A stroke, also called brain attack or cerebral vascular accident occurs when brain cells die from oxygen

deprivation. Oxygen deprivation occurs if blood flow to the brain is blocked by a clot or if vessels are damaged. Without oxygen, brain cells cannot function. here are two types of stroke! hemorrhagic and ischemic. A hemorrhagic stroke occurs when a blood vessel in the brain bursts, due to high blood pressure, atherosclerosis, or a congenital malformation. A burst vessel causes bleeding into the brain and decreased blood flow in the damaged vessel. "lood build#up increases pressure in the brain, damaging nerve cells and collapsing smaller vessels. he second type of stroke is ischemic stroke, which occurs when blood flow through a vessel is blocked. here are three categories of ischemic stroke! thrombotic, thromboembolic, and embolic. A thrombotic stroke occurs when flow in a blood vessel in the brain is obstructed by arteriosclerosis. A thromboembolic stroke occurs when a clot breaks off from an arteriosclerotic pla$ue, and lodges in a downstream vessel, blocking blood flow. An embolitic stroke occurs when a clot travels to the brain from elsewhere in the body. %atients with atrial fibrillation or who have suffered a heart attack are at high risk of embolic stroke. his is because slow, irregular, or interrupted blood flow has a tendency to clot. &ometimes an individual will experience a transient ischemic attack ' (A), which is temporary and improves before cells die. A (A is a precursor to a thrombotic stroke or short#term embolus.

he central nervous system includes the nerves of the brain and spinal cord. he peripheral nervous system includes sympathetic and parasympathetic nerves and motor nerves, which innervate skeletal muscle. *erve cells, like all cells, have a membrane potential. charged while the outside is positive. he inside of the cell is negatively

his separation of charge is due to the concentration of positively charged sodium and potassium ions outside the cell and negatively charged proteins inside the cell. What+s special about a nerve cell is that its membrane potential can change in response to sensory stimuli such as sound, light, touch, and chemicals released from another nerve. (n response to the stimulus, the nerve cell opens or closes ion channels, called gates, which change its permeability to sodium and potassium. %ositively charged sodium ions rush inside the cell, making the inside less negative. his is called depolari,ation. *erves communicate with each other chemically by sending signals, or neurotransmitters, via the axon. he first nerve is the presynaptic. he second is the postsynaptic. he synapse is the point of -unction between two neurons. (f a nerve cell+s depolari,ation is great enough then the nerve fires an action potential. he postsynaptic cell receives the signals at the synapse. (f the result is positive and depolari,ation occurs, the postsynaptic nerve fires an action potential and transmission continues. he action potential is exactly the same in all nerves that fire. the signal travels down the nerves to stimulate another nerve, a target organ 'such as muscle fiber), or a gland. *erve cells also may be inhibited from firing. his occurs when a stimulus causes the cell to become more permeable to potassium, and positive potassium ions leave the cell. (n this case, the inside of the cell becomes more negative, or hyperpolari,ed. /yperpolari,ation prevents the nerve from firing an action potential. 0atty insulation called myelin covers the entire axon, except at certain spaces called nodes. Action potentials can -ump very fast from node to node, a process called salutatory conduction. (f the myelin sheath is destroyed, as with multiple sclerosis, transmission of an action potential slows, because it is forced to spread down the entire axon. When nerve transmission is interrupted, as with spinal cord in-ury, the brain cannot communicate with the muscles. 1ikewise, if synaptic transmission is interrupted, brain cells and other nerve cells cannot communicate.

he immune response involves white blood cells called lymphocytes. important are " and cells.

he most

2ach " and cell is programmed to recogni,e and respond to one specific protein, called an antigen. 3ifferent antigens are present on cell membranes. When lymphocytes encounter their specific antigens, they bind in a lock and key manner and destroy the cell. " cells respond by transforming into antibody#secreting cells. heir antibody binds to the antigen, causing its destruction. &ome " cells remain in circulation, carrying the memory of that antigen. cells respond by transforming into helper, cytotoxic, or memory cells. helper cells help " cells change into antibody secreting cells. Without helper presenting antigens to a " cell, the " cell does not respond. 4ytotoxic cells act alone, without " cells. he cells destroyed by cytotoxic those infected by a virus or a cancer cell changed by mutation. cells cells are

cells can become memory cells and remain in the circulation for years, ready to respond again if their antigen should appear. he first time " and cells are exposed to a specific antigen, the response takes weeks. (f re#exposure occurs, " and memory cells respond immediately to destroy the invader. *ormally, the immune response is well controlled. (f not, autoimmune disease may occur, and self#antigens may be attacked.

he immune response involves white blood cells called lymphocytes. important are " and cells.

