UNIVERSITY

THE

OF

INTEKESTS,

155j
AGRICULTURAL, MANUFACTURING,

COMMERCIAL.

BY

HENEY
AUTHOR OP
"

C.
ETC.
ETC.

CAEEY,
"

PRINCIPLES

OF

POLITICAL

ECONOHT,"

THE

FAST, PRESENT,

AKT)

PVTUBE,"

" Mr. us with writer of America,has supplied ample Caret, the well-known statistical his remarkable recommend can materials for conductingsuch an inquiry safely ; and we of the progress and decline of industrial the causes work to all who wish to investigate Slachvood'e communities." JtTqgracwie.
"

PHILADELPHIA: J.
OFFICE OF

S.

SKINNEE,
THE

79 WALNUT
THE
ST

STKEET.
AND
CO.

PLOCOH,
STEREOTYPED

LOOM,
ADS

THE

AKYIl.

L. JOHNSON"

THE
AGRICULTURAL,
AT THE

PROSPECT:
MANUFACTURING,
AND FINANCIAL:
OF THE YEAR 1851.

CIAL, COMMER-

OPENING

HENRY
"

C. CAEEY.
: Philadelphia St.,

79 Walnut Published and for sale by J. S. SKINNER, 8vo. Price 25 cents.

By

the

same

Author.

PRINCIPLES

OF

POLITICAL

ECONOMY.
In three 8vo. volumes,

THE

PAST,
THE

THE

PRESENT,
FUTURE.
vol. 8vo.
Economist.

AND

In
"Full
"

one

of valuable information. " book

"

""r"

take an interest in the progress Atkenxum. of social science." " It sheds of the most difficult, a flood of light most upon some perplexing theorems of the economical science ; establishes, as we some conceive,
to

a Decidedly

be read

by all who

general

and withal invests the subject of the highest with an interest value, principles have studied to be imaginedby those who and attraction scarcely onlythe and other economists." hard elaborations of Ricardo, MoCulloch, Mill, mercial Com"

Advertiser, volume of extensive

of material

moreover,
"

We know few books more entertaining' Present and the Future.' A young lady mightread it i that she was without suspicion indoctrinated in any thine becoming and would probably be greatly enoughto be called scientific, surprised to dis of political than that she knew more is to be found in the cover economy than
'

It need not be dry because it is methodical. The the Past,

information, deepthought, highintelligence and London utility." Morning Advertiser. that a work of economical instruction supposed is necessarily
"

seriou'l

ji

arm.

chair of most

American professors."
"

Whig Review.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS,

AGRICULTURAL,

MANUFACTURING,

COMMERCIAL.

BY

HENRY
AUTHOR
OF

CsrtARBT,
ECONOMY," "THE
ETC. ETC.

"PRINCIPLES

OP

POLITICAL

PAST, PRESENT,

AND

FUTURE,"

" Mr. Carey, the well-known statisticalwriter of America, has suppliedus with ample materials for conducting such an inquiry recommend his remarkable can safely ; and we work the causes of the progress and decline of industrial to all who wish to investigate communities." Blackwood's Magazine.
"

PHILADELPHIA:

J. S.
OFFICE OF

SKINNEK,
THE

79 WALNUT
THE
BY L.

STREET.
AND
00.

PLOUGH,
STEREOTYPED

LOOM,
JOHNSON AND

THE

ANVIL.

1851.
t",\"f

"UNIVERSITY

LIBRARY^

THE

HAKMONY

OF

INTERESTS:

AGKICULTUKAL,

MANUFACTUKING,

AND

COMMEKC1AL.

Why carried that their the of

on

is

protection
without the should

needed? intervention be the needed side

Why
to

cannot

trade

with

of oustom-house enable the

officers ? loom and and the and

foreign Why
the ?

nations

be

is it that
to

intervention natural

anvil

take
are

places by
now

of

the

plough
my of

harrow
to

Such

questions which
which Of the could I

have my of

long occupied
readers.

mind,

the

consideration

invite

advantage
be
no

perfect
The

freedom benefit
was

trade, theoretically considered,

from such freedom in the
to all ; and

there

doubt. several

derived

intercourse
seem

of the the
same

States,
so

obvious
as

it would
commerce

certainly
with the with The and of

that

system

extended of the

to

include
not
so

the

various similar low

states

and

kingdoms
Nevertheless,
articles
a

world

could

fail to be

attended

results.
on

duties had

most

of of

attempt at every merchandise in the

doing had failed. 1816 period between

the establishment
to

1827,
the

produced
of trade

state

things
of

which 1828.
a

induced The

first

really protective
in moderate
measure,

tariff,that
led
were

feet freedom but

more

1840, produced
to

approach revolution, political

almost
a

per-'

and

similar
were

the

revolution

curious It may direction further direction

facts, and
be assumed be in be
a

such
as

as an

deserving
results
so

of last year. of careful examination.

These

universal with

truth, that every

beneficial that
as

step made
to

in the the the way

right
for wrong
a

will

attended the
same

steps
will for

direction, and
with
movement.

attended

one every results disadvantageous

pave made in

tending

to

produce

necessity
was a near

retrograde
to

The

compromise

bill,in its final stages,

20 of the enthusiastic

per advocates

cent.

approach Believing
of with

perfect freedom
a

of trade,the

highest duty being only

one soon

it to be

step in the of trade

should the end

right direction,
proposed,
a

perfect freedom
1842,
there
at

after

commencing
per
annum

be

further

reduction, all

its passage, of one per

that,
cent,

for twenty would have bill

as

stages

of that

extraordinary

to

houses necessityfor customthe gradual operation of the earlier disappeared. With there of depression so however, produced a state was, lead to a political before change reaching its final stages

years,

of which

time

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of 20 per cent, before they the point tariffof 1842. the raised to 30, 50, 60, or more, by were passage of the restored to power, trade of free were With the election of 1844, the friends the free-trade tariff of 1846 the and two years afterwards was passed fixed articles to be protected was on the revenue in which and the duties had touched scarcely
"

measure

duty Instead of passing movement. retrograde thus furnished an and was from twenty downwards, we went up to thirty, with nations trade free as was to foreign admission that so near an approach Since had in answered duties not practice. to be found in twenty per cent, free-trade the decided advocates, most by then, it has been admitted,even too low, and within that on certain commodities even thirty per cent, was
"

at

thirty per

cent.

Here

was

from the dale of the passage of the act of 1846, its author prosix months posed and forty of articles to thirty-five to increase a variety per cent.* admitted that there are It is now another retrograde movement. Here was and daily to be raised, other articlesthe duties on which require experience abandon of the the that such be must or we some must to case, prove goes The tendency branches of industry. is, therefore, most altogether important freedom backward. as almost perfect regarded Thirty per cent, duty is now each year proreduction, a further annual proposing duces considerable all increase. In it is for this, a disposition stronger that there is great error somewhere, and almost to avoid seeing impossible to avoid feeling a desire to understand why it is that the equally impossible have towards freedom of with trade nations so frequently foreign approaches than that tariff is higher and why it is that every strictly revenue failed, which preceded it. made the I have recently With a view to satisfy in regard thereto, myself commercial before referred to, of our examination, policy during the last twenty-eight years, commencing with 1821, beingthe earliest in relation to have been published.Before commencing to lay which detailed statements and instead of of trade,
a

it may be well to say a few words as to the before you the results obtained, for their respective merits claimed by the two parties systems. is " a war The one party insiststhat protection upon labour and capital," the application of both to pursuits that would otherand that by compelling wise the amount of necessaries, and conveniences be unproductive, comforts, The other insists that by of lifeobtainable by the labourer is diminished. labourer from w ith the ill-fedand worse-clothed the competition protecting of Europe, the reward of labour will be increased. Each has thus workmen both
to furnish facts to prove its truth, and themselves short o f to can so at limiting periods time,taking times years of small crops, and at others those of large some ones, and thus after truth is embarrassed.! No one it is that the inquirer has yet, to my undertaken all examine the facts ever to knowledge, during any longperiod

his

and theory, do

each

is accustomed

while

of time,with a view to show what have been, under the various systems, the necessaries and comforts of life. the powers of the labourer to command the other of is and that is true under which One or labour is true, systems rewarded that under which the labourer isenabled to consume : most largely of food, and all other of those goodthings fuel, for the clothing, largely of which attainment men are to labour. If, then, we can ascertain willing the power of consumption and the result be to show that at various periods, increased under one it has invariably of action, and as invariably course diminished under another, it will be equivalent to a demonstration of the
most
*

Feb. 1, 1847. TreasuryReport, A person employed in the preparation of

to
"

asked

other,

prepare some could you prove

what tables,

was "

to

statistics inquired, on government being be the policyto be proved. " Why," said the he.

both sides ?"

said Equallywell,"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

truth of the been the

one

and the

the falsehood in inquiry

of the other.

To

has accomplishthis,

of object

which

It is necessary now what to show of the several systems that have been examined. First. The and
coarse

I have recently been engaged. have beenHhe features distinguishing in

to operation duringthe period

be

They
cotton

are

as

follows :
was a

"

tariffof 1816 cloths were

and farmers' measure. planters' Iron itselfwas protected. carefully

Cotton

but Wool

almost

of which
cent.

all manufactures of iron,the commodities bar admitted at 20 per iron could be used, were or pig Blankets woollen 15 and and stuff cent. paid paid15 goods per

well tected, profor the production

they paid per cent., and finer goods 25 per cent., until 1819, after which but 20 per cent. Spirits paida heavy specific duty,for the benefit of the farmers ; but paper, hats, of leather, factured caps, manufactures types,and manuarticlesgenerally, from 20 to30 percent. Coal paid5 cents paid only commodities in the but the manufacture of which coal was to be per bushel, duties. Protection was thus given to the coarse used paid ad valorem commodities of which Second. Wool
cent.

that least
coarser were ones

and it, required

were

refused As

to
a

those for the

production
its protective

the

to

be used.

matter

of course,

features That but manufactures

cent.
was

inoperative. totally protected,

at 25 per by successive stages, per cent., to increase, Coarse woollens were fixed permanently at

well of 1824, under which iron was, as before, and of metals generally, admitted of iron, were raised to 20 30 per cent.
ones were

until it reached
25

per

Finer

cent.

and

Carpets paid from 20 to butter 5 cents per pound.

and potatoes, were paid 30 per cent. carefully Spirits 15 per 15 cent. Sail-duck, "c, paid Osnaburgs, Boltingcloths protected. per of 30 cents per Cotton cloths paid 25 per cent., with a minimum cent. from those features of this law did not vary materially The general increased. of that of 1816, although was protection slightly first tariff thoroughly and so intended to be, was Third. The protective, It continued until 1832, when that of 1828. was passedthe first of two

per bushel ; while of wheat the raising

rise gradually until they reached 33j per 50 cents per square yard. Hams paid 3, Potatoes 10, oats 10, and wheat 25 cents for and other thingsrequisite shovels, scythes, spades,
to

yard.

laws

by

which

the whole

of policy

the country was

changed.
was

This

series free of
were

constitutes stage the Fourth. By the act of

July 14, 1832, railroad

iron

admitted

30 per cent. "c, as before, duty. Axes, spades, of the commodities but a large portion protected, carefully thus admitted without duty, at the same needed were or were
our

Bar and

pig
rate

iron

for which
as

they
under 10 per 10 per

present free-trade tariff. Tea and coffee

Wool Cotton
was

were

free.

Silks

paid
at

cent. cent.

but worsted stuff goodswere protected, 25 paid goods per cent., with minimums in force until the and duty,

admitted of 30 cents

for

plain,
when

and 35 for
was

prints. This continued

admitted

March, following
of the
excess

the passed

Compromise Act, under which

free of

and stuff goods, silks, linens, one-tenth

over

other articles were 20 per cent, 1833, with one-half

from all other commodities, to take effect December, further similar reduction every two years until 1841, when a of the remainingsurplus to be reduced, and the other half in was reduced
no

exceed 20 per cent. tariffof Fifth. The protective 1842, which was followed by in existence. Sixth. The free trade tariffof 1846, now We have thus had six different systems, but the firstand second that it is unnecessary to separatethe years from each other so little under

1842, when

duty would

differ

falling

them, whereas the early years of the

differ so essentially Compromise

6
from

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

the two latterthat it is expedient to separatethem. the follows results as : group First. The tariffs of 1816 and 1824, endingwith 1829.
"

I shall therefore

Second. with the

That

of

1828, commencing with October, 1829, and

which the

at period

Compromisebegan to

become

ending tober, Ocoperative,

1834. Third. The Fourth. and

commencingwith 1835 and endingwith 1841. Compromise, and 1843, the period 1842 preceding immediately years the of the of that the of nue reveact 1842, strictly following passage being
The

tariff of 20 per cent. tariff of 1842, commencing June, 1843, and endingJune, 1847. Sixth. That of 1846, commencing June, 1847, and coming down to the Fifth. The

presenttime.
the year 1829 in the firstperiod, It will be observed that I have placed and 1834 in the second. It is not the passage of an act that produces but its practical and the firstyear of the existence of a operation, change,
new

is passing When of that which out. system is but the sequel tection promills and furnaces are not is givento the makers of cloth and iron,

built in a day,nor are theyabandoned is withdrawn. as soon as protection Had it been possible, I would have pursuedthe same precise system with it The but of 1842 into the was not. act came on operation every period, firstof up the of that September accounts Treasury year, and in the
was one following

the time for therefore

that followed first ten months be included under the previous That of did into 1846 effect until December not come 1, period. and therefore but the first months that followed could be included in seven the system of 1842. The law of 1842 was in existence four years and a could it but I foui which works materially to its give only quarter, years, and disadvantage, In
cases

changed its going into effect could

to

June

30, and

making onlythe

of 1846. would be required some more a year to make exact an the of of the different The of working comparison immigration systems.
to
even

the

of that advantage than

I might say determined,by the influenced, perhaps year is materially of the labour-market of the previous year, and the change in that is at least a year subsequent to the passage of a law. Thus, if the tariffof 1842 tended to raise the compensation of the labourer, its effects would not become obvious until 1843, and it would not be until 1844 or even 1845, that
one

state

would take place. The immigration price of labour was have a large of immigration amount in 1849. It of next year will probably be reduced. immigration So likewise is it with the supplyof grain. A diminution in the demand for labour in mines and furnaces in 1842 tended to increase emigration to tho West. For the firstyear, 1843, those emigrants were consumers only. In the second,1844, theyhad grain and prices to sell, fell. In the present
an

increase

of

high in 1847-8, and we is now and the falling,

for labour in mines and furnaces, and in the erection of year, the demand mills and furnaces, is diminished, and emigration to the West is increased, of food may not, and probably yet the effect of this on the supplyand price will not become obvious until 1852. Your to have overlooked this predecessor for appears entirely necessity time to permitnew and to affect allowing systems to develope themselves, the movements of the people. In his last report to Congressis given a view of the receipts from customs in the last six months of the comparative tariffof 1842, and the first six of that of 1846, by which itis shown that the twice as productive the other,and yet one was as reflection very slight would have sufficed to satisfy him that scarcely of the difference any portion

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

had

resulted from the

changeof

commercial

indicated by the adoption policy

of his tariff. The

on

importedand paidfor was dependent the state of affairsthat had existed in the country during the previous year, and the passage of the law had scarcely influence upon the even slightest it. In the same from customs from September,1842, to way, the receipts
amount

that could he

November,
well known

1846,

are

compared

with the in

that in 1842, under

even

it is had fallen so Compromise, the imports send

a

those of 1847

and

1848, when

low that the government was effect a loan for its support has

compelled to
erroneous now

time of views

to Europe to endeavour profoundpeace. If a cause

to

righton

its side, such

In the tables that I shall

as as a uniform possible, nearly the time at which the system might fairly be deemed the one to wit : at the close of the fiscalyear following

be required cannot to be presented. offer for consideration, I have pursued, commencing each period at course,
to

become

operative,
the law
was

in which

enacted. There

If error, then, exist at the commencement of the period, it will find its compensation and thus justice will be done to all. at the close, stillremain
two

in other points

regardto

these tables, to which

have to ask your attention. First. It is usual in almost

all tables of

import and export to

exclude

specieand bullion.

is wrong, and tends to produce error, and to prevent of the working of the system that may be under a proper understanding consideration. Gold and silver are commodities produced abroad,of which the surplus occasionally large exporting quantities, ; and there whatever should be treated no reason not as are why they precisely and other foreign commodities. When ported coffee, wines, brandy, theyare imin for a nd of merchandise the our sum exchange products, theycome and specieimportedis the value of our exports. When exported, they go
we consume

This

is

in lieu of

our

and should products, them from By deducting

be treated

as

the value of the merchandise

merchandise exported. reforeign imported

we

obtain the value of our domestic exports. Second. It is usual to affix to the commodities exportedarbitrary prices, value. These prices fixed at the ports and thus to obtain their money are

of
to

shipment,and representonlywhat
not what sell,
we

we

ask for the commodities

we

have

the

earningsof
which

the
must

minus They represent, too, the prices the work of transportation, machineryemployedin performing then be the

get for them.

that the tables

a

published by

of the proper understanding is that the nation make out its accounts it obtain such an understanding as down would do if it were asked but the not the price a merchant, putting and pricereceived, has business year's for
our

guessedat. The consequence of all this is, worthless as guides to Treasury are totally What of trade. is needed to generalcourse

then

its books by ascertaining whether balancing

or

the

increased

diminished

its debts.
to

The

amount

received
is that

value,and exports constitutes their precise

we

ascertain what

amount

any

take the value of merchandise imported, from therededucting debt contracted, the or adding thereto any debt paidoff, during

should

Thus, if the imports be $100,000,000, and the debt contracted year. the transfer of stocks has been $10,000,000, the amount paid for by our
ifwe have paidoff that amount is only $90,000,000. On the contrary, should thus obtain $110,000,000 as debt,it should be added, and we
true

by
ports ex-

of the

value of the

produceand

merchandise

exported.The

are freights

thus

included.
To into practice in the following tables would be impracticable, carry this fully understood that the but it may be done in part. It is generally of American and private, held in Europe in 1841 stocks, public that theyexceeded and there believe is reason to $200,000,000,

amount

exceeded

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

by $170,000,000 the amount held in November, 1834, when the greatstock this sum from the merchandise commenced.* By deducting speculation shall obtain the between the close of 1834 and the year 1841, we imported ab and merchandise exported.A part of this debt was value of produce
sorbed in the years 1845, 1846, and 1847, while on the other hand new created last year, and are now debts were beingcreated by the transmission of the three first named should be To the imports of evidences of debt. and from those of the last two years should be added the debt absorbed, should then obtain the actual amount deducted the debt created,and we
and by the shipping paidfor by produceand domestic merchandise exported, work of the in transportation. employed There are other and earlier years in which corrections mightbe required, with those to which I have but theyare of trifling amount by comparison that made, but it is probable referred. In those years small loans were which in in siderable cona much 1825, was as paid off,except perhaps nearly created. The of European debt was however, amount amount, it worth while to make rection is so uncertain that I have not thought any corand perhaps to do so might, therefor ; although would, producea to sensible diminution in the value received for our produce exported prior than be in somewhat would worse position 1829, which thereby placed a it. that in which I have represented With these remarks, I will now proceedto laybefore you the results of will I In doing giveevery fact that appears to me likely so, my inquiries. this to throw on concealing nothing. If, then, important question, light those who have arrived at conclusions different from mine, and are in possession grees will put them together I now of other facts, do, we may by deas the for the and it It is is nation, arrive at the truth. great question and examined scientific, not as a party or as a purely time that it should be

sectionalone.

CHPATER

SECOND.

of the Union in the several The average population :t is thus estimated in the last TreasuryReport First. For the years from that Dec. Second. Third.

referred periods

to,

endingDec. 31, 1821, to

.

that of

31, 1829
From

....

From

1834J Sept.1829, to Sept. 1834, to Sept.1841 Sept.

Fourth. From Sept. 1841, to June, 1843 Fifth. From June, 1843, to June, 1847J
Sixth. From Seventh.

June, 1847, to June, 1848 From June, 1848, to June, 1849

11,247,000 13,698,000 16,226,000 18,296,000 19,771,000 21,000,000 21,700,000

Reportof
106. 68.

Select Committee

on

Banks

of Issue : Evidence

of Mr. I. Horsley Palmer,

page

f Page
t As
same

these

years
"

are

referred frequently

to

I give their population, separately, the on

authority:

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

9
in these

The several 1821

amount

of foreign merchandise,specie included,* retained has been as follows: periods,

"

Total.

Annual

Average. Pr.head.

to

1829
.

1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835

to

$508,000,000 55,500,000
81,000,000 75,500,000

56,400,000 $5-00
4-32 610 5-51 6-20 7-08

88,000,000 103,000,000 854,000,000 170,000,000 684,000,000 97,700,000

1841 debt incurred

Deduct 1842
to

6-02 4-48 503 516

June 30,) 145,000,000 82,000,000 1843(21months,ending

1843-'44
1844-'45 1845-'46 110,000,000 Add debt and back interest
. . .

96,000,000

101,000,000

paid
1846-'47 Do. 1847-'48 Deduct 1848-'49 The follows
. .

5,000,000 138,000,000
5,000,000
.

115,000,000

5-75

143,000,000

debt incurred
. . .

131,600,000 8,000,000 134,700,000

121,600,000

5-88

Do. 22,000,000 112,700,000 facts derivable from an examination of the above

:
"

5-19
accounts
are as

First. That Second. Third.

the amount the amount

received from

increased duringthe surplus productslargely That That

so

in exchange for our existence of the tariff of 1828. received diminished greatly after the Compromise from nations foreign
was was

nations foreign

Bill beganto become the amount diminished and largely

was tendency so

operative.
received the stillfurther under
revenue strictly

clauses of that bill,

and that the Fourth.

downward

when

the system

changed.

the amount received increased rapidly under the tariff so of 1842, attaining the that had been reache'd under the same point nearly stillupwards when tariffof 1828, and that in both cases the tendency was the system was Fifth. That

That

changed.

received diminished in the year 1848. the amount so of debt incurred in the last two years must Seventh. That the amount in future ones. tend to produce a further diminution the earnings the scale of value of our exports, In establishing including the following is the order to shipping, The and lowest. revenue First, strictly be pursued : clauses of the
"

of

Compromise

Act.

10
Second. Third. Fourth. The The The

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

tariffs of partially protective CompromiseAct. tariff of 1828.

1816

and

1824.

and highest. The tariff of 1842. Fifth, Thus far, the tariff of 1846 stands below that of 1842, and is downward, but to what placein the scale it will descend

the
can

tendencybe determined

onlyafter it shall have

been

some

years in

operation.

CHAPTER
REVIEW OF THE

THIRD.
POLICY OF
THE

COMMERCIAL

LAST

THIRTY

YEARS.

of various commoto show in detail the consumption dities, proceed be and domestic In it will foreign production. doingso, necessary in some allowances to make cases, to arrive at a correct understanding, similar to those above given what was : my object beingthat of showing the power to consume that was ties commodiderived from the power to produce consumed.* It would be in exchange for those which were to be given this in but the effectwould be render the whole somewhat to to do all, proper besides much labour. the of the In complicated, involving giving imports 1834 from will be with the mark to 1841,they period always accompanied of minus show the consumed and amount to as so one-fifth, paid for. In 1845-6 of and in those some 1846"7, giving theywill, important cases, be with that of show the to of so as accompanied plusone-twentieth, quantity merchandise imported in a previous and then the ling cancelperiod, paidforby I
now

of

of certificatesof debt. Those of 1848 will have the mark of minus show the amount of nine millions to one-seventh, paidfor by the re-export of foreign merchandise in the form of specie, and the export of eight millions of certificatesof debt. Of the imports of the year endingin June last, about $22,000,000, to $134,700,000, obtained or were amounting one-sixth, in exchange for such certificates, and will be so marked. The total value of the bar and manufactured pig, Union,since 1821,has been as 1829, average

into imported
Years

iron, of every follows:

"

description,
Per head,

ending,
to
....

30, 1821 Sept.

" " "" "
"

$5,400,000
5,900,000 7,200,000 8,800,000 7,700,000 8,500,000

48 46 54 64 55 59 49 30 30 46 31
44

cents.
" " '" " "

1830 '1831 1832 1833 1834 1835 1842

to to

"

1841 June

$10,000,000 |,
"

8,000,000 5,500,000 5,700,000 9,000,000 6,120,000

"

"

30, 1843, average

"

June

30,1844
1846
.

"
"

"1845
.
.

"

1847 1848 1849

.

...

$5,830,000 -f-jij + zV
"

" "

9,000,000
.

" "

12,500,000"^.
.

13,833,094" "

10,800,000 11,500,000

50 53

"
"

See page

9.

THE We that here,

to

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

11

the value imported and paid for,largely increased from under the 1828 that tariff of it diminished 1834, protective ; between 1834 and and the in that itreached lowest point 1841, considerably 1841-2 and 1842-3. Thenceforward it rose, and the year 1846-7 shows an advance of about fifty vious, per cent, from the lowest point. It is therefore obthat the power to pay for foreign iron increased under protection, and
see

from

1830

diminished of
iron

with

its withdrawal.

givenow
tons.

the

of quantity

various kinds

: imported

Pig,
tons.

Old,
tons.
"

Rolled, Hoop,
tons.

Steel, Ham'd,
tons. tons.

Total, Prh.
tons. lbs.

1821

to

1829, average,

1550
1129

5400 6449

1500 1038 2532 2853 3350 2214 2600 2900 3600

5800

1200
1223

26,000 30,693 23,308 38,150 36,129 31,784 24,000 14,750

35,650

1830,
1831

"

6448

"

1832, 1833, 1834,

1835
to

10,151
....;..

"

9330

998

11,113 1841, average"

. . .

1617 640 500 5770 5800 2350 1850 5700 8000

17,245 20,387* 28,028* 28,896* 36,000*

1710 2146
2131

2431 2150 2400 2800

40,532 7 51,243 8" 73,687 12 79,961 13 78,055 12 74,190 10 81,050

10

8800

1842-3, average, 1844, 1845, 1846, 1847,

1848

14,500 26,050 27,000 24,000 27,800

46,000f
46,000 51,000 24,000 40,000

5040 6000

17,500 101,720 12 18,176 110,576 13 5200 21,800 82,390 9 540,0 15,300 96,350 10J
2800

1849, The

"), 44,000 % 88,000

"

8300 70,000 145,000 10,000

5850

17,000 150,850 16 9,000 260,000 27 before the

termination 1842

thus almost doubled was quantity paid for by our exports in 1834; while it diminished of the second period, stillfurther under
we activity,

and compromise,
came

the

revenue

system.

As

under the the tariff of

into

find

until the

importbecame
at

checked home.

in the power to purchase, in the price the increase and vast abroad, by
a

rapidincrease

in the manufacture

"DOMESTIC In 1810, the whole

number
to

PRODUCTION

OF

IRON.

of furnaces

in the Union head of the

metal,equal

16

pounds per

was 153, yielding 54,000 tons of population.

in a state of ruin. 1821, the manufacture was than doubled in had reached the 130,000 tons, having little more product 1828, eighteen years. 142,000. Increase in one year, nearly ten per cent. 1829, it was " Increase in two than twenty-five 165,000. per cent. years, more 1830, t per cent. 191,000. Increase in three years, about fifty 1831, " 200,000,giving an increase in three years of above sixtyper cent. 1832, of the Home was 286,000, but a committee the given by the census 1840, quantity of the it 347,700 tons. Taking the medium York, made League, in New give about 315,000 tons, being an increase in eightyears of fifty two, it would per
cent.

1842,

of the furnaces were closed,and the producthad fallen to large portion less than 230,000 tons. than 200,000,but certainly probably littlemore at 765,000 tons, having of the the Treasury, it was Secretary estimated,by 1846,
a

trebled in four years. of not less than 800,000 tons. supposed to have reached the amount 1847, it was stationary. 1848, it became of the present year cannot 1849, many furnaces being already closed,the production of stock and the be estimated above 650,000 tons ; but,from the accumulation next diminution obvious that the it is of sellingit, year will be difficulty

greater. Railroad iron free of duty.

\ Duty re-imposed.

12

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
Total consumption.

Domestic product.

Per

head.

Import.
Per head.

1821

to

1829, average,

90,000 165,000 191,000 210,000 210,000"

18 29 33 35 33 33 35 28 45 58 86 88

7 7

25 36

1830,

^1831,

"l832
1833, 1834,
1835
to

8$.
12 13 12
11

41"
47 46 45 46 38 57 71 95

210,000*
1841, average, .250,000 230,000 380,000 500,000 765,000 800,000

1842-1843, average, 1844,

1845
1846 1847 1848 Deduct from of this the
-

10 12 13 9

10"
19 105 for certificates
at a

98f

86 800,000 in exchange quantity imported

'

debt,and therefore remaining to be paid for future time,

. . . . .

.3 102

There If
now

will remain
we

further deduct

from

this the accumulation

of stock

on

hand, we shall find the consumption not exceeding that of the preceding year, say 67 99 32 650,000 1849, The value imported in this period is $13,800,000, and the amount of debt incurred is $22,000,000,chieflyfor this iron. The hand is variously estimated between 250 and 300 on quantity thousand tons. Taking the former, the amount per head would
........

98|

be Which

.26

being deducted,would
to

leave the

consumption

at

" .

73

in labour, is shown in as was 1829,the cost of iron, high, but was pounds per head. In consumption twenty-five had risen railroad iron to 47 it pounds 1832, ; but, beingthen freed from of the the fell two increased an following off, indicating duty, consumption years it. Thence of to the of 1841, obtaining difficulty consumption average power almost perfectly stationary ; but,in the two appears to have remained find it receding As the tariffof 1842 comes rapidly. following years, we there is a rapid increase in the power of consumption, into operation, cating indiin the labour amount diminution of for its a required purchase ; and far higher than ever the year 1846-7 shows it attaining a point before known, the domestic beingalmost 100 pounds per head. With the year 1847-8, in its ratio declined and the to increased population, production import ; but in market was the total quantity greaterthan in the previous very little year, From 1821 the fact that the accumulation close of that year showed of stock on hand. an In of increase and diminution find of production, a we rapid import yet to market is less per head than in 1846-7, the total quantity and of brought that the seaports vast that there is already so an accumulation filledwith are that many will be forced to and the stock on hand at the furnaces is such, it,

yet the
1849

stop work, as numbers

"

have

done.f already

It is obvious that the

dimculty

Railroad

free of duty. iron,

the great iron-producingState of the Union, and we form may of stock, or the diminution of production, of the accumulation from uhe there, followingfacts. The pig iron sent to market by the one route of the Chesapeake and

f Pennsylvaniais
idea

some

Delaware amounted tons, and

to

Canal, from the opening of navigation to the first of September, 1848, period of 1849,it fell to littleover 24,000 tons; whereas, in the same 12,000
5000
to

the bar iron from

1250

tons.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

13

the consumption is rapidly ing, diminishwith a tendency to stillfarther diminution. The important facts to be derived from this examination are the first, small increase of importation, that results, from the abolition even temporarily, of the duty. Duringthe period from 1830 to 1832, railroad iron paid and the trebled in that time, and the last year was far duty, importation yet the greatest of the three. For nine years after, it was free from duty; totally much of that which was imported for railroads is said to have and,although been used for other purposes, the increase averages but seventyper cent. By the tariffof 1841,*railroad iron was to duty, rendered subject and the import of rolled iron in 1842 and 1843 was 46,000 tons,beingtwo-thirds more
"

of

iron is increasing, and that obtaining

importedfree of duty in 1834. tariff of 1828, the total consumption, That,under the protective in four years, fifty That,under the system per head,increased, per cent. which prevailed from 1832 to 1842-3,consumption almost stationary, was and was less per head than it had been at the commencement of probably the period.That, under the tariff of 1842, the average consumptionincreased in the firstyear from thirty-nine in to fifty-seven and that, pounds, 1846 and 1847, it attained the height of almost one hundred pounds per of the free trade period of head,exceeding by 150 per cent, the consumption
was

than

Second.

1842-3.

If, now,
results.

we

look at
to

the
a

Up

1842, not

article of railroad iron, we single of it had ever been ton single

find similar made in this

of rolled iron, of every description, and yet the average consumption country, in the ten years from 1832 to 1842, free of duty as it was, was but about Commenced onlyin 1843, the manufacture of railroad bars 36,000 tons. had already reached about 50,000 tons, and, in 1847, it had in 1845 attained nearly 100,000 tons,and yet the average import of rolled iron for has The domestic production the four years was as before. as great nearly and yet the importhas been only174,000,of fallenalmost to nothing, hand a supply there is now to meet the demand, on adequate which,it is said,
now

such
most

as

The

for two years to come. it is at present, Which is the system under which be settled are under which it is most is the one furnished ? Which cheaply
to questions
"

iron is

readily

by those who desire to use it? If free-trade be the one, then the than the power to under ify rapidly ought to grow more import, power that the to here diminishes but we see import diminishes produce power ; of the power of proand grows with the growth with the power to produce, duction, under protection. being greatest
obtained
to
COAL.
Anthracite. Tons.

Foreign.
Tons.

1821 1830 1831

to

1829, average,

37,000
142,000 216,000 318,000 395,000 451,000

30,000 54,000

Consumption per 1000 of populat'n. 6 tons. 67,000

Total.
Tons.

196,000
250,000 884,000 480,000

15 19 28 34 35 50 64 58 69 and

34,000
66,000 85,000 67,000

1832,
1833 1834 1835 1837 to

518,000 749,000 1,021.000

1836,

671,000
881,000

78,000
140,000

1838 to 1841, 1842

*

850,000 1,108,000

145,000 141,000
the object

995,000 1,249,000

This

was

tariff, having provisional

a

for its sole

increase of revenue,

was

limited

to

alterations in

few

articles.

14

THE

HARMONY
Anthracite.
Tons.

OF

INTERESTS.
Total.
Tons.

Foreign.
Tons.

