SAYANI BANERJEE MA (ENGLISH), SEMESTER III ROLL NO.

H -1449 PAPER: LANGUAGE STRUCTURE TOPIC: SOCIO LINGUISTIC TERMS

DIALECT and VARIETY Dialects are varieties of the same language distinguished by pronunciation, syntax, or choice of vocabulary, which emerge out of disparities in geographical and social conditions, thus shaping our language identity. Each language exists in a number of varieties, and is, in fact, a sum of all those varieties. Hudson defined dialect as a set of linguistic items with similar distribution. Thus dialect can be defined as a certain type of human speech pattern which can be uniquely associated with some external factors or social groups. According to popular conception, Dialect is no more than a local nonprestigious variety of a real language. However, there can be no watertight compartments defining the status of a language as it is in a state of constant flux, changing as society and social attitudes change. This poses a difficulty for linguists as it becomes difficult for them to decide whether a particular variety is a dialect or a standard language. Dialect is result of language attitude- the perception of inferiority and superiority of language arising out of socio-economic, religious disparities, etc. Certain factors contribute to the assignment of such status. A language which has social, political, educational support, that which has a history of literature, that which has a greater number of speakers, that which is competent to perform both formal and informal functions is generally the language which is endorsed and given the status of standard language. The other varieties generally used by rural, lower class, uneducated population in their daily communication are called the dialects of the standard version of the language. As a result of this standardization, it becomes the official language- the language used in formal set ups. Standardization involves modernization of a language with development of things like script, grammar, spelling books and dictionaries. The dialect speakers dont have the same privileges that the standard variety enjoys in fields like education, economy, commerce politics, administration, business, and job markets. The language- dialect conflict is, thus, directly associated with power, prestige and economy. In fact, the position we occupy in society is a manifestation of the prestige associated with the language we speak. This further leads to differentiation of speech communities based on solidarity and preservation of the dialects by the dialect speakers who resist power, and insist on independence. However efforts to uplift or

modernize a dialect for practical benefits often lead to language change so much so that the dialect ceases to exist. Dialects can be of two typesA) Regional Dialect- These emerge because of geographical factors and prospects like geographical and political boundaries, ethno- cultural and religious diversities. For example- Earthen pots have a number of terms in Bengali varying with shape, size and purpose. Eskimo language has 17 different terms for snow. B) Social Dialect-This variety of language use is conditioned by social factors like class, caste, race, education, profession. For example, Shantipuri language is a dialect of Bengali language used by the traditional educated elite characterized by polite registers.

SPEECH COMMUNITY Leonard Bloomfield defined speech community as a group of people who interacts by means of speech ---where social factors and common interests hold people together. Charles F. Hockett & Gumperz gave the notion of Shared Language (Noums of Lang) and Frequency of Interaction. According to Gumperz, a speech community is characterized by regular & frequent interactions by means of a shared body of verbal signs and norms. Also, a multilingual or bilingual community was differentiated by Gumperz from a speech community and termed as Linguistic Community. However, Dell Hymes, unlike Bloomfield and Chomsky, believed that SC cant defined solely by linguistic criteria, and gave the notion of Communicative competence, that is, the grammatical competence of a language is not enough, one needs to have the ability to properly use such competence in a variety of communicative situation and share the sentiments to be a member of the speech community. Hence, the knowledge of the norms, perceptions, socio-cultural values is an essential criteria. For example.-English as 2nd language users can participate in the English speech community but cant be an integrated member of the community. According to William Labov, Language Attitude is important-----there must be an in-group cohesiveness ( participation in shared language behavior) which is unique & isolate them from other groups. Lepage pointed out that how individuals relate to the society is important as well.He gave the concept of Language Habit which is a psychological process involving an individuals growth, perception & attempts to learn different kinds of Linguistic behavior. Seville Troike believed that one can belong to multiple speech communities. In her book The Ethnography of speech, she claims that if one knows the formal & functional (SLRw) knowledge of a part language, he/she can claim to be a part of that community. Speech Communities perform different functions:

1) Binding Function characterized by a sense of unity of in-group solidarity 2) Boundary function ---it preserves the separate & unique flavors and features of a long community 3) Stratificationscreation of hierarchies within the community. Speech Communities are of two types: 1) Hard Shelled speech community. It is rigid and not open to borrowing & change. Example Tamil 2) Soft Shelled speech community. It allows borrowing & is hence in a state of flux. Example.English.

