Some Properties of the Triangle Author(s): Yung-Chow-Wong Reviewed work(s): Source: The American Mathematical Monthly, Vol.

48, No. 8, Part I (Oct., 1941), pp. 530-535 Published by: Mathematical Association of America Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2303388 . Accessed: 03/11/2012 01:11
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530

SOME

PROPERTIES

OF THE

TRIANGLE

[October,

the correctprobabilitythat thereis lifeon Mars. It turnsout that it is not 1/2, but 5/6. What conclusion can you draw as to whetherthere is life on Mars? discussion. I shall leave this question with you withoutfurther In the second example, I have a die which is loaded so that one face is certain to turn up, but I do not tell you which face this is. I am going to make a large number of throws of this die. What is the probability that I will get a throwof the series?Since your ignoranceis equally distributed threeon the first among the six faces of the die, you might conclude that the answer was 1/6. trial? Assumingthis to be correct,what has it to do with the resultof the first And what has it to do with the results of all the trials? I shall also consider a variation of this problem. I have six dice in an urn. One is loaded so that the ace always turns up; another,so that the deuce; another, the three; etc. A die is drawn at random fromthe urn and thrown,and is repeated many times. What is the probability then returned.This experiment of gettinga threeon a given trial? Should this problem be treated in the same manneras the precedingone? Again I shall leave these questions with you without further discussion. In conclusion, I will state that the rejection of the statistical assumption entails an obligation eitherto replace this assumption by somethingelse which willserve the purpose,or to admit that the theoryof probabilityis not concerned withthe resultsof trials. If the lattercourse is chosen,thenthe phrase "the probability that an event will occur" is misleading. SOME PROPERTIES OF THE TRIANGLE

YUNG-CHOW

WONG,* Cambridge, Massachusetts

1. Introduction. Given arbitrarily a triangle A1A2A3, let the triangles on its sides. Then it is a knowntheo31A2A3, etc.,tof fixedshapes be constructed etc.,are all similarto an isosceles trianglewith 1200 vertex rem that if AR1A2A3, is given. angle, AB1B2B3 is always equilateral, no matterwhat triangleA1A2A3 Is the converse also true? That is, if AB1B2B3 is always equilateral, no matter then is given,the shapes of AB1A2A3, etc.,remainingfixed, what triangle A1A2A3 B1A2A3, etc.,necessarilyall similar to an isosceles trianglewith are the triangles 1200 vertex angle? This question does not seem to have been answered. In this results.The paper, I solve a fewproblemsof this type,yieldingsome interesting instrument employedis the so-called complexco6rdinates;T the methodused will be explained in the next few paragraphs. A (real) point in the plane can be representedby a single complex number, which is called the complex coordinateof the point. For conveniencepoints will small be denoted by capital lettersand their coordinates by the corresponding
* The author is a Chinese "Indemnity Funds" Student. t Throughout this paper an expressionfollowedby "etc." means the totalityof this expression and of two similar ones obtained fromit by permutingcyclicallythe subscripts 1, 2, 3. t See, forexample, Morley and Morley, Inversive Geometry.

1941]

SOME

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OF THE

TRIANGLE

531

letters. Thus, whenever we speak of a point, say P, it is understood that the coordinateof P is p; the only exception is the origin,which has the coordinate known to be real will be denoted by Greek zero. Numbers which are definitely letters. With the help of a parametric complex number ri, a point B1 may be adequation: given points A2, A3 by the following joined to two arbitrarily
(1.1) b
=

rl'a2 + r1a3,

where
(1.2) r1' +-ri
=

1.

that different capital letIn what followsit is assumed, unless stated otherwise, ters denote distinct points,so that ri, r1'50 or 1. Expressing ri, r1' in termsof a2,a3,bi, we have
ri = (b
- a2)/(a3
-

a2), -(b
-

ri'

(b
-

a3)/(a2-

a3),

r1/r

a2)/(b

a3).

Any of these equations shows that the parameter r1 determinesthe shape of AB1A2A3,and conversely. With this means of adjoining a point to any two points of a figureat our disposal, it is now clear that the problem mentioned at the beginningof the paper can be solved by carryingout the followingprocedures: (i) Adjoin to the sides A2A3, etc., of a triangleA1A2A3 the points B1, etc., the parametriccomplex numbersbeing r1,etc. (ii) Set up the conditionf(a,, a2, a3, ri, r2,r3)=0 for AB1B2B3 to be equiof the a's in it, thus obtaining three lateral, and equate to zero the coefficients equations in the r's alone. (iii) If the last set of equations are consistent,obtain geometrically(or obtain and then interpret geometrically)its most general solution forthe r's. In the following two sectionsanalogous processesare carriedout, withthe respective requirementsthat the triangle B1B2B3 is similar to a given triangle and that the lines A1B1,etc.,are concurrent. C1C2C3 2. Some propertiesof a triangle.To the sides A2A3,etc.,of a triangleA1A2A3 let the points B1, etc.,be adjoined by the parametersr1,etc.; thus (2.1)
(2.2)
is

bi = r1'a2+ r1a3, etc.,

r1' + r1 = 1, etc.