Consumption,per
lflOOof

1843,
1844

1,312,000
1,631,000 2,023,000

55,000 87,000
86,000

1845, 1846, 1847,

1848,

2,343,000 2,982,000 3,089,000 3,200,000

156,000 148,000
196,000

1,367,000 1,718,000 2,109,000 2,499,000 3,130,000 3,285,000 3,400,000

popnlat'n. 74 90 108

125 152
156

1849,

200,000

156

In this case, it has been necessary to separatethe years 1842

and

1843,

of 1842,* because of the whole of the lattercoming within the action of the tariff the account of the domestic production instead beingmade up to the close,

imports. of careful consideration. worthy When littlecoal, the total consumption we we produced imported little, As the production beingonlysix tons per thousand of the population. in 1846 and 1847,when we produced grew, the importgrew, and thus, times as much in the period five from 1821 to 1829,we as eighty imported
times
more.

of the middle

of the year, as in the case of The factsthat here presentthemselves are

1829 to J834,and thence to 1837,the increase of consumption was rapid. Thence to 1841, it diminished ten per cent. In 1842, it was than it had been five years before. In the five years which scarcely higher it rose from 69 to 152 tons,showinga rapiddiminution in the followed, of labour required to be given in exchange for it. In 1848,under quantity the action of the tariffof 1846, the production became almost stationary, and the diminished power of consumption is shown in the fact that although the quantity much of ratio to population, sent to market maintains the same it is sold at a loss to the producer. the money of coal, With every stepin the growthof the home production anthracite in That of of ton diminished. a has steadily 1826, in price the whole and and sometimes ten dollars, yet was six, eight, Philadelphia, of the In tons. or about 30,000 was 1846, price bushels, only 970,000

From

import
would other

anthracite

was

about four

and yet the import was dollars,

a

appear from

that when this,

nation is
come

of capable them and

156,000tons. It itself, supplying

sell at the lowest

to sell, must nations, desiring

to

it but when it cannot is large; and the consumption supplyitself, price, then the and and pay sumption conmust highest price, go abroad to seek supplies, find that when we had to seek this to iron, we is small. Applying twice or thrice as greatas it sold at prices all our supply, abroad for nearly obtained. those at which it is now the vast increase in the supply of In 1846 and 1847,notwithstanding that we had to go abroad to make up the the consumption was so great coal, demand tended which our own and to pay the highprices largely deficiency, had could have been not which we state of things to happened a

produce, the to supply prepared

It remains
to

whole demand.
whether
a

be

seen

the

converse
a

of this proposition may

at home

not be

that when to wit, true,

nation makes

other nations have to come products, when and that, the highest price; and then sales must be made at the markets must be sought abroad, it would follow that the way to be these of both If true, prices. and buy at the lowest is to buy and sellat home. the highest prices
*

all its nearly and seek what theyrequire, and pay it does not make market at home, a lowest sell at

market

for

It

came

into action

on

the 30th of August of that year.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS,

15

COTTON. IMPORT
Years

OP

COTTON

MANUFACTURE.
Per head.

ending
to

September 30, 1821

"

1829, average,
"
"

$9,454,000
7,862,000 10,399,000
61 76 54 70

84 cts.

1830,
1831 1832
" "

16,090,000 1-21
"76
av.

1833

1834,
1835 to 1841

7,660,000 10,145,000
12,000
"

"

J... 9,600,000
7,184,000 13,641,000
13,863,000 13,600,000

59 39 72 71 671 78 74 56

"

1842 to June

30,1843, average,

June

30,

1844,
1845

"

1846, 1847,
1848

16,071,000
$18,412,000
"

}.

15,582,000

1849,

15,180,000
"

i. 12,650,000

The number of yards of cloth imported in 10 years is thus given. I have been unable to complete this table, it should be given in full. I give all or I have met with : 1831,
1835 1836

68,577,000 53,974,000
56,931,000 23,774,000
:

1837,
1838 1839 1840

20,240,000
42,418,000

20,011,000
8,936,000 34,500,000

1842-3,
1844-5 1845-6

36,800,000

The

than in the table above. The differences here appear much more striking diminution of consumptionunder the free-trade system is very regular,
as protection nearly

and the increase under

much

so.

Owing
the made
a

to

the

of variety

cotton

of weight rude

cotton

contained in them

it is difficult to estimate goodsimported, I have table, ; but,in the following

with a view to show the growth of domestic consumption. estimate, It must be borne in mind that a largeportion of the foreign of the finer and more commodities and that the are costlydescriptions, is therefore small when compared with the value. weight
Taken by Northern Taken by Southern manufactures, Per

head, Total, foreign, p. head. 4 lbs. 11 lbs. 5J

Per head.

Crop of 1825-6

manufacturers.

domestic.

1829-30, average, bales 110,000 182,000 173,000 1831-32, 1832-33 194,000 1833-34, 196,000
to 1830-31 1834-35

H H

1 2

51
51 5|

216,000
...

11 Of 11
1

81 71 64 61
7

1835-36, to 1841-42, average,

263,000
325,000 347,000 389,000 423,000

6J
7

7*
n 91

1842-43, 1843-44,
1844-45,
1845-46

Of
11 11 11 n

71
8

1846-47

428,000
531,000 518,000

30,000 40,000 75,000 100,000

n 91
12 11-3
T5

10J lOf
131

1847-48, 1848-49,

12J

16

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

In estimating taken the the domestic consumption, I have throughout bale at four hundred pounds, that there has been a gradual aware although increase of the weight. This changewould be important to be considered, if it were to compare 1847 with the distant year 1831 ; but it is my object in view is the comparison of years which are when the object unimportant near as is the fact. together, The results in this case almost precisely with those obtained correspond of the crop from the examination of iron and coal. The home consumption of of 1834-5, almost fifty per cent, greaterthan the average per head,was the almost undisturbed. Under previous years, while the import remained tionary, staCompromise, consumption appears to have remained almost perfectly the increase of domestic production being compensated by diminished In 1842-3, the consumption scarcely importation. greater per head was than it had been eight With when it should have doubled. years before, the operation of the tariff of 1842,we of domestic find the consumption 75 per cent, greater, while the importis also almost doubled. products It would appear obvious, that the power to obtain clothing in return for labour increased in both protective and diminished with the approach periods, to free trade. With nished; 1848-9,the demand for Northern manufactures dimi-

and, as
months

many

mills
reason

are

now

closed that

were

at

work

but

few

there is since,*

to

in return for labour is in a course A portion of the cotton worked up at home has been exported, and was therefore not consumed at home. To have made allowance for this would have made the table very complicated, and it did not appear to be necessary, the proportions as well preserved, were having been about a million of dollars when it rose
to

believe that the power of gradual diminution.

to obtain

clothing

the home

was consumption.

three 200,000,

millions out of

two millions when 100,000bales, and five millions out of 300,000,

bales. 500,000
"WOOL.
IMPORT Tears ending OP

WOOLLENS.
Per head.

September30, 1821
1830
"

to

1829, average,

$8,900,000 5,766,000 12,627,000

9,992,000

79 cents 45 95

1831

1832,
1833

75
93 82 69 34 50 55 50 51 62 53

1834,
1835 to 1842 June
"

13,262,000 11,879,000

to June

1841,av., #13,950,000" " 11,160,000 30, 1843, 6,300,000

. .

30,

1844,
1845 1846

"

1847, 1848, 1849,

9,475,000 10,666,000 10,089,000 10,570,000

. .

$15,230,000"

13,704,000
"

13,000,000 J 11,400,000
failures among of the

Within

the last six months

there have been

are as

been
not

many

those

engaged

in the

business;and, in these oases, the mills The import into Cincinnati may be taken
here
we

but likely only closed, so

course

to rema*..

evidence

of affairs in fte

West, and

have

the

same

result

1846-7,
1847-8
'

1848-9,'
We
see,

12,528 bales. 13,476 9,058

lowness of the consumption price, has

the extreme thus,that notwithstanding

diminished.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

17

Prior to the passage of the tariffof 1824, the woollen manufacture was in a very depressed condition ; and,in 1825, the number of sheepwas only fourteen millions,* about thirty-five millions of pounds of wool. producing Thenceforward

1831, was
but

the number and the crop of 1829, 1830 and increased, estimated at fifty millions of pounds, lions the produceof twenty milof sheep. At the close of 1834, there had been a further increase,* to what extent not we are informed;but the value of the woollen
was

manufacture 1831. In

40 millions in against 19,311,000,the number had largely increased. The depression havingdiminished while the population considerable the sacrificeof to of 1841-2 a was sheep accompaniedby that the number, in 1845, the subsequent extent ; yet so rapid was change, millions. 1848 and in at twenty-eight estimated at twenty-five was millions,f risen to the number had in Ohio had, in 1846, only2,065,000 1848, ; but, sequently The number New in in was and, 1845, 3,677,000. 6,443,000, subYork, increased. it had largely to that date, in 1840, were and at Pittsburgh, The deliveries on the New York canals, that the since one-fifth of the total production census they date, by ; and, estimated the
at

65 millions of dollars
returns

1840,

census

show

but

are

thus stated
"

J
5,094,035
4,823,881

1841,
1842, 1843, 1844, Even
oh

this does not the

16,325,987 5,713,289 11,665,540 6,798,769 factories of mark the whole increase, as the woollens
and other States absorb much for distant that would otherwise

1845, 1846, 1847, 1848,

13,267,609
12,269,537

the interior of New pass With these

York

destined canals,

places.

estimate of the form some we data, may now very imperfect the weight In of this estimating most commodity. important consumption dollar worth one I have taken it as being contained in the cloth imported, the value which therefore the and represent figures per head, per pound, head. also the weightper give

wool was of foreign By the tariffof 1846, the duty on many descriptions nution the for which accounts greatdimiwhile that on cloths was lowered; raised, in the quantity imported. That this is very incorrect there is no doubt; but it will enable us to make some comparisonbetween the increase of imports as comparedwith 1830 Prom to 1834, the production the diminution of home production.
*

Pitkin's

Statistics, p. 488.

f Patent

Office

1847, p. Report,

213.

t Merchant's Magazine,Vol. XXI.,p. 217.

18

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

was large. Prom 1835 to 1841,the former largely grew, and the import cloths paid for in that and the foreign diminished in its ratio to population; from June, fell to sixty-nine cents per head. In the revenue period, period and the importfell to about was 1841, to June, 1843, production very small, In the four succeeding cents per head. thirty-four years, both grew rapidly. Under the tariffof 1846, there is a slight increase of import ; but the home for manufacture has diminished. The power to obtain cloth in exchange nished and dimilabour has,therefore, in the periods, invariably protective grown with every approach to free trade.

PRODUCTION

OF
as

LEAD.

The

arrivals at New

Orleans have been

follows:

"

We see here that the average of the seven years, from 1835 to 1841,was littlegreaterthan the product of 1830. The temporary tariffof September, to rose 1841, raised the duty to five cents per pound, and production almost 800,000 pigs. Since the passage of that of 1846,it has fallen to

500,000,and
We have of opening

for this diminished thus far

seen

that the

the erection mines, such of works,was conducting

there is little demand. supply of labour to and capital application of furnaces, a nd and mills, factories, to arrested at the close of

the the

1834, and that it until after the passage of the tariffof 1842. did not recommence We have that it increased rapidly also seen from 1843 to 1847,that it became tionary stain 1848,and is now Both be seek and to retrograding. employed,
if denied

employmentat home theymust seek it abroad. If employed at there is a tendency to concentration and combination of action. If home, there is a tendency with diminished power of comsent abroad, to dispersion, bination. One of these courses tends to increase the reward of labour, the other to diminish it. With a view to ascertain the effectsof the two systems,
I
"

give,
The First, tended
amount
to

labour

of immigration, invite the people of of

showinghow far the wages of nations to come and reside foreign

as

amongst
of

to show how far the establishment shipping built, tended to men, the cargo that pays the highest freights, for the exportof merchandise : increase the facilities provided
"

us, and, Second,The amount an importtrade of

88,133
.

74,607 102,415 147,051 234,742 229,492 299,610

These

are

tbe earliest years for which

I have

met

with

any

accounts.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS

19

here a large increase in the years from 1830 to 1834,followed by reach 1843, after which the rise is very rapid. diminution until we gradual On I stated that immigration affected by former occasion, not was a We
see

until after the lapseof more time than was for changesof policy required other of the subjects have had under consideration. A change tends to we the value of labour the price of men to raise or depress raise or depress to offer their labour for sale. and after a rise has been effected, come men It will be seen that the number in 1831 was less than in 1830, and that With the exception it was that it rose. of 1835, it connot until 1832 tinued it reached 78,083, after which it fell. In to rise until 1836-7, when 1843-4, it felt the effectof the disastrous year 1842, and the number was only 74,000; and it was not until 1844-5 that it began to grow Tapidly.
"

"

because of the great demand for labour in it is large, the present but it is the effectof now passed, feeling diminished demand, and consequentfall of wages. The first effect of a rise of is the case with shipping. Such,likewise, At the presentmoment the years that have and it is not wages is to increase the power to obtain the necessaries of life, modities comuntil after that shall have been done that the power to consume foreign did not The increase of ship-building tends materially to increase. Thus far the movement is preIt fell off in 1838. until 1832. commence cisely in 1844, somewhat It recommenced the same as that of immigration. maintained by that,and that alone, in advance of immigration. It is now i t fall The close connection between must too. and when that is falling off, is valuable return-freights and the power to build ships, the power to secure both shown i n which the of movements are :shown in the following table,

less than it was of shipping at presentemployed is, probably, and of lies idle in the A since. vast now ports California, quantity years the far How it that ships are now it is to replace immigration being built.f The
amount two
*

Average of last two

reason

years

The "J"

for

now

only 71,000. ships may be found in the fact stated in the following "building
one

which paragraph, It is
a

I take from

of the papers

of the

day :
"

remarkable

that of all the ships arrived in the bay of San Francisco from fact,

20
of the may York

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

be

with the of the two past years, as compared in the last four months : presentone, furnished by the Commissioners of Immigration
"

our for increasing tonnage to afford inducements ensuing year is likely at New arrivals the of view the from comparative following judged

September, October,November,

and

December,

1847. 18**-" ,i8t9i 44,137 61,310 48,715

"

there is a diminution of increase of about forty per cent., above twenty per cent.;and that this decrease must go on, will be obvious which I take from the from the facts contained in the following paragraph, Instead of
an

New

York

Herald:
to

"

"Emigration

Europe.

"

The

fine and
on

Ashburton, well-tried packet-ship,

104 who

sailed

yesterday glimpse at
came

for
'

the

to

the The

passengers, Liverpool,having and not findingit the El Dorado land of liberty,' natives homeward. conclusion of returning principally They were
Jamestown and

board

having taken a they expected,

of

Ireland.

Constellation sail to-morrow

with similar
a
,

cargoes."
that the

Every man
would I propose sale of public

who thus returns

of the emigration prevents

as

hundred marked

otherwise have crossed the Atlantic. to depopulation, to show the tendency now with : immigration lands, compared
"

by

sold. Land Acres.

Per

head

of

1821-29, 1830, 1831, 1832, 1833, 1834, 1842, At no with the

.

average,
.

825,000

Immigration. 69
.

1,244,000 1,929,000 2,777,000

2,462,000 7,150,000

46
.

83 61 44
.

4,658,000 1,129,000
our

70
.

1835-41,
.

average,
.

105-j11

depopulation proceeded from Europe are now Emigrants the West is almost to home, emigration returning of land sold does not, as I understand, The quantity marvellous. giveany afforded by the law to because of the facilities clue to the quantity occupied,
of period has history the process of that is now vigour manifested. disappointed ; while the

squatters. It is estimated, we

thousand that from thirty thousand to fifty are told, and the of Iowa within six added been to have that, weeks, population by the one-fourth since the the will have increased of close navigation, population all the Such is the of in to new of course 1st things regard September. to California, west and south-west; and,if to this be added the emigration States,
it may be doubted if the of the year as it was close at the
of which have the Atlantic ports,some trip home. is advertised for a return
no

of population
at

the old States will be

as

large

the commencement.
anchored four months, not one near easilyaccounted for. There is gold dust,and as these mostly prefer the
course,

been

there for is

This,of

steamers, for them.

and back, but passengers circumstances ships have nothing to do but to wait and see what may do and the improbability of an early Meanwhile, the absence of so many vessels, home freights. Rates ere long must return, are having a strengtheninginfluence upon it spring time now, I think itwould instead of fall, cult be diffirapidlyadvance; and were J at present prices." to negotiate engagements A vast amount of capitalhas been locked up in ships that are and others must idle, be built to take their place. If they were back again,ship-building would be now now suspended. entirely To this must be added the occupationof Texas and Oregon. "(" be added the occupation i To these must of California.
to freight
come

the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

21

PRODUCTION

OF

FOOD.

The power evidence therefore in flour,

to send it abroad

food to those who come to live amongst us, and also supply in exchange for other commodities, may be taken as some of the productiveness of labour- applied and I to its cultivation, the of of wheat and the and statement give following import export
to
:
"

bushels of the former

the rapidgrowth of manufactures that, notwithstanding to 1834,the exportof food was not onlymaintained but itincreased. The tendency had diminished, and the power to depopulation in the work of cultivationhad increased. Thereafter, with to obtain iron to assist the increasing and manufactures as tendency to depopulation, immigration and the power the production to obtain iron became stationary, of food so far diminished that the pricerose to such a point as to render it it be doubted crease to and the inif, it; profitable import notwithstanding may of numbers, the whole quantity produced between 1835 and 1840 was 1843, we find it gragreaterthan in the five previous years. Erom dually the vast of labour employed amount increasing, notwithstanding in producing "c. cotton and woollen goods,ships, coal, steamboats, iron, be the How the increase o f seen was following by comparison the great may in the from period 1830
returns

It is here shown

under

the

census

of

1840, and

the

Patent

Office estimates for

1847
1840, 1847,

:" Ind. Corn. Totals. Oats. Buckwh't. Rye. Barley. 7,291,000 377,531,000 615,522,000 4,161,000 123,071,000 18,645,000 114,245,000 5,649,000 167,867,000 29,222,000 11,673,000 539,350,000 867,826,000 Wheat.

84,823,000

Increase,

29,422,000

1,488,000

44,797,000 10,577,000
'

4,382,000 161,819,000 252,304,000

increase of no less than 40 per cent, in seven an years, but 23 per cent. the increase of population was Equally there would be 36 bushels per head in the divided among the whole people, lity and 42 in the and thus we see that the increase in the facione other; case, the machineryof cultivation is attended by increase in the of obtaining We here

have

during which

while productof cultivation;

increase in the power

to

producecotton
a

and

woollen cloth enables the farmer to obtain for each bushel than before. of clothing amount

produced larger

22
The
net

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

is as follows, export per

head of the

: population
"

-33
.
.

"65
.

1-28 "60

"45

We been and

see,

land, of the year of the famine in Irethus,that with the exception

"

it has never reached a bushel per head, and that it has invariably in which the largest in the periods of protection those periods largest to With the approach valuable home freights could be obtained. most

have reand as we ceded free trade the power to maintain trade has diminished; with the from it and have approached it has increased protection,

growthof immigration.
of Canadian in the constantly seen quantity increasing It is stated York the to New on England. through passes way that while in 1848 only50,000 barrels of Canadian flour passed through route of New York, the quantity in 1849 that came throughby the single and that there were, in addition, 623,000 Oswego was 200,000 barrels, bushels of wheat. has,of course, to be production, This, beingof foreign The effectof this is that produce deducted from the amount of exports ; but if the

import of

men

should

and the tendency to send flour or outward must diminish, rise, freights wheat to market through the portsof the Union will pass away. What of grain, it is not of 1840, the production to the census was, prior from 1830 to know that, in the period to ascertain ; but we now possible moderate and consumption was were 1834, prices large.It is not probable that it was much head the for 1840,because census as as was by given per the increased facilitiesof transportation in the latter period enabled the farmer to give of his labour to cultivation. If it be taken at thirty more bushels per head, it will probably from the truth. In the not vary greatly small that prices that to a point rose was so period, production following from Europe and the advance far exceeded that of so permitted importation ; almost universal disturbance between to a nd men. workas cause employers wages It may be doubted if it then exceeded twenty-five bushels per head. the to By degrees, tendency depopulation and, in 1840,we find diminished; it thirty-six rise in to The to 1847. that same causes bushels, forty-two diminished production in 1836 work. Immense at are now bers numagain of people in motion changing their places of labour; are and those that have gone to California, the New Salt can Mexico, Lake,"c, scarcely These not men are now this year added to our population to be fed, have exported we 280,000 persons from abroad requiring great numbers who have not onlyceased to be producers, but have taken with them vast quantities of food. It may fairly be doubted if the product of
at
a

be

taken

less than

hundred
we

thousand.

and producers;

while thus,

have

this year, per part,that the

to forty bushels head,exceeds thirty -eight

are even

; and

hence it is, in

there is a prices Nevertheless, to a fall of prices, of consumption a power ishing dimingradual tendency showing ratio than that of production. in a greater That the power to obtain food in return to labour diminished greatly between 1835 and 1839 must be within the recollectionof all who were familiar with the events of that period. Never has there been experienced in this country so much anxiety relative to the result of the harvestas was felt in 1838. that time, From the tendency to dispersion in

thus far maintained.

diminished; and,

and 1840, labour commanded of food, as is obvious from goodsupplies the fact that immigration in 1841-2, the height of 101,000. rose, attaining, The value of labour and food had, however, by that time greatly fallen, and,

1839

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

23
for

in

1842, it fell to

lower was,

pointthan
a

had

been

known in the

twenty years,

the

consequence

of which

great diminution

succeeding years. Thence to 1847, the increase was and is now following falling rapidly. year, it became stationary,
We may
now

of the two immigration very rapid ; but,in the

"

proceedto

the next

great article of food

SUGAR.

Crop Foreign. 1821 1830 1831 1832 1833 1834 1835

1S42
to to

of Total. Per

Louisiana.

head. 9 11

1829

....

57,000,000 96,000,000 69,000,000 48,000,000 97,000,000 115,000,000

45,000,000 48,000,000 75,000,000 75,000,000 70,000,000 75,000,000 77,000,000 115,000,000 105,000,000 ^800,000,000 186,000,000 146,000,000 240,000,000 220,000,000 1829

102,000,000 144,000,000 144,000,000 123,000,000 167,000,000 190,000,000 187,000,000 229,000,000 287,000,000 314,000,000 294,000,000 372,000,000 484,000,000 467,000,000
to

10J
9

12 13

1841,138,000,000
1843
....

"

110,000,000 114,000,000 182,000,000 114,000,000 108,000,000 ,232,000,000 244,000,000 242,000,000

11$
124
15
16

and

1844 1845 1846

'

14j
18

1847
1848

23

1849

....

21J
that

We it then 1846-7
to

see

here

rapidincrease

of

consumptionfrom

1834, and

consume

in actual amount until 1844, and that the average of and 1847-8 was but little less than double that of 1842-3. The power has with the increase in the home foreign kept steady pace sugar total consumption for the year 1847"8
to

diminished

supply, givinga
than 150

that of the period from 1821 per cent.,

exceeding, by more 1829,and almost double

that of 1842 and 1843. The power of producing food thus kept pace with the power to apply materials into labour and capital to the conversion of food and other raw for the use of man iron, cloth,and other commodities requisite ; and thus both kept pace with the tendencyto the concentration of population. With every increase in the power of production, consumptiongrew, and the labourer received larger returns for his labour, producing a tendency to the With diminution in the power immigration. every power of production, hence commodities a nd it that the early to pay for foreign was diminished, the freedom of trade the creation of to of were signalized approach by years be the which has interest on to now a vast debt, paid.
INTERNAL COMMERCE.

We
or

examine how may now waned with the increased

tolls
on

or

far the power diminished

to maintain

internal trade waxed for which production, between the east and Canal.

power

of

the purpose, I .give and the tonnage west, them In examining

the three

routes principal

that

the Louisville and Portland passed through

immigrants from
have been

it will be proper to bear in mind that the receipts from the last been withstanding nottwo years, have Europe, in prodigious, there has been obtain
a

which

largedecrease

in the two

from

which

It follows, of course, that the returns. complete have greatly diminished from merchandise in their ratio to populareceipts tion. continue to fall off, the deficiency in the receipts Should immigration of serious importance to the treasuriesof both from these works will become New York and Pennsylvania.

able

to

24

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

We

thus

see

while it increased

but

28,000tons

in the first of period

seven

and nearly all of this since 1843. 110,000 in the last, years, it has gained The great support of to increase. At the presenttime there is no tendency this trade is found in the transport of immigrants, and any diminution he followed by a diminution in the tonnage. must In therein

1842, the

Steamboat of

tonnage

and the
seen

was tendency

downward, as
made trips

from the number

the western rivers the business was very by certain boats :

on
"

was

but

126,278,
may be

as small,

it had almost doubled, the 1846,onlyfour years afterwards, the it In increased two succeeding as being249,055. rapidly, years of boats built at Cincinnati : statement seen by the following
"

In

amount

may

be

1845-6,

5657

tons.

| 1846-7,

8268

tons.

| 1847-8,

10,232 tons.

In the last year the tendency has been downward; the boats built being and the number of arrivalsbeing only3239,against 7281 4007 tons; only in the We thus meet

previous year. the everywhere

same

results. From

1835

to

1843,scarcely

but from that date every thing starts into lifeand grows with any increase; Arrived at 1848 and 1849,all tends downwards, rapidity. notwithstanding the greatincrease of

population.
TRADE OF NEW ORLEANS.

The value of the from

1841-2,to

the

of the principal products has been time, present

interior received at New follows : as

"

Orleans,

THE

HARMONY
Total.

OF

INTERESTS.

25
Total.

1841-2,
1842-3, 1843-4, 1844-5, The value doubled increase large

$45,716,045 53,782,084 60,094,716 57,166,122

of western

1845-6, 1846-7, 1847-8,

1848-9,

877,193,464 90,033,000 70,779,000 81,889,000

in six years, but it is now the falling, notwithstanding the i n last two population years.
NEW YORK

Being the
we

to be most placesupposed

benefited

freedom by perfect

of

trade,

by an examination into the effectof the various systems,as may profit exhibited in the number of houses built in that city, as compared with the
of population
account

the country,of which it is the commercial I have been able to obtain is that of 1834 :
"

The capital.

liest ear-

The rapid extension of' Brooklynhas been since 1842. Had it been which is but a suburb of to obtain a similar account of that city, possible New We have York, the difference would have been much more striking. however,all that is needed to show that houses in New York grew with here, the growth of factories and furnaces, and diminished, as they now diminish, with the cessation of their operations.
PHILADELPHIA.

It is deemed distributor of
centre
a

desirable to

givethe
the

movement

of Philadelphia

as

the

portionof the coal and large

commerce

iron of the

of

an

importantportionof

Union, and as the between the East and the

because of to obtain the number of houses built, West ; but it is impossible been until such record several of the no districts, quite preserved, by having

of the population in the several periods, it is necessary to take the returns under the State censuses, which are septennial, and those made under the authority of the federal government, which
and recently,
to

givethe

movement

are

decennial.

The

former

returns

giveonlythe

number

of

but by taxables,
to be

them multiplying

by

five the
so

was population

always found

and I have done

it is said throughout, although

that the

tained, obnearly proportion

of non-taxables has within a few years so to multiply by five and a half. How

far increased as to make it necessary mined far that is the case will be deter-

by the

census

of next

year.

Of

these the number

was effect,

built in 1835

and

1836, before the Compromise began

to

have

much

greater than in any three of the other years. 4

26

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

diminished that the productive power of the country from 1835 to 1841, and stillmore in the two following years; and rapidly therefore it was that the power to pay for foreign commodities diminished so

Jt appears

obvious

could be maintained goods on consumption onlyby obtaining until future and interest at for some paid. time, bearing paid amount The following of the table will show the vaxue of exports, being and freights. merchandise received from abroad in payment for merchandise much that
to be credit,

"With each
_

stepin

power of credit. So it was So bankruptcy. would

seem

and purchase,

the diminution of the nished there is dimipower to produce, hence the necessity for obtaining goods on from 1835 to 1841, and the result was almost universal

is it at present, and the goal towards which we are moving' be the same. The amount for the payment of now required interestis about $14,000,000 than was more being$2,000,000 per annum, for the same required since. two purpose years In the following table are giventwo species of articles, of one of which a large freed from (flax) was the part and so condutyby Compromisetariff, tinued until September, 1841,while the other was subject to the same visions promanufactures as of other kinds. It will be seen how small is the difference of movement, proving that the amount of importation depends the to a nd is but upon affected by the question import, power of slightly
to

duty.

"

In

1829, the debt of the Federal

reduced
to

Government

was

"t was

and $4,000,000,

in the

following year

$58,000,000. In to $37,000. As
to

the year much

1833-4
wa*

of this

held

abroad, the amount paid off in this period was transmitted abroad at the same corporations time.

probably equal

that of States and

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

27

here the importation of linens increasing under the tariffof 1828, 1835 from to 1841, and stillfurther diminishing in the closing diminishing
see

We

years

pf the Compromise tariff. Thenceforward

the
to increasing tendency

it rises

standing notwithrapidly, of cotton for

substitute manufactures

those of flax. In The the same see regardto China and earthenware, we rises under the tariff of 1828, diminishes importation and stillfurther diminishes in the tariffof
course

under

of events. the Compromise,

1842,but

never

attains the

same

when 1842-3, as height

to rise under it begins in the previous period.

FHENCH

MERCHANDISE. Per head.

1822

to

1829, average

9,130,000

81 Silks 64 1-11 92 l'OO 1-21 1-24 80 94 1-13 1-08 1-21 1-14 90

to duty. subject
"

1830,
1831, 1832, 1833,

8,240,000 14,737,000
12,754,000
...
...

,13,962,000
.

Silks free.

1834,
1835 1842 to and

17,557,000
"

1841, average

25,200,000
.
.

\,
.

20,160,000 14,500,000
17,952,000 22,069,000 21,600,000

1843, average,

Duties

reimposed.
" " "

1844,
1845

1846,
1847

24,900,000
.
.

1848, 1849,
We from

.28,000,000

"

i,

24,000,000

"

23,233,000
have here the
same

"

\,
as

19,360,000 elsewhere.

results

The commodities

we

receive

articlesof luxury. In the period France are almost altogether between 1829 and 1834, there is a gradualincrease, i n the until, 1834, consumption

exceeds

by fifty per
remains

cent,

the average

from
same

1821

to
we

1829.

Thenceforward In the

the amount

almost

the precisely

until

reach 1841.

periodendingJune

30, 1843, it falls to the level of fifteen years before. the In to rise, following and,by 1847, attains the level of year, it begins In 1848 it falls to Jl-14. In 1849, the amount, paid for, falls 1834.
almost to the level of 1842-3. The remarkable the small increase produced by the part of this table is, and silks, the fact that the increased import rapidly

abolition of

dutyupon

after the duties had been

reimposed.
TEA AND COFFEE.

the quantities of tea and coffee retained for table represents following rather the of the respective than actual consumption consumption years, and The the great irregularity of amount, is more apparent than real. It is here that the of tea in the years 1833 and 1834, shown, average consumption the last two years in which the tariff of 1828 was was in activity, greater the great than that of the ensuing ten years, and that, notwithstanding it did not rise above that quantity until 1845. Of increase of population, coffee the

consumptionper

head

was

little greater from

1835

to 1841

than

the average of 1833-34.

28

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

1821 to 1829, average,

1830 1831 1832

pounds, 6,000,000
6,800,000 4,600,000 8,600,000

1833,

12,900,000 (Dutyfree,)
13,100,000
"

1834,
1835 to

....

1841,12,600,000
"

|, 10,080,000
13,000,000 13,000,000 17,100,000

1842-1843,
1844,

" "

1845,
1846, 1847, 1848,
1849

"
"

16,800,000
14,200,000 21,000,000

"

"

13,213,000
"

" Which is the system under which to be settled is great question the labourer is enabled to obtain the largest of food, quantity fuel, clothing,

The

and machineryof production The

seems

former

is denounced

clear that the

and to labour, willing invest capital, under the two protective tariffs than at any other was greater and that it is now but certainly, period, gradually, diminishing. Wages are and the result is, diminution of immigration, and an increasing a falling, both accompanied to emigration, tendency by a decrease of productive power, to be followed by a futher decline of wages, and a further increase of has grown with immigration, and freights have fallen, emigration. Shipping with diminution in the former, the latter must and but, rise, many of the commodities that we have recently will have to remain at home, exported and thus there will be a diminished power of importation, accompanied by of the public a diminution of which was of one revenue, the improvement the objects of the policy of 1846. How the proposedin the adoption different systems have thus far operated from import duties upon the receipts will be seen examination of the an table. by following

free trade?" or transportation protection and yet it war upon labour and capital," all those things for which men are power to consume in the production of which other men to are willing
"

as

"

Derived 1821 1830 1835

to to to

from,

the

REVENUE, import of Merchandise paid for

.....

CUSTOMS

with

our

Exports.
'

1829, average, 1834, 1841, average, Less one-fifth, for goods bought in for certificatesof debt,
. .

18,500,000 24,000,000
.

1-69

1-75

$17,170,000
change ex.

3,404,300 13,736,000 16,400,000 26,183,000

0-841 0-90 1-38 1-41

1842

and
.

1843,
. . . .

1843-4, 1844-5,
1845-6

...

27,528,000
26,712,000
Add

duty

on

#5,000,000 of debts
....

deemed, re-

1,500,000

1846-7,
Add

28,212,000
.....

