MODULE VIII

LEADERSHIP: THEORY AND PRACTICE RATIONALE: Leadership is the process by which one individual in luences others to accomplish desired goals. It is one of the traits that most desirable for people to have. Within the organization, the leadership process takes the form of a manger who in luences subordinates to accomplish the goals defined by top management. The essence of leadership is followership. In the other words, it is the willingness of people to follow that makes a person a leader. Moreover, people tend to follow those whom they see as providing a means of achieving their own desires, wants and needs. Leadership indeed is essential not to everyday lives but especially when called for in complicated and critical situations in our nursing profession. Thus, the study of Leadership on Nursing is a major concern of nurses for them to be able to select and adapt the most suitable approach in dealing with different situations. As a role model, the nursing leaders can reduce the autocratic atmosphere and, hence, some of the role conflicts. KEY TERMS: Contingency the uncertainty of an events occurrence. Organizational power those forms of power within the organizational structure that are used by managers. Theories of Leadership the various approaches that have been taken to systematically investigate and understand leadership over the years. LEARNING CELL: Leadership defined - Stogdill defines leadership as the process of influencing the activities of an organize group in its effort toward goal setting and goal achievement. - Gardner defines leadership as the process of persuasion and example by which an individual ( one leadership team) induces a group to take action that is in accord with the leaders purposes or the shared purposes of all. - Merton described leadership as social transaction in which one person in luences others. He stated that persons in authority do not necessarily exert leadership. Rather, effective people in authoritative positions combine authority and leadership to assist an organization to achieve its goals. Merton described effective leadership as satisfying four primary conditions: A person receiving a communication understands it. This person has the resources to do what is being asked in the communication. This person believes the behavior being asked in consistent with personal interest and values. This person believes it is consistent with the purpose and values of the organization. Talbott said leadership is the vital ingredient that transforms a crowd into a functioning, useful organization. According to McGregor there are at least four major variables now known to be involved in leadership:

1. The characteristics of the leader 2. The attitudes, needs, and other personal characteristics of the followers. 3. The characteristics of the organizational such as its purpose, its structure, the nature of the task to be performed. 4. The social, economic, and political milieu. McGregor said that leadership is a highly complex relationship that changes with the times, such changes being brought about by management, unions, or outside forces. In all of the above definitions, leadership is viewed as a dynamic, interactive process that involves three dimensions the leader, the followers, and the situation. Each of the dimensions influences the others. For instance, the accomplishment of goals defends not only on the personal attribute of the leader but also on follower needs and the type of situation. Leadership Theories Theories of leadership are numerous. The various theoretical approaches to leadership represent attempts to understand its nature in a comprehensive manner. Familiarize yourselves with these theories and select the most suitable approach in dealing with a certain situation. 1. Trait Theory Early work in this area maintained that traits are inherited to become a good leader but later theories suggested that traits could be obtained through learning and experience. Researchers have identified some common leadership traits that a good leader must possessed as follows: a. Leaders need to be more intelligent than the group they lead b. Leaders must possess initiative, the ability to perceive and start courses of action not considered by others. c. Creativity is an asset. Having originality the ability to think of new solutions to problems and ideas of new ways to be productive is helpful. d. Emotional maturity with integrity a sense of purpose and direction, persistence dependability, and objectivity is another important trait. Mature leaders do what they say they will and are consistent in their actions. e. Communication skills are important. The leader needs to understand others and speak and write clearly. f. Persuasion often is used by leaders to gain the consent of followers. g. Leaders need to be perceptive enough to distinguish their allies from their opponents and to place their subordinates in suitable positions. h. Leaders participate in social activities. They can socialize with all kind of people and adapt to various groups. 2. Great Man Theory This theory agrees that a few people are born with the necessary characteristics to be great. Leaders are well-rounded and simultaneously display both instrumental and supportive leadership behavior. Instrumental activities include planning, organizing, and controlling the activities of subordinates to accomplish the organizations goals. Supportive leadership is socially oriented and allows for participation and consultation from subordinates for decisions that affect them. People who use both instrumental and supportive leadership behaviors are considered great man

