Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R.

, Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

Temperature Response in a Pervious Concrete System Designed for Stormwater Treatment John T. Kevern1, M. ASCE and Vernon R. Schaefer2, M. ASCE, P.E.
1

Ph.D. candidate, Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA, Phone: 515-294-8496, Fax: 515-294-8216, Email: kevernj@iastate.edu 2 Professor, Department of Civil, Construction, and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Email: vern@iastate.edu

ABSTRACT: For pervious concrete to function optimally as both a pavement and stormwater treatment solution, both aspects must be considered together as a system. The pavement must possess the required strength and freeze-thaw resistance for surface durability and also an appropriate permeability to convey stormwater to the lower aggregate base retention area. This paper presents data obtained from a fully instrumented pervious concrete parking lot at Iowa State University (ISU). The site contained two 15 cm (6 in.) thick pervious concrete sections overlying 30 cm (12 in.) or 46 cm (18 in.) base configurations, while the control concrete section was placed directly on compacted soil. Temperature sensors monitored the freeze-thaw behavior of the system for both pervious sections and a standard concrete control. Ultimately, water samples will be collected from both the standard concrete control section and from tiling installed in the pervious concrete aggregate base for comparison of stormwater constituents and flow. The freeze-thaw results show a substantial lag in frost penetration of the pervious system and immediate thaw once melt water becomes present. Maximum temperature observed in the pervious concrete layer was always greater than the surrounding air temperature. INTRODUCTION Recently the EPA, under the Clean Water Act, has implemented the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System (NPDES) permitting of the stormwater for point sources as well as non-point source pollutant runoff. Developed sites are required to provide treatment to the stormwater discharge as well as reducing the overall volume to predevelopment rates (Federal Register 2004). Best Management Practices (BMPs) are structural or non-structural ways to meet the required standards (WERF 2005). One common method is detention/retention ponds, which hold the stormwater and allow controlled discharge into the system. Some of the disadvantages include limited pollutant reduction and large areas of land must be purchased for the BMP, reducing optimal land usage. Porous pavement systems combine the parking surface with the detention/retention area for better site utilization, pollutant removal, and groundwater recharge (Tennis et al. 2004).

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Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R., Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

Portland cement Pervious concrete (PCPC) is comprised of relatively uniform graded coarse aggregate, a small amount of fine aggregate, cement, and water to form a series of interconnected voids which allows water infiltration for the maximum design rainfall intensity. The goal is to allow the water to pass through the pavement into the aggregate base where the water is stored while it infiltrates into the natural soil. The large surface area of the concrete and aggregate base adsorbs hydrocarbons, allowing removal through evaporation and, in the lower moist portions, microbic degradation. Studies have shown substantial removal rates of hydrocarbons, nitrates, phosphates, and heavy metals by pervious concrete systems through physical and chemical processes (Pratt et al. 1996, Park and Tia 2004). Benefits of pervious pavement also include the elimination of stormwater collection systems, improved pavement skid resistance, decreased glare, and increased visibility and traction. PCPC is currently used for parking lots, pathways, and in some places, low-volume roads for stormwater purposes in the United States (U.S.) (Tennis et al. 2004).While used in Florida for stormwater treatment since the 1970s, a high percentage of failures due to limited construction experience, low strength, and lack of freeze-thaw durability have restricted application, especially in regions that experience hard-wet freeze conditions (i.e. Midwestern, Northern, and Northeastern states) (NRMCA 2004). Like other pavement systems, pervious pavements must posses the strength and freeze-thaw durability to support applied loads and to resist environmental conditions. However, PCPC must also have adequate permeability for the design storm as well as the ability to provide pollutant treatment. Laboratory tests performed at the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center (CP Tech Center) at Iowa State University (ISU) show that adding a small amount of fine aggregate (sand) back into the traditionally single-sized coarse aggregate mixture design improved the load transfer between particles, increasing strength and ultimately creating freeze-thaw durable concrete under saturated conditions (Schaefer et al. 2006). While continued research into the mixture design has improved strength and durability, the following issues dealing with the entire pervious concrete pavement system still require investigation. How is the permeability of the system affected by freezing conditions? How does the predicted system permeability compare with the actual values? What level of pollutant removal can be expected from the system? What, if any, is the impact on the local groundwater table? How does temperature vary with depth? How will the system results impact the design methodology? In order to better understand the pervious pavement system, a fully-monitored parking lot was constructed at ISU comprised of pervious concrete and traditional Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) pavement. Stormwater was collected and compared from both sections and temperature and soil moisture sensors along with monitoring wells and water level sensors in the base. BACKGROUND and OBJECTIVES Pervious Concrete Experience at Iowa State In 2004, the Iowa Concrete Paving Association (ICPA) partnered with ISU on a research project to determine the freeze-thaw durability of typical pervious concrete

