UNIVERSITI TUNKU ABDUL RAHMAN FACULTY OF ENGINEERING AND GREEN TECHNOLOGY (FEGT) ENVIRONMENTAL ENGINEERING UGNA2052 Water Resource

Group Assignment Year 2 Trimester 2

Name Student ID Title Lecturer Date of Submission

: : : : :

Lee Pei Ing, Tan Yi Mi 11AGB00069, 11AGB01150 Hydrology Ms.Ho Y.C. 5th August 2012

Contents
1.0 Abstract ................................................................................................................ 3 2.0 Introduction .......................................................................................................... 3 3.0 Distribution and Water Resource.......................................................................... 4 4.0 Hydraulic Cycle .......4 5.0 Hydraulic Event .................................................................................................. 15 6.0 Environmental sustainability ............................................................................... 17 7.0 Conclusion ......................................................................................................... 20 8.0 References ......................................................................................................... 20

1.0 Abstract Hydrology in simple term is the study of water. In this assignment we will discuss about distribution of water, hydrologic cycle (precipitation, evaporation, infiltration and runoff), hydraulic event which include flood and drought and environmental sustainability of water. We will briefly explain distribution of water within the earth in term of percentage. Then we will discuss about cycle of water within the earth in hydrologic cycle which include precipitation, evaporation, infiltration and runoff. In hydraulic event we will talk about definition and method to manage and prevent flood and drought. Lastly we will talk about environmental sustainability of water which mainly focus of management, control and prevent of pollution of water nowadays. 2.0 Introduction Water is one of the most essential requisites that nature provides to sustain life for every living organism on Earth and it is the most common substance on the surface of the Earth, with the ocean containing 70 percent of the planet. Although there is plenty of water on earth, it is neither evenly distributed nor evenly accessible. Moreover there is an increasing evidence of the contaminants discarded by human activities showing up the water supplies. Thus, hydrologists, people who are expert in the field of hydrology, play a vital role in finding solutions to water problems. What is hydrology? Literally, hydrology is the science or study of (logy from Latin logia) water (hydro from Greek hudor) (Davie, 2008).However, modern hydrology is concerned with the distribution of water on the surface of the earth and its movements over and beneath the surface, and through the atmosphere. It is the science that treats the water of the Earth, their occurrence, circulation and distribution, their chemical and physical properties, and their reaction with their environment, including their relation to living things. The domain of hydrology embraces the full life history water on the Earth (Maidment, 1993). Hydrologist seeks to apply hydrologic knowledge to solve problems and make life better for people. They are concerned with three issues: water use which is meant of withdrawal of water from lakes, rivers, and aquifers for water supply; water control which is meant by controlling of hydrologic extremes, and the erosion and sediment transport which occur during floods; and pollution control which is the prevention of the spread of pollutants or contaminants in natural water bodies, and the cleanup of existing pollution (Maidment, 1993). As a branch of scientific and engineering discipline, the knowledge of hydrology is not only fundamental to hydrologists but also to other water and environmental professionals

(engineers, scientists and decision makers) in such tasks as the design and operation of water resources, wastewater treatment, irrigation, flood risk management, navigation, pollution control, hydropower, ecosystem modeling, etc (Han, 2010).

3.0 Distribution and Water Resource On the surface area of earth only 29% is occupied by land and the remaining 71% is covered by seas and ocean. There seas and oceans hold 97% of earths total water while 2% is kept frozen in ice caps. The very deep ground water accounts for 0.31%. Thus, 99.31% of water on earth is of no practical use to the people. The only remaining 0.69% represents of fresh water resource with which the Chart 3.1 Distribution of global water man has to deal. At any instant rivers and lakes hold only 3% of this fresh water, i.e. 0.0093% of the total water. It appears quite surprising that this most important water resource of the human beings which is in the order of only 0.0093% of total earths water. (Saikia, 2009) The Oldest Civilizations India, China, Egypt, Mesopotamia all begin beside the river. Water bodies such as river, ocean will provide food, transport, water and etc. If water resource is systematically managed and exploited, water will bring huge benefit and convenient to human and social. On the other hand, water can be the most bitter enemy of the people in the form of flood and erosion to bring about disaster and devastation that causes great destruction, catastrophes to the society if it is not properly managed and controlled. 4.0 Hydrologic Cycle The water cycle, which is known as the hydrologic cycle, describes the movement of water between the various stores of water that exist on the earth. It recycles the earths valuable water supply powered by the suns energy and driven by gravity. The sun, which drives the water cycle, radiates solar energy on the oceans and land. Thus, by this process, water keeps changing states between liquid, vapor and ice in the blink of an eye and over millions of years.

