WHAT IS MOTIVATION? People consider it to be a personal trait that ia some have it some dont.

. In practice inexperienced managers often label people who lack motivation as lazy. But it isnt true. hat we know is that motivation is the result of the interaction of the individual and the situation. Individuals differ in their motivational drive. For example ! a student may find reading a "o pages note book very tiring# but the same student may be able to read $%& pages of 'arry Potter (ust in one day. )or the student the change in motivation is driven by the situation. *hus we can say# that the level of motivation varies both between individuals and within individuals at different times. DEFINITION: +otivation is defined as the processes that account for an individuals intensity# direction# , persistence of effort towards attaining a goal. -eneral motivation is considered with efforts towards any goal# but we narrow our focus on organizational goals. Key elements are: Intensity which is considered with how hard a person tries. *his is the element most of us focus on when we talk about motivation. 'owever# high.intensity is unlikely to lead to favorable (ob performance outcomes unless the effort is channeled in a direction that benefits the organization. *herefore# we have to consider the /uality of efforts as well as its intensity. 0ffort that is directed towards# and consistent with the organizations goals is the kind of effort that we should be seeking. )inally# motivation has a persistence dimension. *his is a measure of how long a person can maintain their effort. +otivated individuals stay with a task long enough to achieve their goal. A MYTH OR A SCIENCE? 1People are inherently lazy2. *his isnt true. 3ll people are not inherently lazy4 and 5laziness is more a function of the situation than an inherent individual character. If this statement is meant to imply that all people are inherently lazy# the evidence strongly indicates the contrary# many people today suffer from the opposite affliction.they are overly busy# overworked# and suffer from over exertion. hether externally motivated or internally driven# a good portion of the labour force is anything but lazy. +anagers fre/uently draw the conclusion that people are lazy from watching some of their employees# who may be lazy at work. But these same employees are often /uite industrious in one or more activities off the (ob. Peoples need structures differ. 6nfortunately# for employers# works often ranks low in its ability to satisfy individual needs. 7o the same employee who shirks responsibility on the (ob

may work obsessively on the conditioning and anti/ue car# maintaining an award.winning garden# perfecting bowling skills. EARLY THEORIES OF MOTIVATION *he $8%&s were a fruitful period in the development of motivation concepts. *hree specific theories were formulated during this period# which although heavily attacked and now /uestionable in terms of validity# are probably still the best.known explanations for employee motivation. *hese are the hierarchy of needs theory# *heories 9 and :# and the two.factor theory. *hese theories represent a foundation from which contemporary theories have grown# and practicing managers still regularly use these theories and their terminology in explaining employee motivation. Hierarch o! Nee"# Theor Its probably safe to say that the most well.known theory of motivation is 3braham Ma#lo$%# hierarch o! &ee"#' 'e hypothesized that within every human being there exists a hierarchy of five needs. *hese needs are! $. ". ;. <. Physiological! . Includes hunger# thirst# shelter# sex# and other bodily needs Safety! . Includes security and protection from physical and emotional harm Social! . Includes affection# belongingness# acceptance and friendship Esteem! . Includes internal esteem factors such as self.respect# autonomy and achievement4 and external esteem factors such as status# recognition# and attention %. Self-actualization! . *he drive to become what one is capable of becoming4 includes growth# achieving ones potential# and self.fulfillment 3s each of these needs becomes substantially satisfied# the next need becomes dominant. In terms of the figure# the individual moves up the steps of the hierarchy. )rom the standpoint of motivation# the theory would say that although no need is fully gratified# a substantially satisfied need no longer motivates. 7o if you want to motivate someone# according to +aslow# you need to understand what level of the hierarchy that person is currently on and focus on satisfying the needs at or above that level. +aslow separated the five needs into higher and lower orders. Physiological and safety needs were described as lo$er(or"er and social# esteem# and self.actualization as hi)her(or"er &ee"#' *he differentiation between the two orders was made on the premise that higher.order needs are satisfied internally =within the person># whereas lower.order needs are predominantly satisfied externally =by things such as pay# union contracts# and tenure>. +aslows need theory has received wide recognition# particularly among practicing managers. *his can be attributed to the theorys intuitive logic and ease of understanding. 6nfortunately# however# research does not generally validate the theory. +aslow provided no empirical substantiation# and several studies that sought to validate the

theory found no support for it.

