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Throughout his life Dalton was interested in the Earth's atmosphere, and he
recorded more than 200,000 atmospheric observations in his notebooks.
These observations led Dalton to study gases, and from the results of his
experiments he was able to formulate his atomic theory. In a book on
meteorology, he concluded that the aurora borealis is a magnetic
phenomenon; he also explained the condensation of dew and gave a table of
vapor pressures of water at various temperatures. Dalton was the first to
publish the generalization that all gases initially at the same temperature
expand equally on going to the same higher temperature. His law of partial
pressures was included in a paper (1803) on gas solubilities.He proposed the
Atomic Theory in 1803 which stated that (1) all matter was composed of
small indivisible particles termed atoms, (2) atoms of a given element
possess unique characteristics and weight, and (3) three types of atoms
exist: simple (elements), compound (simple molecules), and complex
(complex molecules). Dalton's theory was presented in New System of
Chemical Philosophy (1808-1827). This work identified chemical elements as
a specific type of atom, therefore rejecting Newton's theory of chemical
affinities.
Dalton's atomic theory was expressed in public lectures in 1803, and later in
his New System of Chemical Philosophy (1808). Many scientists, including
William Higgins, had considered matter to be made of atoms, but Dalton
provided a model from which definite predictions could be made. This theory
incorporated additional features that have since been discarded, but the
realization that each atom has a characteristic mass and that atoms of
elements are unchanged in chemical processes has served chemists to the
present day.
Bohr, Niels (1885- 1962)
Danish physicist who proposed a successful quantum model of the atom in
1913. His model assumed that (1) the electron exists at precise distances
from the nucleus, (2) as long as an electron remains in one location, no
energy is given off, (3) electrons have circular orbits (this is only correct for s
orbitals), and (4) the angular momenta associated with allowed electron
(Actually, protons and neutrons obey the same principle, while photons do
not). By ``state'' here we mean a set of properties, such as energy, that
characterize an electron.
This principle applies to more complex atoms containing more than one
electron. However, in these atoms a complication arises, in that a more
rigorous treatment of the problem of an electron orbiting about a proton
reveals that, for each value of the integer n of the Bohr model, there can be
2n2 distinct states that a given electron can occupy.
Let us now consider moving up the periodic table. Starting with Hydrogen,
we have one electron, which would go in one of the two possible n = 1 levels.
For Helium, the next element, we add one more electron, which will go in the
second n = 1 level. For the third element, Lithium, we have to add one
electron, but the n = 1 level is already filled, so we have to place this
electron in the n = 2 level. We can then add more and more electrons to the
n = 2 level until the element Neon, which will have 8 electrons in the n = 2
level, which fills that level. The next element, Sodium, will thus have to have
one electron in the n = 3 level. And so on.
Although these more complex atoms are much more difficult to analyze than
hydrogen, we can see already a particular pattern developing with this
simple analysis. The elements Helium and Neon have filled n = 1 and n = 2
levels, or shells, respectively. These two elements are inert gases, which
mean that they do not bond readily with other elements. It thus seems that
the tendency of an atom to bond with other atoms has something to do with
the outer electron shell being filled or not (at least for these lower shells -
this analysis becomes more complicated for heavier elements).
Hund’s Rule
When electrons are put into orbitals having the same energy, degenerate
orbitals, one electron is put into each orbital before putting a second electron
into an orbital.
Around each atomic nucleus, electrons occupy energy levels termed shells.
Each shell is identified with quantum number, n, that defines the main
energy level. Each main level is made up of a number of sublevels. These
sublevels are identified by their shapes: s sublevels have 1 orbital, p
sublevels have 3 orbitals, d sublevels have 5 orbitals; and f. sublevels have 7
orbitals. Each orbital can contain only 3 electrons spinning in opposite
directions.
Although each suborbital can hold two electrons, the electrons all carry
negative charges and, because like charges repel, electrons repel each other.
In accord with Hund's rule, electrons space themselves as far apart as
possible by occupying all available vacant suborbitals before pairing up with
another electron. The unpaired electrons all have the same spin quantum
number (represented in electron configuration diagrams with arrows all
pointing either upward or downward).