DOMAIN According to Schmit Rohr, Sociolinguistic domains are societal construct derived from painstaking analysis and summarization of patently congruent situation. A domain can be considered as a group of related social situations in which one particular variety of speech is used which is appropriate for it. There are different types of situation which characterize a domain. It may range from formal, semiformal, informal to intimate. Speakers can adopt the styles of speaking in different situations. In other words, Domain indicates who speaks what to whom, where and why. For example, very formal speech is used in marriage ceremonies and public lectures while conversation between friends demands very causal informal language. There are three elements which constitute a situation: 1) Participants For any successful social interaction to take place, the relationship between the participants in a conversation is an important factor in deciding the styles of language used. Or, in other words, role relationships play an important role in communication in a society. These relationships are nothing but a set of accepted norms or rules and obligations devised by taking into account different social factors like gender, age, education and social status. Role-relationship is the byproduct and basis of what Dell Hymes calls Social Grammar. Disruption in social order is imminent when the role relationships are violated. Furthermore there are two types of Role-relationships a. Experiential Rolesthe members learn the rules and social sanctions through their own experiences. b. Referential Roles these are acquired roles learnt in childhood during the process of socialization. For example, in many overtly conservative families, the children are taught to use polite and formal language at home. Such language is characterized by certain markers denoting respect in addressal terms like apni in Bengali instead of regular tumi.

2) Locale the place of interaction is important for selection of vocabulary, lexical, etc. For example, friends speaking to each other in front of elders use different language style than when they are amidst peer groups. 3) Topic- The topic of conversation also governs the language used. The topic of discussion plays an important role in deciding the sentence structure, linguistic patterns, lexicons, vocabulary and socio-linguistic categories. For example- language varies with occupations. The registers used are different when the topic of discussion is physiology from when it is linguistics.

LANGUAGE SHIFT AND MAINTENANCE Language Shift is the phenomenon where the L1 of the majority population replaces the L1 of the minority group especially in immigrant communities. In other words, the native language of the community or the dominant language replaces the language of the migrators,specially in the children of the second generation. Also language shift occurs when varieties or dialects of a language is replaced by the Standard variety of the language. Factors responsible for Language Shift are: 1) Economic, social and political factor When the dominant language is associated with social status and prestige, obtaining work becomes difficult without the knowledge of the dominant language which is further encouraged by institutional domains like education system and media. 2) Cultural & language Assimilation Language Shift can occur only in a sublingual and multilingual scenario. 3) Demographic factors Language shift occurs due to urbanization & is faster in urban areas than rural communities. Sometimes sheer numerical strength of the community results in the shift. 4) Language AttitudeIt is governed by utilitarian perspectives. It is slower when the minority language is highly valued due to language heritage and is an important symbol of the ethnic identity. Language Shift occurs due to loss of cultural which can be contributed by many social, political, economical factors. Such shifts results in identity crisis leading to depression, nostalgia, anxiety, chiefly among the 1st. generation speakers of the minority group. This encourages them to take precautionary measures and promote their language, thus resulting in the phenomena called Language Maintenance. Factors responsible and possible steps taken for Language Maintenance to preserve ones ethnic identity: 1) Cultural and Linguistic Realism results in loyalty, pride and commitment encouraging peaceful co-existence of all languages. 2) Religious Sentiments 3) Prevalence of Cultural Organizations 4) Government Support Government policies are necessary for survival of a language , it needs to be popularly used in print and electronic media.

5)Other factors associated with Language Maintenance are changes in socio-psychological attitudes, socio-political interference and political attitudes. Sometimes Language Shift is so drastic and radical that it leads to Language Death, also called Lingua- Cide. For examplemany dialects of Andamanese and Kurux language have died.