Sel!( Ac+-ali.a+io& E#+eem Social Sa!e+ ,h #iolo)ical

Theor * a&" Theor Y ?ouglas +c-regor proposed two distinct views of human beings! one basically negative# labeled Theor *# and the other basically positive# labeled Theor Y. 3fter viewing the way the managers dealt with employees# +c-regor concluded that a managers view of the nature of human beings is based on a certain grouping of assumptions and that he@she tends to mold his@her behavior toward employees according to these assumptions. 6nder Theor *# the four assumptions held by managers are! $. 0mployees inherently dislike work and# whenever possible# will attempt to avoid it. ". 7ince employees dislike work# they must be coerced# controlled or threatened with punishment to achieve goals. ;. 0mployees will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction whenever possible. <. +ost workers place security above all other factors associated with work and will display little ambition. In contrast to these negative views about the nature of human beings# +c-regor listed the four positive assumptions that he called Theor Y: $. 0mployees can view work as being as natural as rest or play. ". People will exercise self.direction and self.control if they are committed to the ob(ectives. ;. *he average person can learn to accept# even seek# responsibility.

<. *he ability to make innovative decisions is widely dispersed throughout the population and is not necessarily the sole province of those in management positions. hat are the motivational implications if you accept +c-regors analysisA *he answer is best expressed in the framework presented by +aslow. *heory 9 assumes the lower.order needs dominate individuals. *heory : assumes that higher.order needs assume dominate individuals. +c-regor himself held to the belief that *heory : assumptions were more valid than *heory 9. *herefore# he proposed ideas such as participative decision.making# responsible and challenging (obs# and good group relations as approaches that would maximize an employees (ob motivation. T$o(Fac+or Theor *he two.factor theory =sometimes also called as motivation-hygiene theory) was proposed by psychologist )rederick 'ertzberg. In the belief that an individuals relation to work is basic and that ones attitude toward work can very well determine success or failure# 'ertzberg investigated the /uestion# 1 hat do people from their (obsA2 'e asked people to describe# in detail# situations in which they felt extremely good or bad about their (obs. *hese responses were then tabulated and categorized. 3ccording to 'ertzberg# the factors leading to (ob satisfaction are separate and distinct from those that lead to (ob dissatisfaction. *herefore# managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create (ob dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation. *hey will be placating their workforce rather than motivating them. 3s a result# conditions surrounding the (ob such as /uality of supervision# pay# company policies# physical working conditions# relations with others# and (ob security were characterized by 'ertzberg as h )ie&e !ac+or#' MODERN THEORIES OF MOTIVATION ER/ +heor Blayton 3lderfer has reworked +aslows need hierarchy to align it more closely with the empirical research. 'is revised need hierarchy is labeled 0C- theory. 3lderfer argues that there are three groups of core needs.0xistence# Celatedness# and growthDhence# the label 0C- theory. *he existence group is concerned with providing our basic material existence re/uirements. *hey include the items that +aslow considered to be physiological and safety needs. *he second group of needs are those of relatednessDthe desire we have for maintaining important interpersonal relationships. *hese social and status desires re/uire interaction with others if they are to be satisfied# and they align with +aslows social need and the external component of +aslows esteem classification. )inally# 3lderfer isolates growth needsDan intrinsic component from +aslows esteem category and the characteristics included under self.actualization.

In contrast to hierarchy of needs theory# the 0C- theory demonstrates that =$> more than one need may be operative at same time# and ="> if the gratification of a higher.level need is stifled# the desire to satisfy a lower.level need increases. 0C- theory also contains a frustration.regression dimension. 0C- theory counters by noting that when a higher.order need level is frustrated# the individuals desire to increase a lower.level need takes place. McClella&"%# Theor o! &ee"# +cBlellands theory of needs was developed by ?avid +cBlelland and his associates. *he theory focuses on three needs! achievements# power# and affiliation. *hey are defined as follows! Need for achievement: *he drive to excel# to achieve in relation to a set of standards# to strive to succeed. Need for power: *he need to make others behave in a way that they would not have behaved otherwise. Need for affiliation: *he desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships. 7ome people drive to succeed. *hey are striving for personal achievements rather than rewards of success as per work done. *hey have a desire to do something better or more efficiently than it has been done before. *his drive is the achievement need. )rom research into the achievement need# +cBlelland found that high achievers differentiate themselves from others by their desire to do things better.

/oal(Se++i&) +heor -ene Broadwater coach of the 'amilton high school cross.country team gave his s/uad these last words before they approached the line for the league championship race! 1each one of you is physically ready. Eow# get out there and do your best. Eo one can ever ask more of you than that.2 *he research on goal setting theory addresses these issues# and the findings# as you will see# are impressive in terms of the effect that goal specificity# challenge# and feedback have no performance. In late $8F&s# 0dwin Gocke proposed that intentions to work toward a goal are a ma(or source of work motivation. *hat is# goal tells an employee what needs to be done and how much effort need to be expended. *he evidence strongly supports the value of goals. +ore to

the point# we can say that specific goals increase performance4 that difficult goals# when accepted# result in higher performance than do easy goals4 and that feedback leads to higher performance than does no feedback. -oal.setting theory presupposes that an individual is committed to the goal4 that is# is determined not to lower or abandon the goal. *his is most likely to occur when goals are made public# when the individual has an internal locus of control# and when the goals are self.set rather than assigned.