1-41

23,747,000 duty
on

$5,000,000 of debts
....

deemed, re-

1,500,000

1847-8

25,247,000
31,757,000
Deduct

1-23

duty

on

the

amount
.

of

debt
.

created, say $8,000,000,

18*8-9
Debt

2,400,000 29,357,000 28,346,000

1-40

created, $22,000,000" duty,

6,600,000

21,746,000

1-00

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

29

It is here much in the coffee from under

seen, that the

the tariffof aholished

to

of duty-paying articlesincreased so importation that the head than revenue was 1828, greater per railroad iron and
on

the duty on previous period, although

was

tea

in 1832. made
one

were stronger

allowance 1829 the

was

1821

case would, however, appear for the movements of specie. The period of great exhaustion, and the exports of an

The

and much

specieexceeded
the whereas,

importsby
a

average

of the imports

periodexceeded following
The in the
on

average of five millions Had this been a year.

revenue

year. had

a year ; the exports by an total difference is therefore six millions

of almost

one

million

as imported,

and articles, duty-paying would With

the duties

tea

in the form of period, previous and coffee been retained, the

have exceeded two dollars per head. the next period, find a great decrease in the revenue, indicating we diminished power from diminished to pay for foreign merchandise, resulting of labour at home. in the application productiveness With 1842"3, there is a trifling from the action of the increase, resulting

1842, which was in operation duringthe last nine months of this period. rises to an average of Prom June, 1843, to June, 1846, the amount $1-40,and maintains itselfduringthe firstthree years of the period. The 1846, connected with the warehousing system, passage of the act of August,
tariff of short tended this
to

reduce

the amount

received into the treasury in the last year of

period. the increase With 1848,we find the average maintained, without, however, of the great that might naturally have been looked for in consequence in for breadstuff's, demand consequent upon the failure of the potato-crop
Ireland. In
was our

the last year (1848-9), being the second in which the tariffof 1846 derived from merchandise of amount t he revenue paid for by action, declined. has greatly exports under the tariffof 1842 with those of that of In comparing the receipts in

before merin the latter period, is necessary to bear in mind, that, chandise of millions dollars there was ten of to could be purchased, sum a be provided for payment of interest on the debt incurred in the free trade one. three millions of dollars, that would have given or about At thirty per cent., head. fifteen cents per of interest now to be paid is about fourteen millions of The total amount and this claim must be discharged by our exportsbefore merchandise dollars,

1828, it

can

be

: the purchased revenue.

consequence

of which must

in be,a great deficiency

future

examine the different revenue these facts before us, we may now for consideration and adoption. By the been presented theon English school it is held that,as cultivation first commences and the diversion of labour is then largely richest soils, paid, agricultural

With

systems that have

is attended with loss. to mechanical of the population pursuits portion Observation, however,shows that the firstcultivator commences, invariably, the underlying the poorer soils, and that the rich lands of river bottoms, on beds of marl,limestone, "c, are only broughtinto cultivation at a later period. The English school holds that mechanical labour must necessarily, of fertile land and consequentprofitable because of the abundance cation applithan in an old country, and that be dearer in a new of labour, be maintained importation. can onlyby aid of laws restricting competition labour beingwithdrawn results from such restriction, double loss It holds that any from of agriculture to be givento the comparatively pursuit profitable into the of converting one agricultural products unprofitable the

30
various

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

these persons, of taxes imposed thus and that every dollar paid to the of their commodities, upon the consumers of in the part manufactured at home, is import articles,' government on of or the twenty dollars paidto a ten,fifteen, five, payment accompanied by for their their taxation on neighbours thus selected imposed by commodities for the required are employed, unprofitably
use

of man: maintained

that also,

out

class, living carried out in a reportof support. This idea may be found fully 1846. It is there shown,that all f or of the Treasury, Secretary

the late the coal

than it. would do $1-60 more costs the consumer in the Union all coal sold of the t he of free under a system although average price trade, Pottsville did and Mauch Chunk not,at that at Pittsburgh, Wilkesbarre, consumed

moment, exceed $l-50.

the English school from this double taxation, relieve the consumer articles that be should for cannot holds that all duties revenue imposed upon in the country,such as tea,coffee, be produced "c, and that all those that that should be admitted free. Such is the theory be produced in it, can amend it efforts the to dictated the tariff of 1846, and subsequent by the To of imposition The
tea and coffee. a dutyon at home should other school holds that articleswhich can be produced be admitted free of all duty, should be protected, while those which cannot of all duties abolition tea the view which promptedthe on and such was

coffee, by the act of 1832. By the workingof the two systems,their value is to be judged. In the admitted free firsteighteen months of the tariffof 1832,tea and coffee were of nearly three and a half millions of of duty, with a loss to the revenue loss of dutyon silks, to which dollars per annum, to be added a great was of manufactures generally and also free ; but the protection was maintained, merchandise liable to dutycontinued so great, the consumption of foreign increased more than the population. In the that the revenue rapidly with a certainty of its protection gradually diminished, succeeding period, bill should come total disappearance into action, and as the Compromise fully the productiveness of labour became far diminished, that the payment so into the Treasury for duties on foreign merehandise fell to an average of
and less than one-half of what it had been from 1829 to 1834. With the tariffof 1842, it rose and with a steady gradually, upward that 1846 of into there a s comes is movement a while, tendency operation, ;

the reverse. directly

PUBLIC EXPENDITURE.

live in connection with each other, theyare enabled to protect have little need of fleetsor armies for their protection. A then perform the duties incident to the maintenance few officers can of in a high degree, the power of selfgovernment. They then exercise,

When

men

and themselves,

government.
When

they are

from widelyseparated

each

other, they are

unable

tc

and have need of fleets and armies for their protectthemselves, protection. officers then required for the performance are of the duties of government, and the power of self-government is diminished. With the increase of fleetsand armies, and of government officials, the cost of government is increased.

Many

of 1828, and that of 1842,tended, have seen, to concenas policy we tration of population and combination of exertion, to increase and,therefore, in the power of self-government. That of 1833 tended, and that of 1846 has been seen, to dispersion as of population tends, and diminution in the to diminution in the power of selfpower of combination, and,consequently,

The

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

31 systemson
the

government. What has been the effect of I propose now The to show. expenditure

the two
true

public

and upon thus is that the which and diminishes of increases cost capital/' government, the power to accumulate capital, to be used in aid of labour. Every step towards diminution in the expenditure for that purpose tends to raise wages; towards diminution and every one tending tends equally towards its increase,
"war

labour

in the power From 1821

of both
to

or conveniences,

labourer and luxuries of life.

to capitalist

command

the

necessaries,

1829,the
on

exclusive of payments
was

of the government, total expenditure debts of account existing, previously average of

....

an $117,000,000, being

$13,000,000
the of such
. .

From tariff of From

October,1829,

to

1834, the periodof October,

.

exclusive 1828, the total expenditure, was 84,000,000, beingan average of

we

ments, pay.

16,800,000

1841, the periodof October, 1834, to October,

the

which Compromise, during total expenditure was

no

the colonized Texas and Oregon, this In there were $223,000,000. period

payments

on

account

of the old debt, been the whole having

The average of this
a

at the close of 1834. extinguished

was dispersion From October,1841, to and the wants exhaustion, precluded expenditure.The

period 31,700,000

of

June of the

30, 1843,was
was
....

periodof
such
as

government were

average

of 1843-4 was That of 1844-5, That With

20,400,000 20,600,000

21,400,000

the system of dispersion. 1845-6, we recommence with Mexico, with it war of Texas had brought The occupation and the expenditure to rose 26,800,000 armies were sent and large In 1846-7,dispersion increased,
. . . . .

to

Mexico

the consequence
to

fornia, the cession of Califor the purpose of compelling of which was that the expenditure rose

In And In As

1847-8, it was amount a large

59,400,000 45,000,000
remained unsettled.

1848-9,
a

46,798,000
of this the system,

which was debt, public necessary consequence that of u nder the of under concentration, system grew rapidly extinguished and of that under diminished to be again concentration, now again dispersion,
increased under that of

dispersion.

credit grows ; with every one With every stepin the diminution of debt, credit diminishes. in the increase thereof, and raised wages. The power to of 1828 increased production The policy

32
pay for

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

commodities foreign

was

and the great,

revenue

was

of which was public therefore high. Credit and lowered wages. of 1832-3 diminished production The policy of certificates cloth for obtained and in and iron debt; was exchange high, we debt at the close of 1841, the foreign the consequence of which was, that, unable which to much of the of were interest we two hundred millions, was pay.

the extinction of the

at debt,

the consequence large, the close of 1834.

Credit was

Under

the Revenue

tariffof

revenue 1841-2,publicand private

almost

and repudiation the necessary consequence. were and bankruptcy disappeared, increased and wages The rose. Under the tariffof 1842, production commodities and revenue increased, public private power to pay for foreign the consequence of which commenced to diminish our debt, grew, and we re-establishment of credit. the perfect was diminishes and wages have fallen. Under the tariffof 1846, production commodities is diminishing, and we are again The power to pay for foreign for them with certificates of debt, and settling the buying cloth and iron, June 30, to Europe in the two years ending millions of dollars ; all of which we in thirty have, but have yet to pay for. that time eaten and drunk, and used, the results obtained by this examinaWith a view to presentat a glance tion the following in which the of the policy of the Union, I give diagrams, shown. under the various systems is distinctly movement No. I. gives the nine years from 1821 to 1829, when the tariffof 1828
amount

of which

transmitted
at

1849,is

estimated

into operation. No. II." The years of the protective tariffof 1828, from 1829 to 1834. No. III. Those of the Compromisetariff, from 1834 to 1841. In this deducted from the consumption case, it will be observed that I have in all cases commodities one-fifth, of imported that being the quantity obtained in exchange for certificates of debt.
came
"

clauses revenue strictly will be seen, one and in year, others two years are included in this period.The returns for coal, railroad and canal tolls, "c, are made from. the civil year, whereas those connected with commerce made for the fiscalyear ending June 30. are The effectof throw to is into No. t he one of the oneIII., taking period year, Compromise,
"

No. IV.

This represents the movement

some

under the

of the

Compromisetariff. In

cases,

as

half

of this period, and portion the tariffof 1842. No. V." The tariff of 1842. No. VI." In the That of 1846.

the other

into portion

No.

of V., the period

the diagrams representing the consumption is given in woollens, domestic products consumed,and the that

and cottons coal, iron, the one representing other the total quantity. An examination of them will show, that the amount of consumption is dependent upon of domestic production, and that any deficiency therein is never sated compenas it should be, if the theory by increase of importation, true upon were
movements two sets of lines ;

of

which

the tariffof 1846

of
vr

is based.

Consumption .Hounrnun
and

Foreign Iron, nun,

v umiot

Dom Domestic, in

poundsper

mIM:

^A,-^.
;

HSBHa tj.-.i
'

Aver.,;eT~T A-.raaaEH ;:

||ai-psEii|aeaai

head page

of

the i

population. (See toSIBII

BSS"10

11.)
Total,
Domestic,

Railroad iron
that time

was exempted from duty in the third year of the second consumption ceased to increase.

and period,

from

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

33

Consumption
and

of Coal,Foreign Domestic, in tons per thousand of population.(See

page

13.)
ioo
i
"i

Igi
hh'-

sisRBBilBiiinSiiaHHaiBBiaaii
amlBn
"n; ,,i ;lJBMi

Jflflflfi

.^caH^MEG'.jaiiaiaH'jdijijn:

_iBB"Bse"BBMa"eaaaaBE
30

il!iBS""!Hi!

Consumption

op

Cotton

Ave-age.

Dom. CooDS, Foreign and in pounds head of the per population. (Seepage 15).
Total,
Domestic,

;BT' BflBBiflBBBBBBBBaHBBBRBBBBHeHi

.Ibbb'S

HiiiiiiiliiiiiiSliEli l""KaBrii"ia3aSaBgiMga;
Bii
6

ISiSIilSilliiiir
[B SIBBI Ave BBBBBBBS
rate.

Consumption
Foreign "head

of

"Woollens,

Average.

|A,.i
.

" Dom., in lbs.per

m

17.) of population. (Seep.

HP
it

anciBasae."

SBPflli" vssam

iiiifISSbSS!
bbbbbb;

Production

sands of Lead, in thou?"" j 18.) ofpigs. (See page

Sal I
maaat

I
;i"':":."

mmm
ass^cse mamtmsmmt

Population, as shown in the increase of^immigration, in thousands. (Seepage 18.)

IBHBI

"mm

KSSffllB
SHE

leas

4BHIdBJHa9ilflHaHaB ^BHiilgSBBBiflHI
'

:" ;'

"

..

!.."

"

:/,.;.";,."

HB
i " li '! ,i ;! Hi :i
..
. .

"BBBBBBBBBBB
BBiTIL. BGSBan

SEEE5CL.HBQBB
Binin

BIHBBB

34

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

n.

hi.

Shipping thousand page

tons, per Built, ofpopulation. (See

in

iKHHHHi

19.)
SHSiBaHiSBauBaacs"BSSEiiaesnaBB
'
"

iBffliysHyBii""BHSBBr
aHBaHBfflHKHSEBSaH!

Comparative Movement
and

View
of

op

the

iukhhhh

.^,

"aMUPMBBHIieRIBBCieWe

Immigration thousands.

Shipping, in

(Seepage 19.)

Shipping,

Immigration,

ssssssssBEuaaiaaBni

laaaanayiE'
aansBBBBziM

"""NBBLjenD

Number

op

Steamers

built,

"^rage.

^HHBlIHh

Averse.

[a^S
__

per million page

ofpopulation. (See

f:RgHMSBaeBnf"flMat)aB

19.)

Depopulation, as shown in the occupation of Public Lands, as compared with inimiijration.

(Seepage 20.)

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

35

IV.

V.

VI.

Production
elsper head page 21.)

of

Grain, in

bush-

ofpopulation. (See

Production
of

and

tion Consump-

and

per page

Sugar, Foreign % Domestic, in pounds p head-of population. (See 20

23.)

"
,

Tolls sand page

on

the

New

York

Canalswi

dollars per thou-

j"[

(See of population. 24.)

Tolls

on

Pennsylvania

lic PubEsaiRai
,

Works, in dollars per thousand ofpopulation.(See

page

SKSSSSSSSlBmBB

InSaBHanHBBUiBarjaMi

"BWBSBMeHraBagiHjniiiiloBri^wsiM

MNIBHSMB|l!aiM"imSVSKflMRIini

24.)
on

Tolls

Baltimore

and

Ohio sand thou"""""""a

BBBBB

"flSt"
BE)"ea ""

Railroad, of population. (See page

in' dollars per

KSSHBil

24.)
Trade sands
on

SSfflSlBBislsiifl
iii5ii5"""i"lll

Louisville

and

35(

Portland

Canal,

in

thou-

^
200 100 50

of tons (See page 24.)

36

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

m.

rv.

v.

vi.

Lake

Tonnage,

in

thousands

ISffirrj lis
160

""WHS!

aei

of tons.

(Seepage 24.)

ill
in

iiii

II
IB

BHBS

Si
BHS3

11

aa_gM

Western
in

Steamboat

Tonnage,
tons.

m 24"

thousands

of

(See

IBBIB

SB! BQI

page

24.)

IHBB

I
atawffle

iiii!
Value
at of

Produce

received

Orleans,mi millions of dollars. (Seepage 25.)

New

Houses
page

Built

in

New

York,

to

per million

ofpopulation. (See ;;;;

60

25.)

Population

of

Philadel-

3,,

alaiBSBSf

PHIA, in thousands.

Ratio
the

of

Philadelphia
of

to the
,

Population

Union, in thousands to millions. (Seepage 25.)

Value

of Exports, per head in dollars. (See ofpopulation

page

25.)

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

37

Foreign
210 200

dollars.

Debt, in millions of (Seepage 25.)

IV.

Imports
"

of

Foreign

Woollens,

"HBRBI

4"r"e.

35 IAtJBI

in cents paid/orby our exports, SiiSii""gs30i9'flUBBSBBBEIBBBIBI39S " HBB[lilsii*"BflDBlHHnHBii ken] of the population. per iSee page 16.) sBSBSSiaSr
'

Imports GOODS,

op

Foreign

Cotton

|Average.

paidfor by our

exports,

iili

in emits per

head of thepopulation.

(Seepage 15.)
Of the four next of the following,

gg"llIltesiBaBSSBSBasB
firsttwo, French Merchandise factures and Manu-

in a great degreefreed from duty in 1832, silks and were flax, The in 1841. free. The duty was linens beingdeclared ahsolutely reimposed The first free from dutyin 1832,and so remain. Tea and Coffee, were others, for the purpose of showing how small is the increase of two are given chiefly comparedwith that which, consumption consequent upon a remission of duty, of a commodity at home. to follow the production in every case, we have seen French

in cents per

Merchandise, paid for head of the population. (Seepage 26.)

Manufactures
cents

of

per

head

Flax, in J of the popuia- ""SpsS: '!~w'

,"

tian.

(Seepage 26.)
dredths Tea, in hunhead ofpounds per of
of

Consumption
the

population.(See page

38

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

ll.

m.

IV.

v.

VI.

Consumption

of

Coffee,

in
a^n^nsKBM

pounds

lation. per head of the popu(Seepage 27.)

JHP"
as'M

ifissiissi fssssssss
I'iSlllBBBBl

Revenue
cents per

from

Customs,in
of the population.

head

(Seepage 28.)

Public

lions Expenditure, in mildollars. of (See pago

30.)

Public

dollars.

Debt, in millions of (Seepage 31.)

National

of

dollars.

in millions Credit,, (Seepage 31.)

^
200

jagg

8
fa o o

g
o

ft

GO

SSSS"8"
'
'

'

"wi

P3
O
iBMBMBHU

S1SSS!

"iiiill-Jews,
"MB

'"""""""

O fe
O H

o
EH o

EH

|
Ph
o

"

pel

g
S a o

g g

Ph

"!

-j g

3
o

-1

o
z o

A
S5

PS
O
M

"!
DQ

A A O

IB
O A

"i

1Z5

o " n o

MHHliHHifgHiS

S|BB"
__8B3"a"san""*J"

liili
aeHBiBBiBBgafflnggapi

fill
IMI

sHBSSSipaiSiiasa
P
O O

"
I" I

I*
o o

|Z|

H
O

w
o

Bta"jSBs*M iwiBi

Z,

o o

A
(a 40

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

4l

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION TENDS
are

FOURTH.
PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION.

TO

INCREASE

Two Each

systems
claims
to

nominated before the world : on the one hand, that which is dethat the which is denominated free-trade. and other on protection, be the

under which the labourer receives the largest ward reone t he of and it isfor the of those exertions, testing validity purpose claims that I have giventhe numerous tables contained in the last chapter, the in its bearings on by aid of which I now propose to examine this question various portions of society.It is the greatone for the Union, for in it are for his included all others. The discord now South has its origin in the diminished If it can be shown that between existing the North and the value of the returns to slave labour. the and same system the interestsof the North

by one

the free and the enslaved, and the South, be promoted, can harmony may take the place of discord. The differences in regard to internal improvements in a necessity for by aid of the general government have their origin surfaces. If it can be shown that ourselves prematurely over large scattering by one and the same system the North,the South,the East,and the West, all enabled to make roads for themselves, harmony may between the employer and The discords so frequently existing and the labourer, the banker and his customers, the employed,the capitalist be traced to one and the same be as I think, cause, and if that can may all, be restored and maintained. Every removed,harmony and good feeling may
can

be

and enriched,

be restored.

the peace affecting question

"

and tranquillity of the Union,or the people of the shall be settled have determined for the will ourselves whenever we Union, " Which is the under which the labourer obtains one system greatquestion reward largest'
seen

the

will be

When for his labour ?" that shall come to be done,it that there is a perfect of interests the Union, harmony throughout

all its people. and among I would urge .upon the reader a careful,examination Before proceeding further, in mind the -of the of those tables, always precise bearing position tion questends to by all that protection fore, increase the domestic commodity protected.That,theretends to does not require to be proved. It is asserted that protection articleand to diminish the power of consuming of the protected raise the price diminishes itscost and increases the, whereas the removal of protection it, power That is denied, and that it is which requires of consumption. to be proved. If this assertion be true,then the power of consumptionmust diminish with We see, however, that the consumption of iron,of coal,of protection. increased with great rapidity and of in the years between 1830 wool, cotton, If it be true, the quantity and 1834, and in those from 1843 to 1847. the roads and canals, and the number and things of exon of men changes passing that is to be discussed. of the production to, be It is admitted

performedin

our

should diminish with protection, cities,

6

42
whereas

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

in both of the above-named they increased with great rapidity and thus the reduce it then must it be If wages of labour, true, periods. and our us come for to occupy the inducements diminish among foreigners under both with increased rapidity whereas great vacant immigration lands, then it must diminish our power to trade tariffs. If it be true, protective whereas shipping to build ships, and the inducements with foreign nations, both those in periods. grew with greatrapidity 1834 and 1843, it is impossible between the period If, now, we examine that the fact with the foreign ducts proto avoid being struck power to consume diminished with the domestic increase as production not only did not than under less in quantity but that it was to free trade, actually approach and of furnaces was The rolling-mills the system of protection. building So it with before. than iron was less foreign yet we consumed stopped, millions of yards of which fell from above fifty the import .cotton goods, but the importation of killed off our millions. We down to eight sheep, domestic the increase in cloth diminished. We prevented consumption foreign for depending but shipping did not grow with the increased necessity of cotton, assured would raise that we were We adopted a course markets. on foreign So is it now. The ceased to grow. but immigration the wages of labour, of last whole in but of cotton-mills is our import stopped, year, building which
we

per head. iron than

war

but littleexceeded a pound incurred a debt of twenty-two millioms, far less but we consume We have closed furnaces and rolling-mills, as "a before. We have abolished the system that was regarded

and there is no is diminishing yet immigration upon labour and capital," is for new and there no for capital. demand demand are idle, Steam-engines and Kailroad tolls steam-vessels. boats for few are a diminishing, steamones, except but it is not the Western waters are idle. Iron is low in price, on wanted. and woollens. So is almost every description cottons is diminishing, because The power of consumption the demand has largely diminished. for labour and capital to pay taxes for the support of government is The power of the people So is coal. So
are

of merchandise.

dependent upon
we

their power

to

consume

commodities

that

are

and taxed,

if

diminished protection examine the revenue free-list, afterwards that the markets of

diminish revenue ; but when wages, it must of course shown increase of the the facts, it is a great that, notwithstanding increased under the tariffof

1828, and

fell off so much

almost to beg for loans in the governmentwas compelled but with that Europe. With the tariff of 1842 it grew rapidly, of 1846 it is diminishing the in actual amount notwithstanding per head, of more than twenty millions of goodson credit in a single purchase year. If that debt The
were now

called

the for,

revenue

of the current

year would

not

exceed that of 1842.

to question

be settled is""

Does

diminution

in the power to If it does, the facts must

that followsthe produce

the power to importgrow with the ?" withdrawal of protection

that the power to prove it. There is no question and cloth iron with That as produce protection. is, I have already grows all. admitted Were it the facts of said, by not, prove it. The burden

prooflies, then,with
must

the opponents of protection. To establish their system that the show of a nd as it production consumption they power grows now three and that it from 1835 1843 it from to as years since, grew grew grew 1830 to 1834. The first thingthat must strike all who examine the tables in the last isthe uuivei sally diminutive amount of foreign chapter productsreceived in bulk the for of cotton, vast exchange provisions, grain, "c, sent to foreign countries. Thus in 1842-43 the import of cotton cloth was much less than a yard per head of the population, and less probably than one-fourth of a

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

43
to

In other years we that it has varied from two pound of cotton. see but in has of cotton that no our yards, single consumption year l ooms exceeded a pound per head. passed through foreign materially four The
returns
as

has

received for all our productsmay be summed cents' half a pound of wool, about worth of iron, : fifty up nearly much of two as one and China and earthenware flax, or ounces silk, lent equivaand to a tolerable cup and saucer, to which may be added the twisting of and half all this of cotton, per head. To obtain a pound a we weaving of give a large portion of those
as

from follows

Europe

the land and labour of the tobacco raising and

States,and cotton-growing
food

employed in
feed men,

five times the cotton, wool, silk, and flax we and the use of more capital import, in horses,wagons, railroads, ships, enginesand cars, steam and canal boats, wharves and warehouses, than would be necessary for machinery to convert all our cotton into cloth, and make more iron than has ever been made and almost as much in Britain, labour as would do the work and withal,
women,
"

would

and rice, with as much together children who could twist and weave

we

are

brought in

debt.

It is

certainly using great

means

for the

complishment ac-

of small ends. commodities foreign of to prove that while the amount in payment for our exportsincreased in the still ther furperiodfrom 1829 to 1834, it diminished in that from 1835 to 1841 diminished in the years 1842 and 1843, and then rose from rapidly 1844 time it has declined. to 1847, since which These facts seem to the conclusion that the ability warrant to consume foreignproducts, by received
"

of Every portion

the tables tends

both labourer and capitalist, increased under the two tariffsof protection, and declined with every approach to free trade. If, desire to unwe derstand now, how such should be the case, it may be useful to examine how it is with individuals, shall find that the man who produces and, doing so, we of the articles of prime necessity is always the one who can most largely
most indulge

in freely

who in

obtains from

the luxuries of life; and vice versa, that the farmer his land the least food,is the one who can least indulge

coffee, tea, or books. clothing,

What

is further to be remarked is,that any material increase in the consumption of foreign the of freedom to products, approach consequent upon has appearedto be followed by exhaustion and bankruptcy, while every trade, increase in, production has been but the at home, consequent upon protection, for and i ncrease sometimes new a so great as to cause a larger preparation that itwas of apprehension and could not be maintained. To unnatural, feeling this could be carried has never what extent been ascertained, for the only
"

two

understand
or factory

each been limited to four years. To would of it be well for the for examine cause to this, inquirer himself the facts that become obvious to sight, and wherever whenever a of perfect have protection periods the furnace has been recently
set

in
a

operation.Those

at presented

S. C, Graniteville, " York of The New

"

thus described are Herald :'V-

by

correspondent highly intelligent

neighbourhood is almost magical. who were, inhabitants,

The

effectof the erection of this manufactory in the have found

Hundreds

employment

among

the

A free been erected. before,ajmost destitute. A Methodist and a There school has been opened, and about 70 pupils attend. is a large and convenient I am where writing this letter. The town is laid out in streets,and already over hotel, with gardens attached, have been put up, 80 dwelling-houses, very neat and comfortable, The girls rent from $16 to $25 per annum. of them, very which in the factory are, some I well and dressed what the from in their appearare can and, change learn, prfctlv. ; Mr. George Kelly, out who came here and anceJs extraordinary. The superintendent, with me He went through the manufactory and town. placed the factoryin operation, that he only brought with him four or five experienced from informed me the persona

poor of the white church have Baptist

44
North Sand
"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

from the are about 300, men, and children, factory, women, where earning nothing. vicinity, they, one year ago, were and females from three to four dollars, They make now from four to five dollars, (males,) Some well dressed and who are now children one dollars week. of the to two girls, per in the field, at work a year ago were hoeing corn, or ploughing appear very intelligent, where idle ; now with a horse ; others were they reside in comfortable boarding-houses, Their education is attended they pay $1-50 per week for board, and can lay up money. useful and productive citizens. In fact,since to, and they are on the road to become the young male and female Christmas,over fortymarriages have taken place between became and got attached, brought together in it, operativesin the factory. They were the -factory In such a case, the wife generallyleaves to the housekeeping married. to attend all the
rest

in the

Hills and

immediate

arrangements
"

of the

new

and couple,

the husband

continues in the

which factory,

gives them an independent support. The grounds around the factory laid out with a great deal of taste, and I have not are houses are place. New seen, in a long while, a more going up prosperous and thriving The week. for work double what are applications they can possiblyemploy. every in the district, 400 male and female operators, who are without any They could obtain, work, if theycould give them employment." The is Editor of The account following by Mr. Bryant, Evening Post," of facts mill erected in Barnwell a descriptive presented by recently
"

S. C. District,
"

"

The girls of various ages, who are had, for the most part, employed at the spindles, that look of mingled sallow,sickly complexion, and in many of their faces I remarked distrust and dejection which often accompanies theycondition of extreme, hopelesspoverty. These poor girls,' said one of our party, think themselves ployed extremely fortunate to be emfrom the most barren here,and accept work gladly. They come parts of Carolina and Georgia, where their families live wretchedly,for hitherto there has been no manual occupationprovided for them, from which they do not shrink as disgraceful, account on of its being the occupation of slaves. In these factories, are not negroes employed as and this gives the calling'of the factory operatives, girla certain dignity. You would be surprisedto see the change which a short time effects in these poor people. They come and in rags ; they are scoured, bare-footed, dirty, set at work, put into shoes and stockings, and sent regularly to Sunday-school, where of them have been they are taught what none to read and In a short time, they become write. taught before expert at their work; they lose their sullen shyness,and their physiognomy becomes comparatively open and Their families are relieved from cheerful. the temptations to theft and other shameful which accompany courses the condition of poverty without occupation.'
a
1 '
"

"

He

adds
a

that

"

at

in South Graniteville,

about Carolina,

ten

miles

from

the Savannah

river, littlemanufacturing villagehas lately been built up, where the families of the crackers, as reclaimed from their idle lives in the woods, are settled and they are called, white labour only is employed. The enterprise is said to be in a most dition." prosperous conbuildingsare erected here more he continued; "there is far less excheaply," pense and the wages of the work-people fuel, less. At first, are the boys and girls of the cracker' families were than their board ; their wages engaged for little more now are but they are still low. I am better, about to go to the North, and I shall do my best to of my friends, who have been almost ruined by this Southern competition, persuade some to come to Augusta and set up cotton mills."
in
'

"The

The
men

labour whether

employed
were

in

these building
not.

mills
to

was

The clear profit.

body, supported by someworking

and their families mills is

and theyhad there,

or

be

theyworked
profit.The

the

All the labour employed in peoplehave begun to produce. From

ductive unpro-

consumers

former

condition

they have become productiveconsumers. In their they could consume utensils or scarcely any clothing,

iron for their manufacture, or furniture, requiring or books, or newspapers" indeed, but food. scarcely any thing, the Having become productive, whole surplus than food, may go to the purchaseof other things" and thus is made
a

market

existence.

is a Everyproducer and by enabling these

for cloth and iron and other commodities,that before had no to the whole extent of his consumer duction, prothe planter poor peopleto producemore,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

45
the extent
more

makes whole

market

on

the land for the

of the land, to products

of the be

excess of production. The more consumed. This assertion may at first appear little examination The
to
man

the that is produced,

must

of douhtful truth,yet a to be one correctness. I think,suffice to establish its perfect will, who earns six dollars a week, lays by one of them, which he carries lends it and other similar dollars to He pays it out to workmen who
some one

the

which saving-fund,

who

desires to huild a house. and it food and clothing,

purchase with The capithus is that surplus dollar consumed. talist, men and the workwith his savings, builds houses,or ships, or factories, whom he employspurchasefood and clothing, and the use of houses, with his money. of a year always is and must The average consumption of desire to know the extent and if we be equal to the average production,
the have but to ascertain that of the other. millions of yards of cotton cloths of we imported forty-three of which were to the to the planter customers various kinds,the consumers less than bales, millions of of of eleven or 28,000 being extent pounds cotton, mills moderate of size, would worked or much be as as up by twenty-eight
one we

In

1839

size. To produce those mills in any single cotton-growing larger effort whatsoever,and when no produced it would be require for it would be attended with not the found that they would be all profit, The labourers the of diminution in amount production. agricultural slightest The horses o f their waste. and time is are a large there, absolutely portion fourteen of State would and wagons
are

there,to

great extent unemployed. The

timber is there,

The men and the horses encumbering the best lands of the plantation. for Make order. be in a market must be fed,and the wagons must kept chief the but and the labourers will consume food, more this waste labour, for cotton thus making a market will be in clothing, increase of expenditures for in and lumber for.stone furniture, in houses, making a market
" "

which

lumber
"

for rags and

ket making a marnewspapers, makers, and cabinetand carpenters,and masons, and the' cloth-makers, will want and printers, cloth,and shoes, and paper-makers,

will be

required in
"

books and

and lumber and for cotton and leather, further market would be a prostone. ducer, Exchanging thus on the spot, each and every man the transporters whereas when exchangesare made at great distances, and as consumption than the producers, numerous and exchangers more are

houses, making

see and can go no further, we may now go to the extent of production, work in when men tends increase to so that is it rapidly consumption why combination with each other. erected mills that worked up 300,000 bales of cotton, In four years we contained in all the cloth imported in much times eleven as was as or

must

would have required no effort, To have created treble that number 1839. for of loss attended with products, have been would it agricultural nor any and West South : and of the wasted in the labour was being every county be attended with no diminution in the product now to carry them on would is now for a factory being of food or cotton, for treble the labour required south of New and in one the of almost Union, wasted in every every county and and children, and women of horses, England.To the labour-power men that is wasted on the let us add the quantity
now

unemployed, absolutely
to

road, and
we

that let us

add

the

manure

now

wasted

on

the road,and

then

creased but even then a very insufficient one, of the inmay form an estimate, of those mills. creation that would have resulted from 4he product
us

fed,and that their surplus are now then reflect that all these people and we than food, of other things to the purchase would be applicable earnings made the on of the market thus what would be the extent may then see land. of the the for land products
Let

46
A

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

entertained in exists in the impression now very commonly to the English its of and which national division owes labour, to origin regard based upon the school of political economists, whose system is throughout idea of making England" the workshopof the world," than which nothing nations are could be less natural. By that school it is taughtthat some and that the and others for the labours of agriculture, fittedfor manufactures

great error

in the to employ themselves benefited by beingcompelled largely thus all their at one contributing making exchanges a distance, pursuit, and comof the system of colonies, merce." their share to the maintenance ships, and The whole basis of their system is conversion and exchange, the of addition neither makes to amount to not production, things yet any It is the greatboast of their system that the exchangers are be exchanged. so the increase in the and the producers so few,* and the more numerous rapid is supposed the which the former bear to the latter, more to rapid proportion and Converters be the advance towards perfectprosperity. exchangers, and theymust live out of the labour of others : and if however, must live, of one, it must follow five,or ten persons are to live on the product three, latter are
"

that all will obtain but a small allowance of the necessaries or comforts of labourer of England often is seen The agricultural to be the case. as life, of a bushel and a half receives but seven a week, being the price shillings of wheat. Were it asserted that others grinders of it, or fittedto be growers of wheat and down trees and cutting others for sawing them into lumber, it would be regarded the height of as absurd than that which is daily asserted in absurdity, yet itwould not be more
some were

nations
some

that

were

fitted for

to regard

thousands
an

the conversion of cotton into cloth, and implicitly believed by tens of of our countrymen. The loom is as appropriate and neceseven sary aid to the labours of the planter is the grist-mill to those of the as

farmer. The furnace is as necessary and as appropriate aid to the an labours of both planter and farmer as is the saw-mill, and those who are with the proximity of the producer to dispense of iron, labour to compelled much do those who are unable to obtain the aid of the as as disadvantage the miller. "jTheloom and the anvil are, like the plough and the harrow, but small machines, naturally attracted by the great machine, the earth,and when attracted all work so in harmony,and men together become rich, and prosperous, and happy. When, on the from saw-mill and

contrary,

the attraction is in the opposite and the cause, direction, any disturbing small machines are enabled to compelthe products of the great machine to follow them, the land invariably becomes poor, and men become poor and is the case with Ireland. as miserable, To those who doubt the extent of the loss resulting from this unnatural

"]

division of labour, I would recommend farm at a distance of a visit to any miles from furnace o r a that theymay there,on the or a factory, thirty forty themselves of the fact. They will there see ground,satisfy daysperpetually wasted for want of means of occupation and other the road on
"

days

carrying

small amounts of produce and general listlessness from resulting the want of stimulus to activity, the part of the men, on while children, male and female, are and the schoolmaster remains totally unemployed, abroad for want of means to pay him when at home. As a rule,
to
"

market

general

Out of 3,400,000 families in Great Britain in 1831, but 960,000 were engaged in the work of production. Between agriculture, 1831 and 1841 the number of adult males increased 630,000,but the number of those employed in agriculture diminished 19,000. The town that which lives by the work of conversion and population, exchange, is steadily in its ratio to the producing increasing and as a necessary consequence population, there is a steady increase of poverty, vice, and crime.
*
"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

47

our

in

scarcely any value to time. They go to a distant market to selling at a nearer the difference of priceto be preference one, when obtained upon their few pounds of butter, or baskets of vegetables, appears insignificant compared with the loss of time and labour,and they do utterly this because labour is to so great an extent Let the inquirer valueless. totally look to these things for himself, and let him then add the enormous of the labour that is misemployedin badlycultivating faces surproportion large instead of small ones disin keeping up fences and roads entirely of and finally let him add the waste to the productof the land proportioned
" "

farmers attach

intellect from the with their times

over
"

want

neighbourmen
as

great

as

of proper instruction and frequent communication and then let him determine if the loss is not five material would raw pay for all the cloth and iron
" "

included

the mill there, and all this is upon saved. The farmer and his horses and wagon are employed in hauling for houses, and his children find employstone and timber for the mill and ment Place

consumed

the farm.

by those cloth and for go I had for the with mill come iron, improved forfood they before. say all, of sendingto market the many roads,and' the facility thingsfor which a market on the land cannot as yet be made.
who work
"

in the mill, or in the in the mill, and

of things that can production all their extra earningsmay

be used

The

mill and

furnace,and

the coal mine,

are

in saving-funds,

which

the

of the neighbourhood wise the labour and the things which otherdeposit people would be waste, and where these depositories farmers and exist, become planters rich. Where

they do

who desire to understand the wonderful of labour, I would recommend quantities

To those not, they remain poor. effect of the daily of small deposit
an

examination will there

see

of the how

saving-fund
much
can

system of Europe and this country.

accumulated thence such
can

They

be

from small form

a

institutions.

when is offered, and a safe placeof deposit savings judgment of how much is liable to be wasted for want of The people of New in which England have saving-funds would their be be otherwise
sons

what deposit "they

the waste

horses and wagons,

that Would land for the and

otherwise

and daughters, wasted, making by the very

and their

labour of themselves, their much of the produce

act
a

market

on

the

of products

they grow States waste labour, and water-power, and produce of various kinds, and and they waste their timber for want of a market for it, then they destroy and thus it is that theyremain because of this extravatheir manure, gance. poor

the land,and thus are enabled to rich because of these economies. The

save

the manure, peopleof other

One cent per day for each person of the nation is almost eighty for Is there not wasted, for want of a demand millions of dollars in a year. hundred the isfour ? that head If labour amount sum to quintuple it, so, per material included of all times the price raw millions of dollars, or forty abroad. afford to buy from the cotton cloths we can millions all this saved, it would make for four hundred Were a market
" "

plements, imof linens, of dollars of cottons and woollens, hardware, agricultural iron, for the comfort and all of the thousand other things coal, required for food life. I say four hundred millions of those things, of their to the whole extent as they are all consumers in other theymust expend almost the whole extra production production, and

enjoyment of

and they had before, than things

millions they would To the extent of these four hundred food. for the earth is the.sole producer. to the land and its owner, be customers desire to view the effect of this waste of labour, Should the inquirer on a he could scale, large Doing so, he do better than visit the valley of the Schuylkill. find there all the labour and all the machinefor the production at market of 60,000 tons of coal per week, requisite
not
now

would

power

48
worth

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

that will go to market this year will about $240,000. The quantity worth $120,000. Here is a diminution in be about 30,000 tons per week, and if we six millions of dollars, of the extent coal the article of alone,to amount. the would increase it from iron Having greatly were to add the loss what was if he should then inquire ascertained this, being producedto find would it are amends for this,he make literally nothing. The men have must and and food, families and are there, they there,and their wives and thousands are obtain it hundreds cultivating that they may potato of the coal and value producedto take the place patches ; but the whole iron not The pay pay is so produced,
now labour-power

small
coal

as

to scarcely

be worth

the

notice. slightest
more

being wasted
we

in that

is valley

than would
we

for all the iron and in wheat food

or

have
we

and imported,

for which

cotton.

