Anatomy and Physiology

Endocrine System

The nervous system sends electrical messages to control and coordinate the body. The endocrine system has a similar job, but uses chemicals to communicate. These chemicals are known as hormones. A hormone is a specific messenger molecule synthesized and secreted by a group of specialized cells called an endocrine gland. These glands are ductless, which means that their secretions (hormones) are released directly into the bloodstream and travel to elsewhere in the body to target organs, upon which they act. Note that this is in contrast to our digestive glands, which have ducts for releasing the digestive enzymes.

Pheromones are also communication chemicals, but are used to send signals to other members of the same species. Queen bees, ants, and naked mole rats exert control of their respective colonies via pheromones. One common use for pheromones is as attractants in mating. Pheromones are widely studied in insects and are the basis for some kinds of Japanese beetle and

gypsy moth traps. While pheromones have not been so widely studied in humans, some interesting studies have been done in recent years on pheromonal control of menstrual cycles in women. It has been found that pheromones in male sweat and/or sweat from another dominant female will both influence/regulate the cycles of women when smeared on their upper lip, just below the nose. Also, there is evidence that continued reception of a given mans pheromone(s) by a woman in the weeks just after ovulation/fertilization can significantly increase the chances of successful implantation of the new baby in her uterus. Pheromones are also used for things like territorial markers (urine) and alarm signals.

Each hormones shape is specific and can be recognized by the corresponding target cells. The binding sites on the target cells are called hormone receptors. Many hormones come in antagonistic pairs that have opposite effects on the target organs. For example, insulin and glucagon have opposite effects on the livers control of blood sugar level. Insulin lowers the blood sugar level by instructing the liver to take glucose out of circulation and store it, while glucagon instructs the liver to release some of its stored supply to raise the blood sugar level. Much hormonal regulation depends on feedback loops to maintain balance and homeostasis.

There are three general classes (groups) of hormones. These are classified by chemical structure, not function.

Steroid hormones including prostaglandins which function especially in a variety of female functions (aspirin inhibits synthesis of prostaglandins, some of which cause cramps) and the sex hormones all of which are lipids made from cholesterol, Amino acid derivatives (like epinephrine) which are derived from amino acids, especially tyrosine, and Peptide hormones (like insulin) which is the most numerous/diverse group of hormones.

The major human endocrine glands include:

the hypothalamus and pituitary gland

The pituitary gland is called the master gland but it is under the control of the hypothalamus. Together, they control many other endocrine functions. They secrete a number of hormones, especially several which are important to the female menstural cycle, pregnancy, birth, and lactation (milk production). These include follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), which stimulates development and maturation of a follicle in one of a womans ovaries, and leutinizing hormone (LH), which causes the bursting of that follicle (= ovulation) and the formation of a corpus luteum from the remains of the follicle.

There are a number of other hypothalamus and pituitary hormones which affect various target organs.

One non-sex hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary is antidiuretic hormone or ADH. This hormone helps prevent excess water excretion by the kidneys. Ethanol inhibits the release of ADH and can, thus, cause excessive water loss. Thats also part of the reason why a group of college students who go out for pizza and a pitcher of beer need to make frequent trips to the restrooms. Diuretics are chemicals which interfere with the production of or action of ADH so the kidneys secrete more water. Thus diuretics are often prescribed for people with high blood pressure, in an attempt to decrease blood volume. Another group of non-sex hormones that many people have heard of is the endorphins, which belong to the category of chemicals known as opiates and serve to deaden our pain receptors. Endorphins, which are chemically related to morphine, are produced in response to pain. The natural response to rub an injured area, such as a pinched finger, helps to release endorphins in that area. People who exercise a lot and push their bodies until it hurts thereby stimulate the production of endorphins. It is thought that some people who constantly over-exercise and push themselves too much may actually be addicted to their own endorphins which that severe exercise regime releases.

the thyroid gland

Thyroid hormones regulate metabolism, therefore body temperature and weight. The thyroid hormones contain iodine, which the thyroid needs in order to manufacture these hormones. If a person lacks iodine in his/her diet, the thyroid cannot make the hormones, causing a deficiency. In response to the bodys feedback loops calling for more thyroid hormones, the thyroid gland then enlarges to attempt to compensate (The bodys plan here is if its bigger it can make more, but that doesnt help if there isnt enough iodine.). This disorder is called goiter. Dietary sources of iodine include any ocean foods because ocean-dwelling organisms tend to accumulate iodine from the seawater, and would include foods like ocean fish (tuna) and seaweeds like kelp. Because of this, people who live near the ocean do not have as much of a problem with goiter as people who live inland and dont have access to these foods. To help alleviate this problem in our country, our government began a program encouraging salt refiners to add iodine to salt, and encouraging people to choose to consume this iodized salt.