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Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R., Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

mixtures and to design a concrete mixture that was appropriate for use in Iowa. Background investigation showed that pervious concrete had been used in Florida since the 1970s for stormwater purposes. The concrete mixture designs incorporated single-sized coarse aggregate and no fine aggregate (Maynard 1970). Permeability was adequate, but strength was (low 3.4 MPa to 17.2 MPa (500 to 2,500 psi)) and failures were common. However, Europe and Japan had been using pervious concrete as an overlay material, in limited applications, for noise reduction and skid resistance for high speed applications (Tamai and Yoshida 2003). European mixtures contained smaller-sized coarse aggregate and included some fine aggregate, along with chemical admixtures to produce higher strengths. Combining both the high permeability of U.S. mixtures with the higher strength from the European mixtures, ISU developed mixtures that withstood 300 saturated freeze-thaw cycles according to the ASTM C 666A procedure. A poorly graded, non-uniform, coarse aggregate was combined with fine aggregate in proportions to obtain enough permeability, > 36 cm/hr. (14.7 in./hr.), and compressive strength, > 20.7 MPa (3,000 psi) (Kevern 2006). Since the initial study, pervious concrete freeze-thaw research performed at the CP Tech Center has included aggregate from 11 states, effect of air entrainment on PCPC, characterization of entrained air, the effect of supplementary cementitious materials, and compaction level. Freeze-thaw durability was the main concern, but the emerging research suggests that construction practices and curing methods have the greatest potential to produce pervious concrete failures. Objectives of the Lot 122 Project The objectives of the Lot 122 project were to evaluate the permeability and pollutant removal rates of pervious concrete pavement systems with different surface permeabilities and aggregate base depths under freeze-thaw conditions, and to determine if current design methodology is adequate. SITE INVESTIGATION An initial site investigation was required to determine what soils were present, the location of high/low permeability strata, seasonal high water table level, and soil subgrade support values. The soil survey described the soil as Webster Clay Loam, a A-6/A-7 type soil under the American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO) classification scheme. Borings revealed as about 30 cm (12 in.) of gravel overlying about 30 cm (12 in.) black clay fill. Underneath the black clay was about 3 cm (1 in.) layer of gravel overlying 30 cm (12 in.) of gleyed sandy clay above sandy clayey silt. The apparent water table was located between 102 cm (40 in.) and 165 cm (65 in.) below surface elevation. Permeability testing on 8 cm (three inch) diameter samples in a triaxial permeability apparatus resulted in permeability values ranging from 1x10-5 cm/s to 4x10-7 cm/s. Because the site was an old parking lot, the upper gravel layer and clay fill along with the lower gravel layer were removed to expose the natural soil and restore permeability under the pervious pavement.