Water on Earth can be stored in any one of the following major reservoirs: atmosphere, oceans, lakes, rivers, soils, glaciers, snowfields, and groundwater. Water moves from one reservoir to another by several physical processes such as evaporation, precipitation, infiltration, transpiration, and runoff (Hubbart & Pidwirny, 2010). These physical processes plus the storage of water form a continuum of water movement. Complex pathways include the passage of water from the gaseous envelope around the planet called the atmosphere, through the bodies of water on the surface of earth such as the oceans, glaciers and lakes, and at the same time (or more slowly) passing through the soil and rock layers underground. Later, the water is returned to the atmosphere. A fundamental characteristic of the hydrologic cycle is that it has no beginning and it has no end (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration). An individual molecule of water can take a few days to thousands of years to complete the hydrologic cycle from ocean to atmosphere to land to ocean again as it can be trapped in ice for a long time (Rosenberg, The Hydrologic Cycle, 2012). 4.1 Precipitation Precipitation is the process of releasing water from the atmosphere to the surface of the earth and is the major input of water to a river catchment area (Davie, 2008). The water released from the atmosphere can occur as snow, hail, sleet and rainfall. Formation of precipitation Precipitation is produced whenever moist air rises sufficiently to produce saturation, condensation, and the growth of the precipitation particles. Precipitation formation processes may be classified into two categories. Precipitation that is formed in temperatures entirely above freezing is called warm precipitation; cold precipitation involves ice at some stage of the process. Historically, the cold rain processes were closely examined first because it was believed that this was the main process that leads to the formation of rain (Chuey & Nelson, 2012). Figure 4.1 The hydrologic cycle showing the movement of water through the cycle.

Nearly all precipitation begins with condensation of water vapour about small (diameters between 0.001 to 10 m) particles in the air called cloud condensation nuclei, which are also called aerosols. Sea-salt particles left behind when sea spray evaporates are particularly effective nuclei. Saturation of air occurs when rising air currents cool without loss of heat by expansion. As the ability of cold air to hold the water vapour is poorer than warm air, cooling of a moist air mass by lifting is an efficient mechanism for producing saturation and condensation (Davie, 2008). The condensation processes are efficient in producing only cloud drops that are too small (diameters between 10 and 500m) to have an appreciable fall velocity relative to the air. In order to produce precipitation particles that are heavy enough to fall to the surface, a cloud drop with a radius of 0.001 cm must increase its radius by a factor of 10 and its volume by a factor of 1,000 (Anthes, 2012). Warm precipitation usually occurs in the warm, humid tropical regions, and the clouds are with temperatures above freezing. In this type of cloud conditions, the growth of the water droplets occurs by coalescence, which is simply the merging of water drops that collide. This merging is facilitated when an electric field is present. Laboratory experiments show that drops will bounce off one another in the absence of an electric field (Anthes, 2012). On the other hand, the formation of cold precipitation in middle latitudes usually involves ice. Because the vapour pressure at saturation is less over ice than over water, ice crystals will grow at the expense of water drops when both exist together in a super-cooled cloud (which contains liquid drops at temperatures below freezing). Although most cold precipitation begins as snow at altitudes above the freezing, the form of the precipitation reaching the surface depends on the temperature structure of the atmospheric layers through which the precipitation falls. If the temperature near the ground is warm enough, the snow has time to melt and reaches the ground as rain while a warm layer aloft and a subfreezing layer at the surface may produce sleet. Hail occurs when alternating strong updrafts and downdrafts cause ice crystals to pass repeatedly through layers that contain super-cooled water. The frequent passage through these layers allows the water to freeze around the growing hailstone and to accumulate in one layer after another (Anthes, 2012).

Types of Precipitation The formation of precipitation also requires vertical transport of air masses. There are three major categories of precipitation classified by the mechanism of air mass lifting.

1. Convective precipitation: Heated air near the ground expands and absorbs more water moisture. Because of the low temperature, the warmer moistureladen air moves up and gets condensed, thus producing precipitation. Convective precipitation spans from light shows to thunderstorms with extremely high intensity. 2. Orographic precipitation: lifting occurs when air is forced to rise due to the physical presence of elevated land such as mountain ranges. This type of lifting often causes rainfall on the windward slope. The rainfall amount of orographic precipitation is usually the highest in the mountainous part of the river basin. 3. Frontal precipitation: The uneven heating of the earths surface by the sun results high and low pressure regions and air masses move from high pressure regions to low pressure regions. If warm air replaces colder air, the front is called a warm front. If cold air displaces warm air, its front is called a cold front (Han, 2010). Interception Interception is the process of interrupting the movement of water in the chain of transportation events leading to streams. The interception can take place by vegetal cover or depression storage in puddles and in land formations such as rills and furrows. The three main components of interception by vegetation are throughfall, stemflow, and interception loss (Maidment, 1993). Throughfall is the water that falls to the ground either directly, through gaps in the canopy, or indirectly, having dripped off leaves, stems or branches while stemflow is the rainfall that is intercepted by stems and branches and flows down the tree trunk in to the soil. When the water sits on the canopy, prior to indirect throughfall or stemflow, it is available for evaporation, referred to as interception loss (Davie, 2008). Measurements of precipitations Average annual precipitation is a vital piece of climatic data - one that is recorded through a variety of methods (Rosenberg, 2012). Precipitation is measured in units over a given time period. For hydrological analysis, it is important to know how much precipitation Figure 4.2 Orographic Precipitation