Many ind this theory unattractive because of its premise that leaders are born and not made, which suggest that leadership cannot be developed. 3. Charismatic Theory People may be leaders because they are charismatic, but relatively little is known about this intangible characteristic. The charismatic leader is someone who can inspire people to be loyal, obedient, and committed to a vision or a cause. He has strong personal convictions, possesses selfconfidence and a need for power. He perceive himself as having supernatural purpose and destiny and that followers may idolize and worship them as spiritual figures or super humans. 4. Situational or Contingency Theory The theory suggest that the traits required of a leader differ according to varying situations. A person may be a leader in one situation and a follower in another, because the type of leadership needed depends on the situation. Among the variables that determine the effectiveness of leadership style are factors such as the personality of the leader, nature of the job itself; nature of the organization; and worker characteristics. Fiedlers Contingency Model Refuting the ideal leadership style theory, he argued that a leadership style will be effective or ineffective, dependent on the situation. He identified three aspects of a situation that structure the leaders role: a. Leader member relations this involves the amount of confidence and loyalty the followers have in their leader. b. Task structure task structure is high if it is easy to define and measure a task and it is low if it is difficult to define the task and to measure progress toward its completion. 5. Path Goal Theory Robert J. house derived the path goal theory from the expectancy theory which agrees that people act as they do because they expect their behavior to produce satisfactory results. In this theory, the leader facilities task accomplishment by minimizing obstructions to the goals and by rewarding followers for completing their tasks. The path goal theory, maintains that a worker will be: a. She believes that the job can be accomplished (expectancy) b. The rewards offered are for the desired task accomplishment (instrumentality) c. The rewards are meaningful to the individual (valence) 6. Life Cycle Theory Blanchard and Hershey pursue a situational approach to leadership. This theory predicts the most appropriate and most applicable leadership style based on the level of maturity of the consultants. Maturity refers to the level of security and competence the individual feels about the task to be completed. The leader assesses the capacity of the followers to complete the task assigned and provides the leadership behavior that would best meet the needs of the followers in a given situation. Kinds of Leaders: There may be two different kinds of leadership in any organization and these are: 1. Formal Leader

Formal leader is someone officially invested with organizational authority and power and generally given the appropriate title. The amount of power is theoretically determined by the position occupied within the organization. Organizational promotion policies are designated to ensure that people with the necessary technical and leadership skills occupy the positions of power. 2. Informal Leader Informal leader does not have the official leadership title but will direct the activities of others. This individual, without formal authority, assignment of power, position, or even responsibility, may by virtue of a personal attribute or superior performance influence others and exercise leadership function. Leadership Styles: Leadership styles can be identified as sets or clusters of behaviors. Thus, for nurse managers, leadership style is the manner in which they use interpersonal behaviors to influence the accomplishment of goals for the unit. However, the nurse manager uses various leadership styles depending on the situation. The following are the different styles of leadership: 1. Authoritarian or Autocratic leadership style This leadership style represents a directive style of supervision characterized by designated persons, or groups having the power to rule and command others or their subordinates on them. Authoritarian leaders are the type who make decisions by themselves. They tend to be more concerned with task accomplishment than concern for people. This approach holds little room for recognition of the individual as a person with worth and dignity. Tasks are assigned and the work is to be done to perfection without any mistake or questions. Autocratic leadership tends to promote hostility, aggression, feelings of tension, lack of trust, and loss of initiative. 2. Democratic or Participate Leadership Style This leadership style allows governance through group participation in decision making and actualization of purpose. The leader is described as people oriented, focusing on human relations, teamwork and the building of an effective work group. Through this leadership style, each individual is being developed to become a fully functional person. Personal satisfaction is in itself a reward. In this participative format, the individual has equal rights and opportunities to become the leader leading to job satisfaction and productivity. 3. Laissez faire or Permissive Leadership Style This laissez faire approach is describe as open and permissive, prevalent with individualistic feelings and a minimum of group functioning. There is deliberate lack of directional control. Leaders are loose, permissive and abstain from leading their subordinates, giving up their responsibilities. The leader wants everyone to feel good, fosters freedom for everyone, and avoids responsibility by relinquishing power to the staff. The obvious danger in this style of leadership is the loss of sense of group unity, which may result in low productivity and litter satisfaction frustration. Leadership and Power Power as defined by Gardner, is the capacity to ensure the outcomes one wishes and to prevent those one does not wish. Power and authority are closely related. Power is ones