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Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R., Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

SITE LAYOUT and SECTION DESIGN The site layout for Lot 122 is comprised of the south half pervious concrete and the north half is traditional PCC. The total area is 1,115 m2 (12,000 sq. ft.) to produce 35 parking stalls. Current pervious concrete section designs are based more from empirical knowledge than from actual loading and support conditions. The NRMCA, along with many state agencies, suggest using a 15 cm (6 inch) pervious pavement for parking areas and 20 cm (8 inch) if the pavement supports light but routine truck traffic. The suggested minimum base thickness is 15 cm (6 inch) if the soil has medium permeability, 1.3 cm/hr (1/2 in. /hr) (Tennis et al. 2004). Many areas in the Southern U.S., especially Florida, do not use an aggregate base since the in-situ soil permeability is equal to or greater than that of the pavement (NRMCA 2005). The thickness design of the aggregate base has been a function of the required stormwater detention volume, rather than adding to the structural capacity of the pavement system. The pervious sections were selected and designed to evaluate different surface infiltration rates and aggregate base storage capacities. The southwest quarter of Lot 122 contained a pervious concrete mixture with primarily a smaller 4.75 mm (No. 4) sized rounded-river gravel for a finer surface texture and slightly lower permeability. A 30 cm (12 in.) aggregate base was placed under the smaller aggregate mixture. The southeast quarter of Lot 122 contained a pervious concrete mixture with a larger rounded-river gravel aggregate sized from 9.5 mm (3/8 in.) to 12.7 mm (1/2 in.). Generally, the larger aggregate produces larger pore diameter and greater permeability. A 46 cm (18 in.) aggregate base was placed under the larger aggregate pervious section. The drainable base was a limestone aggregate with about 40% compacted void space, producing 12 cm (4.8 in.) total storage capacity in the 30 cm (12 in.) section and 18 cm (7.2 in.) total storage capacity in the 46 cm (18 in.) section. Total storage in the 30 cm (12 in.) section represents the 10-year, 24 hour rain event, while total storage in the 46 cm (18 in.) section is greater than the 100-year event. Drain tiles were placed at 23 cm (9 in.) above the aggregate base to allow monitoring and collection of stormwater volumes greater than 9 cm (3.6 in.). In Iowa, 9 cm (3.6 in.) represents the 5-year, 24-hour rain event. RESULTS and DISCUSSION Concrete Results The results from the pervious concrete cylinder samples taken during the parking lot placement are shown in Table 1. Values represent an average of three samples. The smaller-sized coarse aggregate mixture had slightly lower voids, 23.0% versus 27.8%, and consequently, lower permeability and higher compressive strength. Since the concrete mixture contained fly ash as a supplementary cementitious material, the ultimate strength was reported at 56-days. The compressive strength of both mixtures was above the required 20.7 MPa (3,000 psi) at 28-days and the permeability will increase the time between required maintenance activities due to clogging. Pervious concrete core samples were taken from the parking lot for verification purposes at random locations. The core samples had a large degree of variability in unit weight and consequently voids and permeability. The smaller aggregate mixture

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Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R., Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

had voids ranging from 18.6% to 29.0%, a difference of 10.4% and the larger mixture from 24.8% to 36.9%, a difference of 12.1%. The Coefficient Of Variation (COV) from the smaller mixture voids was 23% and 21% from the larger mixture. The unit weight ranged from 1,855 kg/m3 (115.8 pcf) to 2,083 kg/m3 (130.1 pcf) for the smaller mixture and from 1,695 kg/m3 (105.8 pcf) to 1,973 kg/m3 (123.2 pcf) for the larger mixture. COV of the unit weight was 6% from the smaller mixture and 8% from the larger one. The concrete was discharged from the ready mixed concrete truck in piles and then raked into position before finishing with the roller-screed. The inconsistencies inherent in hand placement caused the variability in compaction level and the poor uniformity in the final product. Visual inspection of the surface does not detect any uniformity issues, suggesting that the roller-screed creates a more consistent surface layer.
TABLE 1. Pervious concrete cylinder sample properties Hardened Unit Weight kg/m3(pcf) 1,999 (124.8) 1,922 (120.0) Permeability cm/hr. (in/hr) dia. 10 cm (4 in.) 1,763 (694) 2,268 (893)

Mix Small Agg. Larger Agg.