has fallen and when this occurred. The usual expression of precipitation is as a vertical depth of liquid water. Rainfall is measured by millimetres or inches depth, rather than by volume such as litres or cubic metres (Davie, 2008). The instrument for measuring rainfall is called a rain gauge. A rain gauge measures the volume of water that falls onto a horizontal surface delineated by the rain gauge rim. There are three main types of rain gauges: the standard rain gauge, the weighing precipitation rain gauge and the tipping bucket rain gauge. The standard rain gauge, developed around the start of the 20th century, consists of a funnel attached to a graduated cylinder that fits into a larger container which may accommodate any excess flowing. When measurements are taken, the rainwater collected in the cylinder will be measured and then the excess will be put in another cylinder and measured (Pidwirny, Precipitation Types and Measurement, 2012). The tipping bucket rain gauge consists of a large copper cylinder set into the ground. At the top of the cylinder is a funnel that collects and channels the precipitation. The precipitation falls onto one of two small buckets or levers which are balanced in same manner as a scale. The top bucket is held in place by a magnet until it has filled to the calibrated amount (usually approximately 0.001 inches of rain). When the bucket has filled to this amount, the magnet will release its hold, causing the bucket to tip. The water then empties down a drainage hole and raises the other to sit underneath the funnel. When the bucket tips, it triggers a reed switch (or sensor), sending a message to the display or weather station. A weighing-type precipitation gauge consists of a storage bin, which is weighed to record the mass. Certain models measure the mass using a pen on a rotating drum, or by using a vibrating wire attached to a data logger. It is the storage space drum that collects any type of precipitation. The pen that positioned below the drum shows its weight. It does not underestimate intense rain, and it can measure other forms of precipitation, including rain, hail and snow. These gauges are, however, more expensive and require more maintenance than tipping bucket gauges. The weighing-type recording gauge may also contain a device to measure the quantity of chemicals contained in the location's atmosphere. This is extremely helpful for scientists studying the effects of greenhouse gases released into the atmosphere and their effects on the levels of the acid rain. Water depth is not the only rainfall measure of interest in hydrology; also of importance is the rainfall intensity and storm duration. These are simple to obtain from an analysis of rainfall record using frequency analysis. The rainfall needs to be recorded at short time interval to provide meaningful data (Davie, 2008). 4.2 Evaporation

Evaporation is the process which liquid water being transfer into a gaseous state and diffuses into the atmosphere. Typically, solar radiation and other factors such as air temperature, vapour pressure, wind, and atmospheric pressure affect the amount of natural evaporation that takes place in any geographic area. In terms of water, evaporation requires that the humidity of the atmosphere be less than the evaporating surface (at 100% relative humidity there is no more evaporation). The evaporation process requires an input of energy from the environment. For example, the evaporation of one gram of water requires 600 calories of heat energy (Pidwirny, Evaporation, 2007). The reverse process, a transformation from gas to liquid, is referred to as condensation. Condensation releases energy to the environment. The evaporation above a land surface occurs in two ways either as actual evaporation from soil matrix or transpiration from plants (Davie, 2008). Evapotranspiration Transpiration is the term used to describe the transport of water through an actual, vegetated plant into the atmosphere (Burba, 2010). Transpiration may also refer to the rate of the water vapour transport through the whole vegetative canopy. Transpiration from a plant occurs as part of photosynthesis and respiration. The rate of transpiration can be affected by the temperature, solar radiation, relative humidity, wind and air movement, soil moisture availability, and types of plant. Evapotranspiration is the combined effect of both direct evaporation from soil or water and transpiration of plants. This term also recognises the fact that much of the Earths surface is a mixture of vegetation cover and bare soil. Evapotranspiration is important to the hydrologic cycle because it represents a considerable amount of moisture lost from a watershed. As precipitation falls and soaks into the soil, a plant absorbs it and then transpires it through its leaves, stem, flowers, and/or roots. When this is combined with the evaporation of moisture that was not directly absorbed by the soil, a significant amount of water vapour is returned to the atmosphere. Through evapotranspiration and the hydrologic cycle, forests or other heavily wooded areas typically reduce a locations water yield. 4.3 Infiltration Infiltration is the process when water that penetrates into the surface of soil from rainfall, snowmelt or irrigation. The maximum rate at which a given soil in a given condition can absorb water is known as the infiltration capacity. Infiltration rate is of great interest to hydrologists, agriculturalists, irrigation engineers, etc. as it influences many hydrological processes, such as surface runoff, soil moisture, evapotranspiration, ground water recharge and spring flow rates. The knowledge of