capacity to influence, whereas authority is the right to direct others. The successful leader effectively uses power to influence others, and it is important for the leader to understand functioning. 1. 2. French and Raven suggested the different interpersonal sources of power: Legitimate power this power is inherent within the organizational structure itself. It is a persons ability to influence because of that persons position. For example, the chief nurse has more legitimate power than the supervisor. Reward power this power is based on the ability of the manager to reward others for complying. Sources of reward power include money, desired assignments, or acknowledgement of accomplishments. For example, a head nurse who can reward staff nurses with requested time off. Coercive Power this power is the opposite of reward power and is based on fear of punishment if one falls to conform. Sources of coercive power are undesired assignments embarrassment in front of others, withheld pay increase, and termination. For example, the supervisor might give a staff nurse a difficult assignment in the area because of frequent tardiness. Referent Power this power is based on admiration and respect for an individual as a person, it is often called personal charisma. The leader is admired and exerts influence because the followers desire to be like the leader. Expert power this power is derived from a persons expertise that is highly valued. People gain expert power through knowledge, skills, and information. For example, a staff nurse with years of experience in the NICU will be an expert in neonatal care. Informal sources of power- these are related to ones personal power rather than position power. Some people have situational power because they happen to be in the right place at the right time. Others have personal power because of their unique characteristics.

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TEN (10) TIPS FOR SUCCESS AS A NURSE MANAGER: by Laurie Badzec These practical, easy-to-do strategies can help improve your skills at supervising others. Whether youre a director of nursing, department supervisor, charge nurse, or a staff nurse who supervises aides, techs, or support staff, managing or supervising other staff members is probably a part of complex task. But being proactive and objective can simply many seemingly insurmountable employee situations. Regardless of your position, level of experience, or years on the job, these 10 tips can add some new management skills to your repertoire and put a new twist on those youve used successfully. And they help build your self- confidence and satisfaction as a manager, enhancing your overall success. 1. Take an active, not reactive, approach Part of being a successful manager means being proactive and looking ahead for creative ways to avoid problems before they occur. By anticipating a potentially volatile situation, you can take these steps to influence the outcome rather than letting things happen that youll need to resolve later. Lets say two of the nurses on your staff are known to have difficulty working together. When you create the staff assignments, schedule the nurse to work different shifts whenever possible. In this way, youll avoid conflict before it happens.

2. Hold employees accountable for their actions All employees should be held accountable for their own work performance (including managers). Make sure all staff members know their job description. 3. Document, document, document! Documentation is the cornerstone of nursing care, and its important part of the management too. Keep careful notes of your employees behavior and performance, documenting both negative and positive events situations that may lead to disciplinary action, as well as those deserving commendation. Youll then be able to use this continuous record to develop ways to capitalize on your employees strengths in the workplace and improve on their weaknesses before the next evaluation process. Documentation may also protect you from liability if an employee lies a lawsuit for wrongful or retaliatory discharge. You cant stop an employee from illing a claim, but your documentation may be the only proof you have that her termination was valid. When you document a negative occurrence, ask the employee to sign your documentation, particularly if a corrective action plan was agreed on. In this way, shell formally acknowledge both the problem and any follow-up action. It also reinforces her accountability for her own actions and influence on the anticipated outcomes. As with other kinds of documentation, notations you make in an employees record should be clear, complete, and accurate. Jotting notes on scraps of paper, message pad is a poor method of recalling important facts and situations. While daily documentation is ideal. It isnt a realistic goals. So make appoint of recording pertinent facts related to employee situations at frequent, consistent intervals. 4. Keep Confidential information confidential As a manager, you must act responsibly with privileged information you receive as a result of your position. Failing to keep employee issues confidential can put you at legal and ethical risk. For example, discussing an employees performance with someone who works outside of your department, without having gotten the employees permission to do so, may be a breach of the employees confidentially. If an employee indicates shes going to share information with you- and due to its nature, you know youll be required to report it- inform her of this at the beginning of the conversation, not at the end. Such situations might include instances of sexual harassment or reportable incidents. If you must consult another member of the management team about something an employee reported to you, remind that person that the information is confidential. In fact, if youre concerned about repeating any information an employee has shared with you, request the employees permission to discuss it beforehand. This may be orally or in writing. 5. Seek support from many sources Being a successful manager includes using all the resources available to you. if youre not sure how to handle a problem involving an employee, try discussing the issue with colleagues who are experiences managers. as them if theyve had similar encounters with employees and how to handled their particular situation. Generally,