he most

2ach " and cell is programmed to recogni,e and respond to one specific protein, called an antigen. 3ifferent antigens are present on cell membranes. When lymphocytes encounter their specific antigens, they bind in a lock and key manner and destroy the cell. " cells respond by transforming into antibody#secreting cells. heir antibody binds to the antigen, causing its destruction. &ome " cells remain in circulation, carrying the memory of that antigen. cells respond by transforming into helper, cytotoxic, or memory cells. helper cells help " cells change into antibody secreting cells. Without helper presenting antigens to a " cell, the " cell does not respond. 4ytotoxic cells act alone, without " cells. he cells destroyed by cytotoxic those infected by a virus or a cancer cell changed by mutation. cells cells are

cells can become memory cells and remain in the circulation for years, ready to respond again if their antigen should appear. he first time " and cells are exposed to a specific antigen, the response takes weeks. (f re#exposure occurs, " and memory cells respond immediately to destroy the invader. *ormally, the immune response is well controlled. (f not, autoimmune disease may occur, and self#antigens may be attacked.

/eart failure occurs when the heart+s pumping becomes impaired, resulting in inability to meet the body+s oxygen demands. he most common type of heart failure, left#sided failure, occurs when the left ventricle cannot contract sufficiently. Afterload is the amount of resistance the ventricle pumps against. (n order to pump effectively, the ventricle must generate sufficient pressure to overcome this resistance. 1eft heart failure occurs when arteries downstream constrict, resulting in increased afterload! resistance too high for the ventricle to pump against. A heart attack can also cause left heart failure. (n a failing heart, blood accumulates in the left ventricle causing pressure. called preload, causes the ventricle to expand. his pressure,

(ncreased preload worsens the ventricle+s ability to pump. Accumulating blood stretches the cardiac muscle fibers, pulling myosin and actin filaments farther apart. When over# stretched, myosin molecules cannot connect with actin, the myosin5actin crossbridges cannot swivel. he inability of the crossbridges to swivel causes makes contraction weaker, reducing the likelihood that sufficient blood will be pumped. he progression of heart failure continues as blood accumulates. "uilt#up blood in the left ventricle causes a backup of blood throughout the pulmonary circuit, leading to pulmonary congestion. his associated congestion is responsible for left heart failure, also known as congestive heart failure. "lood build up in the lungs causes difficulty breathing, especially when a person is reclining. %ulmonary congestion also reduces the ability to oxygenate the blood, worsening systemic hypoxia. he progressive nature of congestive heart failure, if untreated, ultimately causes death.

here are four true stages of the cell cycle! 67, &, 68, and 9. A fifth stage, 6:, is where the cell remains indefinitely until it begins the cell cycle again. &ome cells may never leave the 6: stage. Others, that go through division rapidly, such as bone marrow cells, may skip the 6: stage entirely. 4ells begins the cell cycle by entering (nterphase. (n (nterphase, the cell prepares for division by duplicating 3*A. (nterphase includes the stages 67, & and 68. (n 67, the cell synthesi,es 3*A and protein and increases organelle and cytoskeletal elements. he chromatin consists of long, slender rods -umbled together in the nucleus. & is the synthesis stage. *uclear 3*A replicates along its centrioles, which are small structures, made up mostly of microtubules, that associate with a chromosome+s 3*A. he chromatins begin to coil, so that they shorten and thicken. (n 68, ;*A and protein are synthesi,ed. %roof reading also occurs! the 3*A replicated in the & phase is checked for mistakes. (f mistakes are found, the cell repairs them or receives a signal to self#destruct, called apotosis. he difference between 68 and 67 is that in 67, 3*A and protein are made, while in 68, ;*A and protein are made. (n the 9 stage, the cell divides into two identical cells through divisions of the nucleus 'mitosis) and cytoplasm 'cytokensis). Over five different stages, the centrioles pull the chrosomsomes apart and the cell divides in two. 0irst, in prophase, the duplicated chromosomes appear, and then split into identical halves, called chromatids, attached by spindles, called centromeres. he nuclear membrane disappears and spindle fibers form in the cytomplasm, radiating from the two centrioles located at opposite poles of the cell. (n metaphase, the spindle fibers pull the centromeres, aligning them in the middle of the spindle, or the e$uatorial plate of the cell. he two chromatids are clearly visible in this stage. (n anaphase the centromeres split, pulling sister chromatids to opposite sides of the cell. "y the end of anaphase, <= chromosomes lie at each side of the cell. When chromosomes are separated, each sister chromatid is considered a new chromosome. (n telophase, a nuclear membrane forms around a group of <= chromosomes. he spindle fibers disappear, and the chromosomes uncoil. 4ytokensis occurs and the cytoplasm divides into e$ual parts. wo identical daughter cells have been formed. 2ach new cell moves back to the 6: stage and is ready to begin the process again.