infiltration properties can help agriculturists in adopting proper irrigation methods and irrigation schedule. Infiltration is one of the most important processes responsible for modifying precipitation and converting it to runoff and additions to soil moisture storage. The infiltration process and other hydrological processes are inter-related through a common dependence on soil moisture conditions (Han, 2010). Movement of water into the soil is controlled by gravity, capillary action, and soil porosity. Of these factors soil porosity is most important. A soil's porosity is controlled by its texture, structure, and organic content. Coarse-textured soils have larger pores and fissures than fine-grained soils and therefore allow for more water flow. Pores and fissures found in soils can be made larger through a number of factors that enhance internal soil structure. The amount of decayed organic matter found at the soil surface can also enhance infiltration. Organic matter is generally more porous than mineral soil particles and can hold much greater quantities of water (Pidwirny, 2006). There are several factors affecting the infiltration capacity: 1. The precipitation: Precipitation that infiltrates into the ground often seeps into streambeds over an extended period of time, thus a stream will often continue to flow when it hasn't rained for a long time and where there is no direct runoff from recent precipitation. Moreover, raindrop impact breaks large soil clumps into smaller particles. These particles then clog soil surface pores reducing the movement of water into the soil (Pidwirny, 2012). 2. Soil characteristics: Some soils, such as clays, absorb less water at a slower rate than sandy soils. Soils absorbing less water result in more runoff overland into streams. 3. Soil saturation: Dry soil absorbs water more readily than a wet soil. Like a wet sponge, soil already saturated from previous rainfall can't absorb much more water, thus if rainfall intensity is greater than the infiltration rate, water will accumulate on the surface and runoff will begin. 4. Land cover: Some land covers have a great impact on infiltration and rainfall runoff. Vegetation can slow the movement of runoff, allowing more time for it to seep into the ground. Impervious surfaces, such as parking lots, roads, and developments, act as a "fast lane" for rainfall - right into storm drains that drain directly into streams. Agriculture and the tillage of land also changes the infiltration patterns of a landscape. Water that, in natural conditions, infiltrated directly into soil now runs off into streams (U.S. Geological Survey, 2012). 5. Slope of the land: Water falling on steeply-sloped land runs off more quickly and infiltrates less than water falling on flat land.

6. Evapotranspiration: Some infiltration stays near the land surface, which is where plants put down their roots. Plants need this shallow ground water to grow, and, by the process of evapotranspiration, water is moved back into the atmosphere (U.S. Geological Survey, 2012). Once water has infiltrated through the subsurface soil, it forms an unsaturated zone and saturated zone. In the unsaturated zone, the voidsthat is, the spaces between grains of gravel, sand, silt, clay, and cracks within rockscontain both air and water. Although a lot of water can be present in the Figure 4.3 The Water Cycle: Groundwater Storage. Source USGS

unsaturated zone, this water cannot be pumped by wells because it is held too tightly by capillary forces. The upper part of the unsaturated zone is the soil-water zone. The soil zone is crisscrossed by roots, openings left by decayed roots, and animal and worm burrows, which allow the precipitation to infiltrate into the soil zone. Plants use the water here in life in life functions and leaf transpirations, and the water in this zone can evaporate directly to the atmosphere. After the water has infiltrated through the unsaturated zone and the aquifer, it reaches the water table and become groundwater. The water table is the boundary between the unsaturated zone and saturated zone. In this area, no fluid pressure is present. An aquifer is a layer of unconsolidated or consolidated rock that is able to transmit and store enough water for extraction. All aquifers have an impermeable layer, which are called aquifuge (refers to a totally impermeable rock formation) beneath them that stops the groundwater from infiltrating further. There are two forms of aquifers that can be seen: confined and unconfined aquifers. Confined aquifers have lower boundaries (aquitard) above and below it that constricts the flow of water into a confined area. An aquitard is a geological formation that transmits water at a much slower rate than the aquifer. Unconfined aquifers have no boundaries above them and therefore water table is free to rise and fall dependent on the amount of water contained in the aquifer (Davie, 2008).