If, now,

the everywherediminishing
or

power

follow this six millions, we can of the labourer and the miner
"

have to find it
to
sume con-

the to the loss of both farmer and planter diminishing cloth, the reward of the labourer and of the and consequently demand for the labour, to construct mechanic the power of railroad owners new roads, diminishing for labour,and the power to pay the demand and thus again diminishing, the it be traced, for cloth or food : and thus may step by step, throughout loss. share of the its jvhole nation, interest taking every of any kind, and he will see that the /" Let the inquirer next visit a factory
"

itsexistence value of the labour there employedis a creation that owes in which each the fact that the mill has been built to be a saving-fund and mental, that" would otherwise the labour, physical deposit family may the hats and coats, the shoes and the cloth, be wasted, receiving in exchange whole
to
f

books tockings,"the him [Let

and then

obtained.

that could not otherwise have been newspapers, and he will find them prothese trace savings, ducing
" "

creased demand for food and better food for cotton, an-in a demand and wool, and iron, and fuel, and all other of the productsof the earthyto cultivator of land,whether farmer or planter, the benefit of every owner or The of New England save labour,and doing so they grow rich, people
v

and

are

enabled

to

make

roads

by

which

to market, and theytravel rapidly

which goes back upon the land,and the refuse of their products, that also grows rich. The people of the South and West, for want of such time than would times for waste more over labour-saving-funds, pay many

they save

all the cloth and iron

theycan

consume

and then

theyare

unable to make

roads,the consequence

have to go to a Their necessities for making roads are great, but their power roads is small. to make They waste all the refuse of their land,which is their necessities exhausted,and then theyrun away to other lands,increasing and diminishing their power.

They

is that the conveyance is costly. to market distance for the performance of every exchange, ever how-

of which

small.

But, it is asked, cannot

of the Those who ask this

too

much

coal and

iron,cotton, wheat, and other

than can be consumed more ? recollect that do is a consumer question every man of his production. The more coal and iron are produced, to the whole extent the more wheat and cotton are consumed. The more wheat and cotton are

of the world be good things

produced
"

not

the produced,

more

coal and iron are

consumed.

there is a glutof any in hand, and when go hand in the system that requires error to be corrected. Coal is
now

and production Consumption thingit is the result of

The market is overloaded with a quantity superabundant. consumed two was and less by readily years since, now had the power of consumption increased required, at the same from 1843 to 1847. rate as duringthe period The friends of the existing of foreign to the trivialimport and system point coal, smaller than that which one-third than would be

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

49

of diminished product there be found. cannot They are sayingtheycondemn the system. The duty on coal was reduced in order that the labourer might obtain fuel more but ithas readily, become difficultto procure it that the consumption much is already more so with every prospect of a further diminution. The diminished, sensibly total import of iron, and of cotton cloth, is as nothingcomparedwith the in the years from 1843 to 1847, and thus we that see growthof the product the supply diminishes instead of increasing under in its ratio to population,
cause so

say that the

but right,

in

system that
so

was

to

to readily

obtain cloth and much

"_It is not
because

enable the labourer, and the farmer and planter, more iron. that coal needs protection for itself or that iron or cotton
" "

need itfor themselves but that each needs itfor the other. The producer of coal suffers because the furnace is closed, and the producer of iron suffers the factories are labour is diminished. is as and the maker of cloth suffers because built, longer the and cloth is to everywherebeing wasted, buy power The harmony of interests agricultural and manufacturing
no
" "

of is that of the movements as perfect all around. without producinginjuryamong when the in operatives
cotton

watch, and
The

no

one

can

suffer

factories and the latter suffer when and adverse circumstances are unemployed, labour of the and the the farmer diminish return to i planter, labour and the productsof labour wasted in the States There more are than would, ten times over, convert south of Mason and Dixon's line, into

grower of cotton suffers the workers in mines and furnaces

and more than cloth all the cotton they produce, in the States north of it, would, ten times over, produceall the iron .made in Great Britain. This will be clearly as may appear a largestatement, yet it is less than the truth, examination. If evidence of this be desired,look to the fact seen on manufacture doubled in five years of cottons and woollens that of iron, which in 1843 was under 250,000 tons, reached nearly Did this diminish the productsof agriculture? Was 800,000 in 1847. We before known? the supply greater than was ever not, on the contrary, millions in manufactures, not only without; added at least two hundred
"

that the and

diminution and place,

elsewhere,but with
it was when precisely
was we

increase larger the home that

a we

than had

ever

consumptionhad
had

become

before taken mense imso

that the assertion bushels of food for which and much Jaiiour,
U~

made needed

market.

millions of three hundred saved All this labour was

of the

things employedwould

otherwise have been wasted.

the other fact, that it was when the growth of precisely the of food became that from 1835 arrested, to 1839, w as supply manufactures diminished short that,notwithstanding so consumption consequent of we were compelled to import wheat to the amount upon high prices, if will be and it seen than four millions of dollars in a single more year, does 1844-'47 and not the experienceof the two 1835-'41, periods Look
next to
" "

to the the loom and the anvil are brought that the nearer prove conclusively Could it the labours of the is the the return to plough, larger labour and of less the the of be otherwise ? The nearer place exchange, is labour the road, and the more wasted uninterruptedly are on manure

ploughmanuj
The

applied, upon

machine

in its powers. constantly increasing

demand

enables the farmer to sell his trees, and with the product he, for lumber The and better land. drains his land,and thus is enabled to cultivate more wasted on the more labour and manureare distantthe loom and the anvil, more lands sarily necesthe road,the less of both can be givento the land,and the best because the labour with trees that are valueless, remain encumbered of them clearing That is
more

than

they are
7

worth

when under

cleared. the

the reward

of the labourer advances

protective system

is

50

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

obvious from the fact that

tp seek

high ones.
almost

Men increases. immigration go from 1829 to 1834 immigration From grew.

to

low wages Thence to

the present time it has increased with vast rapidity. Henceforward, if the existing system be maintained, fuel and house-it must diminish,for the power to obtain food and clothing, room, wages, has declined. of labour increases is obvious from the rapid That the productiveness 1843 it was Thence stationary. condition with every and their stationary growthof canal and railroad tolls, loom and the anvil of the tends the t hat to the to separation policy approach with the growth of steamboats, So again from the ploughand the harrow. there is produced, the more The be can more and of vessels generally.

will go consumed, and the more it appears to me, There is, as

to
no

market. of single point view from which

we gard re-

shall not find conbefore our eyes, in which we the facts now firmation passing all the machinery Were of these views. of the correctness now of coarse taken used in Lowell and Providence,for the manufacture cloths, and muslins,and silks, out and replaced by that fittedfor making fine cloths, would be ten times as much as we now import,with little product all that coarse of labour employed. Were increase in the quantity chinery mathe South, it would enable the people then distributed throughout of Southern States to con vert intocloth three hundred thousand additional bales the in the agricultural export, but with "more then be an advantageously applied.To mills and making machinery, all this, would require accomplish by building of labour equal of that which is now to but a very small portion amount an of cotton, not

onlywithout

diminution

increase, for labour would

wasted The

gree dea higher would rise,and the wages of woollen and cotton cloth, of silks, and of sugar, and tea, and consumption would grow rapidly.The people of the South would find the same coffee, effects. Their own while they consumptionof cotton would be quintupled, would consume and better food than now. more They would need better for timber and stone would cleartheir land,and houses,and the demand of intellect than is
now

in a single year, and not alone. of the North would people

as

much

as

is this year

wasted

in Pennsylvania

then have

called into action

and required,

wealth
to

make

would give and population them roads would eat food and wear would be enabled to become in the North.

themselves

better roads, and the men who came cottons, and thus the planters for the fine ones customers large duced procoarse

the producers tea and coffee, of those articles would be Consuming more able to purchase more cotton, and thus the planters' market would grow on The demand hand. for f or and for thousands of furniture, machinery, every other things, w.ould producenew in improvements manufactures, and the of and tea and coffee, be enabled to consume producers cotton, would sugar of while the makers of them, more largely machineryand furniture would need
more more iron,

lumber, and

more

cotton.*

I take the

following from
be wasted

The Cincinnati

Gazette, as
be
a

evidence

of the

vast

amount

of

smaller

composed of thingsthat would articles,

but for the

wasted, and
market
:

prepared, much

of

it, by

labour that would

"

proximity of

What

our

larger manufactures
the

persons

familiar with of

machinery of
serve

for the South are, is well sugar plantations. Our

are

by understood, especially
small

manufactures, exports of of the South

some

sisting con-

bagging,buckets,tubs,ploughs,"c,
will
to

less known. the

The

of

these for four seasons,

respect, and
our

show

uoth

requirements

in this

to supply them. ability

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

51

the other hand, let us suppose the cotton mills closed, and the supply of all that is produced from 600,000 bales to the extent of cotton the furnaces closed,and the supplyof iron diminished to the of cloth diminished
"

On

of 800,000 tons extent diminished to the extent

"

and

the coal mines

and the supply of fuel closed,

"

of three millions of tons could we importand pay for the deficiency Would ? the whole cotton crop then bring than we more obtain for three-fourths of it? It would not. now Our power to import would

foreigncloth

and iron, and fuel, would but it be increased, not only not be diminished, and we should consume one pound of cotton per head instead of ten or twelve. The power to pay for all the cotton and iron produced the saving of labour, and with the disappearat home, results from ance what
at

of the power to save that labour would its products. Union between are now
to

home, would, therefore, appear

disunion among
CHAPTER
WHY IS IT THAT

be

the power to" consume disappear the producerand the consumer than union with more profitable

people abroad and

those at home.
FIFTH.
PROTECTION IS

REQUIRED

If all the labour

employed

in

food,ore, and
"

fuel into iron, be that is it men profit why really

food and cotton into cloth, and converting labour saved if the whole result be really should require enable to them to protection
"

producecloth
answered. It is because The it is first and

and iron? it is saved the

The

is a question

natural one, and should be the loom that and

fully

and labour,

because the harrow

the anvil afe

to merelysubsidiary

ploughand
man

is required. protection in the form in which

great objectof
"

is,to obtain food and the materials of

is fitfor
use

for clothing

himself and

family. Neither

yielded by the earth and to be ground, requires

the
one

the great machine of production. The the wool to be spun and woven. He
to convert

grain pounds
some

and

his wife

endeavours rude.

the other into cloth of bad

however description, lose much

They

work

with

machinery, and

they

time, and yet the loss is less than would be the case were they distant to the yet more to the distant flour-mill, or the wool to carry the grain and the blacksmith comes woollens-mill. By degreespopulation increases, .to

exchange
for food.

horse-shoes The

for food.
comes

The
to

carpenter

comes

to

exchange

labour

saw-miller

exchangethe labour of himself

1845-'46.

and his

1846-'47.

1847-'48.

1848-'49.

Alcohol,bbls Brooms, doz Bagging, pieces Candles, boxes pieces Cooperage,

Lard bbls. oiT, bbls. oil,
....
.

1,615 1,584 6,757 18,388 1,690

455

1,844 5,108 8,867

16,622

41,121
6,199 6,032

Linseed

...

Soap,boxes
.

Starch,boxes White lead,kegs Sundry manufactures,packages

....

2,708 2,499 7,957

10,080 5,826 22,251

1,771 3,760 12,632 29,180 36,924 8,277 3,878 11,295 8,179 42,418

3,022 3,333 15,910 39,640 55,617 9,550 3,020 11,308 7,904 29,417 94,934

manufactures too often overlooked are vey by persons from abroad who surit came how and what and, wonder it is doing out here in the populous city, But they reallyconstiheart of what was tute, nothing but a.wilderness half a century ago. familiar with them knows, one of the main elements of our prosperity. as every one lie many And behind them others,contributingtheir share to our comforts and our into our export trade, and consequently are not as growth, which yet enter only slightly
"

These this

small

included

in

our

commercial

tables."

52
machine with its before. for food.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

growth men
Next

In all these cases we obtain horse-shoes

see

comhination houses
more

and

of action, and than readily

the labour of and the miller gives the little grist-mill comes, woollens-mill little food the for to eat. in exchange Again, comes, grinding his labour to the carpenter and saw-miller for labour and the miller gives and lumber, to the blacksmith for his iron work, and to the farmer for food and wool. Next the littlefurnace his
comes,

and

the furnace

man,

in like of combination

manner,

with exchanges of action

men

and neighbours,

with

the progress

ture, furniat every step, food,fuel, iron, obtain, clothing, The firstand great desire of man and houses,with increased facility. is that of association with his fellow-man,and it is so, because he feels that is its moral, mental and political, physical, improvement of his condition,

accompaniment. Throughoutthis country,there is a want of combination. Men are perpetually themselves from each other, over largesurfaces, scattering flying and wasting the labour that if saved would make them rich. This inability their exertions is the result of artificial to combine causes ; and the adoption effortto obtain of the protective has been instinctive an produced by system aid would that its had those have come not causes which, existed, by without and effort. naturally If we look to the early of these provinces, shall see the now we history the establishment towards of "c. furnaces, woollen-mills, gradualtendency for the purpose of enabling to combine their exertions for obtaining men iron,
and other of the necessaries of lifewith the least loss of labour in the cloth, work
own

uniform

of

labour to be into iron. The

transportation, whereby theymight be enabled to economize while their sons employedin the work of production,

their and

were daughters ore

obtaining wages

in the conversion
"

of wool

into cotton, or

of the colonial system was that of object raising up a nation of "fit only," customers," a project Smith, "for a nation of shopsays Adam keepers." He was, however, inclined to think,that even for them it was fitfor a nation whose government was unfit, influenced although extremely
"

As early the period as the Revolution by shopkeepers." immediately following of 1688, we find the shopkeeping influence exerted for the "discouragement

people of
their
own

of the woollens manufacture of Ireland ; and that unfortunate country were thus prevented from wool

"

while

the

converting

into cloth, theywere by other laws preventedfrom with their fellow-subjects in other colonies, unless any exchanges the medium " of English ports and English shopkeepers."

making through

Such beingthe case, it was little that any efforts at combination of likely exertion among distant colonists, for rendering labour more of productive the conveniences and comforts of life, should escape the jealous eyes of men whose instincts had prompted them shopkeeping to the of such
measures

in

regardto

nearer

ones.

The

first attempt at

cloth in the American was provinces the part of the British legislature. In 1710, the House of Commons " that the erecting declared, of manufactories in the colonies had a to lessen their dependence tendency upon Great Britain." Soon afterwards made to Parliament, were that the colonists were complaints setting up manufactories for themselves, and the House of Commons ordered the Board of Trade to report upon the subject, which was done at great length. In 1732, the exportation of hats from to any

speciesof
on

adoption manufacturing followed by interference

province
taken

provincewas

and

prohibited,

the number

of

to apprentices
or

1750, the erection of any mill

was

by hatters was limited. In other enginefor splitting or iron rolling

to

be

prohibited was ; but pig-iron

allowed

be

into England duty imported

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

53

that it might then be manufactured and free, Lord Chatham that he would declared,
even a

sent not

back

again. At a later period, allow the colonists to make

hob-nail for themselves. the act, 5George

a

to

these colonies. That

By
under

Such is a specimen of the system, with regard in relation to the world at large shall now be given. III. [1765,] the exportation of artisans was prohibited

heavy penalty. for the exportation of utensils required George III.[1781,] the manufacture of woollens or silk was likewise prohibited. extended to was By that of 22 George III. [1782,] the prohibition artificers in printingcalicoes, muslins in or linens, or cottons, making blocks and implementsto be used in their manufacture. extended it was to tools used in the By that of 25 George III. [1785,] By
thatof 21 iron and steel manufactures,and to the workmen employedtherein. that of extended 39 III. i t was to colliers. By [1799,] George laws continued in full force until the year 1824, when These the
as

bition prohi-

the export of artisans was and all those relating to abolished, the export of machinery so far relaxed that " permission had be may now for the exportation of all the more articlesof machinery," discretion common
to

having been given to the Board of Trade, which decides upon each application, little difficulty But is "according to the merits of the case." it is said,experiencedby merchants, who know as to generally now, "the indulgencewill be extended, and from what it will what- machines if it had been settled by act of Parliament be withheld," almost as certainly as with the to have it left discretionary advantageous ; yet,it is deemed the matter, according Board, that they may have "the power of regulating Under this system, the whole to the changing interests of commerce."* quantityof machinery exportedin the eleven years, from 1824 to 1835, but two hundred thousand pounds per annum.t averaged
We has
see

thus,that the whole

of Great Britain, on legislation

this

subject,

directed to the one of preventing the peopleof her great object the machinery and those of independent from obtaining colonies, nations, been necessary
to

enable
or

them

to

combine

cloth obtaining

iron,and

thus
convert

their exertions for the purpose them to bringto her their compelling them into the forms that fittedthem

of
raw

that she might materials,

for

of them, burdened and then return to the producers a portion consumption, and heavy charges for the work of conwith great cost for transportation, version. the revocation of a part of notwithstanding with the Board of Trade, whether or system, it is still discretionary they will permitthe export of machineryof any description. We
see,

too, that

the
not

Had

it not been

that there
to hats,

was

natural

of iron and food-and

as

and cloth,

take his have

wool,there

could

never

tendency to have the producer placeby the side of the producerof for such laws arisen any necessity

those

passedin

not
never

and had that tendency relation to Ireland and the colonies, the laws prohibiting the export of machinery would existed,

and and it does everywhereexist, been required.It did exist, the gradual for the purpose of preventing development of a natural and bringing about an unnatural one, whereby Great Britain state of things, made "the of the world," that those laws were be passed. work-shop might have it was The has been, and is, of protection to object effect of those laws has been
restore

the natural one.

an

The

that of

about bringing

unnatural

The loom and the anvil, in that country,instead of division of her population. have become with great deterioration in first, being second to the plough,
Porter's

Vol. I. p. 320. Progress of the Nation,

Ibid. p. 323.

54

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

the condition of both

labourer and made

enormous

For capitalist.

the long period,

few

engaged in
were

manufactures
to

vast

enabled
more

obtain

fortunes ; while the owners the consumers rents, because

of land of food

Land gradually food. consolidated itself in fewer hands, and the littleoccupant of a few acres of acres gradually gave way to the great farmer, who cultivated hundreds The hired-labour. few became and the aid of went to the richer, by many value of in and the The value was labour, food, diminished, poor-house. increased

than rapidly

the

producersof

of
out

also diminished, because both were, as theystillare, shut was capital from employmenton land,the onlyemployment in which both can be
an

increase in the return to labour. smuggled out of England,and therefrom ; and at length there arose for legalizartisans escaped a necessity ing the export of both,and from that time it is that manufactures the on continent of Europe have made greatprogress. The people there, however, used to

indefinite extent, with constant

however, machinerywas By degrees,

laboured under great disadvantages. have, like ourselves, Englandhad

polized mono-

for so long skillthat could not a time that she had acquired machinery rivalled while be she had, by this improper division of her populareadily ; tion, at a lower point proportioned to kept the priceof labour and capital the advantage with which theymight have been applied than among her and always readyto sink Her establishments were neighbours. gigantic, those who might undertake the unceasing ; while competition changesin
" "

her

monetary

system, were
connected The

of the colonial arrangements, the necessary consequences of themselves sufficient to spread ruin among all the nations with her. Our own has been that of all the world. experience

of the existence of such a state of things, necessary consequence resistance by the various independent nations of the world, in the form of tariffs of protection of the first results of which was the modification of ; one the law prohibiting the export of machinery. From that period to the
was

other nations, present, she has been engaged in an effort to under-work efforts their shut her and with to each of her progress despite out, stage the condition of her operatives, well as that of her farm labourers, as has deteriorated. Women have been substituted for men, and children of the immature and the hours of labour have been so far most years for women, extended render interference absolutely to as Parliamentary necessary. That interference was the on of the opposed, ground that all the profit machinery resulted from the runningof an additional hour. In the mining of her trade, the system is the same, and it is impossible department to read the have

Parliamentary Reportson

the condition of her the awful

and manufacturing

that consequences resulted from this effort to tax the world by monopolizing machinery. moral effects are bad as the physical The as Frauds of every ones. kind have become almost universal. Flour is substituted for cotton, in the to such an fifteen years since, extent the that, making up of cotton cloths, estimated at forty-two millions of consumptionfor this purpose was of iron, and of all other commodities,is uniformly pounds.* The quality reduced
to

without being horrified at mining labourers,

such

that is required the point for preventing other nations from producing commodities for themselves. of 1831, it was shown of which 3,303,504, of and agricultural that the number of familiesin England those of

By
and

the

census was or

Wales

occupants,
* "

agricultural of things mininglabourers, to be producers

1,170,000 were

These
same

goods
cost

are

of the

; but

generallysmoother and more evenly made than American fabrics they must be used in their dry state,as in washing their appearance
"

is very

much

changed." Dry

Goods

Nov. Reporter,

1849.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

55

converted

or

and
state

and exchangers, 2,133,000 for the 'converters exchanged ; leaving for the money-spending classes paupers on one hand, and
"

and gentlemen, the other. Thus the products on of one labourer had to be divided among three. of 1841, it was shown that, increase in an By the census notwithstanding the last ten years of 630,000 in the number of adult males, there had been of 19,000 in the number and employedin agriculture, have almost four persons to consume the products of one. Since that date, the tendencyhas been in the same direction. The and rapidly increasing transporters, converters, and exchangershave been steadily in their proportion to the producers.
an

noblemen annuitants,

actual diminution
we

thus

With
more

each
more

step in her progress, she thus becomes

a mere

and

dependentupon exchanger,

and

the productsof other exchanging between the producers and disproportion that led to the repeal of the state of things there is
an

and a producer, of converting profits This steadily nations. increasing the exchangers, broughtabout the less the

corn laws,since the'date of which evident increase in the tendency to become a mere exchangerof the works of other men's hands. The amount of her trade does not grow with the growth required tain by this change. The farmer may live and main-

his

out family

of
as

crop

of five hundred

bushels,or

even

less.

The

five thousand pass bushels ; and what is true of the individual is true of a shopkeeper equally nation of shopkeepers, I will now show. as The man who raises his own of $100, food,and sells of it to the amount has that sum and other of the comto be applied to the purchaseof clothing forts of life. He is selling the productof his own labour. The man who buys food to the extent of $100, and sells his products for has food. but be the of other than to $200, $100'tp applied things purchase To the extent The of one-half he is who the produce of the selling labour of others. each to the extent of $100, must sell man buys food and leather, $300 worth of shoes to give him $100 to be applied to the purchaseof other than food. To the of two-thirds he is selling the labour of extent things others.
So
to

to shopkeeper,

live

well, must

throughhis hands

is it with

nations.

When

theysell their
in the
same

own

their products, sold. When

or

power

purchase from

others is equal to the whole

amount

they

sell the power

whether of others, products of purchaseis only to the extent

any other form, their the price of the difference between

as paid and the pricereceived. The bale of cotton exported yarn, is but the bale importedas wool,and, to the extent of the cost of the wool, represents no part of the power to purchasefor consumption. The barrel of American flour exported in the form of cloth or iron, is but the barrel of flour imported, and represents no part of the power to purchasecoffee, tea, or sugar. The actual or declared value of the exports of the produce and manufactures of Great Britain and Ireland, was,

From
"

1815 1827 1845

sums

to to to

"

1819, annual average, " 1834, 1848,

" " "

"44,000,000 38,000,000 50,500,000

raw

From

these

is to be deducted, in all cases,

the cost of the

material

the commodities to produce exported. required of cotton manufactured in the first periodamounted The to quantity and the average price 19 pence,* was 100,000,000 of pounds per annum,

"

MoCulloch's

Com.

art. Cotton. Diet.,

56

'THE
the whole
cost

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

making
The
and

about

"8,000,000.
the
raw

The

value

was exported

"16,500,000, of which

material may

of cotton have been

goods
about

"5,500,000.
wool of foreign consumption whole the with this exception about 7,000,000 of poundsweight, of domestic of the export was amount
was

production.
or 13,500,000 to about 1 ,500,000quarters, The importof food amounted bushels of 60 pounds weight. for the materials required food and raw all the foreign together Putting have could total the cost ceeded exof of "44,000,000 scarcely exports, product domestic of value the "12,000,000, leaving ducts pro"32,000,000 as

and about "1-10

labour

by exported

per head, or commodities for domestic consumption. about of cotton manufactured the quantity In the second period, averaged about had fallen to 8d., making the and the price 275,000,000 o/ pounds, had somewhat The proportion increased, cost about "9,000,000. exported from judging the quantity as the difference between givenby the official value, and the productas givenby the declared value, and the amount of labour had decreased, the exports of mere yarn having risen from "1,200,000 to between four and five millions. The value of the raw cotton

of 21,000,000, beingequalto population to the purchaseof foreign $7-20, to be applied

a

thus

exported may

have

been "6,000,000.

had risen to of foreign wool retained for home consumption quantity of the quantity 30,000,000 of pounds,beingan important exported portion The in the form of cloth. The before about 1,500,000 quarters. as average import of food was, materials estimate the total consumptionof food and other raw we If, now, from the amount of exports, we shall at "14,000,000, and deduct that sum
ported "24,000,000 as the value of the productsand labour exremaining of 23,000,000,beingabout 21*. or $5 per head, to be by a population other than,grain, for to the purchaseof foreign commodities, appropriated

have

consumption.
to

the declared value of cotton goods exported In the third period, had risen about "25,000,000, and the cost of the raw for this purcotton required pose, in the year 1846, was estimated at about, "8,500,000 And in the year 1847, at 8,800,000
.

For

1845

and

making

be added the must now wool of Australia, and which of the had risen manufacture Spain Germany, the into 70,000,000 of pounds ; the silks of Italy and China; the hides, digo and other colouring the gold, and innumerable other articles materials, used in the production of this large of manufactures amount ; and I shall be
a

total average

1848, the average was about of "8,000,000. To this

7,350,000

the whole amount, for those years, at not lessthan "14,000,000, putting much it and is probably more. flour and grain averaged of The import about 6,250,000 to about quarters,and as the last of those years amounted five and a half millions, it may be safe to assume that the will not fallmaterially short of six required average quantity safe in

millionsof bushels of sixty to fifty-four millions, equal pounds each,and if the cost of these be averaged the at 4*. per bushel,
amount

will be

"10,800,000"
expended in fifteen months is stated to have been "33,000,000. actually an exceptional objectis rather to show case, and my
as an

"

The

amount

This,however,
what may

was

from'the'past

be taken

average

of future years.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

57

add for vast quantities If,now, we of live-stock, pork, and other articles beef,lard, of food, the whole cheese, butter, at home, only consumptionof which was formerly supplied We To shall have be deducted
a

1,000,000 25,800,000

total of from the gross amount of exports,and

leaving only
the value of the export of the and a half millions composing the
as

24,700,000
and labour of the twenty-seven products of the United Kingdom, being population be applied to the purchase of sugar, tea,
"

about 18s.

$4*32 per head, to or and numerous o"ther foreign articlesof food for lumber, coffee, rice, spices, manufactures of every description, and for the purchaseof tobacco, foreign the cotton, silk,wool, dye-stuffs, for the manufacture hides, "c. "c, required of We used clothing here
a

at

home.

have

of various that

be applied to the purchase of food that from luxuries have become saries necesdescriptions
to diminishing quantity constantly

as

of life, and that of the materials of clothing.It follows, of course, the amount food is the article of prime necessity, that each expends of clothing is very small indeed ; the consequence of which is, that the

to all the world, peopleof England, cheap clothing engagedin furnishing fed but exceedingly the of clothing, in are not only badly cost clothed, badly their it the that so as to amount reach,* labour, place beyond being great be expended for that purpose tendingrather to decrease. Whenever can a of to causes cotton to come a market, the price largequantity good crop sorb falls to the pointthat is necessary to enable the purchaserat home to abbe exported and when the the surplus that cannot is the short, ; crop that can be purchasedby the small consumption is limited to the quantity whole sum to this purpose now amount to be expended. The applicable from sufficient 2*. to purchasethree per head, appears not to var}r greatly This will 4c?. be seen by an examination pounds at 8i., or six pounds at

of the

table : following

"

By reference
of clothes

to

into the condition of

the report of the Assistant Commissioner charged with the it will be seen and children employed in agriculture, women
to

inquiry
that
a

question. The upper parts of the under-clothes with while the wet their stays, quickly become at work, even perspiration, of women in which in nearly every kind of work lower parts cannot escape gettingequally wet It not unfrequentlyhappens that a tbey are employed, except in the driest weather. her to allow bed for an hour or two is to to from obliged work, on go returning woman, for her,if she does not do this, to It is also by no means uncommon clothes to be dried. off. she took them put them on again the next morning nearly as wet as when in in regard to the situation of the operatives The laid before Parliament evidence accustomed to work gether towere and women, that men coal mines, showed boys and girls, in a state of absolute and entire nudity. The slowness of consuming other articles than clothinghas with which the power change
seems

be

out

of the

grown In

is remarkable.

1803, that
1 84 1 with ,

of paper

was

...

almost

double in the The

the
coat

population, only
of
cotton

31,699,537pounds. 97,103,548
"

The

great

diminution

and

linen cloth had

been

attended

with

corresponding reduction in the

the mode had
of manufacture.

cost

of rags, while there had been great improvements in of labour that could be exchanged againstpaper quantity

evidently diminished. consumption of candles in 1801, was

it was than
....

The

In 1830

...

66,999,080pounds. 116,851,305 "

having littlemore

kept pace

with

the

population.
8

58
Average 1845 1846 1847 1848 We
.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

cost

of Cotton in d.
.

England.

41
5
.