the pancreas

This organ has two functions. It serves as a ducted gland, secreting digestive enzymes into the small intestine. The pancreas also serves as a ductless gland in that the islets of Langerhans secrete insulin and glucagon to regulate the blood sugar level. The -islet cells secrete glucagon, which tells the liver to take carbohydrate out of storage to raise a low blood sugar level. The -islet cells secrete insulin to tell the liver to take excess glucose out of circulation to lower a blood sugar level thats too high. If a persons body does not make enough insulin (and/or there is a reduced response of the target cells in the liver), the blood sugar rises, perhaps out of control, and we say that the person has diabetes mellitus.

the adrenal glands

These sit on top of the kidneys. They consist of two parts, the outer cortex and the inner medulla. The medulla secretes epinephrine (adrenaline) and other similar hormones in response to stressors such as fright, anger, caffeine, or low blood sugar. The cortex secretes corticosteroids such as cortisone. Corticosteroids are well-known as being anti-inflammatory, thus are prescribed for a number of conditions. However, these are powerful regulators that should be used with caution. Medicinal doses are typically higher than what your body would produce naturally, thus the persons normal feedback loops suppress natural secretion, and it is necessary to gradually taper off the dosage to trigger the adrenal glands to begin producing on their own again. Because the corticosteroids suppress the immune system, their use can lead to increased susceptibility to infections, yet physicians typically prescribe them for people whose immune systems are hard at work trying to fight off some pathogen. For example, back when I was in grad school, I was diagnosed with mono, and the campus doctor prescribed penicillin and cortisone. Since mono is a virus and penicillin only is effective against some bacteria, about all it did was kill off the friendly bacteria in my body, therefore causing me to develop a bad case of thrush. At the same time, the cortisone was supressing my immune system so my body could not as efficiently fight off the mono and the thrush. People with high blood pressure should be leery of taking prescription corticosteroids: they are known to raise blood pressure, thus can cause things like strokes. My mother-inlaw had high blood pressure and was being treated with diuretics. Her physician also had her on large doses of cortisone for her arthritis. While he was on vacation, she started having significant back pain and was referred to an orthopedic surgeon. This man decided the back pain was just due to arthritis, and without carefully checking on what dosage she was already taking, prescribed more cortisone. Simultaneously, because of difficulty walking due to her arthritis, she decided to decrease the amount of diuretics she was taking so she didnt have to make as many long trips to the other end of the house. The combination of lowered dose of diuretics and high dose of cortisone raised her blood pressure to the point where a blood vessel in her brain burst, causing a stroke. When the EMTs took her blood pressure, as I recall the systolic was way over 200 mm Hg.

the gonads or sex organs

In addition to producing gametes, the female ovaries and male testes (singular = testis) also secrete hormones. Therefore, these hormones are called sex hormones. The secretion of sex hormones by the gonads is controlled by pituitary gland hormones such as FSH and LH. While both sexes make some of each of the hormones, typically male testes secrete primarily androgens including testosterone. Female ovaries make estrogen and progesterone in varying amounts depending on where in her cycle a woman is. In a pregnant woman, the babys placenta also secretes hormones to maintain the pregnancy.

the pineal gland

This gland is located near the center of the brain in humans, and is stimulated by nerves from the eyes. In some other animals, the pineal gland is closer to the skin and directly stimulated by light (some lizards even have a third eye). The pineal gland secreted melatonin at night when i ts dark, thus secretes more in winter when the nights are longer. Melatonin promotes sleep (makes you feel sleepy). It also affects reproductive functions by depressing the activity of the gonads. Additionally, it affects thyroid and adrenal cortex functions. In some animals, melatonin affects skin pigmentation. Because melatonin production is affected by the amount of light to which a person is exposed, this is tied to circadian rhythm (having an activity cycle of about 24 hours), annual cycles, and biological clock functions. SAD or seasonal affective disorder (syndrome) is a disorder in which too much melatonin is produced, especially during the long nights of winter, causing profound depression, oversleeping, weight gain, tiredness, and sadness. Treatment consists of exposure to bright lights for several hours each day to inhibit melatonin production. It has also been found that melatonin levels drop 75% suddenly just before puberty, suggesting the involvement of melatonin in the regulation of the onset of puberty. Studies have been done on blind girls (with a form of blindness in which no impulses can travel down the optic nerve and reach the brain and pineal gland), which showed that these girls tended to have higher levels of melatonin for a longer time, resulting in a delay in the onset of puberty. While some older people, who dont make very much melatonin, thus dont sleep well, might benefit from a melatonin supplement, Im skeptical of the recent melatonin craze in this country. When so many people apparently are suffering from SAD, I question the

wisdom of purposly ingesting more melatonin, especially since the pineal gland is one of the least-studied, least-understood of the endocrine glands.