other nurse managers will be supportive when you ask for their advice or opinions. You might also enroll in a conference or workshop or read a book in honoring your management skills. There may be situations in which you need to involve your supervisors or the state board of nursing, such as patient safety violations or suspecting a nurse of substance abuse at work. The charge nurse, nurse administrator, or nurse educator may be helpful in providing another perspective and acting as a witness to conversations you have with such an employee. In some cases, a human resources director may also be available to give guidance in difficult situations when employment laws are at issue, such as situations involving grievances, unions or disabled or elderly employees who are protected by federal statutes. 6. Treat staff members as youd want to be treated Make a conscious effort to treat all members of you staff with respect, talking to them openly and collegially. Maintain a pleasant professional demeanor during your interactions with them. Remember, your employees are often unaware of the behindthe-scenes problems youre facing as a manager and what other factors may be consuming your time and energy. Make time in your schedule for staff members to talk about their ideas and concerns. Keeping your doctor open is a sign that youre available to your staff and interested in their needs. Whenever appropriate, ask staff members to share their ideas to help you solve problems, such as ways to provide adequate coverage when the communications with your employees. This will build their faith in your management abilities and a gender their trust in you. Give employees the opportunity to tell their side of the story. Often, its only after a staff member has had the chance to articulate a problem or event from her perspective that youll be able to interpret information youve gotten from another employee. 7. Maintain a balance between being a manager and being a friend. Everyone wants to be like, and you may prefer that your staff members consider you as a friend as well as a manager. In fact, when you work at the same level as your employees before assuming your current position you may established friendship with some of them. But being friend with people you supervise may cause you to lose the objectivity you need to be an effective leader. And it may deprive your employees of having the impartial and competent manager they deserve. To reinforce the professional component of your relationship, you need to promote your staff members sense of pride and accomplishment in their work, both individually and as a group. Whenever possible, compliment them on their good work. You might also consider setting aside time during staff meetings to share positive comments made about the staff on patient satisfaction surveys, in noted from administrators, and cards sent by discharged patients sent by their families. Make a point of encouraging your employees to work together as a team, especially if youre short staffed. This will make them prioritize their work and enable them to provide quality patient care. 8. Let equal treatment, not favoritism, be your guide Be consistent and fair in your treatment of your employees. Being consistent

doesnt mean you have to be inflexible or intimidating. But making exceptions for one employee and not another will be viewed as favoritism by those who feel their needs arent being met. Document negative occurrences and implement disciplinary measures involving all members of your staff, not just the problem ones. Lets say an employee you admire frequently calls in sick and arrives late to work. Following protocol, you meet with her, reiterate the policy on lateness and absenteeism, explain what behavior you expect from her and agree the she met with the human resources director to discuss how she can change her behavior. If the employee fails to adhere to this plan and continues deviating from policy, follow through on the consequences- just as you wouldnt if it were any other employee. 9. Make staff members aware of policies and revise them as needed As a manager, youre responsible for informing employees about institutional policies and procedures. Become familiar with administrative policies and refer you staff to guidelines or manuals relating to such issues as attendance, tardiness, vacation leave, short and long term disability, family medical leave, disciplinary and grievance procedures and terminations. Remember, policies should always reflect a reasonable standard and should be able to be followed. Its important for nurse at all levels to be involved in policy develop development and change; in fact, in some states, the nursing standard of care requires you to participate in developing and reviewing policies related to nursing practice. If a policy is outdated or unworkable, review and revise it appropriately. If youre unsure of the requirements in your state, contact your state board of nursing. 10. Turn negative events into positive learning experiences No matter how conscientious or talented your employees are, errors and bad judgment calls are bound to happen. As a manager; you can help turn around negative events to produce positive outcomes. Suppose one of your staff members involved in a medication error. At the staff meeting, present the situation to the entire staff for discussion. In this way, the group can review that went wrong and learn something that may help to avoid such errors in the future. You might, also establish a signal that alerts the staff member about an adverse situation as its happening. For example, one o the nurse on your unit has a habit of speaking loudly when shes excited that it disturbs the patients. Rather than chastice he while its happening and risk embarrassing her in public the two of you may agree beforehand that youll say Code 555 as a signal for her to stop what shes doing and reflect on whats taking place before continuing. Being a manager can be one of the most challenging aspects of your job. But by following these 10 tips, you can help make it one of the most rewarding aspects too.