6f
U
cost

of the cotton planter. of labour that she can She has a certain quantity give in exchangefor of the whole importis regulated thereby. If the crop is cotton, and the price she takes but if it is small, she takes a great deal for the money; large,
see, at the thus,that she clothes her people
no benefit from large crops, but it is actually to have one of more profitable Had that of the present year than one of 2,700,000. 2,000,000 of bales, would have he would have been ruined,for freights reached three millions, while prices abroad would have fallen to a lower point than has been high,

little ; and thus the is so much

derives not only producer

that thereby, injured

ever

yet been reached.

a course

her labour to the cultivation of her own she pursoil, applying sues all the for its that of farmers and compelling having object where of the world make their in her shefixes to markets, planters exchanges the price of labour to the for the world. Her power to applythe proceeds of commodities than those of other is small, and purchase prime necessity and whenever the labours but of the gradually steadily diminishing; ducer prorewarded with liberal returns, he is nearly are ruined,because the fallsbelow the cost of production. price The system is altogether remarkable that at some future day it will be so deemed almost impossible that itshould ever have been tolerated. She has of the means of transportation and conversion, and being thus a certain quantity all she desires that the and of the world shall cotton provided sheep's-wool be brought be spun and woven, and that she may take to her, that it may tollfor spinning and weavingit. The more that is brought to her the less and of it she gives back to the producer, the price she pays him fixes the he receives from all the world. How the system works price may be seen from the following statement : Instead of
"

1815

to 1819.

1827-1834.

1845-1846.

Cotton Value

consumed, lbs.
....

She
A A

pays

were periods

100,000,000 275,000,000 596,000,000 "8,000,000 11,400,000 9,000,000 for this in cotton-cloth and iron, the prices of which, at these follows : as
. . "

of piece of calico,
ton

24

yards
iron

of merchant-bar

16/6* "1H

7/6f
"7 5

6/7
"9
10

would have received of paidin these,the planter Cloth,pieces 9,700,000 24,000,000 34,700,000 Or iron,tons 730,000 1,250,000 1,200,000 home and foreign, The additional freight, commissions,"c, in charges, at three cents per pound,on 496,000,000 of pounds, the last period were, Had been
....

the whole

this the planter would receive, in Liverpool, 470,000 say $15,000,000. For additional tons of iron,the value of which, in Liverpool, at the present would be about $11,000,000,and thus he not only moment, gave away his of the cost of transportation. cotton, but gave with ita large portion The whole return not as great as ithad been to 100,000,000. to him for 600,000,000 was It thus appears that notwithstanding all the improvements in manufacture, the planter had to givein the last period six times the quantity of cotton to
*

Vol. II. p. 70. McCulloch's Statistics,

average

finis is the
Glance, and

of the years from

to

1831

to

1834, as given in Burns's Commercial

p. 277.

copied in the Merchants'

1819"

Magazine,Vol. XIX.
Vol. Magazine,

t Average of 1817

Merchants'

XX.

p. 337.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

59
"

obtain three and and six times admirable The

halftimes

the

the cloth that he could have had in the first to obtain a smaller quantity of iron. A more quantity
never certainly

of agricultural labour productiveness is declining in every portion of the world that does not protect itself against this "war I will now show. as upon labour and capital," is measured is a consumer to Consumption by production.Every man the whole extent of his production.To that pointhe will go, and beyond it he cannot The firstof his wants is food ; next comes clothing ; after go. this follow the conveniences and luxuries of life. If his productive power his power to obtain clothing because the whole increases rapidly, increases, If it diminishes, than food. his power to other things surplusis applicable diminishes with great rapidity, for food he must have. That to obtain clothing it has diminid^d, and is now I think,be evident will, diminishing rapidly, from the facts folloi^ig
:
"

mode of taxing the world was result of the system is, that the

devised.

the consumers of cotton to the producers estimated at $40,000,000. the crops of the United States aveFrom 1827 to 1834, both inclusive, raged 945,000 bales, and the home consumption about 145,000, leaving the pricepaid by Sixtyyears since, of it was for export. The $32,000,000. product

800,000

average
to

pricewas

about

$40 per bale,and

cotton, and

the

In this

India period,
cotton

continued The

of produce extensively market

was

to

manufacture

goods.

China

not

opened

to

the

time to substitute the cotton free traders until 1831, and it required some cloth of England for the cotton and cloth of India. With every day that has has of cotton has declined, the production since elapsed, as the manufacture been

passingtowards

annihilation.

Cotton

was

then

raised extensively

in

the West Indies,Brazil,Egypt, Africa, Mexico, and elsewhere ; and the estimatea at total product,exclusive of that of the United States, was

450,000,000 of pounds, or

about
same

one-rfifthmore
we price,

than
now

that of the obtain

an

Union. annual

Averaging
From and

the whole

at

the

should

excludingour expenditure,
1842 the home

hundred Two themselves other countries of Europe that have protected taken under low the increased quantity not as actually which would be have gone
to at

for cotton wool, of $76,000,000. the crop averaged 2,060,000 bales, to 1848, both inclusive, consumption about 400,000, leaving1,660,000 for export. and be given to the Zoll-verein, thousand of these may
own,

the system, against but as that prices,

that may

supposed

be influenced
seven

"high ones, leaving1,460,000 for the quantity by the system. The average price,

and a half cents, or $34 per bale,and the of $50,000,000. portion the crop thus exported, average this cultivator of the most Since then, throughout importantcommodity, and it is greatly to be doubted if the whole the world, has been ruined, duction, prowas during that period,

of the product

years
now

outside of the Union, is now more since; but, at the utmost, it cannot
assume

than

one

half of what the

itwas

thirty
we

exceed

270,000,000; and if
at
same

that

and, as before, put quantity,

"

the whole

price,

shall obtain, we as the amount paidfor cotton, by almost the whole population of the world, outside of the Union, as follows : For the crop of this country, $50,000,000 , For that of the rest of the world, 20,000,000
. . . .

$70,000,000
the increase in the number of notwithstanding Showing a largereduction, those who should and the increase of in its production, persons employed does not represent the jreal and yet the case, as here stated, it, consume

60
diminution in the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

producers.Of the cotton of India, and while the cost now up in freights, t he than two is large, to the consumer to the produceris scarcely more yield full examination of the subject cents per pound. A more would, I believe, result in showing that the producers of cotton, taken as a body,do not receive material that has to so great an extent for all the clothing in return superseded wool, flax,"c, from the peopleof the world outside of the than they did sixty limits of the Union, twenty millions of dollars more
amount

paidto

the

the whole nearly

value is

swallowed

years since. A similar examination

of the movement
same

effect of the system is that of reducing the farmer and the planter the producers of the goodthings of the world humble to the condition of an of dependence upon the owners^"a quantity small machinery for the conversion of wool into cloth, that themselves could purchase at the cost of less labour than,for want of it, they waste
" "

the other articles, would yield the same. The whole

in regard to sugar, coffee, wool,and for the exhaustion is everyresults, where

Why

in each and every year. Let us now look to the results, as exhibited in the immediate of England. With the ruin of the

dependencies

this vast increase in the importation of food from abroad has come of of Ireland. Deprived manufactures and commerce, people her peoplewere driven to live by agriculture enabled to alone,and she was so drag on a miserable existence, was content to make longas her neighbour the loss of labour by paying her for her products those at which theymight have been elsewhere purchased. With the repeal of the corn has failed ; and laws, that resource the result is a state of poverty, and famine, that has compelled wretchedness, the establishment of a the landowner to maintain the system which obliges whether theywork or not ; and thus is one of the conditions of people,
some

compensationfor

higher pricesthan

slavery

re-established in that unhappy beinga great exporter of country. From become food,she has now The great market forIndiar. a large importer. is Ireland corn the production a country in which of food isalmost the sole
"

of the people. The occupation of From

value of labour in food, a populathroughout tion is thus rapidly millions, eight decreasing. instituted by Lord Clarendon, an in 1847, and conducted inquiry

in the most careful manner, it was ascertained that out of 20,800,000 acres of which the kingdom consists, there were but 5,200,000 under crop, and that the yieldof cereal grains, 70 chiefly oats, averaged10 bushels (of pounds) 561 pounds per head. The per head, while that of potatoes was cattle amounted to 2,591,000,or less than one to three persons of the population; the hogs to 622,000, or one to thirteen and the to
or one

to

four.

Such
were

are

whose
our

numbers last census.

; sheep 2,186,177, nation, exclusively agricultural, about one-half those of the peopleof the Union, at

the

of products

to ascertain the quantity of food, produced per head, Britain and Ireland, it is probable that itwould be found to be lessthan it was five years since, and that the whole quantity, and domestic, foreign not materially was greater than at that date. If so, it follows that the whole of labour expended in purchasing amount and the

Were

it possible now

in Great

fashioning

of other lands to be given in exchangefor food, is lostlabour, and that the average quantity of food and of other commodities obtainable throughout the kingdom in return for tends downwards instead of any givenquantity, upwards ; and that such is the case there is "reason to believe. As evidence that such is the fact, we for support of paupers, may take the expenditure which in 1837 was and for 1844, 5,and 6, "4,207,000,
cotton

averaged "5,890,000,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

61

beingan
the be
enormous

increase of the

forty per
same

cent,

in

eight years.
If
now

of "7,800,000. height purpose

to

In 1848, it had attained this we to add the were find the

for expenditure As
a

in Ireland, we

should

growth to

terrific. absolutely full

answer

to

the Englisheconomist would this,

to point

the increased

consumptionof certain commodities ; but that increase is maintained, have seen, by the oppression and ruin of the agriculturist as we where. everywhole system has for its object of increase in the number an |jlhe that intervene between and the to the are consumer producer persons the product of the land and labour of others, the on living diminishing
"

and increasing the number power of the first, that Ireland is compelledto waste labour more
to

of the last;and thus it is than would be required annually

thrice produce, manufactured of Great

over,

and

wool

in

all the iron,and convert into cloth all the cotton England. The poverty of producers exists

in nearly them

the ratio in which

they are compelledto

make

their

exchangesin
result
to

the market

the advantages that would Britain, foregoing

for the from the free exercise of the power of associating purpose^ effectived of combining their exertions,and thus rendering their labour more The manufacturers of India have been

ruined,and that great country is

the
prise sur-

and certainly and becoming depopulated, to deteriorating gradually familiar with of those of the people of England who are and who do not understand the destructive character advantages,
own

its vast of their

system.
"

The
our

London

Economist

says

"

but be struck with the singular facilities empire, we cannot of Great Britain. At population it presents to the commerce first sight, it seems to offer every mercial thingthat could be devised,in order to induce to a comintercourse almost without limit. There is scarcely of tropical one important article1 material of our manuis consumed in this country, either as the raw factures, produce which article of daily use, for the productionof which India is not as well,or or as an better, adapted than any other country ; while its dense and industrious populationwould manufactures. Nor are there opposed to illimitable demand for our to offer an seem elements these natural and flattering of commerce their any fiscal restrictions to counteract beneficial results. Indian produce has long entered into consumption in the home markets on the most favourable terms ; while, in the introduction of British manufactures into India,a very moderate duty is imposed. Yet, notwithstandingall these advantages, it is a notorious fact, of the deducible alike from the tendency which the supply of some articles of Indian produce show to fall off, and from the stagnant, or rather most important manufactures to those markets of the export of our state and, perhaps, still declining, result which has attended the extremely unprofitableand unsatisfactory more so, from time past, that there exist some both the export and import trade with India for some great and serious impediments to the realization of the just and fair hopes entertained with regard to our Indian trade."
to

Looking
"

Indian

which

in

and climate, soil,

"

"

"

Another and

writer*

speaks of

it

as

country whose

exports

are

rapidly

diminishing. Sugar,he
cotton

is reduced

decreases, says, does not increase, while indigo The is deficient. one-third to one-half. revenue
once

Gazerat

and

Cutch, which

supplied cotton

to

almost ceased to produce it. The which from Bengal, disappeared the finest in the world. after year

growth and
once

manufacture

half the world, have of cotton have

Cotton

gave to the world the Dacca muslins, fields have everywhere relapsed into

jungle.
Year and
we are

told of efforts beingmade

of improve the quality of becomes improvement prospect

to increase the product India cotton, and yet year after year the more remote, and necessarily so, because

improvementunder agricultural
1

the

existing impoverishing system

is im-

London

of correspondent

the National

Intelligencer.

62
For possible.
"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

what is called on granted period, premiums were who perishes Hindoo of to wit, that raised by the wretched" free sugar while that policy tained mainwas and the of the starvation, consequence system
a

short

"

its cultivationmade
on

of progress, but since the abolition the downward.* tends slave-grown sugar, every thing
some are

strictions re-

Ireland and India

thus in the

same

condition. New

The
now

West which

Indies

are

ruined,and Canada, Nova that they may have

The

and Scotia,

Brunswick,

seek.

tion, annexa-

that it would be owner beingruined. himself to the south of transfers and the labourer doubled by the change, and find he that good wages, which the boundary-line, employment may remain north of it now who of it. Those the north be found at cannot seek anxiously
a

from a system under protection knows of land, everywhere,

theyare

for admission

for their have.

because grain,

maintains protection

that now they cannot state of things In the existing theyhave to compete with the low-priced that therefore, labour of Russia and Poland, and are ruined. They desire, and labourers of the farmers their competition may be with the protected market Union. Lord his
"

Sydenham, in a letter to Lord John Russell,which to Upper Canada, observed : Report on Emigration
me

accompanied

few hundred pounds each, who will buy cleared farms, them comforts and independence bush, and I will ensure to milk cows of a couple of years at the end potatoes, horses to ride, pigs,pork,flour, is to be found:however, the man's but you must eat all your produce, for devil a purchaser wants supplied,and those of his family ; he has no rent or taxes to pay, and he are ought to be satisfied."

Give

not

throw

with a yeomen, into the themselves

"

"

Here Canada. his

are corn

is the

cause are

There

exists of the desire for annexation that now at hand, and the farmer cannot consumers no

throughout exchange

of which is, that labour and land the consequence for cloth or iron, therefore desires almost valueless. So is it everywhere.Every colony and all would gladly unite with these United to separate itselffrom England, than that theymight have protection. and for no other reason States, its close must, I think, That the colonial system is rapidly approaching be obvious to all who take the trouble to inform themselves of the condition of her colonies, who have been compelled of the people to bear with it; and themselves that the independentnations of the world must thence satisfy continue
to

increase and to

their strengthen

measures

of resistance until it

shall be ended, that thenceforth there may be perfect freedom of trade. " labour the and is that It is a war of the world." Its .object capital upon the of preventing spinner and weaver from combining their efforts with those
"""For many of
tons

years

Arbuthnot they [Messrs. of sugar

coarse

"

of Madras]have Co.,

been

the most

tensive ex-

manufacturers

in Southern

annually the
into

jaggery made

India,converting to the extent of thousands by the ryots into the fine product which finds
to

its way

the market and since,

three years successful.

the attempt it is needless to say

; but

raise the
no

cane or

was

first tried about

two

or

that

cost

skillwas

spared

to

render it

Planters were brought from the West Indies at liberal salaries to direct the and machinery of the most cultivation, complete and extensive character was imported from the soil and manufacture England to irrigate the sugar on tha spot. No project could possibly be set on foot under circumstances more but the upshot is that favourable, the land taken in Rajahmundry and Dawlaishwarum has been relinquished, and the * * * * cattle turned into the fields of standing cane. f.The questionof competition to be maintained the existing on system with the West Indies and the countries in which slave labour prevailsmust rest for future consideration. At present we have arrived at the important conclusion, under the most favourable that, cannot circumstances, we the sugar-cane in hope to alter the present mode of cultivating

Southern India."
"

Mherutum.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. work

63
alone, and

of the

farmer

therefore whose have

the latter to planter," -compelling and then to givetwo-thirds disadvantageously, of horses and wagons, not he needed render from it our
a

and

maintenance been have wonderful Thus

shipsand
were men

men,

of the crop for the brokers and merchants,

services would

to everywhere,

the system abolished. Its effects depressedand poor. Desiring to made thereto the Revolution, and the Canadians their of the observance by

liberate themselves
now

ancestors

formed

induced league, been

results that have

here obtained.

at home by this power to tax the world for its support. India contributes three millions sterling per annum,*

far,the system has been maintained

a

but there is Indies have

in the power to pay. Canada and the West their the connection with the former is likely but share, paid be and the latter ruined. This country is the main to at soon an are end, of the is but that being withdrawn, and gradually support support system, when it shall be will become

diminution gradual

absolutely so,

the destructive effectsof it upon England herself will obvious. It then be seen that the wealth of that fully
a mass

the words of Carlyle, but to use country is really, The few are rich, but the many are poor, and the means great. The whole
amount

"sham." magnificent of wealth is by no

of

invested capital

in

"c. buildings, machinery,

at

for

the cotton has been of

manufacture, in 1834, was

a

less than or sterlingt

hundred

twenty millions of pounds millions of dollars, being only double what

the anthracite coal bring into activity of a large machinery for the production be c ould same produced in this quantity

estimated

expended

in the effort to

mines
amount

She has also Pennsylvania.

of coal and iron, but the considerable effort. She has made in few without an a a country years, the she broke down under and of but effort, rail-roads, amount yet roads are have now made in that country at far less cost than here, and we more miles in The
are

operation.
cost

nominal

of her

because roads is great,

the

prices paid

for land

high, and large sums

are

but these investment

are paid to lawyers,conveyancers, "c, "c, merelytransfers of property,not investments of it. The real the is only the labour employed in gradingthe road,erecting

and the cost of these per mile is less than the iron, road in this country. The for any well-made power of England to make in this country from investments of labour is less than half of what it was be had the pro1844 to 1847, and less than one-third of what it would now duction and cotton goods been allowed to increase at the of coal, and iron, and getting out bridges,
rate at

which

it was

then

increasing.Her
there results
a

of the few, and the The

hence

show

ment system tends to the enrichyond beof wealth far, far, very

reality. effects of impoverishing

the system

were

obvious,and early

to

the

food where the of obtaining endeavour to account for the increasing difficulty of of consumers whole action of the laws tended to increase the number the due the invention of was food,and to diminish the number of producers, Malthusian
now theoryof population,

food

by as a by asserting,
on

the Ricardo

That was lowed folhalf a century old. of doctrine of Rent, which accounted for the scarcity of tion cultivawork the commenced that men fact, always that
as

rich soils, and

constant

resort to poorer ones,

a producing

to obliged they were and to labour, return a constantly diminishing yielding if theywould for separating from each other, necessity

populationincreased

of

Altogether it has been calculated that the tribute which India pours into the lap ofthe Nation, England is at least equal to three millions sterling." Porter's Progress
"
"

Vol.iii. p. '354. t McCulloch's

Vol. 2, page Statistics,

75.

64
obtain
a

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

is based the whole English Upon this theory to be superabundant, is first supposed politico-economical system. Population of the same when in scarcely ber numany part of the earth could the labour constitute the population of England obtain even of persons that now onefrom England who fly that men half the same return. Next, it is supposed and therefore every thing is done go alwaysto the cultivation of rich soils, when it is held that their true policy abroad is to expel Lastly, population. the proto devote alltheir labour to the cultivation of those rich soils, sending duce be converted into cloth and iron,and theyare to England that it may freedom of, trade as cautioned against a war any interference with perfect labour and capital." upon Colonization is urged on all hands, and all unite in the effortto force emigration of sufficiency food.
"

in the direction needed work to read any impossible the

"

of this prevalence be in her effortsfor the establishment of her into was dependence, supported Hungary because she was have free thus and t o make trade, willing a market for British manufactures. The tendency of the Ricardo-Malthusian of selfishness was never more fested manisystem to produce intensity strikingly than
on

''colonies of customers." It is without struck with subject being It is seen shopkeeping"idea. everywhere.
to

raise up

on

the

that occasion,
a

to be. Throughout the world,and at all periods of time, men have commenced the work of cultivation the clearing to their successors of river leaving upon the poorer soils, bottoms and the draining of swamps the increase of population it ; and has been that has everywhere enabled men rich soils to cultivation.* to subject

It happens, that the system is without unfortunately, t he of what it is stated by Mr. Ricardo exactly reverse

base,the factbeing

tends to grow faster than population, Food, therefore, when no disturbing and in order that the increase of population causes exist, take place, may take his place consumer by the side of the producer. that is not the case, the inevitable is that the consequence of labour is great, and that the perpetual waste of the land returning cropping to it none of the refuse, exhausts the land and its owner, and compels the latter to fly to other poor soils, the transportation and diminishing increasing stillfurther tke quantity of cloth and iron to be obtained in return to of labour. a given amount When We thus have here, first, and unnatural, a system that is unsound and invented for the second,a theory of for the purpose accounting povertyand wretchedness which
are

it is indispensable that the

its necessary

results.

The

miseries of Ireland

are

to over-population, millions of acres charged of the richest soilsof although the kingdom are waiting take their place to drainage the most proamong ductive in the world, and although the people of Ireland are to compelled

labour than waste more and iron they consume.t

*

would The

pay,

many

times over,

for all the cloth

to charged
over-

wretchedness of Scotland is
questionI
must

For and

full examination the Future."

of this

refer

to

my

book, The
"

the Past,

sent, Pre-

a population of 389,000,and a rental of only 300,000;, 1,364,000acres, of which 800,000 are waste! No less than 470,000 acres, being very nearlyequal to the whole extent of surface now under cultivation, declared are to be reclaimable. Galway, with a population of 423,000, and a valued rental of 433,0001, has upwards of 700,000 acres of waste, 41U.000 of which reclaitnable! are Kerry,with a population of 293,000,has an area of 1,180,000 acres" 727,000 being waste, and 400,000

counties, f Of single Mayo, with

an area

has

of

of them

reclaimable

Even

the union

of

Lord Glenties,

Monteagle's ne plusultra

of

dundant re-

has an of 245,000 acres, of which population, area 200,000 are waste, and for the most to its populationof 43,000. part reclaimable, While the barony of Ennis, that abomination of desolation, has 230,000 acres of land to its 5,000 a proportion

which,as Mr. Carter, one

of the

principal remarks proprietors,

paupers" in his circular advertise-

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

65 by entails as to of obtaining difficulty throughoutthe pleasuregrounds,by

when population forbid

the land is so tied up and almost forbid cultivation. The to improvement, food in England is ascribed to over-population, when
a

of largeportion

of kingdom a largeportion
men

the land is occupiedas due to the system which has ruined Ireland and India.* is the ready excuse for all the evils of a vicious Over-population system, and so will it continue to be until that system shall see its end, the whose fortunes
are

time for which To maintain

is

now

rapidly approaching.

the price of labour in England must be kept steadily it, at low as to enable her to underwork a point so the Hindoo, the German, and the American, with all the disadvantage of freight and duties. To terminate the price of labour in England must be raised to such a point it, as will and compel her to raise her own others food, leaving preventthat competition their own, and such must be the result of the thorough to consume adoption of the protective by the United States alone. system, even The
cause

unnatural

in which difficulty between consumers disproportion

of the

England now finds herself is the and producers. Men are cheap

Establish a market for these men, and their value will rise, and such will be the effect in every part of Europe. We have seen that immigration into this country increased in the period between 1830 1843
more

and therefore undervalued.

it remained

thousand ; that from that period and 1834, from twelve to sixty-seven to almost stationary and in that the last four it has ; years

than trebled. the manufacture

Now, let us

suppose

that the system of 1828

had been

maintained,and
and

that the

the smeltingand rolling of iron, mining of coal, woollen had ruptedly, uninterof cotton and "c. cloths, gone on

producinga great demand for labour to be employed in the various the clearing branches of manufacture, in the making of roads, of lands and for emigrationto this the building of houses, and that the inducements the to such an extent to cause as increasing country had been constantly
ment

for tenants,

"

is

at

the

rate to

of
every

only one
230

family to
nothing

230 need

acres

;
be

so a

that if but

one

head in the
to

employed family were he entire district; a proof,"

of
a

acres, there

not

singlepauper
is
"

adds, "that
!"

but

employment

wanting

set

this

country

to

bights

In which

opinion we

fullycoincide.

Westminster Review.

Parliament, has inserted in the London in the United Kingdom, with a view His generalconclusion redundant. the labouringpopulation be really to ascertain whether " I have illustrations in support of the view selected striking is expressed in these terms: is at length obtainingvery general acquiescence and which I have always entertained, ; that the land namely, that the populationof the United Kingdom is not reallyin excess districts of and in most the pauperized over-peopled seemingly even is everywhere labour to an indefinite of additional the of Ireland repaying employment capable amply the law has intrusted with be made of it by those whom use extent, if only judicious aging, instead of discouritself be so modified as to encourage, its ownership, and that the law and and to its due ment mismanageneglect to to reward, secure industry improvement, its fitting punishment." afford a frightful The notes Ireland, pictureof one of the many evils with which on
*

Poulett

Scrope,
a

member

of the

British
of
a

Morning Chronicle

seven

letters of

Notes

Tour

"

"

"

that country is afflicted : " In Galway Union, recent homes and 20.000 and
human

accounts

declared

the

number

of

levelled within the last two

years, to
to

equal the numbers

been

and their poor evicted, Kilrush in 4,000 families

"

beings
I
can

are

said

have

here

also

thrown

upon

the

less road,house-

some parts of the. readily believe the statement, for to me gables of the unroofed enormous graveyard the numerous country appeared like an They were, indeed, records of decay and dwellings seemed to be gigantictombstones. show. than the Looking on them, the doubt rose can more far melancholy grave death Can I in a civilized country? Have we reallya free constitution! in my mind, am

homeless.

"

such

scenes

be

in paralleled

Siberia

or

Caffraria?" 9

66

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

ratio of increase from 1830 to 1834 to be maintained,and see what would have been the result. By the year 1839 it would have reached 300,000, and the growthwould and five years after itwould have exceeded a million, for the demand for labour would have increased rapid, every year have been more faster than the supply. Before this time,the flight from Great Britain and Ireland alone would have far exceeded and what would be the effect half a million per annum, of such a state of things be conceived those who read the following by may articlewhich' I take from the London Times.
The of a quarter of a million inhabitants of these islands to distant quarters of flight in 1847, was of the most marvellous in the annals of human one events migration. The element
and miserable

the world

circumstances
a

under

which

the

left majority
over

their the

traversed

in quest of

the thousands refuge,

of miles

which

homes, the dreary grimage pil-

the fearful casualties of the voyage was protracted, by shipwreck, by famine constituted believe to be entirely without precedent, a fact which we by fever, and of the northern into southern Europe became compared with which the irruption races summer's excursions ; but,perhaps the marvel mere of the event is surpassed this year. The impetus,or rather the combination of impelling causes, no longer exists. It might be supposed that so extensive a drain had exhausted the migratory elements of the nation.

might also be expected that the countries which last year could not receive the fugitive without much and complaint, have would offered vehement difficulty protests renewal It is, of the hungry invasion. againstan immediate the fact that nevertheless, the migration of this year is nearly equal to that of the last. The grand total from all the
masses

It

British ports for the first eleven months months of this year, 220,053. Nor do
case.

of

last

year

was

244,251; for
the

the first eleven truth of the

these

figuresrepresent

whole

of those who embarked at ports where merely the numbers there are and who have passed under emigration officers, government officialreview. Some thousands of the better class of emigrants are not included in the census. There can, fore, thereare

They

be have The

no

doubt
to

that in these

two

years

more

than

half

million natives of these islands

fled

other shores. is

it appears, is now migration, approaching the annual increase of our population, vulgarlymagnified into a thousand a day, but in fact is not more than about 290,000 in the year. Now, it is not to be imagined for a moment that Great at all events, has reached Britain, the limit of its population. The capital, the stock and the plant" of the island are continually increasingand have lately'increased more ra pidly than ever. and more more They also demand for their further develophands ment. Under ordinarycircumstances,therefore, should be justified we in dreading a migration which left the population stationary; and which, with a view to the growing trade and resources of the country, was rather a depopulation than anything else. At all events, the fact suggests that a spontaneous movement of so gigantic a character may well and be left to itself, requiresno artificial stimulus. The matter has come to certainly that pass which makes caution the firstduty of the state. It is from Ireland that we draw our rough labour. The Celt" and we bound to are give him credit for it is the hewer of wood and drawer of water to the Saxon. Can we spare that growing mine of untaught but teachable toil? The great works of this
annual

which

'"

"

on country depend! cheap labour.

The

movement

now

in progress

bids fair
we

to

affect that

condition of the national

prosperity. The

United

States

gain what

lose.

Protection is a measure of necessary defence a system that tends against lessen everywhere the value of labour, and if applied the correction effectually, will be speedy, and thenceforward trade be free?) may everywhere To those who doubt this, I would recommend examination of the effects"" an that would now result from the abolition of the tariff, and the substitution of free trade for the presentimperfect protection. They could not but see that it would close every mill and furnace in the Union, off a demand for cutting 600,000 bales of cotton, and a supply of 700,000 tons of iron. Where then should we sell the one, or where buy the other? The labourer in factories and furnaces would then but the market abroad for food is grow food,
to

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

67

now

almost closed*

"

the crop Protection is right If protection Free trade is right or wrong. or wrong. it should be complete and fixed, If free is right, .until no longer needed. trade is right, custom-houses should be abolished. are Halfway measures

whenever

for cotton is alreadyruined or cotton, and the market touches the point of two millions and a half of bales.

alwayswrong.
The is to direct effect of the maintenance renewed efforts on
cause

of this country,whereas a it made with the approbation and consent of all parts of the Union, would be followed by results that would compel a change of policy. The direct effect of a thoroughand
the whole people completechange in our system would be,that of teaching of England that if they expect to be prosperous and happy, they must seek those blessings of a British policy in cultivating in the steadypursuit domestic resources domestic interests in drawing closely in protecting the bonds of concord,strengthened by the ties of mutual dependenceamong of finding themselves,and abandoningthe shadowy and delusive expectation of in for the destruction of the c ommerce springs compensation foreign domestic consumption." The harmony of all real interests among nations is perfect. The system of England is rotten and unsound to herself and to the world. injurious of pauperism and wretchedness and abroad,and the It is the cause at home the the that be for effective pelling measures more adopted purpose of commay
"
" " " "

the part of England for return to that of 1842, were

of the presentsystem, that of 1846, the market engrossing

its abandonment, the better will it be for her and for ourselves. road to absolute freedom of trade lies throughperfect protection.

The

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

SIXTH.
AFFECTS COMMERCE.

Commerce commodities number of The which of

is

an

The exchangeof equivalents.

greater the number

be with

of the

will produced,the greater,other thingsbeing equal,

exchanges. Commerce

to grow tends,therefore,

the increase

production. machine of production is it is made to produce is man.

to

confident of obtaining an will be the inducement

earth. The instrument by aid of To induce man he must feel to labour, and the t hat the stronger larger equivalent equivalent, ; exertion. the The
more

the

the larger will be applied, of labour. given quantity One

man

and the productipn, Each

his powers are advantageously t he of a larger equivalent desires to

raises

and grain

another sugar.

exchange with

the other, labour for labour. giving

*

The

from $5. What present price of flour in England varies little

is likely soon
from

to

b*

the the

price of day.

pork, may

be

judged of from
date of Oct.
the

the

which following,

I take

the papers of

engaged in 12,from a mercantile house extensively in which annexed to hand current, our price the trade, pleasure says: yon the last three years ; the present year showing the for will see comparative imports you pectation than the last. The general exbacon more of 25,000 packages of American excess an crease the that be low must with us is approaching season, from the inprices very of hogs and all of hogs in Ireland and Germany, and the very great production than We usual. incline to the opinion that should in this country more kinds of meat the next, as during the to this market come the same quantityand qualityof American
A.London under letter,
"

We

have

past season, one-half that our government

we

of it will have
contract

to

for

pork

was

You will have heard be sold for soap purposes. taken at 10/ per owt. less than last year, which

think is

pretty fair criterion of the market."

68

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

for sugar is dependent The quantity that must be given of grain upon the the be favourable for the first, of both produced. If the season quantity will be small. unfavourable the If for the will be second, large. crop crop Much will then be givenfor littlesugar, and vice versa, if the season grain much for grain, be favourable for sugar and unfavourable sugar will be a nd either both little In is for suffer, case commerce parties grain. given interested in doing whatever may is therefore directly Each diminished. and be in his power to increase the returns to the labour of his neighbour, of commerce. To increase production is, then, to increase commerce. By ascertaining shall ascertain those which the circumstances which tend to limit the one, we tend to limit the other. To do so, it is needed onlyto call to our aid a fewtreatise of natural philosophy. be found in laws that simple any may thus increase the extent

'

They

are

these

"

the power, other circumstances First. The greater will be the effect. The

the beingequal,

greater

of producerof food labours every day and all day. The producer of food labours three in the week. The but days quantity produced sugar and that of sugar small. The is large food-producer givesmuch food for labour. little much labour for little sugar
"

If the comof individuals is equally true of communities. munity work and that of but sugar-producers food-producers every day, will be taxed because of the inthree daysin the week, the whole of the first dolence and commerce will be diminished. If the whole community of the last, What is true of of food-producers work
not work the
" "

do every day,and one half of that of iron-producers if or theyapplytheir labour to other works than those of production of iron produced will be srnall, and much food will be quantity littleiron. If the

food-prodacing community could induce the in iron to labour every day and all day, there would be more iron to be given for food, would be increased, and allwould profit commerce thereby.
workers

given for

By what means the causes inquire

among them but

could

this be accomplished ? To ascertain this, must we of their workingso little. Doing so, we might find that

there was able to labour produca largeproportion perfectly tively, to do ; that some of them employed themselves in so unwilling forts and palaces, muskets, casting cannon, carrying building constructing of war and sailing in them ; and that others did nothing ships except so far in devising modes of enabling as they were them, out of the labourof employed to support themselves and those employedin the various operations others, to which I have referred;and that hosts of others were in employed carrying back and forth .the products of the lands of others, and keepingaccounts of what they did,and that thus one half of the community produced nothing, while consuming much. The other half we mightfind to consist of men who sometimes willing ha ving to work but not able, were others work and no to do, at able but not willing, because of the small equivalent obtained, by reason of the for contributing of their earnings so large a portion necessity to the support of those who carried the muskets, built the ships and keptthe accounts ; and the result might be, that we should find that, the food-producers although gave received little, the principal much.the iron-producers swallowed up partbeing by the intermediate men, who consumed much while producing It is nothing. obvious that if allworked, there would be three times as much iron produced, that be increased, and that the producerof food would obtain of far less food. The equivalent food-producing towards the support of those of communityis therefore contributing largely the iron-producing who able to work and not one are to do
commerce

would
as

far

more

iron

the

willing

so;

and their condition will be

improved if theycan

induce

those who

are

able

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

69
are

and

to work willing the willing, leaving amount

to

come

forthfrom among

those who

neither able

nor

of power

latterclass to produce food and iron for themselves. The will be increased, will be and the product to be applied

while there will be fewer among greater,

whom return to to divide it. The labour will be larger, and the power of accumulation will be increased. Second. The more the greater is its effect. directly power is applied, The of food producers and iron are for effecting their exchangesis great. required distant from each other, and the labour The one obtains his iron'by

the indirect process of raising food for distant men. The other obtains his food by that of making iron for distant men, and many horses and wagon?, The frictionis great and production shipsand men, stand between them. be exchanged are few in number, and commerce of a day'slabour in either food or iron is equivalent small. If the producer of iron could draw near the to the producerof food, and men, standing between them, would number of horses and wagons, ships of producerswould be increased. be diminished, and the number The would in be increase would commerce number, t o exchanged equivalents of a day'slabour would be greater. grow, and the equivalent the greater is its effect. At is applied, Third. The more steadily power
to equivalents

is small.

