Applied Mechanics Lab - PGBDDF

DELHI COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
(Govt. of NCT of Delhi) Main Bawana Road, Delhi-42

Mechanical Engineering Department
Applied Mechanics Laboratory
Instruction Sheet -3

Aim: To measure the energy of a rotating fly wheel and determine the moment
of Inertia of the flywheel.

Apparatus: Fly wheel mounted on a wall, stop watch, Vernier calliper, thread
and weights (1/2kgf., 1kgf, 100gmf, 50gmf, 20gmf, 10gmf ), etc.

Theory: The principal of conservation of energy is made use of in determining
the M.I. of the fly wheel.
It states that the energy can neither be created nor destroyed though it
can be transferred from one form into any forms in which the energy
exist.
As the fly wheel revolves due to a falling weight attached to the axis. The
potential energy of the falling weight is equal to the K.E. of the falling
body when it drops off plus the energy stored in the fly wheel at that
instant plus the energy lost in the friction in bearings while the body is
descending. Even the energy stored in the fly wheel is lost in over coming
friction in bearing(after the weight has dropped off) bringing the wheel
to a stand still.
From law of conservation of energy:

Formulae:
2 2
I
2
1
v
g
W
2
1
H W e + =
(for negligible bearing
friction)
Where
at u v + =
and aH 2 u v
2 2
+ = ,
r
v
= e

W= weight falling in N
H = height from which the weight fall in meter
v= Linear velocity in m/s at the end of fall of H
I = Moment of Inertia of fly wheel in kgxm
2

e
=
Angular velocity of shaft in radian/sec.
r= Radius of shaft in m

Note : Assume, there is negligible bearing friction.
AglaSem - Moving to Next Semester
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2
) v
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( H W 2
I
e
(

=

Fig: Fly-Wheel Apparatus

Procedure:
1. Measure the diameter of the shaft with the help of vernier
calliper and find the mean radius of the shaft(r).
2. Wrap the cotton string round the shaft and suspend weight (W)
so that fly can rotate easily.
3. Now marked the height (H) for weight W from centre of mass of
Weight W to the earth and keep it same for different value of W
in each observation.
4. Place a weight (W) hold the Pan in which this weight is placed.
Release weight (W) and start the stop watch simultaneously. Stop
the watch as soon as the falling weight has touched the level
ground. This gives the time (t).
5. Repeat the experiment for different values of W. Repeat the
experiment ten times.

Observations:
1. Diameter of shaft = m
2. Radius of shaft (r) = m
3. Height of fall of weight W marked (H) = m

Weights
Diameter (2r)
Bearing
D
String
Shaft
Bearing
Fly-Wheel
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S.
No.
Falling Weight
(W) in N
Time of fall of
weight (t) in
sec.
2
2
)
2
1
( 2
e
(

=
v
g
W
H W
I
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculations:

Result:

Precautions:
1. Note the time accurately to the fraction of a second.
2. Friction in the bearings should be minimum possible.
3. Overlapping of the string should be avoided.
4. Mark the height carefully from the centre of mass of weights to
the ground.
Sources of Error:
1. There may be positive or negative error in vernier calliper.
2. There may be error in recording time intervals ( in fraction of
seconds).
3. There may be little friction in bearings.
Discussion:

Note: 1. Draw the diagram for Experimental-Setup.

2. Draw the curve between Weight (W) at X-axis and rotational
kinetic energy of flywheel (
2
2
1
e I ) at Y-axis.
3. The standard value of Moment of Inertia for fly wheel is 0.5068
kgxm
2

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Instruction Sheet-7

Aim: To verify the law of polygon of forces (concurrent, co-planer which are in
equilibrium) with the help of Universal Force Table apparatus.

Apparatus: Force table with adjusting screws, Spirit level, pulleys, Brass ring,
Strings, Hangers, weights(50gmf-40Nos, 10gmf-4Nos),etc.

Theory: The experiment is for co-planer, concurrent forces (acting at a point).
Therefore a polygon can be drawn.
Law of Polygon of forces: If there are n number of co-planer concurrent
forces which are in equilibrium. A polygon can be drawn. Each side of
polygon represents the magnitude of forces and there will be vector
addition of each force. It conclude that the last side of polygon represents
the resultant of (n-1) forces.
The above experiment is for four co-planer concurrent forces which are
shown in
fig..