Local regulators are hormones with target cells nearby or adjacent to the endocrine gland in question. For example, neurotransmitters are secreted in the synapses of our nervous system and their target cells are in the same synapses.

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM

Introduction This most extensive organ system has the skin and accessory structures, including hair, nails,

glands (sweat and sebaceous), and specialized stimuli external nerve receptors in internal such for or as touch,

(changes

environment)

cold, heat, pain, and pressure. Its functions include protection of entry

internal structures, prevention of of disease-causing microorganisms, temperature regulation, excretion through perspiration, pigmentary

protection against ultraviolet sunrays, and production of vitamin D. The body stores about half its fat in the underlying hypodermis. Skin: epidermal layers The skin is the largest organ of the body, with a surface area of 18 square feet. Its two main layers are the epidermis (outer layer) and dermis (inner layer). The epidermis has several strata (layers) that contain four cell types. Keratinocytes produce keratin, a protein that gives skin its strength and flexibility and waterproofs the skin surface. Melanocytes produce melanin, the dark pigment that gives skin its color.

Merkel's cells are probably involved with touch reception. Langerhans' cells help the immune system by processing antigens (foreign bodies). The deepest layer of the epidermis, the stratum basale, is a single layer of cells resting on a basement membrane (layer between the dermis and epidermis). The stratum basale cells divide continuously. As new cells form, older ones are pushed toward the skin surface. The epidermis does not have a direct blood supply; all nutrients that feed these cells come from the dermis. Only the deepest cells of the stratum basale receive nourishment. The cells that are pushed away from this layer die. When the cells reach the skin surface, they are sloughed off in a process called desquamation. The next layer, the stratum spinosum, consists of spiny prickle cells that interlock to support the skin. The stratum granulosum, the thin middle layer, initiates keratinization (production of keratin). This process starts the death of epithelial cells (the cell type that makes up skin). During desquamation, keratinocytes are pushed toward the surface. These cells begin to produce the keratin that eventually will dominate their contents. When these cells reach the epidermis outer layer, they are little more than keratin-filled sacs. Millions of these dead cells are worn off daily, creating a new epidermis every 35 to 45 days. The stratum lucidum protects against sun ultraviolet-ray damage. This thick layer appears only in frequently used areas such as palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Thick skin epidermis has all five strata. Thin skin covers thinner epidermal areas such as eyelids. Thin skin has three or four of the five strata; it never has stratum lucidum. The stratum corneum, the fifth, outermost layer is thick with rows of dead cells. These cells contain soft keratin, which keeps the skin elastic and protects underlying cells from drying out.

Skin: dermal layers The dermis, called "true skin, " is the layer beneath the epidermis. Its major parts are collagen (a protein that adds strength), reticular fibers (thin protein fibers that add support), and elastic fibers (a protein that adds flexibility). The dermis has two layers: the papillary layer, which has loose connective tissue, and the reticular layer, which has dense connective tissue. These layers are so closely associated that they are difficult to differentiate. The papillary layer lies directly beneath the epidermis and connects to it via papillae (finger-like projections). Some papillae contain capillaries that nourish the epidermis; others contain Meissner's corpuscles, sensory touch receptors. A double row of papillae in finger pads produces the ridged fingerprints on fingertips. Similar patterns in the ridged fingerprints on fingertips are on palms of the hands and soles of the feet. Fingerprints and footprints keep skin from tearing and aid in gripping objects. The reticular layer of the dermis contains criss-crossing collagen fibers that form a strong elastic network. This network forms a pattern called cleavage (Langer's) lines. Surgical incisions that are made parallel to cleavage lines heal faster and with less scarring than those made perpendicular. Parallel incisions disrupt collagen fibers less and require less scar tissue (cells that aid in healing) to close up a wound. The reticular layer also contains Pacinian corpuscles, sensory receptors for deep pressure. This layer contains sweat glands, lymph vessels, smooth muscle, and hair follicles, described in the discussion on hair follicles later in this overview.

The hypodermis (subcutaneous layer) lies beneath the dermis. Loose connective tissue such as adipose tissue (fat) insulates the body, conserving heat. It also contains blood vessels, lymph vessels, and the bases of hair follicles and sweat glands. The fat distribution in this layer gives the female form its characteristic curves.

Sudoriferous (sweat) and sebaceous (oil) glands Skin produces associated structures such as sudoriferous (sweat) glands and sebaceous (oil) glands. It also produces fingernails, hair, and sensory receptors that enable humans to feel pressure, temperature, and pain. Both groups of sudoriferous glands (sweat glands) are in most of the body: eccrine glands are coiled ducts deep in the skin that connect to the surface; apocrine glands are in armpits, areolae of nipples, and the genital region. Eccrine glands secrete sweat, a mixture of 99 percent water and 1 percent salts and fats. In warm conditions with low humidity, perspiration (secretion of sweat) and evaporation cool the body.