Aquifers are natural filters that trap sediment and other particles such as bacteria and provide natural purification of the ground water flowing through them. Clay particles and other mineral surfaces in an aquifer also can trap dissolved substances or at least slow them down so they don't move as fast as water percolating through the aquifer. Groundwater can move through aquifers until it reaches an opening to the surface. In a seep, the water reaches the surface over a large area. In a spring, water flows from the earth at a small point. Because of the pressure of the water above it, water in confined aquifers is generally under high pressure and can result in the production of an artesian spring. Springs and seeps will only continue to flow as long as the water table is higher than they are. Because of movement of water, the location of the recharge zone may be far from the location of seeps and springs (Pidwirny, 2006). Aquifers have historically been extremely important for humans who have used the water for watering livestock, irrigating crops, powering mills, and as a source of municipal water. If rates of removal of water for human use exceed the very slow, natural rate of recharge, then the total amount of water in the aquifer is reduced which results in a lowering of the water table. Lower water tables require deeper wells which greatly increase the cost of pumping water from aquifers and further deplete water from the already slow, natural rate of recharge (Pidwirny, 2006). 4.4 Runoff Runoff is the downward movement of surface water under gravity in channels ranging from small rills to large rivers. The runoff can be majorly divided into three types: overland flow, throughflow and groundwater flow. Types of Runoff Overland flow (surface runoff) is the water which exits the watershed and runs across the surface of the land reaching the stream without entering the soil. If the amount of water falling on the ground is greater than the infiltration rate of the surface, overland flow will occur. Channel flows of this sort can be perennial, flowing all the time, or they can be ephemeral, flowing intermittently after periods of rainfall or snowmelt. Such surface waters provide the majority of the water utilized by humans (Encyclopedia Britannica, 2012). A continuous record of one of the surface flow (stream flow) is called hydrograph. In the hydrographs, there are several peaks between periods of steady, much lower flows. The hydrograph flow is referred to as peakflow, stormflow or even quickflow. Thery are the water in the stream during and immediately after a significant rainfall event. The steady periods between peaks are referred to as baseflow or sometimes lowflow. The shape of the hydrograph, and in particular the shape of the stormflow peak, is influence by the storm

characteristics (such as rainfall intensities and duration) and many physical characteristics of the upstream catchment (Davie, 2008). Throughflow (subsurface runoff) occurs in the shallow subsurface, predominantly, although not always, in the unsaturated zone. Once water infiltrates the soil surface it continues to move, either through the soil matrix or along preferential flow paths. Groundwater flow is in the deeper saturated zone. Ground water flows from zones where the water table is highest toward areas where it is lowest. In general, the water table is higher beneath a hill than it is beneath an adjacent valley. Ground water flows from areas of high water pressure toward areas of low pressure. The water pressure at any point is proportional to the weight of water above that point. Ground water beneath a hill is under greater pressure than water beneath the valley because the water table is higher beneath the hill. Thus, the water pressure beneath the hill forces the water upward beneath the valley. Because ground water flows from high places to low ones, the water table becomes flatter during a dry season (Thompson & Turk, 1997). Factors Affecting Runoffs Runoffs are mainly influenced by following two factors climatic factors and physiographical factors (Saikia, 2009). Climate factors: 1. Types of Precipitation: It has great effect on the surface runoff. The surface runoff is quick and immediate if the precipitation falls as a rainfall depending upon rainfall intensity while precipitation in the form of snow does not result in surface runoff. 2. Rainfall Intensity: Runoff is directly proportional to the intensity of precipitation. If the rainfall intensity is greater than infiltration rate of soil then surface runoff starts immediately after rainfall. While in case of low rainfall intensity runoff starts later. 3. Duration of Rainfall: It is directly related to the volume of runoff because infiltration rate of soil decreases with duration of rainfall. Therefore medium intensity rainfall even results in considerable amount of runoff if duration is longer. If the duration of rainfall is quite small, surface runoff may not occur due to infiltration and interception 4. Arial Rainfall Distribution: Runoff from a watershed depends very much on the distribution of rainfall. It is also expressed as distribution coefficient mean ratio of maximum rainfall at a point to the mean rainfall of watershed. Therefore, near outlet of watershed runoff will be more.

5. Direction of Prevailing Wind: If the direction of prevailing wind is same as drainage system, it results in low peak. A storm moving in the direction of stream slope produce a higher peak in shorter period of time than a storm moving in opposite direction. 6. Other Climate Factor: Other climatic or meteorological conditions such as temperature wind velocity, relative humidity, pressure, radiation, annual rainfall etc. will also affect the water losses from watershed area (Saikia, 2009). Physical factors: 1. Size of Watershed: A large watershed takes longer time for draining the runoff to outlet than smaller watershed and vise-versa. 2. Shape of Watershed: Runoff is greatly affected by shape of watershed. Shape of watershed is generally expressed by the term form factor and compactness coefficient. 3. Slope of Watershed: It has complex effect. It controls the time of overland flow and time of concentration of rainfall. E.g. sloppy watershed results in greater runoff due to greater runoff velocity and vice-versa. Thus, change of runoff runoff takes place due to rise and fall of surface level, such as elevation. 4. Orientation of Watershed: If the basin is oriented most of the time towards the sunrays temperature increases due to heat received from the sun. Increased temperature accelerates the rate of evaporation, which affects the surface runoff due to rain. The north or south orientation, affects the time of melting of collected snow. 5. Land Use: Land use and land management practices have great effect on the runoff yield. E.g. an area with forest cover or thick layer of mulch of leaves and grasses contribute less runoff because water is absorbed more into soil. In nonforested areas, interception, infiltration, evaporation, evaporation is less so runoff is more. 6. Soil moisture: Magnitude of runoff yield depends upon the initial moisture present in soil at the time of rainfall. If the rain occurs after along dry spell then infiltration rate is more, hence it contributes less runoff. 7. Soil type: In filtration rate vary with type of soil. So runoff is great affected by soil type. Sandy soil has high infiltration producing less runoff. Clay soil tends to produce high runoff as infiltration is less.