Force polygon

The experimental error can be calculated as given below:
100
F
F F
Error %
4
4 4
'
'
=

F1
F
2

F3

F
4

F
`
4

2
u
3
u

4
u '
4
u
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procedure:
1. First of all adjust universal force table horizontally by using
adjusting screws and spirit level.
2. Take a brass circular ring and 4 threads tied with this ring and
adjust threads on pulleys and ring on nail.
3. Now fix one pulley on 0degree mark of table and other three
pulleys at desired angles.
4. Suspend weights at each thread such that each thread should
pass over the pulley and Brass ring should be concentric with nail.
5. Note down the weights F1, F2, F3 and F4 and angles
1
u ,
2
u ,
3
u and
4
u . Draw the force polygon on graph paper.
6. Repeat the experiment five times by changing angles of pulleys
and weights.
Observations:
S.
No.
Force in (gmf) Angles in degrees % Error
F1 F2 F3 F4
1
u
2
u
3
u
4
u
(F`4-
F4)x100/ F`4
(
4
u ' -
4
u )x100/
4
u '
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Calculations:

Result:

Precautions:
1. First of all Universal force table should be made horizontal
with the help of spirit level and levelling screw.
2. Centre of Brass ring should coincide with the centre of nail
on the table.
3. Direction of threads should be radial on the table and
vertically downward after passing the pulley. The threads
should be weightless and inextensible.
4. The weights should not oscillate while taking readings.
5. Friction in pulleys should be minimum and pulleys should
be free to move.

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Sources of Error:
1. Error in measurement of angles of threads.
2. The threads may not be perfect weightless and
inextensible.
3. There may be friction in pulleys and not free to move
properly.
4. Error to note coincide the centre of Brass ring and nail
of the table.
Discussion:
1. Give the significance of the experiment.
2. Give Lamis theorem and Baryganon theorem of
forces.

Note: 1. Draw the diagram for the experimental set-up.
3. Use graph paper to draw polygons.

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Instruction Sheet-4

Aim: To determine and verify the law of moments of forces for a simply
supported beam carrying transversal loads.

Apparatus: An uniform wooden beam of rectangular cross-section, Spring
balance (2 Nos), Scale, weights (1/2 kgf, 1kgf, 2kgf)

Theory:
The law of moments of forces states that the algebric sum of all
moments acting on a body which is in equilibrium is zero. i.e. the sum of
anticlockwise moments of forces is equal to the sum of clockwise
moments of forces.
Now, Take moment about A

g B B
x W x W x W x W l R + + + =
3 3 2 2 1 1

Therefore,
l
x W x W x W x W
R
g B
B
+ + +
=
3 3 2 2 1 1

Similary
B B A
R W W W W R + + + =
3 2 1

Where
B A B
R R W + = (without using weights)

Formula for % Error is given by
100
Pr
%
=
l Theoretica
actical l Theoretica
Error

Beam carrying loads
A
R

B
R

1
W

2
W

3
W

A B
B
W
G
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Procedure:
1. First of all find the weight of beam without using weights.
2. Measure the length of beam and length between two supports.
3. Now put three hangers(100gmf each) one by one and add weights
to the hangers.
4. Now measure the distance of each weights form end A.
5. Take the readings of Reactions
A
R and
B
R .
6. Repeat the experiment ten times.
Observations:
Weight of Beam
B A B
R R W + = (without using weights) = kgf
Length of Beam = cms
Distance between two supports of beam = cms

S.
No.
Weights applied
in kgf
Distance form
A in cms
Reaction
A
R in Kgf
Reaction
B
R in Kgf
%
Error

%
Error

W
1
W
2
W
3
x
1
x
2
x
3
The. Pra. The. Pra.
A
R
B
R

Calculations:

Result:

Precautions:
1. Place the beam gradually on the supports.
2. check the zero error of the spring balances.
3. Include the weight of hangers while taking readings for the
weight applied.
4. Locate the centre of gravity of beam
5. Include the weight of beam while taking moment.