SOCIOLINGUISTICS According to Hudson; Sociolinguistics is the study of language in the relation to society (where society can be defined as a group of people with in-group solidarity), with the goal of achieving a better understanding of the structure of the language and of how language function is communication. Robert King Martin was responsible for the in group and out group classification of a Language Community. Gender, Economy, Age, Occupation and Education are the factors which lead to linguistic variations. There are two approaches in Sociology which aids Sociolinguistic Studies 1) Conflict Approach: According to this, conflict is inevitable for healthy social changes and to stop social exploitation; hence fight against the dominant group is essentialMarxist Ideology, promoted by Marx and Engels, talks of super-structure and sub-structure. While the sub-structure(the proletariats or have-nots) control the economy, superstructure is controlled by the upper and upper middle class(the haves) who control the culture, religion, education. The middle class is the custodian of the Cultural Capital as they imitate the upper class. This is known as Cross-over Phenomenon or Hyper connection. According to Marx, there are two types of personalities the Conformists (as a result of False Consciousness created by religion which is an impediment to social changes) and the Bohemians. According to Dittmar, speech behavior and social behavior are in a state of constant interaction and material living conditions are an important factor in this relationship. 2) Functional Approach: According to this approach, value consenscous leads to social equilibrium. According to Emile Durkheim and Tolcott Parsons, Family, Culture and Vocation are intricately related to each other. Durkheim emphasizes on the instrumental role of man and expressive role of the female, which is essential for smooth running of a family which is an unit of society. This approach shuns behavioral & social changes which can lead to disruption in social structure. We are trained to become Conformists since our childhood by the process of Socialization which is an inherent social process where social values are injected into the child to grow up to be a socially acceptable adult personality. This approach stresses on Re-Socialization process which is the adoption of social values of a different community when they are a part of it. It is common in cases of migrations, convicts or domestic sphere where, for example, a daughter in law is expected to adopt the social customs of her husbands family. According to Emile Durkheim, Suicide is a social phenomenon, just as Language Death or Lingua-Cide is. Robert King Martin and Maelinowsky talks of in-group, out-group and reference-groups and the sentiments attached with it.

Functionalist Approach gives us two functions of Society 1) Manifest Function where any action has a kind of impact which is visible to our eyes. 2) Latent Function or hidden functions or impacts not apparently visible. For example, when a person dies, the family performs rites and rituals which helps to create solidarity among relatives, provide emotional support & has a lot of psychological impacts. In Sociolinguistics, Functionalist Approach expects a speaker to know the rules and cultural norms of language usage in a community. To function properly in society, one needs to be aware of the social sanctions; mere linguistic competence is not enough. Our mother tongue gives us a linguistic and ethnic identity. Due to the social constraints and impediments to the development of L1, L2 often replaces L1 of a community. Language usage varies with domains formal and informal setup. Basil Bernstein distinguished between Elaborate code (used by educated upper class) and Restricted code (used by lower and working class). He promoted the Deficiency Hypothesis, according to which there is a co-relation between class and linguistic structure. The selection of lexicon, intonation and tone all depends on these factors.

Uses of Registers vary with domains like occupational domains, keeping in mind the social sanctions. These lead to diversificationof language. According to Dell Hymes & Halliday, language is not a monolithic, homogeneous object, but very much a heterogenous entity conditioned by different social factors and human interventions. Another approach in Sociolinguistics is the Interactionalist Approach which defines how we interact with others in a society; we are influenced by our experiences the experience of whom we meet decides our language experience. George Herbert Mead talks of the id, ego and super-ego as given by Freuds psychoanalysis- where id is the self , super-ego is the socioagencies which control the id. These are in constant conflict with each other and the external manifestation or the form our speech takes is the ego. The words we use or our language determines our personality which can be of 3 types submissive, Eggressive and balanced personality. Works Cited Holmes, J. An Introduction to Sociolinguistics. Wardhaugh, R. (1998). An Introduction to sociolinguistics. Blackwell Publishers.