8. Topographic characteristics: It includes those topographic features which affects the runoff. Undulate land has greater runoff than flat land because runoff water gets additional energy due to slope and little time to infill rate. 9. Drainage Density: It is defined as the ratio of the total channel length (L) in the watershed to total watershed area (A). Greater drainage density gives more runoff (Saikia, 2009). 10. Other physical factors: Other physical factors such as upstream reservoirs and lakes, groundwater storage can also affect the runoff. 5.0 Hydraulic Event Flood is defined as abnormal high stage of flow which overtops the natural artificial river bank in any reach and causes immense loss of crops, property, human lives and lines of communication. Flood will cause huge economy lose. It is a natural event that results from excess runoff generated from a drainage basin due to severe combination of critical hydrologic and meteorological conditions over the region. To avoid huge economy lose due to flood, proper measurement or estimation is very much essential for its control and design of different hydraulic structure. (Saikia, 2009) Some of the existing method of estimating flood such as Flood frequency analysis. Flood frequency analysis is a form of risk analysis, yet a risk analysis of the activity of itself is rarely undertaken. Flood frequency analysis has 3 main characteristic which are (1) a proliferation of mathematical models, lacking theoretical hydrologic justification, but used to extrapolate the return periods of floods beyond the gauged record; (2) official mandating of particular models, which has resulted in (3) research focused on increasingly reductionist and statistically sophisticated procedures for parameter fitting to these models from the limited gauged data. By this type of method, even over modest timescales such as 100 years, which offer the best promise for testing alternative models of extreme flood behaviour Figure 5.1 Flood in Sungai Lembing, Pahang

across a wider range of basins. Flood frequency analysis able to accurate estimate the flood magnitude and used widely for design purposes: the power law model produces far more conservative estimates of return period of large floods compared to conventional models, and deserves closer study. (R.Kidson, K.S.Richards, 2005) Drought is a condition of moisture deficit sufficient to have an adverse effect on vegetation, animals, and man over a sizeable area. -- (Warwick, R.A., 1975, Drought hazard in the United States: A research assessment: Boulder, Colorado, University of Colorado) Compare to flood droughts may not be as quick and suddenly but drought are long period and more devastating. Drought are long periods in which a region experiences an abnormally low level of rainfall, or no rain at all. This is the most serious physical hazard to agriculture in nearly every part of the world. It can cause soil to dry out, plant and crops to die, and stream, lakes and river to dry up. At its worst, drought can result in widespread famine and depth for thousands of people. (Gifford, 2005) There are five recognized forms of drought, which are meteorological or climatological drought, hydrological drought, agricultural drought, ecological drought an socioeconomic drought. Meteorological drought is the amount of dryness and the duration of the dry period. Atmospheric conditions that result in deficiencies of precipitation change from area to area. Agricultural drought mainly effects food production and farming. Agricultural drought and precipitation shortages bring soil water deficits, reduced ground water or reservoir levels, and so on. Deficient topsoil moisture at planting may stop germination, leading to low plant populations. Hydrological drought is associated with the effects of periods of precipitation shortages on water supply. Water in hydrologic storage systems such as reservoirs and rivers are often used for multiple purposes such as flood control, irrigation, recreation, navigation, hydropower, and wildlife habitat. Competition for water in these storage systems escalates during drought and conflicts between water users increase significantly. Socioeconomic drought occurs when the demand for an economic good exceeds supply as a result of a weather-related shortfall in water supply. The supply of many economic goods, such as water, forage, food grains, fish, and Figure 5.2 Drought in Africa