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Sources of Error:
1. Wooden beam may not be uniform.
2. Locate the C.G. of beam carefully.
3. parallax should be removed while taking readings of
distances.

Discussion:

Note: 1. Draw shear force and Bending moment diagrams.
2. Draw diagram for experimental-setup.

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Instruction Sheet-8

Aim: To find out co-efficient of limiting friction between two surfaces using
inclined plane apparatus.

Apparatus: Wooden inclined plane having arrangement to read angle of
inclination, Boxes of different material (i.e. Wood, Glass, Aluminium,
Brass, etc.), weights (100gmf, 50gmf, 20gmf, 10gmf, etc.).

Theory:

Inclined plane

Under downward impending motion of the body (i.e. equilibrium under
downward movement or the body just tend to start downward), The equation
of equilibrium are

o Sin W R W
2 1
= +

o o Sin W Cos W W
2 2 1
= +

o
o
Cos W
W Sin W
2
1 2

=

Therefore can be calculated for the downward impending motion of
body from the above formula.

MOTION
R
W
1

W
2

R
W
2
Sin
W
2
Cos

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Inclined plane
Under upward impending motion of the body (i.e. equilibrium under
upward movement or the body just tend to start upward), The equation of
equilibrium are
o Sin W R W
2 1
+ =

o o Sin W Cos W W
2 2 1
+ =

o
o
Cos W
Sin W W
2
2 1

=

Angle of Repose() : The minimum angle of inclination at which body just
start to slide due to its own weight is called angle of Repose. It is equal to
the angle of friction.
| Tan =

% Error may be calculated as (ideal value of is calculated from angle of
repose and practical value is calculated from equation of motion either in
upward or in downward direction).
100
Pr
%
=
Idealvalue
ue acticalval Idealvalue
Error

Procedure:
1. First of find the value of angle of repose() for different materials
(like wood, glass, aluminium, brass) by using inclined plane and
box at which the box just start to move downward due to its own
weight and calculate . It is supposed to be ideal value of . You
may tap gradually the plane to see the motion of box.
MOTION
R
W
1

W
2

R
W
2
Sin
W
2
Cos

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2. Now for each box find the value of by applying weights into
string attached with box and tap the plane gradually until the box
just start to move either in downward or upward direction. You
may also put some weights in box to see the downward motion of
box. The value of is supposed to be practical value.
3. Now repeat the experiment for each box to find the for
different materials.
4. % Error can be calculated as the formula given above.

Observations:
Material: Wood vs Wood
Angle of Repose =
Ideal value of =
S.
No.
Weight W
1

Gmf
Weight W
2

gmf
Angle
in degrees
Co-efficient of friction

1. 30
0

2. 45
0

Material: Wood vs Glass
Angle of Repose =
Ideal value of =
S.
No.
Weight W
1

Gmf
Weight W
2

gmf
Angle
in degrees

1. 30
0

2. 45
0

Material: Wood vs Aluminium
Angle of Repose =
Ideal value of =
S.
No.
Weight W
1

Gmf
Weight W
2

gmf
Angle
in degrees

1. 30
0

2. 45
0

Material: Wood vs Brass
Angle of Repose =
Ideal value of =
S.
No.
Weight W
1

Gmf
Weight W
2

gmf
Angle
in degrees

1. 30
0

2. 45
0

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No.
Material % Error
1. Wood vs Wood
2. Wood vs Glass
3. Wood vs Aluminium
4. Wood vs Brass

Calculations:
Result:
Precautions:
1. Clean the surfaces of inclined plane and box while taking
readings.
2. Tapping should be done gradually to see the motion of box.
3. It is conventional that the level of the weighs and box
should be same.
4. The motion of the box should be such that it just tend to
start (impending motion) while taking readings.
5. The pulley should be frictionless.

Sources of Error:
1. There may be slight friction in pulley.
2. There may be improper tapping.
3. Threads may not be inextensible.

Discussion:

Note: Draw the diagram for the experimental set-up.

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Instruction Sheet-1
Aim: To find out stiffness and modulus of rigidity (shear modulus) for the
material of a closed coil helical spring under tensile loading conditions.

Apparatus used: Spring apparatus with closed coil helical spring, vernier
calliper, Steel scale, Hanger (1/2 kgf load), weights (1/2 kgf, 10 Nos), etc.