Now the conditionthat the triangleB1B2B3be similarto a given triangleC1C2C3

r1 a2 + r1a3 c1 1 r2'a3+ r2a, c2 1
r3ra1+r3a2
C3

(2.3)

=0.

532

SOME

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OF THE

TRIANGLE

[October,

of a,, a2, a3 in (2.3), we obtain Equating to zero the coefficients

(2.4) r2(C3-c1)

+ r' (c1 -C2)

0,

etc. etc.

These can be written,because of (2.2),

r2(C3
-

Cl)

r3(Cl

C2)

-C1

C2,

The solutionsforthe r's are now readilyseen to be (2.5)

r2(C3
-

C1)

cl,

etc.,

where d is an arbitrarycomplex number. To find the geometricmeanings of equations (2.5), we express the r's in termsof the a's and b's by means of (1.3) and theiranalogous equations. We obtain (2.6) (d
-C1)/(C3
-

C1)

(b2-

a3)/(al

a3),

etc.,

etc.,are (directly)similar to which are the conditionsthat the trianglesB1A2A3, the trianglesDC3C2,etc.Hence we have the following: triangles chosen triangle A 1A2A3, 2.1. If, on thesides ofan arbitrarily THEOREM thenin orderthatthetriangleB1B2B3 B1A2A3, etc.,offixedshapes are constructed, A1A2A3 whattriangle may always be similar to a giventriangleCiC2C3,no matter and sufficient thata point D existssuch thatthetriangles is chosen,it is necessary DC3C2,etc. B1A2A3, etc.,are similar to thetriangles When AC1C2C3 is equilateral and ADC3C2,etc.,are all similar,then it is geoThis gives an answer evident that D must be the incenterof AC1C2C3. metrically to the question we asked in ?1. chosentriangleA1A2A3, 2.1 a. If, on the sides of an arbitrarily COROLLARY thenin orderthatthe similar triangles B1A2A3, etc.,offixedshapes are constructed, whattriangle is chosen,it is A1A2A3 triangle B1B2B3may be equilateral,no matter thatthetriangles and sufficient etc.,are isosceleswith1200 vertex B1A2A3, necessary angles at theB's. etc.,are conIt will be observed that the similar isosceles trianglesB1A2A3, structed all outward or all inward according as the equilateral triangle ClC2C3 is described in the same or opposite sense as AA1A2A3. When C1, C2, C3 are three points on a line, we have the following: 2.1 b. If, on thesides ofan arbitrarily chosentriangle A1A2A3, triCOROLLARY thenin orderthat the points etc.,of fixed shapes are constructed, angles B1A2A3, is chosen,it is whattriangle A1A2A3 B1, B2, B3 may always be collinear,no matter that ,B2A3A1 = ,B3A2A 1,etc. and sufficient necessary Here `JB2A3A1 denotes the directed angle* fromB2A3 to A3A1,i.e., the angle throughwhich the line B2A3,taken as a whole, must be rotated about A3 in the
* R. A. Johnson,Modern Geometry,?16.

1941]

SOME

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OF THE

TRIANGLE

533

positive directionin order to coincide with A3A1. From this definition, directed angles are equivalent when they differ by 7r. Finally, if Cl, C2, C3,D are fourpoints on a line,Theorem 2.1 gives the theoremof Menelaus. 3. Some propertiesof a triangle(continued). We now considerthe condition that the lines AlB1, etc.,be concurrent, the coordinates of B1, etc., being given by equations (2.1). The equations of the lines A 1R, etc.,are
(-

b)x

(a,

b1)? + aibi

0,

etc.,

where,as well as in what follows,conjugate complex numbersare indicated by bars; thus, for example, d1 is the conjugate of a1. Since we are dealing with a similitudeproperty, we may suppose withoutloss of generalitythat (3.1) Then b2 = r2' + r2a, b3= r'a, bi = ri, of the lines A1Bi, etc.,is and the conditionforthe concurrence
- ?i + a (3.3)
?2'

al = a,

a2 = O,

a3=1.

(3.2)

- ri + a r2' + r2a
1-r3'a

- dr, + a?,

+ r2a
1-r3' a

0
?'d ar'a

=0.

of a2d, a2, ad, and a, we obtain Equating to zero the coefficients

1(?2r3'

- r2f') + r3'(r2

?2)

= =

0, 0,

?i(f 'r' r1( r3' + r2) - ?'Q(r2 +

i' ) ?1(r2'f ' ,(r'

+ r2)
+

r3'(lr2 +

?')

2) -

r' (rl2 + r2') = 0,

= 0.

The equations obtained by equating to zero the coefficients of d2a, a2, a are the conjugates of (3.4)1, (3.4)2, (3.4)4,* and are therefore included in (3.4). We shall now solve the equations (3.4), noting that r1,r2,r3#0 or 1. If one of the r's is real, it followsfrom(3.4), and (3.4)4 that the other two r's are also real. In this case, equations (3.4), and (3.4)4 are identicallysatisfied,whileequations (3.4)2 and (3.4)3 both reduce to
rlr2r3 = r1'r2'r'.