The

is limited.

The

one

moment

the wind

blows

while gale,

at

another

there is

calm.

The

works every day and all day,and although the amount of power steam-engine made time. To the is the is in shorter secure applied less, steady voyage and the force produced by of power, the air-chamber is provided, application is by its aid distributed the action of the piston-rod between the strokes. intervening The of producer food is often idle. harvest
over

the whole

period

At other times he is moderately employed. and he loses part of his crop for times he is In hurried, of an air-chamber, of aid. If he could have the equivalent want by aid of the year, the return obtained for his which his effortscould be divided over increased. labours would be largely but a large of his portion may labour at all seasons, done in and he coal and ore be when advance, may for a season. If the has a stock on hand he can suspend his operations he and labour in his vicinity, producerof food could induce him to come and fuel, could at one ore periodof the year help him to mine or transport The
"

of iron producer the

work

mining of

"

and the other could,at another firstcould then cultivate more

aid period,

him

in

his gathering

crop.

The

would food and iron, the increase of equivalents to be exchanged. the machinery the smaller will be the quantity Fourth. The more perfect will be the effect. The and the greater less will be the the friction, required, iron wheels of the

of labour, in both land,and the equivalent would grow in extent with and commerce be increased,

engine encounter
a

littlefriction in
moves

passingon

the iron
to
a

and the force of rail, it could The of iron

to
use

man's
a

hand

tons, where, if the distant iron He iron. The

man

applied

wheel, cart-

not

move

hundred.

producerof
as

food obtains from he would desire to

small supplies

the

of large of food. equivalent quantities

use

is therefore

obliged

and frictionis great, small. If he of a day's labour is labour is unproductive.The equivalent of labour would could induce the iron man, to come near him, the equivalent and he could use iron in place of wood. increased, be largely the smaller will be the quantity Fifth. The more enduringthe machinery, wood where for its reproduction, and the greaterwill be the quantity of labour required of further machinery. The wooden to the production that may be given post endures almost for ever. be replaced. The iron one rots, and must builds ships, of iron, of food,distant from the producer and The producer

70

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

fences his land with wooden and

renewingthem.

in repairing posts. Much of his time is occupied If he could induce the producer of iron to live near

iron posts;. and might then use furnaces, building otherwise be employed in renewing old,might of other kinds,to aid in the work of* be givento creating new machinery of a day's labour would be increased. and the equivalent production, the the and the more that of labour, We thus, larger see, quantity directly and the more the machinery and steadily it is applied, and enduring perfect is the return to labour, and the greater the by which it is aided,the larger number of equivalents to be exchanged. that one communityhas itin its power to moLet us now nopolize suppose, first, the production of iron, and that of its members spend all many their time in idleness, while others are but occasionally that employed many muskets on their shoulders, while very many spend their time in carrying dissolute and drunken and that the result is, that the quantity are of iron is but half one-third of what itwould otherwise be. one merce Comor produced is but an exchangeof equivalents, and the quantity of food that must be given for a ton of iron is double what itwould otherwise be. It is obvious that the food-producing communityis taxed for the support of the idle and worthless members of the iron-producing community. Second. That, in addition to all this,the iron-producing communityis thus enabled to compelthe food-producing when their communityto be idle,

him, he would

assistin

and then labour that would

"

"

the farm, and to lose their crops for want not needed on of aid in It is obvious that here is a second tax imposedfor the support of the non-workers among the producers of iron. Third. That the scarcity of iron compelsthe food-producing
are

labours

harvest.

community

roads when and to wagons and common theymight have railroads, the work of to labour instead of one. ten days' give transportation Here, have a tax imposedfor the support of the non-workers we again, among the producersof iron. The food-producers are their to transport compelled and deprived of the power to make roads by which productsto a distance, to do it. Fourth. That the producers of food are compelledto employmore labour in building and wagons, and other perishable ships t han would machinery, have been sufficient to build the furnaces and rolling mills, chinery, maenduring them all the iron theyconsumed. to give Here we have a required fourth tax imposed for the support of the non-workers the producers among of iron.
to
use

Each one of these operations tends to diminish the number of equivalents that may be exchanged, the number of exchanges made, and the equivalent of a day'slabour, in food,iron, other of the comforts or conveniences of or and the result is, that the productof labour is life, one-fifth of what scarcely all productively it would be, were employed. These
we things premised,

may

now

examine

the

workingof

the colonial

system.
who work. are men Of those who remain behind, a large, tion pordo not work. Some live in poor-houses, and others in palaces.Some dance and sing, and others carry muskets. Some build ships of war, and others sail in them. The producers few. The non-producers are are many ; must wear eat,drink, and have houses, yet they and these things clothing, must be provided for them by those who work. If all worked, the quantity of iron and those who produced would be large, produced food would get much in exchange. As few desire to work, and all. must iron eat, the colonial invented for the purpose of compelling system was colonists food much to give and wool for littleiron. The has been the Colonists

consequence

everywhere

same.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

71

for the maintenance of the money-spending the classes, been compelledto waste much to work labour, with poor machinery, and to give more of the products of labour for the use of that which is perishable than would have produced that which would

While

thus

taxed

colonistseverywhere have

endure

almost
are

for

ever.

Production number.

is perishing. The Irishman is compelled labour.* much to waste He works with poor half the productof his labour for the use of wagons machinery. He gives and ships. He eats his crop of potatoes, and goes in rags. He has nothing to exchange.!He fliesto America, and the number of exchangesto be made in Ireland, and from Ireland, is thus diminished.
"

in diminishing

is small. Commerce

The

to be equivalents

changed ex-

The Hindoo flies from the valleys and plains that he may escape to the hills, from the system. Arri ved at the hills, he finds no demand for his labour but in the cultivation of his little pieceof land. He works with poor machinery, and his miserable productof fifty pounds of cotton to the acre is transported
to

Manchester, thence
for ten ; and wagons,
at

to

pound
and work
or

thus

be returned to him in the form of cloth, one getting nine-tenths of his labour for the of use giving ships one-fifth would have He
done

when perishable machinery, had

the
to

home, could he have

and

permanent
of the

machinery.
as a

flies' again, from

he dies of famine

he or pestilence,

sells himself

to go slave,

Demerara Men them is

thus ; and India,diminished.

are

is the number

exchanges of India, and

them.
as

from British commerce, which everywhere purevery where flying sues exhausted the lower of the lands of India, itfollows Having people they retreat towards the fastnesses of the Himalaya. Afghanistan Scinde
to

Punjaub are subjugated. Siamese of free trade,and war and desolation carried into China, in order that the Chinese may be compelledto pay are for the use of ships, instead of making looms. The Irishman fliesto Canada ;
the

attempted,while provincesare added

and

the

empire

but there the system follows him, and he feels himself insecure until within The Englishman and the Scotchman this Union. and try Southern Africa, thence New
to they fly

the

more

distant New

Holland, Van
more

Diemen's
use

Land,

or

ships and the less steadily their effortsbe applied, other perishable the can machinery, less must and the fewer must be the power of production, be the equivalents and yet in fhe growthof ships, caused by such circumstances, to be exchanged,

Zealand.

The' farther

the they fly,

they must

we

are

told to look for evidence

of prosperous

commerce

The

British system is built upon

cheap labour,by which

is meant

low

thus described by an English 1S42, three years before the potato rot,'Ireland was the traveller is haunted "Throughout the south and west of Ireland, : by the face starvation. It is not the exception it is the condition of the people. In this of the popular arid starving richest of countries, fairest and men are by millions. There are suffering with thousands of them, at this minute, stretched in the sunshine at their cabin doors no the work,scarcely any food,no hope seemingly. Strong countrymen are lying in bed, 'for lyingon his back does not need so much food as a person a-foot. hunger' because a man and to exist now Many of them have torn up the unripe potatoes from their littlegardens, look to winter,when must they shall have to suffer starvation and cold too." Thackdray.
*

In

traveller

"

"

"

Irish Sketch Book.

People with jwhich

whom

starvation is in

"

the condition"
for
so

of

consume life,

of that little

clothing

England
men

furnishes

exchange

much

labour. in Dublin
a *

"Everywhere, throughout all

meet

parts, even

in the best towns, and

"

but hung round with not covered boys not dressed, " unrivalled variety, and filth walking dunghills. * squalidity, with such rags.1' Quarterly Review. English scarecrow an
" " "

and

itself, you will collection of rags of No one ever saw large consumer
ol

Transferred food and

this country, everyone of these men would and thus would be increased. commerce cotton,
to

become

72
and priced to day more which

THE

HA.KMONY

OF

INTERESTS. from day it to become production destroy upon is to of produce protection object
cause

worthless labour.*
low and priced

Its effect is to

and thus worthless,

to

The be based. must and its effect is to cause and that dear labour, is, high-priced valuable labour, the equivalents to be and increase to to from value it to increase in day day, of increase commerce. to the great exchanged, to the called free-trade is that of securing of what is now The object of of the existence further machinery, the monopoly by of
commerce

people

England

and commerce prostrated. Ireland and India have been ruined, the loom and and to cause this break down monopoly, Protection seeks to and the of the food the side natural cotton, by the anvil to take their places How and that commerce that production may revive. may be increased, examine. effect now that we far it has tended here to produce may Prior to the passage of the tariffof 1828, our exchangesof iron amounted to only25 pounds per head. By 1832 they had increased to 46 pounds 1834 to 1841, theyaveraged From thus had grown. per head. Commerce itfellto In 1841 and '42, was stationary. 45 poundsper head. Commerce free-trade. From called what had fallen with was 38 pounds. Commerce increased had to 97 of iron to be exchanged 1844 to 1847, the equivalents aid of which had grown with protection. They are now 73 has fallen with the diminution of protection. similar facts railroads, or to coal,cotton, woollens,ships, If we turn now meet us everywhere. The number of exchanges grows with the system It diminishes with that which that looks to the elevation of the labourer. The interestsof of the labourer. looks for its growth to the depression therefore in perfect are commerce harmony with those of manufactures and

poundsper poundsper

head.

head.

Commerce Commerce

agriculture.
The
one

The population. system repels

and other attracts it,

hence it

I take from the described in the following paragraph,which poor silk weaver ' the poor He that he starves works of so is the the type cheap' system. Spectator, What he himself. " His case would not be cured by protection." Hindoo, and then starves but what is is here called " production," from what needs is the transfer of his labour
*

The

London

be called can to that only thing which only the conversion of the products of others, really to be consumed. of the quantity of commodities and which consists in an increase production, his labours He merely changes their form from silk to silken cloth. Were land within the kingdom, he millions of rich yet waste employed on any of the many and and better food,at less cost of labour. He could then feed better, would obtain more
have
"

more

to offer in to us,

exchange.

Commerce

would

then

grow.
'

the traveller of The Morning outlyingparts of the metropolis, where the people are hopelessly Chronicle1 describes contending with a system of regions because it yields profit,' because it that is fostered by commerce, and is peopled, industry the and subsistence of soul sometimes though not means together, keeping body yields know that and We the describer does not that. Many exaggerate. always many a man as from dark before the dawn until far into the next night, with others of his family, toils, will last, and then the produce of their industryfalls short of endurance long as human The You subsistence. say, 'it is a decaying trade.' It is not a decaying trade : read silk which, in spite of free trade, and see how the workman makes Morning Chronicle,' ther but is furout of the market, it is so good and not so 'cheap,' only beats the Frenchman the of with customers bribe reductions of filched from the to wages cheapened prices Protection would Go round the district, that man's case. miserable workman. not cure level aspect of poverty Lyons,or Genoa,and survey the dull, stranger to you than Brussels, all See the number of back streets. over a town poor workpeople, poor small tradesmen of shops dealing in articles,at secondhand not merely pawn-shops, but small clothesbetter years traders in shop-markedstationery, dealers in apples that have seen dealers, in happier regions; the very grocery looks window-stained. Production,production,in a ceaseless round, but not enough subsistence for that sad nation;many things made and and resold, but too few of them thingsto eat." sold, Nearer
in the
'
"

"

"

"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

73
to

is that Abolish

we

see

the whole

of Europe people
cease,

anxious and

reach

our

shores.

and immigration will protection

commerce

will diminish,

for there will be less cloth and iron to be exchangedagainst labour. Make and permanent, and immigrationwill increase rapidly, perfect protection for there will be Were cloth and iron to be exchanged labour. against establish protection and thus arrest and iron,would become more abundant, and emigration. Food, and cloth, would grow. Were Canada independent, she would establish procommerce tection,
more

Ireland this day free, she would

and then she would Were India

retain the

immigrantcoming from

Ireland

or

land. Eng-

she too would establish protection, and then independent, the rich lands the culture of cotton would be resumed of on Bengal. In all these
commerce cases

would production would grow. The the

be

increased, and

the

peopleof the United

power States are

to

maintain
tomers cus-

the best

people of England, because they are in some degree protected againstthe exhaustion consequent upon the existence of their system. Ireland cannot buy, and she is reduced to beg. Were she independent make books and she would silks, iron, and then she could buy fine cloths, of all nations are mony harin perfect pictures. The well-understood interests
to

with each The but of object

other. free trade is under

proclaimedto
it.

commerce

withers

a dozen pounds, per head. Transfer an Irishman trade between the producers and and 700,000 of her peoplewould make more maintained with the whole eightmillions of cotton than is now consumers

Ireland now consumes here,and he will consume

be the increase of commerce, a pound of cotton

and trade would adopt protection, head. The of the commerce pounds per grow, The of Germany now sume conZollverein has grown with protection. people The commerce two poundsof cotton where before they consumed but one. of India diminishes with every approach to what is called free trade. of cotton on the lower lands of Bengal could have, as the The producers of Ireland. Were she for she would then need six of equivalent
a

she would free,

the day'slabour,quadruple

iron that driven

can

be obtained seek the

now

that the cultivator of that poor lands. The

commodity

has

been

to

high and

have Englishiron can free trader, called, so says to the farmer,"You but hand over bushels of must York for to the wheat, in New thirty you the If take for make bushels to a exchange. you permission Treasury ten
ton

of American thus
are

iron,you
you taxed

must ten

give to

the

producerof

it

bushels, forty

and

bushels

and we shall have protection buy abroad,and will need more wagons bushels of wheat one perhapseven sixty The quantity to be exchanged will then Abolish
to
"

for the support of the iron man." food to sell abroad and more iron more and and ships,
"

it

will then take

hundred

to

pay for a ton of iron.

fall to 20

pounds per head, and

for the support of

commerce

will be diminished. bushels giving thirty and live in palaces,

that of those who of the for the maintenance ten or muskets, government under which carry the more and the longerhe must he givesto the first, he lives. The more and the less will be the continue to give,the poorer he must grow, will be obvious such is the case That maintain to commerce. power the examination of facts in last from an given chapter. In the years of would have purchased cotton from 1827 to 1834, 275,000,000 pounds of iron. In to pay for 1845-6, 600,000,000 were required 1,250,000 tons

farmer has his choice between the people who dance and sing and The

1,200,000 tons.
better clothed?

What On

became

of the difference ?
10

Were

the

Englishminers

it was the contrary,

but littlebefore that time that it

74
was

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

in together the world that males and females worked better the ? condition of On the Was naked. people the mines, absolutely and the poorfast becominga great poor-house, Ireland was the contrary, have the now to fast attained, pointthey advancing rates of England were difference ? The with the then What went that of "8,000,000 per annum. of increase the vast to answered public diture expenby pointing question may be of men who carry which the number in the last fifteen years, during increased ; to the innumerable has been so largely of war muskets and build ships of distress the and for causes commissions ascertaining and expensive successful and bankers fortunes of speculators ; to the made known
to ; pauperism
men

great

to

number who have like Hudson, the rail-road king; to the large realized immense as fortunes, engineers, in the late railroad speculation counsellors and parliamentary solicitors, agents,and to the host of others and the who fatten on the people. The productive power is diminishing, less. With become become every step in the greater as the many maintain for the commerce diminishes, the of the to latter, power progress commodities be in to and the to become given produce power people poorer, few

exchange becomes
Whatever

limited. and more more that tends to diminish production, whether wars the occurrence the increase of armies and fleetswithout the actual occurrence or revolutions, the few becomingricher and the many of war, or the increase of inequality, of the commodity the effect is tax to a impose upon the consumers poorer, the production of which is thus restrained. Under a system of real freedom of this tax would be paidby the actors themselves, of trade the chief portion
would be that of stimulating effect of such occurrences that had been created, increased exertions to fill the vacuum nation Under the system which to one a monopolyof the machinery gives of the tax may of other nations, for converting the products a large portion for the immediate other nations
to

be, and is thrown

towards

upon the maintenance

them, and thus are theymade to contribute largely of all that class, who to live prefer poor and rich,

by the
We

of cotton consumed in 1845 and '46 quantity cloth that the price of gray "3s.Id.,and was averaged596,000,000 pounds, delivered in Liverpool would have been' required that 34,700,000 pieces to "c, charges, pay for the cotton also delivered in Liverpool all freights,
"

labour of others. that the have seen

beingthus
The 4000
set

leftfor the work

average
at

to pay. planter of operatives in

this country would

be the conversion of may whole

poundsof
it down
to

cotton

into cloth of this

3000, and this would

In England, we description. 200,000 to convert the require

quantity.Allowing them
amount

to average "30 even each,* the wages would would be 92,000,000 of pieces, "6,000,000, and the product 35,000,000 of which would pay for the cotton, leaving 57,000,000

Worth From And which deduct the labour

performed, say,
.

"19,000,000 6,000,000t "13,000,000

there remain

for interest, "c, profits,

be realized, it is necessary that the price In order that large of the profits material be keptlow ; a state of things which results necessarily from raw
to be converted bearing a large chinery to the marequiring quantity proportion for its conversion. The mode of accomplishing this is prepared is met by to rise in the price simple. The first indication of a tendency

the

male

in 1833, gave 10s. 5d. as the inquiry, be "21, "c. This would female,mechanics, engineers, This is 2|d. is much the truth. more man "(" per pound, which
and

The

result of careful

average

of

operatives,
year.

Is. Sd. for the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

75

effect of which is to diminish the wages of labour to the cost of food and rent, and taxes on both,that the powerof is almost destroyed such see purchasing clothing ; and therefore it is that we prodigious changesin home consumptionwhenever a small rise of prices
a so point near

workingshort hours, the

takes the

place. The stock beginsto accumulate, and with its accumulation pricefalls. Mills again run full time,and so they continue untilanother rise takes place, when the same is performed, is at this moment as operation the case. being The of machinery, thus stands between the labourer exchanger,owner who produces, the labourer and who the price the cotton, fixing consumes
for both, and taking for himself the largest share ; and thus it is that men accumulate colossal fortunes, while surrounded by men, women, and children in poverty and living
*

clothed in
taken
as

rags.*
of

Of

the burden
system,
at

thus

thrown

upon

Rothschild
and of the

may

be

the type

the whole

of him

of his modes
of speculators
:
"

he was taxing those by whom live every kind, in England, who

of

and the following notice surrounded, furnishes a picture

the
cost

of the labourers

of

the world "The of fortune

name success. as

of Nathan

Meyer Rothschild Cautiously, however, did

great

as

brokers have
an

to

in the mouths of all citymen as a prodigy capitalist proceed, until he had made a his future reputation. He revived all the arts ofan older period. He employed for his benefit, and is said in one depress or raise the market day to
was

the

purchased to the English loan made

he then became

extent

of four millions.

The
in

name

of Rothschild It

as

contractor

for for

its first public appearance

1819.

But the twelve

was

millions

said,however, that Mr. reach Rothschild before the calamity could had relieved himself from all liability him. Old and the New World this year his transactions pervaded the entire globe. The From of a singleloan he purchased an eswith the profits to his skill ; and alike bore witness tate like parasitical which cost clung to him, and j"150,000. Minor capitalists, plants, in speculationsat his bidding. Nothing their money were always ready to advance His mind for his notice. seemed for his grasp; nothing .too minute was as too gigantic amount the lowest possible for millions as of calculating on a loan capable of calculating counted by which a clerkcould exist. Like too many were profits great merchants, whose came for which he could procure them. He bethousands, he paid his assistants the smallest amount raised by the capitalist for of the temple of Janus, and the coupons the high-priest
which

responsiblewent

to a

discount.

despoticstate
"From
most

were

more

than

match

for the
and

cannon

of the revolutionist.

1825, Mr. Rothschild kept wisely aloof. its originto this period, The Alliance Life and Fire Assurance Company, which owes was, and its great success is a proof of his forethought. however, produced under his auspices, the connected which he was, were ever None of the loans with repudiated; and when gratulated the great Hebrew looked coldly and calmly on, and concrash of that sad periodcame, At his counting-house, a fair pricemight be procured himself on his caution. of stock, for any amount which, at a critical time,would have depressed the publicmarket ; for brokers to apply at the office of Mr. Rothschild, circumstance and it was uncommon no He has,however, been occasionally surpassed instead of going in the Stock Exchange.
of the

speculationsof

1824

cunning ; and on one occasion a great banker lent Rothschild a million and a half on The terms which the money then 84. was on of consols, the price of which security the stock at 70; claim reached the banker If the lent 74, might price was were simple. with so large a sum out of the market, the bargain was but Rothschild felt satisfied that, Jew a Rothschild,had a plan of his as tolerablysafe. The banker, however, as much the receivedfrom the latter, consols He immediately began selling togetherwith a own. Stock The funds the Exchange in his grew dropped; own similar amount possession. tended to depress it; the fatal price of 74 was reached; alarmed; other circumstances the satisfaction of outwitting the Hebrew loanmonger. and the Christian banker had others outwitted himself, there is little doubt he made pay for it; But, if sometimes the authorities of for that his finesse is too it reported proved great and, on one occasion, to the governor in want Mr. Rothschild was of bullion, and went the Bank of England. His wishes were met; the terms loan a portion of the superfluousstore. on to procure named for its return ; and the affair finished for the were agreed on ; the period was and the day arrived the his end was used answered, The by financier; was time. gold to the time appointed, Mr. Punctual the borrowed metal. to return he was which on reniemhei. his personal appearance and those who Rothschild may imagine the entered;
in the

76
the who much planter

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of those goes to the payment of taxes for the maintenance much the to reduced by the system to a state of pauperism are ment, governwhich taxes servants, horses, carriages, every note, bill or bond
" "

of lawyersand conveyancers, to go to the maintenance and speculators, and much is lost by failures of every that of stock-gamblers kind, the natural results of a gamblingtrade. The result is,that the but five cents the planter, his plantation, which on cotton yields per "c. "c. Vast
sums

at four-pencehalfpennyper pound, pound, and is sold in Liverpool and yet the reward of the labour is sold by the mill owner at a shilling,* it into cloth is not two-pence, and probably employed in converting the interest of mill little than a penny per pound. It is so obviously more that it cannot be allowances for the use of machinery, to obtain large owners doubted theywill continue to pursue this course, and to make every effort the control of the cotton that maybe necessary to continue to themselves the monopolyof machinery; market. That control depends upon continuing shall be broken up, and machineryshall and the moment that monopoly become so abundant elsewhere as to relieve the planter from the necessity for seeking of taxation will pass away, cloth will be a market, the power will be trebled, and the producer will grow rich. cheap, consumption look the which the sugar-planter We for in to a manner now, moment, may is taxed. The quantity of sugar entered for home consumptionin 1847 was

about 25s. per cwt., of which was 5,800,000 cwt., and the average price least one-fourth, and very probably to pay the cost of transone-third, went portation in and from India,the Isle of France, Brazil, Cuba, Jamaica,"c, storage, commission, "c. the planter had at his command Allowingit to have been three-tenths, about "5,000,000 The price of iron was add to this for "9, 12s. and if we now the transportation to Cuba, Brazil,India, "c, and from the the ."11 8s. have the cost to we as plantation, only"1, port of a ton, at which rate 450,000 tons would amount to "4,950,000
at

and if the account

amount to

were

more

made accurately

up, it would

not

probably

400,000

tons.

in a single of iron in this country, quantity year to the product the and yet we not require here that in return see exertion, slightest for it, small as it was, England obtained, in 1847, more than one-fourth of the products of the labour of allthe sugar-producing ! countries of the globe examination of this statement A very slight will show in what manner the of the world are taxed for the maintenance of iron-manufacturers, people railroad speculators, and the host of middle-men, with whom England so would much abounds. Her the materials for their taxation the most The object of
are few, and her consumers producers consumption are obtained by means are

To

add that

many,
a

and

of

system of

that the world has yet seen. extraordinary is not only ourselves from the necessity to rescue protection of contributing of such a system, but also to facilitate to the maintenance the process of emigration from lands so taxed,adding to the value of the the supplyof men in market, and compeoplewho remain, by diminishing cunning twinkle of his small,quick eye,
handed the
'

as, ushered
notes.

the borrowed

amount
was

in bank

He

was

into the presence of the governor, he reminded of his agreement, and

of
a

of bullion necessity

urged.
me

His
the

replywas

worthy

commercial

Talleyrand.

Very well,gentlemen.

Give

notes.

with gold from your vaults, and then I can silence." only worthy reply was a scornful * The piece which sold at 6s. Id. required to produce it about The pricewas thus almost exactly a shilling per pound.

I dare say your cashier will honour them return you bullion.' To such a speech, the

6J pounds

of cotton.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

77

those pelling

who

in food and
must

desire to purchase labour to givefor it the proper equivalent raiment,which now they do not. With every step in that
to

their power direction, We 1827 the

produce iron

and
commerce

to

consume

food and increase.

clothing

are

more costlyin 1845-6 than from of the late Secretary to this unquestionable opposition fact, chinery, Treasuryasserted that,"experience proves that from improved mainventions and reduced cost of production, articles new the foreign have the in price."* In opposition to this we constantly diminishing

grow, and the power to maintain have seen that iron was much In

must

to '34.

fact that who have and gave had

not

not two

only was
pounds

iron

higherbut

cotton

was

lower.

The he

man

in 1833-4 obtain what

were

of cotton in 1845-6 for less iron than for one, found that the priceof iron was

could

increasing

and diminishing,

period to
wages reduced

that it was difficultthan in the former, far more he needed for the construction of machinery. His his power
to

in iron

thus reduced, and

accumulate

was capital

his exchanges on the spot with the pro; whereas, if he had made ducer of iron, both would have grown. Nevertheless we are told by the same that the necessary consequence of the protective that authority S3'stem is, lower the became than because the before, throughout country wages of of the the nation in all its is capital engaged industry aggregate profits
"

diminished. "t It is deemed most to trade with profitable whose labour is low, and the lower it is the greateris our
"

nations change." gain in the exfifteen years less

those

The because since,

labour it is less in

of Great

Britain is lower

than it was

and productive,

the less her

the peopleproduce,

they have

to

giveus

exchangefor our products ; the

that we for less iron. cotton is, give more cloth and iron ; wages would then to work, they would produce far more and the equivalent of a bale of cotton in iron would be doubled. The rise, the peopleof the world are employed, the greaterwill be more productively will be the quantity of goodthings the value of their labour, and the larger labour. The their armies, that we shall obtain in exchange for our larger their revolutions, the the more destructive their wars, the more numerous and the smaller their money-spending noblemen,abound, more classes, paupers will be the value of labour abroad,the smaller will be their power to maintain those will the who trade and the be smaller to advantage commerce, with them
must

consequence of which If allthe people of England were

be

the more food for the less silk or iron they produce, similar them the of as quantities. given equivalent
;

or

cotton

document The I have above referred belongs to the school of to which discords ; that which teaches to buy in the cheapestand sell in the dearest to be gainedby reducing the cotton of market, and sees great advantage careless of the fact that famine and the poor Hindoo to a penny a pound, that produces in the train of such a system. The policy who selves for dependingon trade with people are a necessity poorer than ourand to level with tends to reduce the wages of our labour to a theirs, diminish commerce. should give us power tions That which to trade with nafollow pestilence who
a

might be
theirs.

richer than

ourselves would Irishman

tend to raise

our

wages

to to

level with his

By bringingthe

here, and
a

enablinghim

raise him to our level as with us, we exchanges a nd them to make Ireland, our to people compelling exporting make

producer.By their exchanges

The

their wages to a level with those of that country. tion, here and raises them in the scale of civilizabringspeople them to return That which causes is that which promotes commerce. advance in home, and thus arrests the tide of immigration, preventing

there, we

should

sink

that policy

is the civilization,

one

which

diminishes

commerce.

December, 1848. Report,

Ibid. j-

78

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

CHAPTER
HOW

SEVENTH.
AND

PROTECTION

AFFECTS

THE OF

QUANTITY
PRODUCTION.

QUALITY

OF

THE

MACHINERY

of the condition is the improvement to be accomplished sought object that is of increasing The mode by which it is to be accomplished of man. t he and better food a man The more more can raise, his productive power. that be approwill be the surplus and the larger can food may he consume, priated his of clothing, to the ento the education of largement family, to the purchase and the of his house, or to the improvementof his machinery, be appropriated of leisure that can provement to the imgreaterwill be the amount of his modes of thought. it can be obtained, and the more the The better his machinery, readily of consists and the his iron, will be chiefly Machinery production. larger will be the increase of the more be obtained, that can more rapid readily of the moral, intellectual and and the physical, improvement production of civilization. the instrument of It is man. great political capacities will his capital increase. durable his work, the more The more rapidly of houses, Where iron is abundant it is substituted for wood in the building and roads, and in the construction of ships which are thus secured from fire, by each such his and with which is transportation improved step powers of increased. are production have the command of fuel, he must That he may obtain iron readily, tainable obin other words, cheaply for things at moderate cost of labour are but to the quantify of to their money-price, cheap or dear not in proportion labour required them. The money-price of grain, for obtaining in Ireland; tivator is less than in England, yet the cost in labour is so great that the poor culstill The of coal is less than it eats money-price poorer potatoes. The
" " "

was

years since, yet the consumption has diminished, because the has risen. The money-price of cotton in those partsof India labour-price
two

in which
it

it is raised, is about two cents per pound,yet the man who raises his loins with with clothing for the rest of his covers a rag, dispensing of cloth is great. Where is body,because the labour-price production of commodities is high,and consumption is very small,the labour-price is large, of comthe labour-price small ; and vice versa, where production modities is low, and consumptionis great. obtain such of fuel and and Large production requires goodand cheapmachinery, have good and cheap fuel. we must machinery, iron
are

that

we may Abundance

rest, and upon which civilization must tends most their acquisition, to facilitate that is the one which must tend most rapidly to augment the productive power of man, and to increase his power and his capacity for improvement. Iron ore and fuel exist throughout this country in such profusion is as elsewhere unknown. Nowhere in the world can tained obbe so readily they

the foundation that policy

whatever the

course

of

"

nowhere

anthracite of
as as cheaply

so easily broughtinto combination with each other. The is the best fuel in the world,and it can be mined Pennsylvania

It is interstratified with iron ore in greatabundance. any other. close to the great Schuylkill abounds Limestone and region, it may be obtained with as littlelabour as anywhere in the world. The and fuel of Ohio and the West are thus described : ores
"

The

beds of
cannot

ore

are

easy of

access,

being and associated

sources

with

fail to be of immense the first workable

at

of wealth.
amount

Most

duction, materials necessary for itsreof of the -working-beds

ore

are

above

bed

of coal. The

of workable when

county is estimated

cubic yards,which, 153,600,000

in Muskingum ore melted, will yieldabout

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

79

need not now of tons, in pigs. We speak of localities. Mr. Briggs of good his report on iron ore as follows : " A very low calculation of the amount has this season unbroken iron ore in the region which been explored, is equal to a solid, half that number
closes
"

sixtymiles in width, and three feet in thickness. A square stratum, sixtymiles in length, mile of this layer, being equivalentin round numbers to three millions cubic yards,when melted, will yieldas many
square miles
in

the stratum, will alone,will yield annually,for 2700 greatest The

amount

made

in

pig iron. This number, multipliedby the number of give 1,080,000,000tons ; which, from three counties than equal to the years, 400,000 tons of iron" more Okw Paper. England previous to the year 1829."
tons

of

"

country bordering on

Carp
"

River

is, perhaps, the (Lake Superior)

Iron Company," whose
miles from the Lake

richest
we

on

the the

Shore,and about thr.ee One of these mountains miles from the iron mountains. belongs to the above-named Cleveland Iron Company." These two and the other to the mountains, as we company, were informed, are by far the richest and most valuable of any iron deposit that have less iron ore is found spread over been discovered or some though it is said that more Lake Superiorand Green seventeen tains or Bay. This ore coneighteentownships between from it by the Jackson pany Comfrom 75 to 90 per cent, of pure iron, and metal made has been submitted to the severest tests,and proves to be of the very best quality of iron that is made down in any part of the world, having been drawn to the size of No. 36 wire. The Jackson Iron Company (under the superintendenceof P. M. Everett, of Jackson) understand and is succeeded by Czar Jones, Esq., leaves, Esq.,who we now News. Lake Superior has been making iron for some twelve or eighteenmonths.
some

The globe for its iron ore. is situated pleasureof visiting,

Jackson
twelve

location

had

"

"