Theory:
Spring stiffness: spring stiffness is defined as the load applied per unit
elongation for a given spring material.
Elongation
d LoadApplie
fness SpringStif =

o
W
K =

Where K is the spring stiffness (N/m)
W is the Tensile load applied in Newton
o is the elongation in mete

(Inverse of slope of Final extension Load curve )=Tan = spring stiffness (K)

Modulus of Rigidity (Shear modulus):Modulus of rigidity or Shear modulus is
defined as the ration of Shear stress to shear strain.

n Shearstrai
s Shearstres
ulus hear igidityorS Modulusofr = mod

( )
|
A F
G
/
=

F
W (Kgf)
Final
reading
of scale
(cm)

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For a spring material
4
3
8
d
n WD
G
o
=

Where
G is the shear modulus of spring material (N/mm
2
)
W is Load applied (N)
D is the mean coil diameter [(d
1
+d
2
)/2] in (mm)
d
1
is the inner diameter of spring coil in (mm)
d
2
is the outer diameter of spring coil`in (mm)
n is the effective number of turns = N+1
o is the net elongation of spring for load W in (mm)
d is the diameter of spring wire [(d
1
-d
2
)/2] in (mm)

Procedure:
1. First of all find the least count of the vernier scale.
2. Note initial reading of vernier scale without external load.
3. Gradually apply the load 1kg at first time and note final reading
vernier scale.
4. Now, increase the load with 1/2 kg increment and note final
reading of vernier scale.
5. Repeat the experiment for 10 readings.
6. Measure the internal and external diameters of spring with the
help of separate vernier calliper.
7. Count the no. of turns of the springs.
8. Add (1/2turn for upper bound coil+1/2turn for lower bound
coil)= 1 to N to get effective number of turns (n).

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Observations:
1. External diameter of spring d
1 = mm

2. Internal diameter of spring d
2 = mm

3. Number of turns (N) =
S.
No.
Weight
Applied
(W) in Kgf
Initial
reading of
vernier
scale in
(cm)
Final reading of vernier scale in
(cm)
Spring
stiffness
(k) in
N/mm
Ascending
order
Descending
order
Average
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculations:

Result:

Precautions:
1. Keep the spring in proper tensile position before applying load.
2. Vernier scale should be free to move at main scale.
3. Weight should be apply gradually.
4. Weights should be applied in ascending order and after that in
descending order
5. Parallax should be removed before taking vernier reading.
6. Internal and external diameters of spring should be checked from
three or four different positions.

Sources of Error:
1. There may be friction between main scale and vernier scale.
2. Spring may be not in right tensile loading position.

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Discussion:

Note: 1. Draw the diagram for experimental set-up.
2. Draw the graph between final reading of vernier scale at y-axis
and Load applied at x-axis.
3. The standard value of Spring stiffness is 10 N/mm and Modulus of
rigidity for steel is
2 11
m / N 0 ` 1 8

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Instruction Sheet-2
Aim: To find the modulus of elasticity (Youngs modulus ) for a given material
of cantilever for concentrated load at free end.

Apparatus Used: Cantilever Apparatus, Fraction weight(5, 10, 20, 50, 100gmf),
Scale.
Theory : The cantilever beam with concentrated beam is shown in fig.

Cantilever with deflection(
max
o ) at free end due to concentrated load (W)

L
b
d
w
L

max
o

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The maximum deflection of beam at free is given by the formula
EI
WL
3
3
max
= o

max
3
3 o I
WL
E =

Where
max
o = Maximum deflection at free end of cantilever (m)
W = Concentrated load at Free end (Newton)
L = Length of beam from support to the application of load
E = Modulus of elasticity (youngs modulus) for given
material of cantilever (N/m
2
)
I = Area-moment of Inertia of beam about neutral axis ( m
4
)

Moment of Inertia of Cantilever

12
3
bd
I =

Where I = Area-moment of Inertia of rectangular beam about N.A. (m
4
)
b = Width of x-section of rectangular beam (m)
d = Depth of x-section of rectangular beam (m)