hydroelectric power, depends on weather. Due to variability of climate, water supply is sufficient in some years but not satisfactory to meet human and environmental needs in other years. The demand for economic goods is increasing as a result of increasing population. Supply may also increase because of improved production efficiency and technology. (David, Suketu, Roman, 1998)Same as flood, drought can control and manage by indicate and measurement of drought. The Palmer Drought Severity Index is one of several measuring systems for droughts. It uses temperature and rainfall data to indicate which areas of a country are more likely to be affected by drought. The index uses 0 as normal; drought is shown in term of negative numbers. For example, -2 is a moderate drought, -3 is severe drought and -4 is an extreme drought. (Gifford, 2005) 6.0 Environmental sustainability From evaluate the cycle of earths water, we known that the water is hard to neither destroy nor create. The same water has been around on Earth for millions of years. But in fact, nowadays lack of water supplies become a global crisis. Even if water is a renewable resource but why we still face global water crisis. Low precipitation in combination with a high evaporative will cause large proportion of water become water vapor and store in atmosphere and relatively small amount of availability is largely dictated by climate. Climate will affect the phase of water (gas, liquid, solid liquid water present on earths surface therefore available water can be put to use is small. Except interpret water scarcity in hydrological terms. Pollution also one of the factors contributed to global water crisis. Pollution causes by industry activity, agriculture activity, domestic waste which disposal to the water of bodies. Polluted water cant direct use by human, moreover natural purification process-evaporation also cant treat those polluted water. As the water molecule evaporated, pollutant will remain and sediment to the bottom of bodies of water such as river, lake, ocean, etc. If untreated, pollutant cant degrade by naturally and water cant use by human. Contaminated sediments are an ongoing source of pollution. It will continually pollute other water come to those water bodies until they are permanently removed. Those pollutants can be cleaned up or buried by clean materials. For example, the US Army Corps of Engineers dredges roughly four million m3 per year in the Great Lakes to maintain a navigable depth of water. The Corps of Engineers is now finding that over half of the sediments are contaminated and must be disposed of as hazardous waste. (Stauffer, 1998) To keep earths water sustainable some management and prevention have to take. Control of pollution can achieve by technology, management, policy, education, etc. Prevent

is better than cure. We can mitigate pollution by let the social understood and know how serious the problem we are facing. And what we can do in daily life to mitigate this problem. Such as use water in possible way. The most critical task is making sure the problem is much better understood worldwide. In technology field, we can develop technology and facilities to conservation water. Such as modification of toilet flush system, make it use less water while operation. Treatment apply to pollutant also one of way to keep water sustainable. One of the most common treatments is wastewater treatment. Some countries, like Singapore, are trying to recycle wastewater to clean water or even drinking water. The rich East Asian republic is a leader in developing advanced technology that cleanses waste water for other uses, including drinking. According to the environmental protection hierarchy, reduce pollution is better than treatment after pollution. Thus, improve understanding about important of water and technical ways are always preceded.

Figure 6.1 NeWater factory in Singapore (convert wastewater into drinking water

Figure 6.2 Produce of NeWater

Some more, almost 70 percent of the worlds freshwater is used for agriculture. (Walton, 2010) Thus, improving irrigation can help close supply and demand gaps. Improvement of irrigation facility and technology can converse water and in the other hand can increase yield of food. In the other hand, agricultural practices also let farmer know how to use minimum amount of water to get highest yield of farm product.

Economy always the first consider of most of people. To promote and increase efficiency of water conservation, wastewater treatment or other water protection related project the first factor we have to consider is economy. According to experts from the Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD), an international economic forum of 31 of the worlds richest countries, raising prices will help lower waste and pollution. (Walton, 2010) As mention before, the groundwater hold 0.31% of worlds total water. Ground water are the main source of human used water. But most of water treatment processes that apply in surface water cant apply to groundwater. Groundwater has several unique characteristic that make groundwater pollution a particular
Figure 1 Formation of Groudwater

challenge to clean up. Groundwater is form when rainwater percolates

through the soil and into underground reserves called aquifers. Once in the aquifers, groundwater can remain there for tens to thousands of years before eventually making its way out and into streams, rivers, lakes and ocean. The long residence time means pollutants are not flushed out, nor is there a lot of clean, incoming water to dilute the pollutants. Even more, groundwater is not exposed to air or sunlight, which can help breakdown organic compound, and because the contaminants are trapped underground, volatile compounds cannot evaporate. Furthermore, aquifers have fewer of the microorganisms that break down organic contaminants in surface water. Finally, contaminants can become trapped in inaccessible nooks and crannies of the aquifer and adsorb to the surface of the rocks, creating a long-term source of pollution within the aquifer. For all these reasons, contaminant in groundwater can be far more concentrated than in surface water and persist for much longer. (Stauffer, 1998) There are several option are available to treat contaminated aquifer which are (1) provide in ground treatment, (2) provide aboveground treatment, (3) remove or isolate the source of contamination, (4) abandon the source of supply.

