chart in the Bcharts yo$ can $seB section in the home page of this web site Mf yo$ wo$ld like to be a little more e=act; yo$ can $se a chart to show the possible red$ction in 6ASH re:$ired if yo$ are p$mping hot water or light hydrocarbons. M will cover this s$bject in great detail in another paper. #o$ need to know the specific gravity of yo$r fl$id. <eep in mind that the n$mber is temperat$re sensitive. #o$ can get this n$mber from a p$blished chart; ask some knowledgeable person at yo$r plant; or or take a reading on the fl$id $sing a hydrometer. Charts showing the head loss thro$gh the size of piping yo$ are $sing between the so$rce and the s$ction eye of yo$r p$mp. #o$ will also need charts to calc$late the loss in any fittings; valves; or other hardware that might have been installed in the s$ction piping. #o$ can find these charts in the Bcharts yo$ can $seB section in the home page of this web site Ms the tank yo$ are p$mping from at atmospheric press$re or is it press$rized in some manner& Daybe it is $nder a vac$$m & #o$ need to know the atmospheric press$re at the time yo$ are making yo$r calc$lation. We all know atmospheric press$re changes thro$gh o$t the day; b$t yo$ have to start somewhere. The form$las for converting press$re to head and head back to press$re in the imperial system are as follows,

o o o

sg. J specific gravity press$re J po$nds per s:$are inch head J feet

#o$ also need to know the form$las that show yo$ how to convert vac$$m readings to feet of head. Here are a few of them,

%o con ert sur&ace pressure to &eet o& li4uid5 use one o& t"e &ollo!in$ &ormulas:

Mnches of merc$ry = . 88 3 specific gravity J feet of li:$id Ao$nds per s:$are inch = %.8 3 specific gravity J feet of li:$id Dillimeters of merc$ry 3 4%%./ = specific gravity5 J feet of li:$id

%"ere are di&&erent !a6s to t"in3 about net positi e suction "ead 1NPSH2 but t"e6 all "a e t!o terms in common.

6ASH9 4net positive s$ction head available5 6ASH? 4net positive s$ction head re:$ired5

6ASH? 4net positive s$ction head re:$ired5 is defined as the 6ASH at which the p$mp total head 4first stage head in m$lti stage p$mps5 has decreased by three percent 48P5 d$e to low s$ction head and res$ltant cavitation within the p$mp. This n$mber is shown on yo$r p$mp c$rve; b$t it is going to be too low if yo$ are p$mping hydrocarbon li:$ids or hot water. Cavitation begins as small harmless b$bbles before yo$ get any indication of loss of head or capacity. This is called the point of incipient cavitation. Testing has shown that it takes from two to twenty times the 6ASH? 4net positive s$ction head re:$ired5 to f$lly s$ppress incipient cavitation; depending on the impeller shape 4specific speed n$mber5 and operating conditions. To stop a prod$ct from vaporizing or boiling at the low press$re side of the p$mp the 6ASH9 4net positive s$ction head available5 m$st be e:$al to or greater than the 6ASH? 4net positive s$ction head re:$ired5. 9s M mentioned at the beginning; 6ASH9 is defined as static head H s$rface press$re head * the vapor press$re of yo$r prod$ct * loss in the piping; valves and fittings . 7n t"e &ollo!in$ para$rap"s 6ou !ill be usin$ t"e abo e &ormulas to determine i& 6ou "a e a problem !it" NPSH). Here is !"ere 6ou locate t"e numbers to put into t"e &ormula:

Static head. Deas$re it from the centerline of the p$mp s$ction to the top of the li:$id level. Mf the level is below the centerline of the p$mp it will be a negative or min$s n$mber. S$rface press$re head. Convert the gage absol$te press$re to feet of li:$id $sing the form$la, o Aress$re J head = specific gravity 3 %.8 1apor press$re of yo$r prod$ct . +ook at the vapor press$re chart in the Bcharts yo$ can $seB section in the home page of this web site. #o$ will have to convert the press$re to head. Mf yo$ $se the absol$te press$re shown on the left side of the chart; yo$ can $se the above form$la Specific gravity of yo$r prod$ct. #o$ can meas$re it with a hydrometer if no one in yo$r facility has the correct chart or knows the n$mber. +oss of press$re in the piping; fittings and valves. "se the three charts in the Bcharts yo$ can $seB section in the home page of this web site o 0ind the chart for the proper pipe size; go down to the gpm and read across to the loss thro$gh one h$ndred feet of pipe directly from the last