100
Pr
%
=
Idealvalue
ue acticalval Idealvalue
Error

Procedure:
1. First of all set the length of beam and mark the position of
cantilever end as (initial reading of deflection).
2. Apply the load (50gmf hanger) at free end and note the final
reading of deflection
3. Repeat the experiment 10 times.
b
d
N.A.
x x
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Observations:
1. Length of beam from fixed end to point of application (L)
=
m
2. Width of beam (b) = m
3. Depth (Thickness) of beam (d) = m
S.
No.
Load (W)
(Newton)

Deflection (
max
o ) (m)
Initial Final Net

Calculations:

Result:

Precautions:
1. Hold the cantilever with support carefully.
2. Note the reading of deflection after removing parallax.
3. Do not apply heavy loads at end of beam.
4. Deflection should be noted at point of application of load to get
maximum deflection.
5. Thickness should be measured either by vernier calliper ,
micrometer or screw gauge.

Sources of Error:
1. There may be positive or negative error in vernier calliper.
2. Point of application of load may be change.
Discussion:

Note: 1. Draw the diagram for the experimental set up.
2. Draw the curve between Load (x-axis) and maximum deflection
(y-axis)
3. Experiment may be repeated for different length.
4. Standard value of E for steel is
2 11
/ 0 ` 1 2 m N
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Instruction Sheet -5

Aim: To find out the coefficient of friction between flat pulley and rope with
the help of combined belt and rope friction apparatus using gradually
applied load.

Apparatus Used: Combined belt and rope friction apparatus , Rope , Weights
(500gmf, 1000gmf, 100gmf, 50gmf, 20gmf, 10gmf, etc.) and Hangers
(50gmf each).

Theory: For flat pulley and rope
u
e
T
T
=
2
1

2
1
1
T
T
Log
e
=
u

Where T
1
= Tight side tension (gmf)
T
2
= Slack side tension (gmf)
= co-efficient of friction

u
= Angle of Lap (radian)

W
1
W
2

T
1

T
2

t u =

Flat
Pulley
Rope
Weights
Angle
of Lap
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Procedure:
1. First of all put the rope on flat pulley.
2. Now put the hanger two sides of rope and make them at same
level.
3. Increase load on one side till the rope just start to move
(impending motion).
4. Note the readings of T
1
and T
2
(T1>T2).
5. Repeat the experiment 10 times for different values of T
2
.

Observations:
Angle of Lap
t u =

S.
No.
Tight side
Tension(T
1
) (gmf)
Slack side
Tension(T
2
) (gmf)
Co-efficient of friction ( )
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculations:

Result:

Precautions:1
1. Rope should be inextensible and weightless.
2. Tapping should be done gradually.
3. The ends of the rope should be at same level during experiment.
4. Weight should apply gradually at hanger.
5. The range of weight which has to apply is (5gmf to 1000gmf).

Sources of Error:
1. Rope may be extensible.
2. Tapping may be uneven.

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Discussion:
Note:
1. Draw the diagram for experimental set-up.
2. Draw the curve between T
1
(Y-axis) and T
2
(X-axis).
3. Draw the curve between (Y-axis) and
2
1
T
T
(X-axis).
4. The value of may lie between (0.2 to 0.3).

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Instruction Sheet 6

Aim: To determine Mechanical Advantage (M.A.), Velocity ratio (V.R.) and
efficiency (q ) for a given Screw-Jack (single start thread) Apparatus.
Also determine the law of machine and plot curve for:
(i) Load vs Effort
(ii) Load vs Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)
(iii) Load vs Efficiency (q )

Apparatus Used: Screw efficiency apparatus, inextensible strings, weights{1/2
kgf (10 nos), 100gmf (2 nos), 50gmf (3nos), 20gmf(1nos), 10gmf(1nos)},
vernier calliper, Outside calliper, scale, etc.

Theory:
Mechanical Advantage (M.A.) : Mechanical Advantage for a simple
machine is defined as the ratio of load lifted to the effort applied.

ied EffortAppl
LoadLifted
Advantage Mechanical =

P
W
A M = . .