Voids (%) 23.0 27.8

Compressive Strength MPa(psi) 7 day 28 day 56 day 17.8 22.8 24.3 (2,578) (3,305) (3,521) 16.0 22.8 23.4 (2,322) (3,304) (3,399)

Temperature Results The temperature profile of the pervious concrete section from December 15, 2006 to March 15, 2007 is shown in Figure 1. From mid-December to mid-January, Lot 122 experienced typical winter weather with some daily highs above freezing and the daily lows below freezing. From mid-January to mid-February, there were 35 consecutive days were the daily maximum temperature was below 0C (32F), with the exception of January 26 when the high temperature was 4C (40F). The infiltration rate of the pervious concrete system is controlled by that of the soil, so the critical location is the temperature at the aggregate base/subgrade interface. The insulating properties of the aggregate base delayed the frost line formation until 21 days into the cold period. Once the air temperature rose above freezing, the base thawed within 24 hours. Only in the extended period of extreme cold did the aggregate base/subgrade interface freeze. During the remaining cold periods permeability was maintained. As Figure 1 shows, while the daily low air temperature was always cooler than that of the pervious pavement, absorption of sunlight caused the maximum PCPC temperature to be significantly higher than the air during most days. The transfer of heat and insulating ability of the aggregate base produced a buffered temperature response with increased depth. The temperature profile of the PCC pavement is shown in Figure 2 for the same time period. The low end temperature response of the PCC pavement was similar to that of the PCPC pavement, although the high temperature experienced by the PCC pavement is always less than the maximum air temperature. As expected, the PCC/soil interface temperature closely followed that of the PCC slab. At 46 cm (18

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Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R., Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

in.) into the soil profile the effect of temperature was delayed, the formation of the frost line underneath the pavement was not effected by air temperature as much as under the pervious pavement. The base/soil interface under the pervious pavement (Figure 1), is close to the same mean elevation as the 46 cm (18 in.) deep sensor beneath the traditional pavement (Figure 2). Before the thaw at the end of February, the response shape of both curves is similar, with the pervious values six degrees warmer. After the thaw, due to the infiltration of melt water and transfer of absorbed energy, the base/soil interface under the PCPC continued to warm while the frost remained under the PCC side.
30 Pervious Concrete 20 Temperature ( C)
Mid-PCPC 46 cm into the soil Base/Subgrade
o

10

Mid-Base

-10

Air Mid-PCPC Mid-Base Base/Subgrade 46 cm into the soil Air

-20

-30 12/15/06

12/30/06

1/14/07

1/29/07

2/13/07

2/28/07

3/15/07

FIGURE 1. Pervious concrete winter temperature profile

30 Traditional PCC 20 Temperature ( C)

Mid-PCC PCC/Subgrade 46 cm into the soil

10

-10
Air

-20

Mid-PCC PCC/Subgrade 46 cm into the soil Air

-30 12/15/06

12/30/06

1/14/07

1/29/07

2/13/07

2/28/07

3/15/07

FIGURE 2. Traditional concrete winter temperature profile

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Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R., Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