col$mn in the chart. 9s an e=ample, two inch pipe; 2> gpm J @.2E feet of loss for each !! feet of pipe. 0or valves and fittings look $p the resistance coefficient n$mbers 4< n$mbers5 for all the valves and fittings; add them together and m$ltiply the total by the 1%3%g n$mber shown in the fo$rth col$mn of the friction loss piping chart. '=ample, 9 % inch long radi$s screwed elbow has a < n$mber of !./ and a % inch globe valve has a < n$mber of F. 9dding them together 4F H !./5 J F./ = !.2 4for 2> gpm5 J > feet of loss.

Mn the following e=amples we will be looking only at the s$ction side of the p$mp. Mf we were calc$lating the p$mp's total head we wo$ld look at both the s$ction and discharge sides. +et's go thro$gh the first e=ample and see if o$r p$mp is going to cavitate, Qiven,

9tmospheric press$re J /.@ psi Qage press$re JThe tank is at sea level and open to atmospheric press$re. +i:$id level above p$mp centerline J > feet Aiping J a total of ! feet of % inch pipe pl$s one E!K long radi$s screwed elbow. A$mping J !! gpm. 2FK0. fresh water with a specific gravity of one 4 5. 1apor press$re of 2FK0. Water J !.%@ psia from the vapor chart. Specific gravity J 6ASH? 4net positive s$ction head re:$ired; from the p$mp c$rve5 J E feet

No! &or t"e calculations:

6ASH9 J 9tmospheric press$re4converted to head5 H static head H s$rface press$re head * vapor press$re of yo$r prod$ct * loss in the piping; valves and fittings

Static head J > feet 9tmospheric press$re J press$re = %.8 3sg. J /.@ = %.8 3 J 8/ feet absol$te Qage press$re J ! 1apor press$re of 2FK0. water converted to head J press$re = %.8 3sg J !.%@ = %.8 3 J !.2% feet +ooking at the friction charts, o !! gpm flowing thro$gh % inch pipe shows a loss of @./ feet for each !! feet of pipe or @./3 ! J .@/ feet of head loss in the piping o The < factor for one % inch elbow is !./ = ./% J !.2 feet 9dding these n$mbers together; .@/ H !.2 J a total of %.8/ feet friction loss in the pipe and fitting.

6ASH9 4net positive s$ction head available5 J 8/ H > H ! * !.2% * %.8/ J 82.!/ feet The p$mp re:$ired E feet of head at !! gpm. 9nd we have 82.!/ feet so we have plenty to spare. '(ample number 2 . %"is time !e are $oin$ to be pumpin$ &rom a tan3 under acuum.

8i en:

Qage press$re J * %! inches of vac$$m 9tmospheic press$re J /.@ psi +i:$id level above p$mp centerline J > feet Aiping J a total of ! feet of % inch pipe pl$s one E!K long radi$s screwed elbow. A$mping J !! gpm. 2FK0 fresh water with a specific gravity of one 4 5. 1apor press$re of 2FK0 water J !.%@ psia from the vapor chart. 6ASH? 4net positive s$ction head re:$ired5 J E feet

No! &or t"e calculations:

6ASH9 J 9tmospheric press$re4converted to head5 H static head H s$rface press$re head * vapor press$re of yo$r prod$ct * loss in the piping; valves and fittings

9tmospheric press$re J /.@ psi = %.8 3sg. J8/ feet Static head J > feet Qage pess$re press$re J %! inches of vac$$m converted to head o inches of merc$ry = . 88 3 specific gravity J feet of li:$id o *%! = . 88 3 J *%%.@ feet of press$re head absol$te 1apor press$re of 2FK0 water J press$re = %.8 3sg. J !.%@ = %.8 3 J !.2% feet +ooking at the friction charts, o !! gpm flowing thro$gh %.> inch pipe shows a loss of @./ feet or each !! feet of pipe or @./3 ! J .@/ feet loss in the piping o The < factor for one % inch elbow is !./ = ./% J !.2 feet 9dding these two n$mbers together, 4 .@/ H !.25 J a total of %.8/ feet friction loss in the pipe and fitting.