Fig. (Simple pulley shows Load lifted and Effort applied)

Simple
Pulley
Load
Lifted
Effort
Applied
x
y
W
W
P
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.
c
o
m
Velocity Ratio (V.R.) : Velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of distance
moved by effort to the distance moved by load.
Load by moved Distannce
effort by moved Distannce
Ratio Velocity

=

x
y
. R . V =

Efficiency (q ): Efficiency of a simple machine is defined as the ratio of
out-put( work obtained as load lifted) to the input (work done at
other end of pulley).
100
Input
output
Efficiency =

100
y P
x W
= q

100
x y
P W
= q
100
Ratio Velocity
Advantage Mechanical
= q

Law of Machine : is mathematically defined as for a simple machine.

C mW P + =

Where P is the effort applied (kgf)
W is load lifted (kgf)
m is the slope or co-efficient of friction
C is the co-efficient of friction for machine

For single start screw thread
p
D
Ratio Velocity
t
=

Ideal Machine
Actual Machine
C
) m ( Tan
1

Load (W)
E
f
f
o
r
t

w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

For double start screw thread
p 2
D
Ratio Velocity
t
=

Where D is the diameter of effort wheel (mm)
P is the pitch of the screw thread (mm)

Pitch : is defined as the axial displacement of load in one complete
rotation of effort wheel.

Fig. : Screw Jack Apparatus

Effort pulley
Guide
Pulley
Screw
Threads
Lifted
Load
Effort
Applied
Base
Motion
Screw
Spindle
Arms
Pitch
Motion Motion
Load
Hanger
Tap
here
Collar
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

Procedure:
1. Measure the pitch of the screw with vernier calliper.
2. Measure the diameter of effort pulley with outside calliper and
meter scale.
3. Wrap the thread around the effort pulley passing over the guide
pulley and put the effort hangers at the ends of threads.
4. Place a known weight in the Load hanger with collar and start
hanging weights with the effort hanger gradually till the load
starts lifting.
5. Repeat the experiment at least 10 times with different weights
(Loads).
6. Calculate M.A., V.R. and % Efficiency.

Observations:
1. Diameter of Effort pulley =.Cm
2. Pitch of screw thread =..Cm
3. Velocity Ratio =..

S.
No.
Load Lifted
(kgf)
Effort Applied
(kgf)
Mechanical
Advantage (M.A.)
(%) Efficiency
( q)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Calculations:

Result:

w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

Precautions:
1. Wrap the string properly around effort pulley.
2. There may be Positive or negative error in vernier calliper.
3. Reading of pitch should be taken carefully.
4. It should be noted that whenever load lifted (means load
goes in upward direction), the effort should be applied in
downward direction.
5. Tapping should be done gradually and at right place.

Sources of Error:
1. There may be slight friction in pulleys.
2. Strings may be extensible and weightless.

Discussion:

2. Draw various curves (Load W at x-axis) as indicated in Aim.

w
w
w
.
A
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l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

Instruction Sheet 9
Aim: To locate the Centroid of given laminas
a. Sector of circle b. Trapezium c. Parallelogram d. Triangle
e. Irregular Body .

Apparatus Used: Laminas (Sector of circle, Trapezium, Parallelogram,
Triangular and Irregular body), Inextensible strings, Plumb, Rigid
support, Paper (A-3 size) and Pencil for marking.

Theory: A body which has negligible mass and thickness is called lamina. The
Centroid of lamina is the point at which the whole area of lamina is
supposed to be concentrated.

For Sector of Circle :

S.
No.
Shape Area
x
x

y
Y

1. Circular Sector
2
r u
u
u
3
sin r 2

0

x
Y
u
u
c
r
Origin
(0,0) O
x
X
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m
Fig. Circular sector
For Trapezium :

S.
No.
Shape Area
x
x

y
Y

1. Trapezium
( ) h b a
2
1
+
0
( )
b a
b a 2
3
h
+
+

For Parallelogram:

S.
No.
Shape Area
x
x

y
Y

1. Parallelogram h b
2
h

a
b
h
Origin
O (0,0)

c
Y
x
x
Y
Origin
O (0,0)
b
h
c
2
h

( )
b a
b a 2
3
h
+
+

w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

For Triangle:

S.
No.
Shape Area
x
x

y
Y

1. Triangle
h b
2
1

3
h

Percentage Error may be calculated by following formula

100
F
F F
Error %
4
4 4
'
'
=

Y
x
b
h
c
3
h

Origin
O (0,0)
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

For Irregular Lamina:
S.
No.
Shape Area
x
x

y
Y

1. Irregular

Procedure :
1. Use different laminas wrap paper on them and suspend it from
point P with the help of a string.
2. Draw the line PP` by chalk or pencil on the lamina. PP` is the
extension of string line from P.
3. Similarly hang the lamina from point Q and draw the line QQ`
on the lamina. The QQ` is the extension of string line from Q.
4. The same procedure may be repeated by hanging the lamina
from point R.
5. The point at which the line PP`,QQ` and RR` cut gives the
Centroid of the lamina.
c
x

Y
P
P`
Q
Q`
R
R`
Origin
(0,0)
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m
6. Measure the distance of the Centroid from the point P`.

Observaions:

S.
No.
Shape Area
x
x

y
Y

Calcu-
-lated
Obse-
-rved.
Calcu-
-lated
Obse-
-rved.
%
Error
1. Circular Sector
2.

Trapezium
3. Parallelogram

4. Triangle

5. Irregular Lamina

Result : The co-ordinates of Irregular lamina are =

Precautions:
1. The line PP` and RR` should be marked accurately.
2. The point of intersection of the lines should be located
accurately.

Discussion:

Note : 1. Draw the diagram for experimental set-up.
2. Attach paper of each lamina drawing.

w
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Instruction Sheet 10

Aim: To determine Mechanical Advantage (M.A.), Velocity ratio (V.R.) and
efficiency (q ) for given Single and double Winch-Crab Apparatus. Also
determine the law of machine and plot curve for:
(iv) Load vs Effort
(v) Load vs Mechanical Advantage (M.A.)
(vi) Load vs Efficiency (q )

Apparatus Used: Single and double purchase Winch-Crab apparatus,
inextensible strings, weights{1/2 kgf (10 nos), 100gmf (2 nos), 50gmf
(3nos), 20gmf(1nos), 10gmf(1nos)}, Outside calliper, scale, etc.

Theory:
Mechanical Advantage (M.A.) : Mechanical Advantage for a simple
machine is defined as the ratio of load lifted to the effort applied.

ied EffortAppl
LoadLifted
Advantage Mechanical =

P
W
A M = . .

Fig. (Simple pulley shows Load lifted and Effort applied)

Simple
Pulley
Load
Lifted
Effort
Applied
x
y
W
W
P
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m
Velocity Ratio (V.R.) : Velocity ratio is defined as the ratio of distance
moved by effort to the distance moved by load.
Load by moved Distannce
effort by moved Distannce
Ratio Velocity

=

x
y
. R . V =

Efficiency (q ): Efficiency of a simple machine is defined as the ratio of
out-put( work obtained as load lifted) to the input (work done at
other end of pulley).
100
Input
output
Efficiency =

100
y P
x W
= q

100
x y
P W
= q

100
Ratio Velocity
= q

Law of Machine : is mathematically defined as for a simple machine.

C mW P + =

Where P is the effort applied (kgf)
W is load lifted (kgf)
m is the slope or co-efficient of friction
C is the co-efficient of friction for machine

Ideal Machine
Actual Machine
C
) m ( Tan
1

Load (W)
E
f
f
o
r
t

w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m
For single purchase Winch-Crab

The unit consists of two axles called the effort axle and load axle.
Both these axles are mounted on rigid supports called strands. The effort
axle carries a teethed wheel called pinion meshes with a big teethed wheel
Spur gear.

Fig. : Single Purchase Winch-Crab

When the effort wheel completes one revolution, the distance moved
by the effort is D t for one revolution of pinion, the number of
revolution undergone by the spur gear is
2
1
T
T
.
Therefore, the displacement of load is given by:

2
1
T
T
d t

Load of nt Displaceme
Effort of nt Displaceme
(V.R.) Ratio Velocity =

Spur
Gear
Pinion
Load
D
d
1
T
2
T
Effort
Axle
Load Axle or Drum
Effort
Applied
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m
2
1
T
T
d
D
(V.R.) Ratio Velocity
t
t
=

d
D
T
T
. R . V
1
2
=

Where D is the diameter of effort wheel (cm)
d is the diameter of Load drum (cm)
T
1
is number of teeth of Pinion
T
2
is number of teeth of Spur gear

P
W
A M = . .