E0-i+ Theor It means individuals compare their (ob inputs and outcome with those of others and then respond to eliminate any ine/uities. *his theory is based on the example of +s Hane Pearson who graduated from the state university with a degree in accounting and working with I-%I a public accounting firm with a monthly salary of J<#%%&. 'owever Hanes motivational level has dropped dramatically due to the hiring of the fresh college graduate out of the state university who lacks the one year experience which Hane has gained and was paid J<#K&& which was more than Hanes salary. In this case Hanes situation illustrates the role that e/uity plays in motivation. 0mployees make comparisons of their (ob inputs and outcomes relative to those of others. In other words if we perceive our ratio to be e/ual to that of the relevant others with whom we compare ourselves# a state of e/uity is said to be exist. hen we see the ratio as une/ual we experience e/uity tension and when over rewarded# the tension creates guilt.

*he re!ere&+ that an employee selects adds to the complexity of e/uity theory. *here are < referent comparisons that an employee can use! 1. Self-inside. 2. Self-outside. 3. Other-inside. 4. Other-outside. hich referent an employee chooses will be influenced by the information the employee holds about referents as well as by the attractiveness of the referent.

0mployees with short tenure in their current organization tend to have little information about others and on the long tenure rely more heavily on coworkers for comparison. 0/uity theory is also related with the pay of the employees. *hus on these grounds# the theory establishes the following < propositions related to ine/uitable pay! $. -iven payment on time# over rewarded employees will produce more than will e/uitably paid employees. ". -iven payment by /uantity of production# over rewarded employees will produce fewer# but higher./uality# units than e/uitably paid employees. ;. -iven payment on time# under rewarded employees will produce poorer /uality of output. <. -iven payment by /uality of production# under rewarded employees will produce a large no of low./uality units in comparison with e/uitably paid employees. *hese propositions have generally been supported with few minor /ualifications. Co&cl-#io& o! e0-i+ +heor :( *he e/uity theory demonstrates that# for most employees# motivation is influenced significantly by relative rewards as well by absolute rewards. But some key issues related to this theory are still unclear. Expec+a&c Theor :( Burrently# one of the most widely accepted explanations of motivation is victor vroomIs 0xpectancy *heory. 3lthough it has its critics# most evidence is supportive of the theory. Mea&i&):( 1*he strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individualL. In more practical terms# expectancy theory says that an employee will be motivated to accept a high level of pressure when he or she believes that effort will lead to a good performance appraisal4 which will lead to good org rewards such as bonus# a salary increase# or a promotion4 and that the rewards will satisfy the employeeIs personal goals. *he theory# therefore focuses on three relationship!. $. 0ffort performance relationship. ". Performance.reward relationship. ;. Cewards.personal goals relationship.

*hus expectancy theory helps to explain why lot of workers arenIt motivated on their (ob and do only the minimum necessary to get by. In summary# the key to expectancy theory is the understanding of an individualIs goals and the linkage b@w effort and performance# between performance and rewards and# finally# between the rewards and individual goal satisfaction. 3s a contingency model# expectancy theory recognizes that there is no universal principle for explaining everyoneIs motivation. In addition# (ust because we understand what needs a person seeks to satisfy does not ensure that the individual perceives high performance as necessarily leading to the satisfaction to these needs. Because of complications like methodological# criterion# and measurement problems# this theory is viewed with caution.

M +h or Scie&ceA E2er o&e $a&+# a challe&)i&) 3o4? *his statement is false. In spite of all the attention focused by the media# academics and social scientists on human potential and the needs of individuals# there is no evidence to support the vast ma(ority of workers want challenging (obs. 7ome individuals prefer highly complex and challenging (obs4 other prospers in simple# routinized work. *he individual.difference variable that seems to gain the greatest support for explaining who prefers a challenging (ob and who doesnt is the strength of an individuals higher.order needs. Individuals with high growth needs are more responsive to challenging work. But what percentage of rank.and.file workers actually desire higher.order need satisfaction and will respond positively to challenging (obsA Eo current data are available# but a study from the $8M&s estimated the figure at about $%N. 0ven after ad(usting for changing work attitudes and the growth in white.collar (obs# it seems unlikely that the number today exceeds <&N *he strongest voice advocating challenging (obs has not been workers.its been professors# social.science researchers# and (ournalists. Professors researchers and (ournalists undoubtedly made their career choices# to some degree# because they wanted (obs that gave them their autonomy# identity# and challenge. *hat# of course# is their choice. But for them to pro(ect their needs onto the workforce in general is presumptuous. Eot every employee is looking for a challenging (ob. +any workers meet their higher. order needs off the (ob. *here are $FK hours in every individuals week. ork rarely consumes more than ;&N of this time. *hat leaves considerable opportunity# even for individuals with strong growth needs# to find higher.order need satisfaction outside the workplace. ,ro!e##io&al Emplo ee# are more "i!!ic-l+ +o mo+i2a+e''