6ASH9 4net positive s$ction head available5 J 8/ H > * %%.@ * !.2% * %.8/ J 8.8/ feet. This is eno$gh to stop cavitation also. #or t"e t"ird e(ample !e !ill 3eep e er6t"in$ t"e same e(cept t"at !e !ill be pumpin$ 19-: #. "ot condensate &rom t"e acuum tan3. The vapor press$re of F!K0 condensate is @ psi according to the chart. We get the specific gravity from another chart and find that it is !.E@ sg. for F!K 0. 0resh water. Puttin$ t"is into t"e pressure con ersion &ormula !e $et:

press$re = %.8 3sg. J @ = %.8 3 !.E@ J 2.@ feet absol$te

6ASH9 J 9tmospheric press$re4converted to head5 H static head H s$rface press$re head * vapor press$re of yo$r prod$ct * loss in the piping; valves and fittings 6ASH9 4net positive s$ction head available5 J 8/ H > * %%.@ * 2.@ * %.8/ J *%.@/ feet. We need E feet; so the p$mp is going to cavitate for s$re. 9 few notes abo$t this last e=ample,

9 negative 6ASH9 is physically impossible beca$se it implies that the friction losses e=ceed the available head and that cannot happen. The r$le when p$mping a boiling fl$id is, The 6ASH9 e:$als the Static S$ction Head min$s the S$ction friction head beca$se the s$ction s$rface press$re and the vapor press$re e:$alize one another. The absol$te press$re in the tank is 8/ *%%.@ J .8 ft. The vapor press$re of the condensate in the tank converts to 2.@ ft of head 4see above5 so the condensate is boiling 3flashing and reaching a state of e:$ilibri$m. When p$mping a boiling li:$id; the Static Head m$st e=ceed the S$ction 0riction Head 4%.8/ feet5 by the amo$nt of 6ASH ?e:$ired 4E feet5 or, 4E ft. H

%.8/ feet J .8/ feet.5 We can do this by raising the level in the s$ction tank an additional 2.8/ feet to get the .8/ feet re:$ired 42.8/ feet H > feet e=isting J .8/ feet5 Mn some instances yo$ co$ld red$ce the S$ction 0riction Head to get the same res$lt; b$t in this e=ample there is not eno$gh friction head available to red$ce. This e=ample also allows yo$ to shortc$t 6ASH9 calc$lations any time yo$ are p$mping from a tank where the li:$id is at its vapor press$re. Oil refineries are f$ll of these applications.

Mf yo$ are given the absol$te and vapor press$res in psia; and yo$ forgot how to convet to feet of headR yo$ can $se the following form$la; providing yo$ know the specific weight of the li:$id yo$ are p$mping ,

Ap J 9bsol$te press$re e=pressed in psia. Mn an open system; Ap e:$als atmospheric press$re; Aa; e=pressed in psia. Avpa J 1apor press$re e=pressed in psia. W J Specific weight of li:$id at the p$mping temperat$re in po$nds per c$bic foot.

?'+9TMO6 O0 A?'SS"?' TO '+'19TMO6 Mn a static li:$id 4a body of li:$id at rest5 the press$re difference between any two points is in direct proportion only to the vertical distance between the points. This press$re difference is d$e to the weight of the li:$id and can be calc$lated by m$ltiplying the vertical distance by the density 4or vertical distance = density of water = specific gravity of the fl$id5. Mn commonly $sed $nits, A static 4in ASM5 S 4in feet5 = 2% / lbs.3c$. ft. = SQ P.;P H')D - P<'SS.<' - SP'+7#7+ 8<)V7%= - in a centrif$gal p$mp the head developed 4in feet5 is dependent on the velocity of the li:$id as it enters the impeller eye and as it leaves the impeller periphery and; therefore; is independent of the specific gravity of the li:$id. The press$re head developed 4in psi5 will be directly proportional to the specific gravity.

Aress$re*Head relationship of identical p$mps handling li:$ids of differing specific gravities.