- r2') + r3'(rlr2' - ri')

on A2A3,etc.,and Geometricallywe have that B1, etc.,lie respectively B1A2 B2A3 B3A1 B1A3 B2A1 B3A2
=

-1.

* Throughout thispaperwe adopt theconvention thatby (3.4), we meanthe first equation in (3.4), and by (3.5) thegroup orthefirst setofequations oftheequations ofequations consisting (3.5)1,(3.5) 2, * X X .

534

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[October,

Let us now suppose that none of the r's is real. Then from(3.4)1, we have
(3.5)3
I = r3 =

1,

where, as we have pointed out, a Greek letter always denotes a real number. In virtueof this, (3.4)3 is a consequence of (3.4)2, and (3.4), and (3.4)4 become, respectively,
(r2 -r2) = 0, r' -r2' + (rbr-2'rjr2+ i.e., r2rl'-r2ij =0, - 2' 3+?r2'r3 =O, which are equivalent to
rlr2-

i'r2)

O,

(3.5),
(3.5)2

rI
I

P l- 2,

= p2r3. r2 =

Writing(3.4)2 in the form

rir2(1 - r3')(1'-ri)rr3'
=

0,

i.e., (3.6)

r1r2r3-r

' r3I

=0, we have, because of (3.5),

P1P2P3 =

1.

Now if we eliminate r, and r2fromthe equations

r3 + P3r1 = 1, fl + Plr2
=

1,

r2 +

p2r3

1,

which are equivalent to (3.5), we get

r3 + plp2p3r3 =
1-p3

+ P1P3

Since the p's are real but the r's are not, we must have (3.6). Thus (3.6) is only a consequence of (3.5), which is therefore equivalent to (3.4). Expressingthe r's in termsof the a's and b's, we can write (3.5) in the form (3.7) (3.8)
(a2b3)/(a2-

a,)

p3(a2 - bl)/(d2

a3),

etc.

These are the conditions that

C

A1A2B3+

A3A2B1= 0, etc.

Hence we have the following:

THEOREM 3.1. If, on the sides of an arbitrarily chosentriangleA1A2A3,trianglesBjA2A3,etc.,offixedshapes are constructed, thenin order thatthelinesAlB1, no matter whattriangle A 1A2A3 etc.,may always be concurrent, is chosen, itis necesthateither sary and sufficient conditions is satisfied: of thefollowing (i) B1, etc.,lie on A2A3,etc.,such that

B1A2 B2A3 B3A1 B1A3 B2A1 B3A2 (ii)

+ gA2A1B3 = O, etc. CA3A1B2

1941]

GEOMETRY

OF THE

TRIANGLE

IN THE

KASNER

PLANE

535

We note that (i) gives the well knowntheoremof Ceva, and that the sufficiency of (ii) is also known.* of Theorem 2.1 the linesA dBi,etc.,may also be conIn orderthat in the figure by Theorem 3.1, that g C1C3D+ g C1C2D current,it is necessaryand sufficient, of triangle C1C2C3. Hence we have the =0, etc.; i.e., that D is the orthocenter following: chosentriangleA1A2A3,triTHEOREM 3.2. If, on the sides of an arbitrarily thenin orderthatthetriangle angles 131A2A3, etc., offixed shapes are constructed, B1B2B3may always be similar to a giventriangleC1C2C3 and thelines A Bi, etc., and sufficient no matter whattriangle A1A2A3 is chosen,it is necessary concurrent, that 2= -2 g A3A1B2= g B3A1A2 C2C1C3, etc. THE GEOMETRY OF THE TRIANGLE IN THE KASNER PLANE
EMANUEL MEHR, Brooklyn College

1. Introduction.The aim of this paper is to advance a symmetricnotation of perpendicuforthe study of the trianglein the Kasner plane. A new definition will be given, and new points of the trilarity,namely quasi-perpendicularity, angle and theirpropertieswill be discussed. The geometryof the Kasner plane depends on the followingdefinitions: A point is an ordered pair of complex numbers. The distanced12fromthe point Pi(xi, y') to the point P2(x2, y2), where y1-Y2, A line is a linear equation Ax+By+C=O with complex coefficients, where A and B are not both zero. A line is said to be a zeroline ifA = 0, and an infinite line ifB = 0. A linear equation is said to be a generalline if both A and B are not zero. The slope of the general line y=px+q, (p#0), is p. Lines are parallel if they have no points in common. Clearly, all zero lines are parallel,all infinite lines are parallel, and two generallines are parallel iftheir slopes are equal. The angle 012 fromthe line L1 to the line L2 is P2/Pl, wherepi is the slope ofLi, (i=1, 2), andp2#pl. A circleis the locus of all points at a given distance r froma given point (x0, yo), togetherwith the point (x0, ye). The equation of the circle is (X-Xo)2 =r(y-yo). as definedabove are invariant Rigid motion:The distance d12 and the angle 012 under the three-parameter group of transformations
iS (X2-X1) 2/ (y2-yl) -

(1)

G3: x'=mx
* Johnson,Modern Geometry,?356.

+ h,

y'=m2y

+ k,

which may be called the group of rigidmotionsof the Kasner plane.