Professional employees are different than your average employees. 3nd theyre more difficult to motivate. hyA Because professionals dont respond to the same stimuli that non. professionals do. Professional like engineers# accountants# lawyers# nurses# and software designers are different from nonprofessionals. *hey have strong and a long term commitment to their field of expertise. *heir loyalty is more towards their profession than to their employer. 3nd typical rewards# like money and promotions# are rarely effective in encouraging professionals to exert high levels of effort. 6sually they tend to be well paid already and they en(oy what they do. )or instance# professionals are not typically anxious to give up their work to take on managerial responsibilities. *heyve have invested a great deal of time and effort in developing their professional skills. *heyve have typically gone to professional schools for years and undergone specialized training to build their proficiencies. *hey also invest regularly . in terms of reading# taking courses# attending conferences# and the like . to keep their skills current. +oving into management often means cutting off their ties to their profession# losing touch with the latest advances in their field and having to let the skills that theyve spent years developing become obsolete. *his loyalty to the profession and less interest in typical organizational rewards makes motivating professionals more challenging and complex. So ho$ "o o- mo+i2a+e pro!e##io&al#? Provide them with ongoing challenges pro(ects. -ive them autonomy to follow their interests and allow them to structure their work in ways they find productive. Provide them with lateral moves that allow them to broaden their experiences. Ceward them with educational opportunities training# workshops# and attending conferences that allow them to keep current in their field. In addition reward them with recognition. 3nd consider creating alternative career paths that allow them to earn more money and status# without assuming managerial responsibilities. S-mmar 5 implica+io&# !or ma&a)er#: ( Summary *he theories which we have discussed so far address different outcomes variables. *he theories also differ in predictive strengths. 67 Nee" Theor : ( )our theories focused on needs. *hese were +aslows hierarchy# two factor# 0C-# and +cBlellands needs theories. *he strongest is the +cBlellands needs theory# which is regarding the relationship between achievement and productivity. 87 /oal(#e++i&) +heor : (

*he evidence leads to conclude that goal.setting theory provides one of the more powerful explanations of this dependent variable. 97 Rei&!orceme&+ +heor : ( *his theory has an impressive record for predicting factors like /uality and /uantity of work# persistence of effort# absenteeism# tardiness# and accident rates. It does not offer much insight into employee satisfaction or the decision to /uit.

:7 ;o4 "e#i)& +heor : ( *his theory addresses productivity# satisfaction# absenteeism# and turnover variables. But it may be limited to employees who place a high importance on finding meaningfulness in their (obs and who seek control over the key elements in their work. <7 E0-i+ +heor : ( *his theory also deals with productivity# satisfaction# absence# and turnover variables. 'owever# it is the strongest when predicting absence and turnover behaviors and weak when predicting differences in employee productivity. =7 Expec+a&c +heor : ( *his theory focused on performance variables. It has proved to offer a relatively powerful explanation of employee productivity# absenteeism and turnover. But expectancy theory assumes that employees have few constraints on their decision discretion. It makes many of the same assumptions that the rational model makes about individual decision.making. Implications $> Reco)&i.e I&"i2i"-al Di!!ere&ce#: ( 0mployees have different needs. +anagers should not treat them all alike. +oreover# spend the time necessary to understand whats important to each employee. 3lso# design (obs to align with individual needs and# therefore# maximize the motivation potential in (obs. "> >#e )oal# a&" !ee"4ac?: ( 0mployees should have hard# specific goals# as well as feedback on how well they are faring on pursuit of those goals. ;> Allo$ emplo ee# +o par+icipa+e i& "eci#io&#: . 0mployees can contribute to a number of decisions that affect them! setting work# choosing their own benefits packages# solving productivity and /uality problems# and the like. *his can increase employee productivity# commitment to work goals# motivation# and (ob satisfaction. <> Li&? re$ar"# +o p-&i#hme&+: (

Cegardless of how closely rewards are actually correlated to performance criteria# if individuals perceive this relationship to be low# the results will be low performance# a decrease in (ob satisfaction# and an increase in turnover and absenteeism. %> Chec? +he # #+em !or E0-i+ : ( Cewards should also be perceived by employees as e/uating with the inputs they bring to the (ob. 3t a simplest level# this should mean that experience# skills# abilities# effort# and other obvious inputs should explain differences in performance and# hence# pay# (ob assignments# and other obvious rewards.