Aress$re*head relationship of p$mps delivering same press$re handling li:$ids of differing specific gravity. This relationship; the elevation e:$ivalent of press$re; is commonly called head and is still fre:$ently $sed. Aress$re converted to the e:$ivalent height of fl$id that wo$ld prod$ce that press$re can be referred to as head. Static Head T The hydra$lic press$re at a point in a fl$id when the li:$id is at rest. #riction Head T The loss in press$re or energy d$e to frictional losses in flow. Velocit6 Head T The energy in a fl$id d$e to its velocity; e=pressed as a head $nit. Pressure Head T 9 press$re meas$red in e:$ivalent head $nits. Disc"ar$e T The o$tlet press$re of a p$mp in operation. Head T The total press$re difference between the inlet and o$tlet of a p$mp in %otal Head operation. Suction Head T The inlet press$re of a p$mp when above atmospheric. Suction Li&t T The inlet press$re of a p$mp when below atmospheric.

0?MCTMO69+ +OSS'S The nat$re of frictional losses in a p$mping system can be very comple=. +osses in the p$mp itself are determined by act$al test; and are allowed for in the man$fact$rers c$rves and data. Similarly; man$fact$rers of processing e:$ipment; heat e=changers; static mi=ers etc. $s$ally have data available for friction losses. 0rictional losses d$e to flow in pipes are directly proportional to the, length of pipe flow rate pipe diameter viscosity of fl$id Aipe friction tables have been established by the Hydra$lic Mnstit$te and many other so$rces which can be $sed to comp$te the friction loss in a system for given flow rates; viscosities and pipe sizes. Tables of e:$ivalent lengths for fittings and valves are also available. See ne=t page in this man$al. 6ASH 0l$id will only flow into the p$mp head by atmospheric press$re or atmospheric press$re pl$s a positive s$ction head. Mf s$ction press$re at s$ction pipe is below the vapor press$re of the fl$id; the fl$id may flash into a vapor. 9 centrif$gal p$mp cannot

p$mp only vapor. Mf this happens; fl$id flow to the p$mp head will drop off and cavitation may res$lt. 6'T AOSMTM1' S"CTMO6 H'9-; 919M+9L+' 46ASH 95 is based on the design of the system aro$nd the p$mp inlet. The average press$re 4in psia5 is meas$red at the inlet port d$ring operation; min$s the vapor press$re of the li:$id at operating temperat$re. Mt indicates the amo$nt of $sef$l press$re energy available to fill the p$mp head. 6'T AOSMTM1' S"CTMO6 H'9-; ?'U"M?'- 46ASH ?5 is based on p$mp design. This is determined by test of the p$mp of what press$re energy 4in psia5 is needed to fill the p$mp inlet. Mt is a characteristic which varies primarily with the p$mp speed and the viscosity of the fl$id. 0or satisfactory p$mp operation $nder any set of conditions 4capacity vers$s head5 the 6ASH; available; m$st be greater than the 6ASH; re:$ired. Qenerally; a two foot head safety margin is normally $sed.

NPSH) &or t"ose !"o "ate t"at stu&&6 !ord The dreaded term 6ASH9 means 6et Aositive S$ction Head 9vailable. MtVs a term that most people find diffic$lt to relate to in part beca$se they have no idea what val$e it sho$ld have. Lefore we disc$ss val$es and the e=act definition of 6ASH9; letVs get an int$itive $nderstanding of 6ASH9. 6ASH9 is a meas$re that corresponds to the level of press$re at the p$mp s$ction. The higher the press$re; the higher the 6ASH9 and the better the p$mp will operate. 6ormally we meas$re press$re with a ga$ge that is calibrated in psig 4po$nd per s:$are inch ga$ge5 or kAa in the metric system. This press$re scale is set at zero when there is no press$re or the press$re is e:$al to atmospheric press$re. The atmospheric press$re at sea level as meas$red on an absol$te scale s$ch as psia 4po$nds per s:$are inch absol$te5 is /.@ psia. Mn the absol$te scale; press$re starts at zero which is the lowest possible press$re and means that there is no molec$les of matter in the environment that can create press$re s$ch as in o$ter space. Mt then can have any val$e corresponding to a high press$re environment. The term head in 6ASH9 has been well e=plained in the p$mp t$torial; the head component that we are most interested in here is the static head or the level of fl$id above the p$mp s$ction. Head is meas$red in feet in 6orth 9merica and in meters j$st abo$t everywhere else. The val$e of 6ASH9 will vary between the lowest val$e of ! feet; $p to the val$e of the local atmospheric press$re head 8/ feet pl$s the s$ction static head min$s a small :$antity which we will get to shortly. 8/ feet is the val$e of atmospheric press$re at sea level e=pressed in terms of press$re head. Mf yo$r tank has ! feet of s$ction head; the 6ASH9 may be 8/ H ! J // feet which is ample. One sho$ld start to worry when the val$e of 6ASH9 falls below %! feet. How can the val$e of 6ASH9 drop below 8/ feet& This is possible if there is allot of friction or pl$gging which increases friction in the s$ction line. Sometimes these two occ$r together; when the level is low in the s$ction tank d$e to physical constraints or poor level control or other reasons; this decreases the overall 6ASH9 and a f$rther decrease occ$rs d$e to friction. How will yo$ know if the 6ASH9 is ade:$ate& The man$fact$rer tests the p$mp $nder vario$s s$ction head conditions and provides a re:$irement or 6ASH? for each flow condition on the characteristic c$rve of the p$mp. Mt is then a matter of checking this val$e against the 6ASH available and making s$re that the 6ASH9 is higher. Why do yo$ have to worry abo$t atmospheric press$re; after all atmospheric press$re is everywhere; how co$ld the operation of the p$mp be infl$enced by its val$e& Leca$se atmospheric press$re depends on the elevation; the press$re varies significantly depending on the elevation above sea level. 9tmospheric press$re gets added to the press$re provided by the static head and if yo$ are at a high elevation atmospheric press$re will be less and therefore the s$ction press$re will be less.