AFTERWORD ON LEADERSHIP Leadership theory has progressed from the genetic belief that leaders are born, not made to maintain the opposite. Leaders are made, not born is an expression indicating that observations represent guidance for everyone who aspires to a leadership position. 1. As the eighteenth century English Poet Alexander Pope (1688-1744) put it in a

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famous poem Know then thyself, know your strengths and weaknesses, and try to know those of others. Know the limits of your skills, abilities, and interests, but do not be intimidated by them. Seek to expand yourself by constant challenge. Seek to grow Learn from past experience both the successes and the failures. Analyze why you succeeded or failed. Try to learn from past experience of others. Read widely in the popular business press concerning the past and the current success and failure of business leaders. Try to understand why they succeed or fail. Use the part-your own and that of others. Find a mentor. This will usually be a senator colleague who is willing to share past experience and provide current guidance. Use this person as a sounding board to try out new leadership ideas. Welcome their criticism-even if they think your ideas are crazy, its better to hear this from a mentor or friend than from your boss! Maximize your managerial skills. If you dont have a needed skill, acquire it. Take advantage of formal and informal educational opportunities. Learning and the growth it stimulates are lifelong events. As the Talmud, the ancient Jewish book of wisdom, law, and lore relates, Who is wise? The person who learns from all others. Be open to learning from all you meet. Do not assume that your subordinates have nothing to teach you about effective leadership. Good and effective leadership if found at all levels within an organizational, and if your find someone at whatever level who is such as leader, learn from them!

Learning Exercise List additional characteristics you believe an effective leader must possess. Which leadership characteristics do you have? Do you believe you were born with leadership skills, or have you consciously developed them? If so, how did you develop them? POST TEST: Test I. Match the base of power listed in column B with the description in column A by placing the correct letter in the space provided. Column A 1. Ms. Santos, the head nurse in the OB ward, was well like by all staff. They listened and often agreed with her suggestions. 2. Mrs. Cruz, the chief nurse of the hospital, blocked promotion of the staff nurses because they violated the rules and policies of the institution. 3. The Director of Nursing has a right to serve budget goals. 4. The head nurse intimidated the new clinical nurse manager because she was more familiar with the unit procedures. 5. The nurse supervisor gave staff nurses choice assignments when their quality assurance ratings improved significantly. Column B A. Coercive power B. Expert power C. Information power D. Legitimate power

E. Referent power F. Reward power

Test II. Match the leadership theory listed in Column B with the description in Column A by planning the correct letter in the space provided. Column A _____ 1. This theory argues that a few people are born with the necessary characteristics to be great. _____2. The leader of this theory is someone who can inspire people to be loyal, obedient and committed to a vision or cause. _____3. These theories suggest that the traits required o a leaders differ according to varying situations. _____4. Early work in this area maintained that traits are inherited to become a leader. _____5. In this theory, the leader facilitates task accomplishment by minimizing obstructions to the goals and by rewarding followers for completing their tasks. Column B a. Charismatic Theory b. Contingency Theory c. Great Man Theory d. Life cycle theory e. Path-goal Theory f. Trait Theory Test III. Place a check by each of the following statements that is True. Rewrite each false statement with changes that make the statement true one. _____1.Perceptions of leaders by the followers are not relative to their power. _____2.A strong structural assignment gives more power to the leader. _____3.People should all be made as independent as possible. _____4.People should all be made as dependent as possible. _____5.A leader should tell people the standards expected of them and should help them improve. _____6.When the leader has great influence over group members, a relationship-oriented style works best. _____7.In theory X organizations, the leadership style is an autocratic one that includes decisions only by top management. _____8.Coercive power improves productivity. _____9.Managers emphasize control, decision making and results. _____10.Managers who are leaders create employee commitment.