"

of fuel and might suppose that the consumption case, we but such has not been the case. be great, amounted In to only50,000 tons. In 1810, the domestic manufacture In 1818, '19, '20, it may perhaps have 1838, it had reached 100,000. The totalimportation of bar reached 70,000, but even that is very doubtful. The and pig iron in those years, was 40,000 tons, or 13,333 per annum. Such

being the

iron would

articles of iron may have been half as much, and give consumptionof 90,000 tons, or 200,000,000 of pounds for of 9,400,000 persons, being 20 pounds per head. The over a little apopuiation and all of the Union for purposes, for house-building average consumption scription, and for of for machinery implements, ship-building, agricultural every de-

importof

manufactured
a

this would

was

to therefore, equal,

littlemore

than

twice

the

weightof

there now and yet there existed, a exists, as axe an per annum, the world. of than in iron less labour at cost to produce anywhere capacity of this, it maybe found in the fact the cause desire now If we to understand per head that of horse-shoe of iron, the manufacture the Revolution, even works for the inducement and there existed to erect no was nails, prohibited, could used. The when the be of the ore, not pig consequence was, smelting while that of England was that it did not grow with its natural growth, that up
to

that of the day of nominal independence arrived, forced forward,and when tariffs from 1789 Under the various still far distant. real independence was ad-valorem,commencing with 7 5 per cent, and to 1812, the duties were of 1812, 17" per until they had attained, before the war gradually rising of iron had made no progress, and the whole supply The production cent. that it was scarce of which was had to be soughtabroad,the consequence raised the price so and war highthat Embargo,non-intercourse, the duties built in considerable numbers furnaces were ; but with the peace, for pig The demand reduced to 20 per cent. manufactured iron were on which had been $60, in Pittsburgh, thus diminished,and the price iron was the ruin of fell in 1820 and 1821 to $20, the consequence of which was and dear. all engagedin nearly its production. This,however,
on was

not

consequence

of reduction of duty. At that very time the bars $30 per ton, and thus the iron. the freightand dutyon imported

pigswas $10, and on duty that at placewas far less than price selling
Iron
was

nominally cheap,but

80
dear: really

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

Labour was dear that consumptionwas at $6 so destroyed. thus and sold for wheat 25 and cents was bushel, a so produced per month, this most necessary of all commodities,that although total an inability to consume the whole importof pigand rolled iron in closed, the furnaces were It may be 4000 2,500 persons. ton to every but or one 1821, was tons, of that year exceeded six if the consumption pounds per head. the power with the that to to prothus see importdisappeared power duce, other the been shown have been on has to occasions. case as already increased difficulty of obtaining the losers by the greatly Who, now, were this of civilization? To answer this great instrument we must question, of iron ? The farmers and planters who are the great consumers firstinquire doubted
We

and if the losswere of the population of the nation, constitute three-fourths loss would fall that of the distributed, portion equally upon them ; but we of all we shall find upon inquiry that it is upcn them, the producers sume, conwhole of fall. that the it must and ploughs, his shovels and his The farmer needs iron for his spades and his wagon-wheels; for his trace-chains and horse-shoes, for his timber. If house, his barn,and his stable. He needs* them, too, and the saw-miller takes his iron be abundant, saws are obtained, readily his dung-forks, and by his side, place labour than obtains the
comes was use

he has his timber converted into plank at the cost of less before required He to the distant saw-mill. to haul the logs

of mill-saws cheap. If iron be abundant, the grist-mill and now he has his grain converted into flour, neighbourhood, for the work less grain than was before consumed giving by the horses and men employed in carryingit to the distant mill. If iron be abundant, and the roads are mended, and he obtained, spades and picksare readily to the distant market. If iron increase in abundance, readily passes more the railroad enables him to pass with increased facility, his turnips himself, and potatoes,to markets from which before he was shut out by cost entirely of transportation, articlesof small bulk and much value except as regarded
to

his

"

and cotton. wool is converted and

wheat

If iron be abundant, the woollen-mill comes, and his the spot'by men who eat on the ground his cabbages on his veal, and drink his milk, and performthe work of conversion in return

forservices and things that would have been losthad theynot been thus consumed. At each step he gets the use of iron cheaper that is, at Jess If iron be abundant, the cotlon-miil now cost of labour. and the comes, iron road now the cotton, and his sons and his daughters obtain the brings of iron spindles and iron looms by which use enabled are to clothe they themselves at one-twentieth of the ccst of labour that had been necessary but twenty years before. Instead of a yardof cotton received in return for
"

bushels of corn, one bushel of corn of cloth and now pays for six yards it is that the farmer grows rich. careful examination A of society will satisfy the inquirer that all the and people engaged in the work of transportation, conversion, exchange, but the agents cf the producers, are and live out of the commodities they
two
"

are

and that the producers produce, grow to employ less or more required The farmer who

rich

or

remain

persons

as they poor precisely in the making of their exchanges.

is compelled to resort ploys to the distant mill emhorses and in the work of his many persons, wagrns, converting grain into flour, and his land is of small value. Bring the mill clrse to him, and horse and cart, occasionally a The will do the work. single employed,

farmer who
to

is obliged employsthe peopleof England to producehis iron, have the services of numerous to and wagons, and horses, persons, of ships aid in the work. and let his neighbour Bring the furnace to his side, get out his iron, and he and his sons do much of the work themselves,furnishing

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

81
not

timber,ore, and
farm. The
man

the

use

of horses, wagons,

"c.,'when

needed

on

the

of Tennessee

he receives in return one the labour-cost of which could follow his corn,

sends to market 300 bushels of corn, for which of iron,the money-cost of which is $60, but is the cultivation of ten acres If he of land. he would find that the men who get out his iron
ton

receive but 30 or 40 bushels, and that the the and numerous by transporters up himself those men he would and
to

remaining260

or

270

are

lowed swal-

the

men

whom

he

thus

that stand between exchangers employs. If,now, he could bring

bushels of corn, double wages, say sixty While of 240 bushels. he has to give his iron is dear,and he can use little. When 300 bushels, he obtains it for much. 60 bushels it is cheap,and he uses His production increases,and his
to ability
use

his side, givingthem be a gainer to the extent

and all obtain food increases,

they have

more

iron increases with it, and the demand for workers in iron of which is that the consequence more readily, and for other of the comforts or the to spare for clothing,

luxuries of life. there is in market Whenever a surplusof any commodity, the whole level lowest price fall the of the tends to enable the to to required quantity shall continue to have a surand so longas we holders to find purchasers, plus

by
the

that which Whenever

of the whole must continue to be regulated of food for export, the price be obtained for the trivialquantity sent to Liverpool. can

it is necessary to distant places to procure a part of to resort of whole is regulated the the of by the price supply any commodity, small this last In of 1847, we 800,000 produced cost portion. obtaining tons of iron, yet the demand was so much in advance of the supply that we
were

and the price that was at which obligedto import a small quantity, thus The farmer is whole. fixed the of the obtained always selling price The labour and capital and buying in the dearest market. in the cheapest needed for the pronot as great as are to produce a ton of iron,are duction required cause he for it three hundred, beand bushels of corn, of forty gives yet the who the wasted in man of labour of the quantity transporting one to the produces The other. fore of labour and iron are both higherthan in Europe, and thereprices and fore therethan in Europe, we importboth. The priceof food is lower such to do the importof labour shall be as we export it. Whenever will be for food, as food,its price high, away with the necessity exporting shall be such the importof men shall cease to export it. Whenever and we will be low, the price for importing with the necessity iron, to do away as the shall export food in the form of iron. By the same operation and we and to buy for his grain, farmer will thus be enabled to obtain high prices and sell in the dearest his iron cheap. He will then buy in the cheapest

market, and the value of his labour will be increased.

bracing that elapsed between 1821 and 1829, emthat in the period seen sumption the six years which followed the passage of the act of 1824, the conIn the three following of iron rose to about 25 poundsper head. the tariffof it to 47. under the rose CompromiseAct, the 1828, By years, a nd the railroad iron abolished, was was, that the power consequence duty on of but 40 poundsfor the at an of consumptiondiminished, remaining average of the tariffit fell clauses Under the revenue nine years. next strictly eleven of less than the By consumption being to 38 pounds, years before. the Who were it'rose 98. and in the to following 1846, ithad risen to 94, year of iron The abundance that benefitedby this change ? Let us see.

We

have

persons and other of steam-engines the openingof coal mines by means facilitated and food, which of coal, machinery, and the making of roads,by mfians
11

82

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

diminished the number and thus greatly and timber could be taken to market, ance and consumer ; and the abundof persons intermediatebetween the producer ing diminishof steamboats, of fuel and iron facilitatedthe construction to and from market ; and facilitated the cost of could at which the farmers and planters the construction of mills and furnaces, of obtaining ploughs make their own exchanges; while the increased facility of labour, and axes, tended to increase the productiveness and harrows, spades this and in manner to be exchanged, increase in the quantities with large of obtaining iron went from the augmented facility the whole benefit resulting
to

greatly

transportation

But To the

particularly
iron

the cultivators of the land,farmers and planters. this result? have been necessary to produce why should protection be added, those which refer reasons given, already may now general of merbefore me,* the English chant-bar In a table now prices to iron.
are

thus

:-r" given

"

s.

"

i.

1816"11 8 1817" 1818"12 1819"11 1820"10 1821" 1822" 1824"13 1825"15 1826"11 We
9

0 10

1827" 1828" 1829" 1830"

9 9

1837"10 1838" 1839"10

15 5

5@
9 9 10

6 15 9 15

7 6 6 6 6 6 8

1840" 1841" 1842" 1843" 1844" 1845"

5" 0 1

10 10 8

1831" 1832" 1833" 1834" 1835" 1836"11

7 15 ( 6 10 (
5 6

0(
6 1

10

10

1846"

10 ( 0 9

Why

and every price between. labour variations take place ? It costs no more The man who mined a ton of ore iron at one time than at another. to make than a ton in coal in 1832, when the price "5 10,could mine more was or and yet the price had been greatly was 1846, because machinery improved, have here "4 10=$21 should these enormous

60, and "I5=$72,

then "9. The season may with

enormous

may

be adverse for the

the destroy

potato crop, thus

or cotton, and the rot growthof grain the quantity to be supplied diminishing nor

and yet neither food greatincrease of price, and sudden

cotton

is liableto the

to to iron,which ought changesthat we see in regard due to the unsound character of the be perfectly are steady. These changes that result therefrom. The consequence changes system, and the perpetual the constant of ruin to all, in other countries engaged of them is, recurrence built. In and furnaces were in the manufacture of iron. In 1816 itwas high, ruined. In 1825 it low, and iron-masters were 1821, it was everywhere and furnaces in blast. furnace-masters In was were 1831, high, againput and in 1842, it was low, and on were againruined. In 1836 it was high, furnaces both occasions the same in S o were 1846, operations repeated. again and now, in 1849, theyare beingclosed. were built, the of this is that the iron manufacture The consequence throughout

Small furnaces abound, at which much little iron. At each forced intermission of the producing portant exertions of England to maintain the monopolyof the production of this imland the it its we can to see commodity, making gradually way where alone it can be produced that land where ore, at small cost of labour

countryis in

barbarous condition.

labour is given to

"

coal and limestone are interstratified with each other, and at which arrived since but for have of our long frequent changes policy.
*

it would

Merchants' Magazine,Vol. XX. p. 337.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

83

examination Very little when precisely

our was consumption

iron has

that it has been is necessary to satisfy the inquirer been lowest in England, in 1822 and 1843, that least ; and itis now furnaces as our diminishing rapidly,

'

declines ruined. are The power to consume beingclosed and their owners another With but time abroad will be high, daily. year or two the price will then be requiredto get the old furnaces into operation, and still

longerto
and So
so

build the blanks

new are

ones;
more

for
numerous

is like buying lottery tickets, iron-making than the prizes. That "time arrived,

pig iron

$40 and bars 180 per ton. may be again of its supply, longas a nation is dependenton England for any portion continue to be thus variable, and so long must, the consumption longmust prices

of this important be and the facilitiesfor producing it, article, and allthe deficiency fallson the producer of food, small, or wool,or cotton ; for it is he that pays the cost of transportation, conversion and exceed consumptionof the present year will not, probably, the make
at

exchange. The

700,000 tons, for is greatly diminished,and the stock on hand has increased that of the importfrom abroad. Next year, to an extent nearly approaching there is strong reason for believing that it will be stillfarther diminished, whereas,there can be no doubt that that year, had the system of 1842 remained
home

unchanged,would having been

have

seen

the domestic
to

productattain 1,300,000 tons, or

; the

3,000,000,000 of pounds,being 125 pounds per head

increase for 1846

consumption, per head, in 1842-3. regulated -by the cost of production the prices abroad ; and thenceforth here,and not by the fluctuations of policy of would have been daily the as i mproved. production diminishing, machinery of transthe number The object of the colonial system is that of increasing porters, who and exchangers, converters to be supportedout of the are of the protective labours of the farmers and planters.The object system is

equal the whole would have been Thenceforth,the price

almost

to

diminish

the

number; and
men

the

now question we

the the labourers, shall be masters.

who Were

produceall that
the

whether be settled is, the or exchangers consume,

to

latter to succeed, we

should

have

perfect

consists in beingcompelled to forego of trade,so far as freedom freedom for the their fellow-men association of with the men improvement of of result would be the and the their condition, stoppage every furnace coal and ore would be would be lower,while which of food, to resort to the raising compelled in labour would be so far and greatly iron would be higher higher. Its cost which it stood in 1821. would fallto the poinfat increased that consumption and vast numbers would Perfect protection soon quadrupleour production, food,which of persons would mine iron and coal instead of raising would be higher. The labour-cost of iron would be diminished,and the in the Union; when all those in mining engaged-

consumptionwould

conversion be increased, facilitated, exchanges made rich. value,and farmers and planters

is to be increased;and itis by aid of iron that production land increased in improved,

increased about fifty 1829 to 1832, the domestic production per cent. of threats that the Union of was b y agitated period, During in furnaces and there existed no motive for investing nullificationand disunion, of for the cheap production the large amounts or required rolling-mills From the whole this

commodity. important

From

1842

to

and trebled, 1847, the production itwas period almost

Duringthe intermediate quadrupled. perhaps

what would inquire

stationary.

have been the result, had the production I propose to gone and then to examine 15 per cent, per annum, to increase at the rate of only on and the working men, the planters what would have been the effect on

84

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of the fanners of the Union, with a view to ascertain from the experience for the future. of the policy past what is probably true course the product 15 per with 200,000 tons in 1832, and increasing Starting follows would have been : as cent, the succeeding years
"

Tears.

1000
. .

tons.

Tears.

1000

tons.

1839 1840 1841 1842 1843 1844

532 612 704 810 930 1070

1845

1230

than increase of any year is scarcely that the highest more It will be seen in years between 1843 and 1847, when every took place that which actually thinghad to be recommenced, after a state of almost utter ruin. What now for the production of this of investment required would have been the amount of week 5000 ? tons furnace A of capable producing per may quantity pig-metal
cost

$30,000. We

can

now

800,000 produce

tons.

To have made

it2,000,000

would

than we have built, of 240 furnaces more the building have required have required $8,000,000, being far less and their construction would been spent in building that has in that period than the amount packet ships out of view New between to run York, London, and Liverpool, leaving for building all other expenditureupon or sailing shipping,whether
"

will disappear, hind. beThe shipshave disappeared, or leaving nothing At one establishment in The furnaces would be stillin existence. of producing 800 tons of metal there are six furnaces capable Pennsylvania them. The have been cost of these may tons per annum. that would reof build quire $200,000. shipscapable transporting quantity the At of least end of few the investment at a $750,000.. an years, would be sunk, while the furnaces mightlast almost whole of that capital
per

week,

or

41,600

To

the The of the colonial system is thus to compel for centuries. tendency of in and the of object protection employment capital temporary machinery, of it to invest it in that which is permanent. is to enable the owner have done with all this iron? In It will be asked, what should we that is of his proI consumer to the full extent a answer, every man duction. say, who made the iron would have required fuel and The man food, The clothing. and and
man

who
man man

mined who who

the

fuel would

have have

clothing.The

raised the food would

iron,food required fuel iron, required

food and iron,

made the clothing would have required who raised the wool and the cotton would man and Production would have largely have required food, fuel, iron, clothing. and there would have been a large increase in the power of consuming increased, all the commodities and comfort of necessary for the convenience

clothing.The

fuel.

The

man.

In other words, there would of

have

been

fits great increase in the pro-

and the wages of labour. capital the rate I have indicated, should have Had at we production gone on from 1834 to the present time 15,000,000 of tons, whereas we in the period have with the enabling machinery, had but 5,000,000. These 10,000,000 would have filled the country farmers and planters the consumers to have

by
to

market

and in addition would have given their sides, them roads Their necessity for at half the present cost. would and have with

by which to go going to distant

markets

while their power so to do would creased, have indiminished, in this would have become they every step progress said that this demand for labour would have

enriched.
It may, be perhaps,

dimin-

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

85

ished the power

have would farmer increased

to

produce food

and

cotton.

it. Two-thirds

of the labour

the contrary, it would actually employed in the On

making of this iron and its conversion into the various forms
nave
"

to fitit for use, labour that has been wasted. been saved labour Further,the would have exchanged and planter their food and cotton on the spot have been a further and vast saving of labour. for iron,and here would The of increased facility obtaining spadesand hoes,ploughsand harrows, carts and wagons, horse-shoes,
or

would

have

rendered

the labour

on

the farm

more plantation productive. The rapidgrowth of railroads would have for goingto market with produce, and facilitated preventedthe necessity

the transport of manure, and marl, and lime,and thus the. power to labour steadily and advantageously would have largely increased. cotton-mill or neighbouring woollens-mill would have furnished

apply
The

for clothing

and thus the necessity food and labour, for looking to distant markets would have been diminished, while the power to resort to them would have largely increased demand increased. The for labour and its increased reward, each hew arrival be clothed, tage to the advanof both farmer and planter. Farms and plantations would have been have been obtained from small and more food and cotton would divided, obtained from large The land would have increased than are now ones. ones would have
to largely to

tended
a

augment

and immigration, back

to

would

have

been

mouth

be fed and

increased

would have grown in value,and the farmers and planters and diminished cost of exchange, and production

rich because
a

of
plus sur-

part of the

would have
and have the

been appropriated to the purchase of books musical instruments and pictures, and thus would and 1843

and newspapers, intellectual

kept pace with moral period from 1835 to

improvement. physical
was one

Instead of all this,

What it is unnecessary to go into detail. the of the nation, the settled policy time have would reached be likewise

poverty and crime, ending with bankruptcyand has been said in regardto iron is equally true in

and increasing production repudiation. but regardto coal, Had the tariff of 1828 been adopted as consumptionof anthracite would by this
vast

of diminished

10,000,000 of tons, and the

coal fields of the West

givingforth their

food of the farm would have -been and providing means transportation, have been had
a

and thus the productsby millions, condensed into fuel and iron, it for fitting of transportation. Instead of this, we involved in ruin almost all that have that

series of

that changes

have

works interestedin givingto the nation the extraordinary largely and New Philadelphia York

with the greatcoal region of Pennsylconnect vania, have been followed by that of and State bankruptcyand repudiation for the real advantage of the Union than companies which have done more any others that have ever under by a policy which and all this has been proexisted within its limits, duced reduced the whole consumption of iron was

it might long since have reached 300. 40 pounds per head, when of iron and coal been allowed to increase,and the Had the production of cotton to grow, we should be now manufacture consuming a million and been allowed to grow, half of bales ; and had the woollens manufacture a below
we

should be

now

have

hundred

millions of

domestic for our required largely. largely exhibited The more perfectly harmony of interests is nowhere perfect in relation to examination of the course of proceeding than in a thorough would
consume

sheep,the whole of whose wool for those' who produce consumption,

both

coal and grew,

iron. because

Both

were

from heavily protected

1816 and

to

1824, but

neither

the iron

the manufacture,

cotton

the woollen

manufactures,did

not grow ; and so would it now be,were and wool. All and of wane the wax cost cotton at

iron and coal tected proand the together,

86
man

THE

HARMONY
at

OF

INTERESTS.

makes a sad the cost of his neighbour, that and market is iron without a market, mistake. It is useless to produce the cutthe machine-shop, the foundery, ler's in the rolling-mill, to be found find a market and that of the axe-maker, and theyin turn must
who would

himself protect

shop

among

the

and wool, and of food, producers

cotton.

The

uses shipwright

of iron,and largely

market for be a large that he may do so, there must and other of the luxuries and comforts of life. The sugar, tea, coffee, and the larger of iron, will be the consumption the the market, larger larger In a wise political will the former grow. the more the latter, rapidly economy there will be found
no

discords.

CHAPTER
HOW

EIGHTH.
AFFECTS

PROTECTION

POPULATION.

of action is indispensable to increase in the value of labour. Combination with which to build roll raise a log, neither cultivator nor can The first which serves in himself a house. He makes himself a hole in the ground, He cultivates the poor soilof the hills to obtain a little lieu of one. corn, with which the game in eke out the supplyof food derived from snaring another liable is in His winter's hole, his neighbourhood. supply deposited soil into which alone the which filters the from water to injury through light At starvation. ever, howof is He in he can penetrate. length, hourly danger
to

his obtain

grow up. somethinglike an

can

sons

They
axe

combine

like a house. They obtain something The danger it better. can corn more they preserve game, for fuel upon forced to of starvation is diminished. no depend Being longer in less danger wood which alone their father could use, they the decayed are from cold in the elevated groundwhich, from necessity, of perishing they each in the growthof the family soils are With new cultivated, occupy. and theyobtain a constantly succession yielding to labour, return a larger life in of the necessaries of from a surface diminishing supply increasing soil ; and
cut

and logs,

and a build

with his, and now their exertions sink can deeper into the spade. They

and

more

and

its ratio to the number to be fed ; and thus with every increase in the return of combiningtheir exertions is increased. to their labour the power look now settlerof the West, even where If we to the solitary provided shall see him obtaining, with extreme difficulty, hut. a nd their combined efforts A arrives, log neighbour house with less half labour than the the first. f or new a produce required The That neighbour and he makes like cart. horse, a a brings something with both
axe we spade,

and

the commonest

of their labour is now product man workingby himself.

that of the first was houses are and new come, neighbours A "bee" is made, and by the combined wanted. effortof the neighbourhood in a day ; whereas the third house is completed the firstcost months, and the second weeks, of far more exertion. These new severe neighbours
ten

times

greater than

More

have the

brought ploughsand horses,and now better soils are cultivated and of is the power as to preserve the product labour is againincreased, The for winter's becomes road. use. a path surplus Exchanges begin. its appearance. The store makes Labour is rewarded returns, by larger because aided by better machineryapplied to better soils. The town Each successive addition to the population consumer a brings grows up. and a producer.The shoemaker wants leather and corn for in exchange his shoes. The blacksmith requires fuel and food, and the farmer wants shoes for his horses ; and with the increasing of exchangemore facility labour is applied and the reward of labour rises, to production, producing new and larger more wants, and requiring exchanges. The road becomes

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

87

the wagon and horses are seen becomes upon it. The town soils better cultivated for the of a are supply its markets, while the railroad facilitates with towns distant. The and cities more exchanges to union and to combination of exertion thus grows with the growth tendency
a

and turnpike,

and city,

of extreme be developed. The poverty it cannot tribe of savages that starves on the product of the upper soil insignificant of hundreds of thousands of acres of land,looks with jealous eyes on every In
a

of wealth.

state

intruder, knowing that each

the arrival of the blacksmith

new

mouth
;

to be requiring

of obtaining subsistence difficulty

whereas

the farmer

fed tends to increase in the rejoices

and the shoemaker, because they come to eat on the spot the corn which heretofore he has carried ten, twenty, or thirty miles to market, to exchangefor shoes for himself and his horses. With each new that arrives he is enabled more and more of his products consumer his action and his thoughts upon his home, while each new arrival tends to increase his power of consuming commodities broughtfrom because it tends to diminish his necessity for seeking at a distance a distance,
to concentrate
a

market

for the

produce of
to
use

his farm.

Give

to

the poor tribe spades,

them, and the power of association will begin. The supplyof food becoming more abundant, they hail the arrival of the who them knives and for skins to be exchanged brings clothing stranger
and the and
corn

knowledgehow

;
"

wealth

civilization

grows, and the habit of association arises.

"

the firststep towards

and yet throughout this country, find to livealone, Itisnot goodfor man we thousands and tens of thousands of men the there to to commence West, flying while millions the work of cultivation at a distance from their fellow-men, of rich land in the old States remain untouched. If, now, upon millions of acres that the of events during the last thirty refer to course see we years, we increased b etween and when 1834 the tendency to migration 1842, rapidly the
we

buildingof

mills and

furnaces

ceased, and that duringthat period

to

the tendency colonized Texas and Oregon. In the years which followed, emigrate diminished, to break out afresh under the influence of the

of The last twelve months have witnessed the departure 1846. while the emigration S anta thousands to to California, "c, Fe, very many out withof the extensive West, is entirely Iowa, Wisconsin, and other portions of policy

precedent.
"It- is estimated," says the editor of
"

one

of the Iowa
wagons

papers,
the
at Mississippi

That

between

fourteen and
the last five

fifteen hundred

have

crossed

nois, weeks, bringing emigrants from Ohio, Indiana and Illiin Iowa. and all of them seeking homes They have," says he, "generallygone to of the Des Moines counties on and west the new river, where, we know, they will find Allowing five perlands and other agricultural advantages,equal to any in the world. sons 7000 and 8000 persons. there have crossed at this place alone,between to a wagon, influx of immigrants has taken place at all the We told that the same extraordinary are reasonable It is, to the river down to Keokuk. therefore, Dubuque, other crossingsalong within have been added to our population to that from 30,000 50,000 persons suppose us."* and a half,and the tide is stillpressingtowards the last,month this

place,within

for the extraordinary now desire to find the reason ing prevailtendency labour value of in be found in the it seek the West, to diminishing may woollen and The o f cotton older States. cloths, the production iron, coal, mand has diminished ; and there is not only no deand of commodities generally, If
we

in the mills and furnaces, or for labour in the construction of new is coal but the number of mines, persons employed actually openingof new is almost 600,000, and diminished. The natural increase of our population of the present year is about 300,000; and thus 900,000 the immigration
*

Gazette. Burlington(Iowa)

88

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

that can find employmentin the old the number persons are added, while must All these people since. eat, and if it two years States is less than was the in for food in miningof labour, employed exchange they cannot obtain for raise it and must cloth themselves, of or iron,they coal or manufacture the States now so of new rapidly. hence it is that the population grows States The of apparent discord. peopleof the new Here is a case churches build roads and and make to help them to need

neighbours
New York

and the school-houses, and Iowa.

state

of

the that injures things

farmers
are

be the is the case. reverse Strangeas it may seem, however, directly discord is the and The harmony of interests is perfect, apparent. The only than States would theynow do under new grow faster under protection in consin, free-trade. But for the abolition of protection, 1832-3, Iowa, Wis-

benefits all those who and Virginia, They profit by free-tradeand would

vania, Pennsylin Wisconsin already injured by protection.

of

"c,
From
to

would
to

now

be

as States, populous no

1821

1825, there existed

inducement

I propose now to show. for emigration from Europe

of obtaining here were low, and the difficulty but 7138,and was average number of immigrants than the average. the last year was little more By 1829, it reached 24,000. it was 65,000. The average of the.next nine years Five years after, (1834,) but 75,179. Like every but 72,000 ; and,in the last of those years, itwas was this country.

Wages

was employment

great. The

In the four following stationary. years it was It has already trebled. This year it may reach 230,000. begun to decline. for labour grows with increase in the numIt is obvious that the demand ber of modes in which it can be applied ; and that with every step in that the labourer to obtain larger direction the return to labour increases, enabling
was else, immigration thing

books and newspapers, and that is to say, more food,fuel, clothing, of in the the facilities for education his return to same children, greater increased rapidly labour. We see that the power to obtain these goodthings from 1830 to 1834, and that the effect was to producea vast increase of wages
"

have been every such increase there must, necessarily, increased power increased facilities for obtaining of combination, accompanied by the things for which men labour tions attracto are new willing ; offering

immigration. With

for the labourer, and direction. In aformer reached

once

a further producing

increased

tendencyin

the

same

I havesupposed that itmightby this time have chapter,

1,000,000 per
A

in four years.

time to 2,000,000. have imported in the- intermediate than

and that itwould have done had it doubled but in three years would have brought it by this duplication former the at it, we Taking however, quantity, should
annum,

6,000,000, periodnearly
a

instead of less least

2,000,000.
would

If

we

now

add

theretothe natural increase of ail these

we people,

have

at

this moment

population exceeding by at

we now 5,000.000 the number would have been employedin

by opening mines and would have been rendered daily West, the access to which and more more the increased of obtaining iron for the construction of steamboats facility easy by
and rail-roads. The

of these,while vast numbers value to the lands of the older States, giving the millions would have sought furnaces, building

have;

and

of the last and previous ascribed immigration large years is by many the troubles in Europe ; but their effecthas been small. All commodities tend to seek the best market, and to this rule labour forms no exception.
to

The

is here

of Europe are anxious to transfer themselves here because man people of more value than in Europe, and can obtain more a commodity and better shelter, of food, fuel and clothing, in return for the same quantity than he can at home ; and the more extended the knowledge labour, widely that such is the fact, the greateris the anxiety Had to reach our shores.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

89

to increase as itdid from 1844 to 1847, the would of the presentyear half-a-million; far exceed even immigration probably tion. to believe that there will be a great diminuwhereas, there is every reason

the demand

for labour continued

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

NINTH.
OF

AFFECTS

THE

MEANS EXTERNAL.

TRANSPORTATION

INTERNAL

AND

on

the greater is the difficulty attendant more men are widely separated, the making of roads,and the greater is the quantity of labour lost to the farmer in performing the work of transportation, and the poorer he remains.
more men are

"The

The'

enabled

to

combine

their exertions, the greater is the

of obtaining in transportation, the more facility roads; the less the labour lost be given to the work of production, and the richer will the farmer grow. can to separation, During the years from 1835 to 1840, the tendencywas and there was of roads. need The scattered settlersof widely Illinois, great could not make them of themselves, and Indiana,Michigan and Mississippi would trust them individually with the means for their none struction. connecessary To remove this difficulty, they united in borrowingthe food and and the iron required for the purpose, pledgingthe faith of the clothing State for payment of the cost, and the result was
was

universal ruin. less

Men

were

themselves,and labour scattering

we

sequence becoming productive ; the conof which was, that immigration ceased to incFease ; and it was precisely when the growth of population arrested, that was from that source and diminishing the power of were extendingthe area of settlement,

the return to labour. combining exprtion for the purpose, of increasing t he Men We are now selves themsame are doing precisely thing. scattering demand roads. and there is for The from a widely, great papers that made in inform of the the West with to iron new ones are us being day day that that is obtained in exchange for certificates of debt, bearing interest, The who should be iron the be men are must West, making seeking paid. and borrowingthe iron they should be making, and, if the system be long

continued, the result

It is to

must

be the

same a

that

was

witnessed

in 184*2-3.

this unnatural
of the

expansionof
most

small

that is due

of the questionof the agitation

one

government,

dangerous now
new

surfaces over population large improvement by the general remaining to be settled. If

new

the settlement and cultivation of

and the formation of lands,

States,

would become rich to be the population sufficiently proceeded naturally, harbours ; but as roads, and improve their own their own enabled to make under the existing be the case that cannot system, they look to the government of land it is proposed that a vast amount for aid. At this moment, low price, should be given, to aid in the making of a road it sold at a very would be finished half a with vigour, work that,if prosecuted a to California,
to

century before it would pay interest on its cost, because it would tend only and the further diminution of population, promote the further dispersion need concentration to render labour of labour. We in the productiveness
natural and the and if that be obtained, and to promote immigration; productive, will the settlement of the Mississippi profitable country beyond with advantage to insure a connection with the Pacific, so as rapidly
a

more

go
to

on

instance It is doubtful if there is a single very reasonable time. been made with view or to attract population, record of a road having a on this as that has been altogether dependenton through travel and trade, one roads proTo make for a long time be, that has not proved a failure. must ductive, in all,

they must of good portion

pass through countries where men of the land, the products and grow
12

consume

on

the land

and rich,

not

through

90

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

population, everything those in which, because of the absence of consuming remain and its the owners from land, land is sent the poor. that is raised on made, there will be great loss somewhere, and fall If this road be now
loss to the community. that the transportation roads is, are unprofitable The reason be carried that must articles limited to almost entirely bulky upon them is and upon is commodities all of valuable man, The most at low freights. and remain at the are for travel is small, people poor, such roads the must_ that is little left the. the little to road, Their products yet home. chases purpay other of the articlesof merchandise or or cloth, but littleof silk, there is a tollscan be charged. Where, on' the contrary, upon which high i s the the line, on way-travel great,and the largeconsuming population while the balance pays commodities that pass to market pay good freights, returned. merchandise to be for much of intercourse with foreign nations, these views to the means where it may, it will be why such
a

Applying
may
now,

we

The
a

I think,see why it is that shipping grows with protection. and the returns are comis send to Europe pact, merchandise bulky, we outward had to of which is that the cargo has generally consequence

of the voyage. bear almost all the charges 1830 to 1834, the reward of labour was, however, such as induced a From secured a valuable return cargo, and thus was great increase of immigration, the charges outward to diminish on from which tended largely the receipts enabled to consume and farmer were more and thus the planter freights, and more of Europe, which of the merchandise pays highfreights, largely materials used in manufactures, for the raw while the demand of tea and coffee, also enabled ships to bringthem as part of their return cargoes, and merchandise to other parts the transmission of our produce facilitating of the world. 1835 From From almost stationary. So was ping. shiphas grown rapidly. So has immigration shipping.We now import300,000 persons, and the usual allowance being of 250,000 to the extent two persons to five tons, it follows that shipping is to Europe so employed. annum, Freights tons, making three trips per and valuable. are low, because the return cargo is large Shipsof the first of men, built expressly for the importation and so will they class are now
to
was 1844, immigration

1845 to the present time

of passengers shall continue to increase. continue to be, if the number will diminish, diminution of it, the building of ships and freights With a culated because a valuable return then be calcannot to Europe will rise, cargo The rise of freights will,as a matter of course, diminish upon. of articles that will bear exportation, and the quantity of merthe number chandise from Europe, that can be imported while the diminution in the

and other similar commodities,will of mouths requiring number tea, coffee, tend still further to diminish the tendencytowards the building of ships. million of the for Were a we now people, importing required shipping that purpose alone would be 830,000 tons, and freights to Europe would be
would ever almost nominal,for great numbers in ballast. Whatgo altogether tends to increase the bulk of the commodities tends equally imported and to increase the export of the proto diminish the cost of transportation, ducts If we of the farmer and planter. should import we importedraw silk, that manufacture and coffee for them to drink,and the ships it, the the and the coffee, would cheaply silk, men, imported transport cloth. If we obtain it from one who cotton or cotton we import gutta percha, Frenchmen
to

desires to

and to whom cloth can then be cheaply If we sent. buy cloth, obtain them from men who have cloth to sell, we import gutta perchagoods, and to whom be cheaply If we cotton cannot sent. then,to increase desire,

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.