7.0 Conclusion As we know, hydrologic cycle is a natural process drives by solar. Water can automatically purify through phase transform of water. Odour, colour and others perimeter can remove once water change it phase through evaporation, condensation or others process. Water molecules are exists and cycle within the earth for millions of years. But nowadays, high development of human science and technology lead development of industry, manufacture factory, transportation bring pollution to water. Those pollutants cant be treated and degraded by natural process anymore. In 21th era, the hydrologic studies also focus on management, control and treatment technology to keep water sustainability and bring benefit to human. Water resources available in basin if properly managed, bring huge benefit in development of the society. For example, properly managed water resource help our hydraulic turbines to generate hydroelectricity, can nourish cropland and forest , control devastation of flood and erosion, help floating our ships in shallow water by increase depth, can preserve and increase wildlife and water growing lives like fishes, provides drinking water, can convert a dry land into beautiful residential and flourished crops land, helps in beautifying the surroundings and environment for recreation, control pollution and mosquito growth. (Saikia, 2009) In term of human healthy, a clean and safe water resource and main factor contributed to human health. All water related disease can prevent and interred by proper manage of water quality and quantity. The huge benefit come with proper water management can drive development of water related management, control and treatment technology. Development and innovation of all water related management, control and treatment technology will be the main focus of hydrologic studies in near future. 8.0 References Anthes, R. (2012). Precipitation. Retrieved August 2, 2012, from Scholastic Inc. Web site: http://www.scholastic.com/teachers/article/precipitation-weather Burba, G. (2010, August 3). Transpiration. Retrieved August 3, 2012, from The Encyclopedia of Earth: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Transpiration?topic=58074 Chuey, T. A., & Nelson, D. O. (2012). Formation of Precipitation and Clouds. Retrieved August 2, 2012, from Water Encyclopedia, Science and Issues: http://www.waterencyclopedia.com/Po-Re/Precipitation-and-Clouds-Formation-of.html#b David, Suketu, Roman. (1998). Drought. Retrieved 8 4, 2012, from ORACLE ThinkQuest: http://library.thinkquest.org/16132/html/droughtinfo/types.html Davie, T. (2008). Fundamental of Hydrology, Second Edition. Great Britain: Routledge.

Encyclopedia Britannica. (2012). runoff and Stream Discharge. Retrieved August 4, 2012, from Hydrologic Sciences: http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/278883/hydrologicsciences/14215/Runoff-and-stream-discharge Gifford, C. (2005). Flooding And Drought. Black Rabbit Books. Han, D. (2010). Concise Hydrology. United Kingdom: Ventus Publishing. Hubbart, J. A., & Pidwirny, M. (2010, March 3). Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved August 1, 2012, from The Encyclopedia of Earth: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Hydrologic_cycle# Maidment, D. R. (1993). Handbook of Hydrology. New York: Mc Graw Hill. National Oceanic and Atmospheric Adminstration. (n.d.). Description of the Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved August 1, 2012, from National Weather Service, Northwest River Forecast Center: http://www.nwrfc.noaa.gov/info/water_cycle/hydrology.cgi/ Pidwirny, M. (2012). Precipitation Types and Measurement. Retrieved August 3, 2012, from UNDERSTANDING WEATHER AND CLIMATE: http://www.trunity.net/weatherandclimate/articles/view/173991/?topic=74776 Pidwirny, M. (2007, March 12). Evaporation. Retrieved August 3, 2012, from The Encyclopedia of Earth: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Evaporation Pidwirny, M. (2006, October 12). Infiltration and soil water storage. Retrieved August 4, 2012, from The Encyclopedia of Earth: http://www.eoearth.org/article/Infiltration_and_soil_water_storage R.Kidson, K.S.Richards. (2005, September). Flood frequency analysis: assumptions and alternatives. Retrieved 08 03, 2012, from SAGE journals: http://ppg.sagepub.com/content/29/3/392 Rosenberg, M. (2012). Measuring Precipitation. Retrieved August 3, 2012, from About.com, Geography: http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/precipitation.htm Rosenberg, M. (2012). The Hydrologic Cycle. Retrieved August 1, 2012, from About.com, Geography: http://geography.about.com/od/physicalgeography/a/hydrologiccycle.htm Saikia, D. &. (2009). Hydrology. PHI Learning Pvt. Ltd., 2009. Stauffer, J. (1998). The Water Crisis: onstructing Solution to Freshwater Pullution. Earthscan. Thompson, G. R., & Turk, J. (1997). Introduction to Physical Geology, Second Edition. Canada: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning. U.S. Geological Survey. (2012). The Water Cycle: Infiltration. Retrieved August 3, 2012, from The Water Cycle - Water Science for School: http://ga.water.usgs.gov/edu/watercycleinfiltration.html Walton, B. (2010, March 3). California Farmers Can Save Water, Money, Says Pacific Institute Report. Retrieved 8 2, 2012, from Cicle of blue: http://www.circleofblue.org/waternews/2010/world/north-america/california-farmers-cansave-water-money-says-pacific-institute-report/