0ig$re To meas$re s$ction press$re two $nits are typically $sed; the psia or po$nds per s:$are inch absol$te or the inch of merc$ry. Aress$re ga$ges can be p$rchased that have scales with either one of these two $nits in 6orth 9merica. The following fig$re shows how these two scales can be $sed.

0ig$re %

Dost p$mps can operate with a s$ction press$re that is below atmospheric press$re. 9 press$re that is below atmospheric press$re is referred to as a vac$$m. That is why a val$e of %! feet for 6ASH9 can be :$ite acceptable. This is also how it is possible for a normal centrif$gal p$mp to lift fl$id from an elevation that is below the s$ction. 0or more information on low press$re at the p$mp s$ction see the p$mp t$torial.

fig$re 8 9 p$mp that operates in this fashion will re:$ire a foot valve to keep the li:$id in the s$ction pipe to avoid having to re*prime the p$mp when it is stopped. We can calc$late or we can meas$re 6ASH9; letWs start with meas$ring 6ASH9. The main meas$rement we need is the press$re close to the p$mp s$ction. L$t first a digression on what the press$re meas$rement we take will mean. What happens to the flow and press$re within the p$mp past the point of meas$rement. The ne=t fig$re shows that the press$re drops considerably as the fl$id enters the eye of the p$mp. This happens for two main reasons, the velocity as the fl$id approaches the eye increases which decreases press$re also friction and t$rb$lence f$rther decreases press$re. The press$re can be low eno$gh that the li:$id will start to boil at this low press$re. What do yo$ mean the li:$id will boil at low press$re&

0ig$re / There are two ways to boil a li:$id. One way is to increase the temperat$re while keeping the press$re constant $ntil the temperat$re is high eno$gh to prod$ce vapor b$bbles. Mn the ne=t fig$re this is what happens if yo$ take one point in the li:$id phase and yo$ move horizontally 4that is at constant press$re5 by increasing the temperat$re. 'vent$ally yo$ hit the vaporization line of the partic$lar fl$id and the fl$id starts to boil or prod$ce vapor b$bbles. We do the same thing every day when we boil water in a pot. The other way to boil a li:$id is to lower the press$re. Mf yo$ keep the temperat$re constant and lower the press$re the li:$id will also boil. Mn the ne=t fig$re this is what happens if yo$ take one point in the li:$id phase and yo$ move vertically 4that is at constant temperat$re5 by decreasing the press$re. 9gain yo$ hit the vaporization line of the partic$lar fl$id and the fl$id starts to boil or prod$ce vapor b$bbles.