100
Ratio Velocity
= q

2
1
T
T
D
d
P
W
= q

For Double purchase Winch-Crab

The system employs two pairs of gears for obtaining increased
velocity ratio. There are three axles. An effort axle , load axle and an
intermediate axle. The effort axle carries a pinion which gears with the
spur wheel of the intermediate axle.
The pinion of the intermediate axle meshes with the spur wheel
mounted on the load axle.
When the effort wheel completes one revolution, the distance moved
by the effort D t .
The effort axle and pinion (T
1
) mounted on it also turn one
revolution. This pinion gear meshes with spur gear (T
2
) fixed onto the
intermediate axle. The revolution made by one intermediate axle are =
2
1
T
T
1
The pinion (T
3
) mounted on the intermediate axle will also turn
through the same number of revolutions. This pinion meshes with spur
gear (T
4
) of the load axle.
Thus the revolution made by load axle and the load drum mounted
on it are =
4
3
2
1
T
T
T
T
1
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
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e
m
.
c
o
m
Distance moved by the load =
|
|
.
|
\
|
t
4
3
2
1
T
T
T
T
1 d
Load of nt Displaceme
Effort of nt Displaceme
(V.R.) Ratio Velocity =

4
3
2
1
T
T
T
T
d
D
t
t
=

3 1
4 2
T T d
T T D

=

Where D is the diameter of effort wheel (cm)
d is the diameter of Load drum (cm)
T
1
is number of teeth of Pinion with effort wheel
T
2
is number of teeth of Spur gear (intermediate axle)
T
3
is number of teeth of Pinion with intermediate axle
T
4
is number of teeth of Spur gear with load drum

4
T

D
Spur
Gear
Pinion
1
T
2
T
Spur
Gear
Load
d
Load Axle or Drum
Spur
Gear
2
T
Pinion
3
T
Effort
Applied
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m
Fig. : Double Purchase Winch-Crab
P
W
A M = . .

100
Ratio Velocity
= q

4
3
2
1
T
T
T
T
D
d
P
W
= q

Procedure:
1. Make strings for load drum to move upward and effort to move
upward.
2. Apply known load (initially 0.5 kgf) at load hanger and apply
corresponding effort (50-150gmf) at effort hanger in order that
the effort wheel just move on slight tapping at bearing.
3. Note the readings of load and effort and repeat the experiment
for different loads ten times.

Observations:
For single purchase Winch-Crab

1. Circumference of Effort wheel ( D t )= cm
2. Circumference of Load drum ( d t ) = cm
3. No. of teeth of pinion (T
1
) =
4. No. of teeth of Spur gear (T
2
) =
5. Velocity ratio (
d
D
T
T
. R . V
1
2
= ) =
S.
No.
Load Lifted
(kgf)
Effort Applied
(kgf)
Mechanical
Advantage (M.A.)
(%) Efficiency
( q)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m
For double purchase Winch-Crab

1. Circumference of Effort wheel ( D t )= cm
2. Circumference of Load drum ( d t ) = cm
3. No. of teeth of pinion (effort wheel) (T
1
) =
4. No. of teeth of Spur gear (intermediate axle) (T
2
) =
5. No. of teeth of pinion (intermediate axle) (T
3
) =
6. No. of teeth of Spur gear (Load drum) (T
4
) =
7.
3 1
4 2
T T d
T T D

=
=
S.
No.
Load Lifted
(kgf)
Effort Applied
(kgf)
Mechanical
Advantage (M.A.)
(%) Efficiency
( q)
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.

Result:

Precautions:
1. Wrap the string properly around effort pulley.
2. It should be noted that whenever load lifted (means load goes in
upward direction), the effort should be applied in downward
direction.
3. Tapping should be done gradually and at right place.

Sources of Error:
1. There may be slight friction in pulleys.
2. Strings may be extensible and weightless.

Discussion:

2. Draw various curves (Load W at x-axis) as indicated in Aim.
w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

w
w
w
.
A
g
l
a
S
e
m
.
c
o
m

Applied Mechanics Lab - PGBDDF

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