The initial results for the soil moisture sensors indicate the soil was driest directly beneath the PCC pavement and moisture increases with depth. Conversely, beneath the PCPC pavement, when stormwater was infiltrating, the highest moisture level was nearest the aggregate base and decreases with depth. Unfortunately, after a few months of monitoring, the circuit board from the sensor array underneath the PCPC corroded and data collection ended. The sensor is being reworked and will be installed in a moisture-free enclosure later in 2007. At the time of publication, Lot 122 had not experienced a storm event or combination of events large enough to produce effluent from the drain tile underneath the pervious pavement. A number of storm event combinations in the spring of 2007 were larger than the design storage capacity of the system and should have produced effluent, but did not, suggesting the permeability of the system from unforeseen soil discontinuities have produced a higher than expected infiltration rate. CONCLUSIONS and DESIGN RECOMMENDATIONS The following conclusions can be made from this study: The hand-placement of the pervious concrete slab caused a greater amount of variability than the concrete cylinder samples placed at the site. Sunlight absorption caused the surface of the pervious concrete slab to have higher temperatures than that of the air. The formation of a frost layer was significantly delayed underneath the pervious pavement aggregate base. The system appears to be much more permeable than lab testing predicted. Initially, the current design recommendations for pervious pavement thickness appear adequate. No pavement distresses have been observed related to load capacity. The aggregate base provides pavement support under poor soil conditions, such as Lot 122, acts as an insulator to frost formation, and provides time for water infiltration. An aggregate base should be utilized under all pervious pavements, especially in freeze-thaw climates. This research suggests PCPC BMP systems reduce stormwater flow leaving a project site through initial abstraction by the pavement and base, increase in evaporation from the aggregate base caused by the elevated temperature profile, and through fractured soil flow. Furthermore, results indicate the efficiency of the system (i.e. estimated soil permeability) is greater than anticipated through field and lab testing. A reduction in total stormwater discharge volume must be considered for all situations when pervious concrete systems are utilized. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS This study was funded by the Iowa Department of Natural Resources, the Iowa Ready Mixed and Concrete Paving Associations, and the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center at Iowa State University. The assistance provided by Steve Jones installing the sensors and soil testing performed by Heath Gieselman, Mark Thompson, and Muhannad Suleiman is greatly appreciated. The opinions, findings and conclusions presented here are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect those of the research sponsors.

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Kevern, J.T. and Schaefer, V.R., Paper Included in the Proceedings of the ASCE GeoCongress 2008, New Orleans, LA.

REFERENCES Federal Register. (2004) Effluent Limitations Guidelines and New Source Performance Standards for the Construction and Development Category. Federal Register 69.80. Kevern, J. T., (2006) Mix Design Development for Portland Cement Pervious Concrete in Cold Weather Climates. M.S. Thesis. Ames, IA: Iowa State University. Maynard, D.P. (1970) A Fine No-Fines Road. Concrete Construction, p. 116. C700116. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA). (2004) Freeze-Thaw Resistance of Pervious Concrete. Silver Spring, MD: NRMCA. National Ready Mixed Concrete Association (NRMCA). (2005) Text Reference for Pervious Concrete Contractor Certification. NRMCA Publication #2PPCRT, Silver Spring, MD. Park, S., and Tia, M. (2004) An Experimental Study on the Water-Purification Properties of Porous Concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, V. 34, p. 177-184. Pratt, C.J., Newman, A.P., and Brownstein, J.B. (1996) Bio-remediation Processes Within a Permeable Pavement: Initial Observations. Paper presented at the seventh International Conference on Urban Storm Drainage, Hannover, Germany. Schaefer, V.R., Wang, K., Suleiman, M.T., and Kevern, J. (2006) Mix Design Development for Pervious Concrete in Cold Weather Climates. A Report from the National Concrete Pavement Technology Center, Ames, IA: Iowa State University. http://www.ctre.iastate.edu/reports/mix_design_pervious.pdf Tamai, M., and Yoshida, M. (2003) Durability of Porous Concrete. Paper presented at the Sixth International Conference on Durability of Concrete, Thessaloniki, Greece. Tennis, P.D., Leming, M.L., and Akers, D.J. (2004) Pervious Concrete Pavements, EB302, Portland Cement Association, Skokie, Illinois, and National Ready Mixed Concrete Association, Silver Spring, Maryland. Water Environment Research Foundation (WERF). (2005) International Stormwater Best Management Practices Database. http://www.bmpdatabase.org, accessed May 2, 2005.

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