0ig$re > Mf the pot were covered and yo$ had a so$rce of vac$$m 4see ne=t fig$re5 by lowering the press$re in the pot yo$ wo$ld be able to make the water boil at a lower temperat$re. When the press$re is @.> psia or 4 /.@ X @.> J @.%5 or @.% psi less than the atmospheric press$re the water will boil at a temperat$re of F! K0 and when the press$re is .> psia the water will boil at %! K0. This is what happens at the p$mp s$ction when the press$re is low eno$gh to make the fl$id boil or vaporize. Check o$t this video of how yo$ can boil water at room tempera$tre $sing low press$re. Mt is not $n$s$al for ind$strial processes to operate at temperat$res that are close or higher than %! 0. Therefore if the temperat$re is high and the press$re drops as the fl$id enters the p$mp; it will be easier to prod$ce cavitation beca$se the press$re drop prod$ced by the p$mp will have to be smaller to match a higher vapor press$re. Mf cavitation is occ$rring or s$spected; two possible sol$tions are, to increase the press$re at the p$mp inlet or decrease the fl$id temperat$re.

0ig$re 2 The press$re at which the li:$id vaporizes is known as the vapor press$re and is always specified for a given temperat$re. Mf the temperat$re changes; the vapor press$re changes. See the p$mp glossary for vapor press$re val$es of different li:$ids. Why is vapor press$re an iss$e& Mf the press$re in the p$mp eye drops below the vapor press$re; cavitation will occ$r. Cavitation begins as the formation of vapor b$bbles at the impeller eye d$e to low press$re. The b$bbles form at the position of lowest press$re at the p$mp inlet 4see 0ig$re /5; which is j$st prior to the fl$id being acted $pon by the impeller vanes; they are then rapidly compressed. The compression of the vapor b$bbles prod$ces a small shock wave that impacts the impeller s$rface and pits away at the metal creating over time large eroded areas and s$bse:$ent fail$re.

The so$nd of cavitation is very characteristic and resembles the so$nd of gravel in a concrete mi=er. #o$ can hear characteristic noise of cavitation . Qo to this link to see a photo of an impeller damaged by cavitation. The form$la for 6ASH9 based on a press$re meas$rement at the p$mp s$ction is,

Y Z

where pQS, press$re in psig at the p$mp s$ction 4this press$re can be negative zQS , is the difference between the ga$ge height and the p$mp s$ction; this is necessary to correct for an erroneo$s reading d$e to the ga$ge height. vS, the velocity of the li:$id at the s$ction in ft3s p9, atmospheric press$re in the local environment pva, vapor press$re of the li:$id at the operating temperat$re. SQ, specific gravity of the li:$id. Mf we are designing a system then it is not possible to meas$re the p$mp s$ction press$re and therefore we have to calc$late it. The press$re head at the p$mp s$ction is given by,

Y%Z where HS, press$re head corresponding to the press$re meas$rement pQS z , the height between the free s$rface of the s$ction tank and the p$mp s$ction centerline. H0, the friction head loss in the s$ction line.

HS is related to AQS by the static head relationship seen in the p$mp t$torial. Y8Z Mf we replace the val$e of pQS in e:$ation Y8Z into e:$ation Y Z and considering that there is no correction for press$re ga$ge height re:$ired the term z QS disappears; we then obtain, Y/Z

Therefore to calc$late 6ASH9; we $se e:$ationY Z when we have an e=isting system and we can meas$re the press$re at the p$mp s$ction. 9nd we $se e:$ation Y/Z when we are designing a p$mp system. +etWs try an e=ample. The p$mp system $sed in the p$mp t$torial is a good start. We will $se e:$ation Y/Z to calc$late the 6ASH9. The val$e of z which is the s$ction static head is > feet. Mn the p$mp t$torial we calc$lated the friction loss in the s$ction to be 8. feet. The velocity head or term vs%3%g is often :$ite small; of the order of foot or less and this is no e=ception so we will therefore neglect it. The atmospheric press$re is /.@ psia. The vapor press$re for water at 2!0 is !.> psia. 1al$es for vapor press$re of other fl$ids at vario$s temperat$res is available in the p$mp glossary. The specific gravity of water is .!.

The val$e of 6ASH9 is then,

This val$e is a bit on the low side and M wo$ld normally check the p$mp c$rves to ens$re that M have s$fficient 6ASH9 at the re:$ired flow rate. However in this case; we know we are $sing a jet p$mp which is specifically designed for this type of application so M wo$ldnWt worry abo$t it.