Apocrine glands, which become active at puberty, are larger, deeper, and produce thicker secretions than eccrine glands. The apocrine glands secretions contain pheromones, substances that enable olfactory (sense of smell) communication with other members of the species. This communication provokes certain behavioral responses such as sexual arousal. Unlike eccrine glands that respond to heat, apocrine glands respond to stress and sexual activity by secreting sweat with a characteristic odor. This odor differs from body odor that results from bacteria decomposing skin secretions on the skin. Ceruminous glands are modified apocrine glands in the external ear canal lining. They secrete cerumen (earwax), a sticky substance that is thought to repel foreign material.

Mammary glands in female breasts are modified apocrine

glands. These glands are adapted to secrete milk instead of sweat. Sebaceous glands (oil glands) over the body except on the palms of and soles of feet. The glands empty ducts into the bases of hair follicles secrete sebum (a mixture of fats, waxes, and hydrocarbons). Sebum hair moist and prevents skin from drying. Sebaceous glands are keeps are all hands via and

numerous on the face and scalp. During puberty, increased sex

hormone levels in the blood may produce excessive sebum. This over secretion plugs the gland and hair follicle, producing a skin disorder called acne.

Hair and nails Hair is composed of cornified threads of cells that develop from the epidermis and cover most of the body. Each hair has a medulla, cortex, and cuticle. The medulla in the center contains soft keratin and air. The cortex, the innermost thickest layer, has the pigment that gives hair color. The cuticle, the outermost layer, has cells that overlap like scales. Both the cuticle and cortex have hard keratin. The hair root in a hair follicle is embedded beneath the skin. The hair shaft protrudes from the skin. Hair sheds and is replaced constantly during growth and rest phases. Hair has a protective function: eyebrows keep sweat from running into the eyes, nose and ear hairs filter dust from the air, and scalp hairs protect against abrasion and overexposure to sun rays.

Hair follicles extend into the dermis; the deep ends expanded parts are called hair bulbs. A papilla (connective tissue protrusion that contains capillaries) protrudes into the hair bulb and provides nutrients for the growing hair. The hair follicle walls have an inner epithelial root sheath and an outer dermal root sheath. The epithelial root sheath has an inner and an outer layer that thins as it approaches the hair bulb. It becomes the matrix, the actively growing part of the hair bulb that produces the hair. Arrector pili muscles are smooth muscle cells attached to hair follicles. When they contract, they pull the hair into an upright position, causing skin dimples (goose bumps). The nervous system regulates these muscles; cold temperatures or fright can activate them. Hair development begins in the third fetal month. By the fifth month, lanugo (thin hair) covers the fetus. At 5 months, lanugo

disappears from every area except the scalp and eyebrows where coarser hair replaces it. Vellus (a film of delicate hair) eventually covers the rest of the body. Terminal hair is the early coarse scalp and eyebrow hair and later armpit and genital hair that grow during puberty. No new hair follicles develop after birth. Like hair, nails develop from the epidermis. These hard plates of keratinized cells are at the ends of fingers and toes. Nails appear pink because their translucency reveals the vascular tissue beneath. They aid in grasping objects, scratching, and protecting fingers and toes. The components of the nail are the lunula, body, root, and free edge. The lunula is the white half-moon shaped part at the nail base. Both the body and free edge region that overhangs the end of the finger or toe are visible. The nail rests on the thick layer of epithelial skin called the nail bed. The root is hidden under skin folds. Under the root lies

the matrix (thick layer of skin). Eponychium (thin layer of epithelium) covers the nail during development; in the adult, it remains at the nail base only and is called the cuticle. The hyponychium is the epithelium of the nail bed. Skin color Skin color results from the presence of melanin, carotene (yellow to orange pigment), and underlying blood reflected through skin. Melanin keeps excessive ultraviolet rays from burning the skin. Exposure to sunlight causes the skin to produce more melanin, causing suntan, a temporary change in skin color. Melanin-rich cells continually move toward the surface, where they are sloughed. Too much sun is dangerous to skin; it increases the risk of cancer by affecting the genetic material of cells. Variety of skin color is caused mainly by the number and distribution of melanocytes. Darker skin has more melanin that is produced by more melanocytes. However, the different skin colors among individuals and races do not reflect different numbers of melanocytes; instead, they show different kinds and amounts of melanin production by melanocytes. Oriental skin has a greater amount of carotene in the stratum corneum, producing a yellowish tinge. Albinism is a condition where skin does not produce melanin.