91

our and our commerce the object is to be accomplished navigation, by the of measures that will bring adoption the loom to take its place the side by of the plough. The harmonyof the agricultural, and shipmanufacturing, ping

interests

would

here appear
we

to men,

be

cdmplete.
be
an

With with

such

an

of importation would

there would

annual

addition of

1,000,000 with whom

have

freedom of trade, uninterfered perfect

,

by

there would

custom-house officers, sailors, or ships. At the end of ten years, be thus made addition of twelve or thirteen millions of an

twice as much persons, who would consume cotton as is now consumed by the whole people of Great Britain and Ireland. The harmony between the views of the free-traders and those of the protectionists would thus appear to be almost perfect. The the subject more is examined, the more obvious does it become that the onlyroad to perfect freedom of trade lies through

perfect protection.
CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

TENTH.
AFFECTS THE FARMER.

Among

United The home.

the large Canada, Russia, and the exporters of food are Ireland, States. firstexports both food and population. The bulk of her trade isaltogether outward,and the food has to bear all the cost of the voyage out and The

yieldto

the

producer is
of which

therefore small, and

are,

tends

to rapidly

diminish,the consequences
The second

and depopufamine, pestilence, lation.

for population importssome exportedto the United States. The of exports is, excess however, sufficiently great to throw nearlythe whole weight of the voyage out and home upon the producer. Neither of these countries has any protection the colonial system. against The food theyexport comes back to them in the form of cloth and iron, duty home and consumption, much that is and almost freight because the bulk of the traffic is in the outward free, free, direction. for much Russia exportsfood, but she protectsmanufactures, and thus makes of it at home. Her capacity to supplygrainis by one
a

exports food and

lumber, and

market

authority

stated to be equalto 17,000,000,and by another 28,000,000 of quarters, told and we are (153and 252 millions of bushels of 60 pounds weight,) that
"

"In

the years when there is no foreigndemand for this surplus, ployed, a portionof it is emwith littleregard to economy, in fattening for the sake cattle for the butchers, and Much is

of the tallow.

the prey of birds and mice." could easilyexport annually bushels of

wasted, and the remainder, left unthreshed,becomes absolutely Russia Also that if a foreignmarket could be found for it, to 450,000,000 of of quarters of grain,(equal 50,000,000
"

sixtypounds weight.)"*
to

The

system of that country is adverse

the

growthof

wealth and intelligence. of her

are Large armies and hosts of officials

maintained

out

heavy

while the existence of the producing classes, taxes, paid from the earnings of the lives of the and the necessity for givingso large of serfdom, a portion healthiest and best-formed of the population to the business of carrying sabres and muskets, tends to prevent the existence of any hope of improvement; exertion. theless, Neverfor and without hope there can be little disposition the Russian has food to waste, while Irishmen perish by of starvation. tens of thousands limited to thirty the exists. It is now In this country system of protection
as we

see,

London

Economist.

92

the

harmony

of

interests.

has but once, and for a very brief per cent.; and for the last twenty years it aid there has been a produced lower its b een at a point. By period, time and much to economize that enables men diversificationof pursuits, and children find that would otherwise be wasted,while women many things of both consumers be enable them such to large employmentat wages as is there that so hence it is and an large and are food high, Wages clothing. valuable of commodities man. importof the most their consumption last year about 300,000 persons. Estimating We imported thus made there for was a each, of food at cents day
"

twenty

per

market

lions of the land to the extent of twentymilthe land for the products of the constant Their employment required transportation of dollars. at low carried t o and of freight Europe, very 250,000 tons shipping, ships valuable return cargoes. "The farmer rates, because certain of obtaining
on

of exporting to cheaply is due of these two causes the foreign operation one, and to the conjoined the fact that wheat and flour have continued so highin price. before understand many curious facts now We passing may now, I think, and that it is abundant Russia wasted, in Food is so yet among our eyes. the large exporters of food to Great Britain is this country, in which itsells and now even higher. The at a pricealmost as high as in Liverpool, thus obtained
a

home large

market, and the power

of produce

sequence out and home, and the conhas to bear all the charges makes and no roads,and is, that the producerremains poor and must internal and external, continues, thus the cost of transportation, sends his produceto continue, great. The farmer of the United States

Russia

market

is valuable, and man, cargo, beingchiefly makes and is great. He therefore grows rich, roads, the space it occupies and builds steamboats; and thus is the cost of transportation, and canals, of a far diminished that the difference in the price internal and external, so because cheaply, the return look at the distance, is the consequence valuable and other

and in Liverpool when we barrel of flour in Pittsburgh is, small. almost inconceivably is outwards ; and The bulk of the trade of Canada that outward commodities wheat

the.cost of transporting lower than side of the line is so much York on their way to Liverpool.* that both now New from the other, pass through Hence itisthat there has arisen so vehement a desire for commercial reand flour from
our

while our imports of men are freights high, keepthem low with us, and therefore it is that

From
"

one

of the

journals of the day I take the followingextract

from

Canadian

letter:
"

Our

commercial Wheat

present time.
on

relations with your Union are a subject of great anxietywith us is worth from 2s. to 3s., on York, more your side of the Lake

at

the

than

This is owing to two causes : the 20 per cent, duty you impose upon our grain of resident imported and sold in your market, and the want of a sufficient number ing them to take advantage of your bondto enable wheat buyers who have sufficientcapital In If your Cabinet has determined to annex Act. us, they will refuse us reciprocity. and in 1848, 3,413,397.Weshall exported of Canada wheat, 3,349,686bushels, 1847, we this year ; for every acre of land that was twice as much in a condition to export, at least, with that grain, and the crop throughout the whole wheat of Western sown was grow is unusuallyheavy. Canada, except perhapsthe Middle District, and I think with tolerable The Examiner' farmers will estimates, accuracy, that our from a want of having free access this year lose $1,500,000, for their produce'to your of Delegates from Convention markets. The at each of these Provinces,now sitting consideration the question of securinga more have under Halifax, easy interchangeof and the Provinces commodities between the States. A notion has got abroad, that if New Island and Newfoundland were Brunswick, Prince Edward Canada,Nova Scotia, united,they would then have a better chance of obtaining free trade from you than in their present isolated condition. It is rumoured that the Home Government, for som" this.
when
" '

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

93

and even for annexation. The ciprocity, protective system has thus not the effect of. take their only consumers to bringing by the side of places the producer,facilitating the consumption on the land of the products of the land,and facilitating also the exportation of the surplusto foreign markets, by diminishing outward but the further one of producing freights, our a strong desire for the establishment of the same neighbours among fect perfreedom of trade that now exists among the several States, by becoming themselves of
commerce a

tends to the increase Protection, therefore, part of the Union. and the'establishment of free trade, while the British system of
commerce

tends

everywhere to the destruction for restriction. necessity

We
see,

and to the

of a production

desire to secure the command of that which is the great grainmarket of the world," it is to be effected by the adoption of such measures valuable return freights. The as will secure and the most valuable of all are men. most The least so are pig-iron costly and coal. The more of the latter we import, the larger will be our surplus of food,the higher will be the outward internal and external, the freight, called falsely
"

thus, that if we

greater will be the waste, and the poorer will be the farmer.
former
we

The

more

of the

the import,

the outward
can

smaller will be our and numerous freights, the more be

of food, the lower will be surplus will be the commodities that that
now we

go to Europe, to purchase. Were

on our we now

given in exchangefor luxuries

of
men

cannot

a million importing

canals and the

railroads would
ocean

be be

the downward annually, freights while the outward diminished, greatly littlemore than would should

across freight

would

attendant

upon

and loading

and it, unloading

yet we

pay the cost be building

and making railroads at a rate of which we could now shipsand steamboats, form no conception. By aid of these men, coal and iron would be producedby millionsof tons, and the increased facility of obtaining food and iron would give new facilities for building and type-foundries and printing-offices, cotton and woollen mills, and all the thus would The
men

employed in
gain on

them

would

be

consumers large

of food,and when
ployed, em-

every hand. in Ireland,obtains 6d. or 8d. for labourer,

the farmer

day'slabour

less than the former sum. He is but the average of the year is even the of the it reaches for Indian time cost which, our customer by corn, great to the farmer,delivered him, is about 4s. or five times what it has yielded
on

his farm.

labour Eight day's that

man

are

thus of

for required
or

the

purchase of
once

bushel.

Transfer

to

the coal-fields of Ohio

a

Indiana, and
at

he

may purchasefar more better customer a much and who

by

the work

single day.
"

He

becomes

of sugar for food, and is enabled to consume largely tage advanthe further the merchant of the of to wool, to coffee, advantage of lumber, to the advantageof the man of the cultivator of the land of cotton, and indigo, has land uncultivated that he desires to clear
" " "

to the benefit of the planter and thus it is that every interest in the country and of Germany, to profits by the transfer of the poor cultivators of Ireland, the coal fields and iron-ore beds of the Union.

The

young

who aspires to be Englishman

an

now spinner,and operative

fills

the Colonial puppets and of course this federation, purpose of its own, has recommended which has been at the dictation of Downing street,will pretend that a measure who move To obtain necessities of the Provinces. forced upon them, originatedin the commercial
to admit showed the Nova-Scotians they desire, symptoms of a willingness of their shores;and Canada than within three miles vessels a little nearer fishing your if England will permither, to your vessels, throw open her coasting-trade would probably

the free'trade

after the

new

Law Navigation

comes

into

operation."

94
the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

receives 7s. 6d. 81'80 per week,* of the latter in his absence, place Place him in Alabama, and he will the price of two bushels of Indian com. of twenty bushels, and he will then eat more the present price and earn where he consumes ten pounds of cotton better food,and consume now
"

but

one.

of whom hand-loom weavers, Englandhas 800,000, without work for littlefood or cotton. Transfer them one-third of the number,t consume of both. consumers here,and theywill become large labourer of England receives 8s. or 9s. a week, little The agricultural The Transfer him here, the price of a bushel and a half of wheat. and will enable him to earn the price his services as a miner,or labourer, of five and better food,and largely He will then consume six bushels. more or
over

of cotton. The poor

starves

driven Highlander,

from his native hills to make

room

for

sheep,

of Glasgow.^ Could he be transin the miserable lodging-houses ferred of food and clothing. consumer here, he would become a large

men

is directly the reverse of all this. We are exporting present policy of thousands to California, and by hundreds of thousands to the power of combination of action, the West, thus diminishing and increasing Our

by tens

the

for necessity Thus

the

use

of

ships and

wagons

to

carry their

produce to

has been maintained, and freights to immigration low,but, with the diminished wages of the labourer, Europe are consequently fall off", and then freights and thus the same must must rise, immigration market.
measures

far the

that diminish

the home

consumptionmust

increase the cost of

The cost of the voyage out and home must goingto the distant market. be paidby somebody. If there is no return the farmer or freight, planter If there is a large and valuable return must he freight, pay the whole. need pay scarcely o f the To cost. allthe we must portion California, any pa)' for there is no cargo to be returned. outward freight, the Bulky articles, of the farm, cannot, therefore, from and the here, produce go consequence is, that every emigrant lost to the farmer,and a to that country is a customer to a diminished extent to the planter. customer and most valuable of commodities, The most costly L as I have already said, valuable the commodities is Man. The more that can be imported into without in debt for the richer that them, going any country, country will this is land of true State, equally town, grow ; every county, township,

"c, into which

every of portion

it may be divided. Of the Union is engaged in

most

this

no

one

exporting

to

can doubt,and yet the West, to Texas,

this Oregon,and California,

*

valuable

of all commodities, receiving

Vol. VI. p. 259. London Economist, 1849. Review, October, Edinburgh "("

Queen's visit to Scotland, thus describes the pursued in the Highlands: " The tell their own untitled hills and glens The story most effectually. sheep farms of twenty mites length and breadth proclaim the dark character of that policywhich is fast making of the Highlands a great hunting-ground. Her Majestyis to pass through a land The same of Ameers. wretched policyas that which has desolated Scinde, in originating the same miserable cause the selfishness and pleasure-seeking of the owners has laid the Highlands. They want waste a Sir Charles Napier if nof a military a legislative Napier. They need the repeal of the game and entail laws,and with those laws repealed, in in finding to welcome the monarch a population twentyyears there would be no difficulty the on but now desolateshores of loch Long and Loch Awe. The pines" would beautiful flourish again ; and newspaper not be weighing the questionwhether reporters would there be where or be not a habitable house they might rest within ten miles of Loch Laggan."
" " " "

British journal, i A recent speaking of the effects of the desolating policythat has been

North British Mail.

% The standard

of the

who Campbells,

inhabited

this

bore region,

pine.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

95

in return. nothing retain scarcely any furnaces is of

We

importnow
the

hundreds of thousands,yet the old States

of them.

and stopped,

change

policy.Such

go West, for the workingof mills and o buildingf mills is at an end until we have a is the effect of the colonial system, established for

All must

the purpose of preventing combination of action among the people composing various nations of the world, and maintained of measures by the pursuit
at

destructive alike to the interests of the peopleof England, and of the world large. "Many of our manufacturers,"says a Manchester broker," have if. by
so

and to a loss, exported bay, and checked the unenviable These

success;

at doing, competition theyhave kept foreign

increase of industrial establishments abroad,it is an he adds. " as this country is doomed to be a manufacturing still,"
or

remains but to beat state, nothing losses are of perpetual recurrence. of the
"

be beaten."*

war

upon

the labour and

to work at compelled the labourers of the by wages to pay the farmers and world, who are compelledto be idle, earningnothing for food and clothing, when be employed, they would gladly planters earning
are

beat or be beaten." England must who theyare paid by the labourers of England,
"

quence They are a natural conseof the world," in which capital They must be paidby somebody,and

diminished

; but

to

much

greaterextent

wherewith

to

feed and clothe themselves

and their children.

small is,under these circumstances, the power How to consume food, will be obvious to those who see that three-fourths of the peopleof England and not producers, and that yet their importof grainof the are consumers last two years of free trade is but two bushels per head. How insignificant is the among of the last two distributed when she takes from us, and trivialthe amount quantity from the following the peopleof the Union, may be seen statement years of

large comparatively export:

Flour. Barrels.

"

Wheat.
Bushels.

Corn. Bushels.

Corn-meal. Barrels.

Year

June 30, 1848, ending

Aug. 31, 1849,

958,744 1,531,000 5,062,000 1,114,016 4,684,000 12,721,000

226,000

88,000

in round numbers, to 10,000,000 of bushels amounts The last and largest of wheat, and 13,000,000 of bushels of corn. Deducting the transportation, and prothe product of this on the farm may be taken at not exceeding, bably head for the cents not equalling, $10,000,000,or less than fifty per will conthis amount What is the prospectthat even of the Union. tinue people
to

be

lowness exceeding based calculations, made

"

exported may be judged by the facts that nothing but the of freights has thus far maintained the export, and that low the price of food in Europe,are now being upon
to grain
us

upon

the export of
that have
not

this country.
crop have led
to

The

accounts

reached

improbable occasion about ten or twelve years ago. as on some previous grain, circular although Sturgesallude to it in their commercial as highly improbable ourselves, the if Mark the world's European It Lane is said and, so, grainprices: to-day. governs be expected to be very low, ibr the fall here is fully5s. to 6s. per range may certainly Oats are down to 16". per quarter, one-sixth of the entire value,within the last month.
an

idea here that it is

from your side about the wheat the United States may become an

for

importingcountry We regard this

of Ike National Intelligencer. quarter." London Correspondent

"

fallenoff in a most The shipmentsof both wheat and flour have already In Septemsince freights have somewhat advanced. ber, degree, extraordinary carried to Liverpoolfor 6d. a barrel,and sometimes even flour was
less. The of two lapse months has the charge brought up
to

18d.,and the

'

Circular of Du

Fay

"

March Co.,

1, 1848.

96
effect is shown

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

in the

ports of the Union

"

of the export from the principal statement following ber: the firstof September from to the latter part of NovemFlour. Barrels.

Meal.
Barrels.

Wheat. Bushels.

Corn.
Bushels.

1849

118,000

1,210
27,754 26,544
of

Last year, Decrease

same

period 491,000
. .

212,504 849,350 636,846

544,874

3,447,820
2,902,946

373,000

the large increase Notwithstanding

the quantity population, agricultural

the Hudson, shows a diminution, on of wheat and flour received at tide-water, while the onlyincrease is that of about 2,000,000 of bushels of corn, which found a market abroad onlybecause of the very low freights. has made a market for $20,000,000 worth of food, The importof men and these

farmer, unless
farmer. The

of food, and here, remain consumers once people, of food to become compelled producers

customers

and

to the rivals to the

half as much of the world" has absorbed of freight but with the advance it is now of the low freights, diminish and stillfurther with the continuance of that must diminishing, of the California excitement,near advance. "Since the commencement

"great grain market

because

left for the Pacific, many of unless not be replaced their If be to owners. sufficiently high pay immigration freights go on, they will be soon and the cost of doing it will be paid by immigrants replaced, If itdo not, they will who come to the farmer and planter. to be customers of the remaining be replaced, and the high freights be paid must not ones
seven

hundred will

we vessels,"

are

"have told,*

which

never

re-visit us."

These

ships will

by

in Europe. customers planters seeking will be be obvious the m ust to all who arrested, immigration study tables givenin the third chapter.The difficulty of obtaining and food, fuel, for labour,is increasing. in return The value of clothingi. e. wages and the inducements is falling, to immigration are man passing away. That
" "

the farmers and

Should
a

loss of market

it diminish next year to the extent of 100,000 persons, there will be of $7,000,000. The California excitement to the extent

which

carried off so very many thousands of the customers of the farmer, with food to feed them on the road,t will no longer exist. Here is another lost to the farmer,and with them a demand hundred thousand customers for another $7,000,000 worth of food. The European market is being diminishes closed. that can production maintain prices. Nothing the amount of immigration of wheat and the prices last few will show the how of the the interests during essentially years, connected with every operation farmer are the to bring consumer tending to take his place : by the side of the producer
A
"

comparisonof

Years.

Immigration.

Price of Wheal
. .

in Philad.
.

Price of Flour in N. Y.
.

1840 1841 1842 1843 1844

84,000 83,000

$1-00 94 112
75

$5-25
5-72 5-74 4-47 4-70

101,000
75,000 74,000

89

"

New
"

York

Herald.

"\ Your

receiptsof beef from

Missouri will be very moderate

to

this

winter,in

quence conse-

of the great demand ofthe Tribune.

for cattle

carry

emigrants

to

California. "-"Correspondent

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

97

If we into iron delivered back convert all upon the farm, free of duty, the food that has been this shall will find that it we yield year exported, 250,000 tons, or twenty-five Let us pounds for every person of the population. now of a furnace, and see how light,, is go to the vicinity by comparison, the charge for iron when it is produced on the spot, and paidfor in commodities of which the earth yields by tons, as potatoes or hay" or in straw that would otherwise be wasted the farm,and or in labour not on
"

required

then estimate how of many tons mighthave been obtained by the producers this grain, had theymade a market on the land for the products of the land. Let us now old furnaces we had built fifty suppose that instead of closing new of making 5000 tons, with rolling-mills ones, each capable to convert the product into bars,and had thus applied the labour of some of those immigrants and that we be were now a s we ; making, might readily doing,

250,000
have

than was made last year, would not that alone market the land for much of the products of on as permanent the farmer as we have exported to England? Would not that have reduced the cost of iron ? Would it not have raised the price it of labour? Would not have promoted Would it have the not immigration? promoted building of ships and the reduction of freights ? Would not the farmer thus have had the control of the market of England to a much greaterextent than he
tons
more

of iron

made

under a system that discourages and ship-building ? immigration his power to go abroad increase with the diminution of the necessity for seeking silk market abroad ? If we of raw a were importing largely and men from Italy, could we not send cotton yarn to Italy more cheaply than it now silk weavers England? and if we were importing goes through
can

have
not

Does

"

from

in return,food,in the form France, could we not send _to France, of coalt and iron, than that at which theynow have at less cost for freight coal and that iron all the of the cost must English pay voyage out and home ? The greaterthe value of the import trade and men are valuable commodities will the be the we can import greater articles we can export.
" "

the most of variety

It is contended that by havingtwo markets to which he must resort, the condition of the farmer is improved, and that if he had but the home-market he would have lower prices than at present that is to say, that if he could sell all he produces obtain less than he now obtains by at home, he would
"

goingfrom
to

home.

the Directly

reverse

when is the fact,

to

men

are

compelled
is he

seek

distant market. be asked

?

first questions to /""The

to obliged

in reference does

this

are

"

Why

this there are do import, we import consumers enough; and, Second : of those whom of the forced to become producers of food,in consequence too many are where attendant upon difficulty employing themselves in other pursuits of food1;\ The who works in a coal mine man they would be consumers
earns

than

go from the demand ?

home For

Why

the supplyof -food increase faster do not First : we two reasons.

$300
Some

year, and

perhaps~Tnore.Much

of this goes

for food,

of wheat yield

The of these variations are, of course, attributable to the extent of the crop. in the West in this year was largerthan in any since 1839. Offers have made to transport coal to France at little than the ordinary been more "j*

to Boston. from Philadelphia freight

13

98
and all of it goes for every man earth,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

the product of the are of nis production. full the extent a those products for and labourers customers to are thousand miners Ten and thousand mechanics, miners, labourers, of the extent $3,000,000. Forty of $12,000,000, and planter to the extent to the farmer customers are in

payment
consumer

for

thingsthat

is

to

which
now are

is far

more

than

we

can a

expect

to
a

export in future years.

million of and people,

We

above import annually half

a

quarter of

there

million of

our

own

annually attaining home-grown population

diminish
these 20,000 in other pursuits employing extent as to prevent the exto such an istence
now

from agriculture we 20,000 working-men maturity.By deducting and by of producers, the number of number consumers increase the we of which we of the surplus

however, from complain.Judging,

result in of protection as a permanent system would the past,the adoption of and these a to the increase of immigration a vast amount, large proportion under the present system of food, whereas remain consumers would gladly of food. to become producers they are compelled for all theyraise, demand home at When farmers have a theyobtain a In the one case, theyobtain go abroad. markets distant the in than as cost of price nearlyas much more transportation from those markets, whereas, when theyhave to go abroad, in those markets as the cost of transportation theyobtain as much less than the price and the price to those markets, by that of the whole is regulated Grain and flour have forseveral which can be obtained forthe trivialsurplus. than price higher when

they have

to

the

than in Philadelphia, of Pennsylvania in the coal region years been higher of the has been always in excess because the demand supply. Close the will send their have to to Philadelphia, ceiving remines, and the farmers products At the the cost of transportation. therefor the city minus prices,

present time,the

by the
New

domestic York. Close

of grain the Union price throughout sells for flour in at market, Liverpool the mines and and factories,

is maintained less than the miners

wholly
in price and
chanics me-

convert

into farmers,and the price at home be the Liverpool must one, which will then be lower than at present, minus the cost of transportation, which will then be higher than at present. of however, that we are to have at all future times,a surplus Admitting,

grainfor export, the

secure

next

to

the farmer

the

would be What is the question markets in foreign price highest

"

course

that will
answer

?
to

The

be, that it will be assuredly to be sent to those markets quantity

must

that which from this

tends
or

most

diminish

the

the present system of the commerce it must be adverse to the interests of the farmer. supply, be shown. case can, I think,readily We
consume

other countries. If, then, of the world tends to increase the That such is the

know that the more miners and mechanics we have, the more food we food we prowe have, the more ; and that the more agriculturists duce. be the case with other countries. We know that Such, then,must

under

the protective system miners and mechanics increase in number, and that under the free-trade system the producers of food increase in number. Such, then, must be the case with other countries. It is obviously, then,to interest that Russia and Germany should consume food and more that if theyand we should do so, the price of food would rise. Russia and Germany, and we have established the proourselves, tective the and result and has been increase the consumers to system, diminish the producers the ; and if all the world could follow our example,
our

and export less,

supplyof
would be

food
so

now

pouringinto

"

far diminished that the

the great grain market of the world" would rise. This, however, is price

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

99

of the effectsthat would result from a general determination to put the colonial system. We have seen that the consumption of cotton in other countries is small, while here itis large.The pricehas already fallen so low that the planters
one

but

down

to the cultivation of wheat, that must tend to the resorting a measure of the farmer. Now, if we were injury cotton consumingone half more than at present, this state of things could not exist. The price obtainable would then be sufficiently of by the planter high to prevent the necessity its culture. Let that and and us now abandoning Canada, Russia, suppose could make a market for their now and Germany,and Ireland, labour, surplus e nable themselves three where to of two or thereby consume cotton, pounds now but one, and to consume food than now theyconsume more theydo-r-is
are

it not obvious that the prices of food and cotton would both rise ? That such would' be the result of the abolition of the colonial these system,as regards certain. If then the and countries, maintenance tension exso, appears perfectly of the protective reference to the entire abolition system, with special of that unnatural one which Great Britain has established, appears to me to be, most to the interest of the farmers as well as of the planters of the certainly, Union, and of the world. Let us next examine the working of the system in Canada, in which there almost literally, manufactures of any kind, there is no market on no being, theJand. o f products Freedom of trade is, of Great there, : that is to say, the people perfect Britain enjoy of the a complete aid of which alone monopoly machinery by the land for the and food of the people of Canada be converted into cloth can The that the labour-cost of manufactured cles artiis, consequence is so great that the consumption of them is small. The whole export of cotton cloth from Great Britain to her North American sessions, posin the seven years, 1840-46, averaged twenty millions of yards, fine and coarse, and if the whole were there consumed, itwould give but ten about half and of individual two a pounds cotton to each yardsper head,or ; the consumptionof the Union averages thirteen pounds per head, whereas and i" far more than that in the States nearest to Canada. desire we If, now, and iron. is less on the one side of the line than why it is that consumption the the be found in the fact, that the Canadian on reason other, gives may much labour his his for cloth and than the his iron American. Even more
to

the lumber

know

and if so, how must it be with those bulkycommodities price; that will not bear transportation? He must, in the words of Sir Francis Head, " eat all he raises," for he has not made, nor can he make a market on the land for the products of the land. it is perfectly obvious that the price of food with us is To the Canadians maintained by the demand for home and therefore it is that consumption, there exists so universal a desire for the abolition of all restrictionin the freedom of their productions into the Union. importation They have perfect market of the world,"and by ittheyare ruined. of trade with "the greatgrain of the world,and to They desire intercourse with the great grain-producers obtain it theywould gladly sacrifice their intercourse with England, taking in lieu of free trade, and becoming of the Union. members production Were Canada within the Union, her consumption of cotton would rise to
a

wheat

is less in

level with of

our

own,

for she would

at once

commence

to

make

iron and cloth

at

a demand home, producing thereby a being

customer

per head, every Canadian

wasted. Infor labour that is now stead being to the planter to the extent of two and a half pounds would take a dozen pounds ; and thus would fifteen

be added to the consumption, of the millions of pounds to the infinite advantage fanner of Illinois of free The then admit trade with might safely planter.

100
his Canadian would

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

find that market for their The farmer denies them colonial at home. the to which system now products should trade with of free his who believes in th" advantage England, give who raised men of Canadian consume wheat, by vote for the free admission who eat the wheat of Poland and Russia. The cloth and iron made by men of wheat is maintained by the home demand, farmer who sees that the price admission of foreign until, wheat, dutyfree, will be cautious of the by means that he shall obtain the Canada same of the farmer of annexation, protection market the land for the enabled make to be on a himself enjoys, and thereby look to what let us now the effectsof protection, freedom of of effectsof the trade, as would be the adoption perfect urged could not fail to be that of rivetting upon upon the world by England. It the world the existing for the conversion of the monopolyof machinery the factories into cloth and iron,closing products ofthefarm and the plantation
.

because with increased neighbours, abroad to for going less necessity experience

home

consumption they

of the products Having thus

land. examined

and comfurnaces of Russia, Germany, and the United States, pelling seek other modes of them who work in to the people ment, employThere would be to endeavour to raise food. and the onlyresource who would it? We have sell but would food then be more to buy ; after whole of Great Britain that the seen amount, paying already exports small for the grainshe now to but $4 32 imports, per head, and that, and With that she has to pay for her sugar, articles required and all other foreign tea, coffee, cotton, wool, lumber, for her own her to no grain. consumption, leaving power pay for more Nevertheless itwould be poured into her markets,and the consequence would she has but one, precisely be that she would obtain three bushels where now
as

it is,it tends to diminish.

with cotton. "Mark Lane governs the world's to be the case would fix that of the obtainable for the and surplus grainprices," as price the crop, the result would be, that the farmers would everywhere be ruined, her farmers and this with no benefit to the manufacturers of England, for,
as we

have

seen

would

likewise be ruined, and her agricultural labourers would be discharged, w hose of employment the with at as case Ireland, population, deprived the the labourer and of to England, home, swarms destroys power English the to obtain food, at its present low prices and the lower they even fall, is now
"

and the less the power to obtain wages. for labour, " The proverb The object put not too many eggs in one basket." says, of the British system is, and has alwaysbeen, that of compelling the world all the in the and the natural result the is to put basket; rence occursame eggs of perpetual devastation and ruin throughout convulsions, producing the world,whenever her artificial system becomes deranged. A review of the past thirty her operations, during years, shows her,at every interval of the four or six years, holding world the strongest inducements out to to send her all theycould spare of sugar, and coffee, and cotton, and agricultural About the close of the second year of this produceof every description. the machinery of importation had got into full operation, " have the face of the dream," and the whole to come over a have been directed o f the with a down prices, to breaking energies countryto The farmers and planters view to compelexportation. whom she so recently movement, when

less must

be the demand

changeis seen

and ruined. Their agents are selected as the firstvictims, are now if the result be bankruptcy, it is followed by vituperation or public private, of of the foulest kind ; and thus is insult added to injury. The people courted Indiana and Maryland, Pennsylvania and Illinois, and Mississippi, Michigan have had to endure all this, the result of the working of the Compromise tariff of 1833. In 1846, the whole world was urged to send food at any price.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS

101

In 1847, the whole object to depress sold for the mere was Rice was prices. and of the in debt freight charges.Largeshipments corn brought shippers for the payment of those The chill fever and the expenses. havingpassed to succeed a period of languor: then one of moderate away, there is next seen such as is now its appearance. Next, speculato make activity, beginning tion, and to be followed by the ruin of all around, excitement, large imports, in the effortto save herself. At the present moment, she takes certificates of debt in payment for iron, the case as was ten years since ; but the day is ", not far distantwhen these certificates will have to be redeemed with gold. Were it proposed of the Union to make New to the people York or Pennsylvania the deposit for all the products of the Union that required to be converted or exchanged, the absurdity of the idea would be obvious to every The wheat-grower one. of Michigan would find himself entirely at a lossto know why he should exchange with the neighbouring wool-grower by way of New of South Carolina would be equally York; and the cotton-grower at the benefit of a system that should compelhim to exchange a loss to see with of Virginia, the medium burgh of Philadelphia or Pittswheat-grower through the object of the colonial system. The wheat ; yet such is precisely of Michigan travels to Liverpool with the wool of Michigan, and the exchanges between the wheat-grower and the wool-grower effected through -the are market of Leeds, three-fourths of the wool and the wheat being lost on the road.
cotton

the

The

of South

the

ocean

in company rice of South Carolina goes to Manchester with the Carolina ; and the corn and the cotton of Tennessee cross under the idea that the is performed ; and this long together journey

obtain more can planter by this circuitous mode made

on

of

cloth for his rice, iron for his corn, or the farmer more were exchangethan he would do ifthe exchanges
are

the spot. There

many

who

doubt

the truth of this, yet all

writers assure that such isthe fact ; and every us politico-economical English is directed towards the measure now adopted by the British Government of of the monopolyofmachinery, maintenance by aid of which the people their exchanges in her factories. the world have been compelled to make be absurd,how much circumstances, under consideration, where the power of increase. Whatever is so small,and so little of purchase capable goes to forced off of there unless it be be means must can consumed, by England If such
a course

would, under
a case

any
one

more

absurd

is it in

like the

be it much she has $4*32 or little, ; and for what she consumes, prices the form of cloth and iron, in to distribute, head of her population among per fortune of the world. It is a Procrustean bed, and the misthe farmers and planters that whatever she cuts off from of the poor farmers and planters is, of the system,cut off from allthe the portion as a consequence sent to her is, low

sacrificed have been, and they are now being, makes so and therefore it is that agriculture ; all of the earth, sume, conthe cultivators of we and that little producers progress, their uninstructed true and to as so are so generally universally poor, farmers and be far distant when our interests. The day,however, cannot
of the world producers of the world exchangers be promoted be satisfied that their interests cannot and renders the the from that consumers producers, separates by a system the the of amount and iron to cause cloth so as consumption costly average of either to be utterly insignificant. is that of diminishing the distance and the waste of protection y~The object the producer and the to 4"etW3en the producer consumer; enabling thereby will at least, planters,
"

crop. The to the

o-row

rich,and

to

become

largeconsumer

of cloth and

that effect is obvious from the immense produce between 1843 and 1847. of both in the period

it did iron. ^/That the in increase consumption of obtaining That the facility

102
iron enabled

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and obtain large his mode of production the farmer to improve increased food that of so the fact the is obvious from returns rapidly. supply obvious from the i s the reverse That the free-trade system produces effect, great reduction in the consumptionof iron in the years 1842 and 1843, and of this year from the reduction now goingon; the whole consumption the vast increase of population. that of 1847, notwithstanding equalling common of food throughout the world have one The producers interest, and that is to be promoted monopolysystem, by the abolition of the existing themselves and their customers. which tends to destroy allude The farmer is also a producer of wool, and therefore I will briefly
not to

of the truth of what has been said in relation to food, it may be found in the condition of the wool market for several years past. and the consequence Our production is less than our ordinary consumption, If we is higher that the price than in any country of the world,by the whole is,
amount must

that interest. desire evidence

and the price Close the woollen mills, of the cost of transportation.* fallto the level of the markets of Europe, minus the cost of exportation. The increased

supplythen would, as
sheep grower

matter

of course,

a produce

be ruined. of policy of the last twenty years have several times ruined The changes the woollen manufacturers,' and the sheep growers have as often exterminated their flocks ; the consequence of which is,that we have less than fallof and prices, then the in 1828 had been maintained, 30,000,000,when, if the policy we adopted should now have 100,000,000,and a market for their whole products at than now miners and mechanics, higher prices ; for the prosperous labourers, and food-growers, would then.-consume six pounds where cotton-growers but three, and the number of our now would be theyconsume population exists is the greater by 7,000,000 than at present."The discord that now result of the " warupon the labour and capital of the world" maintained by and wn"enpeace~shafl have "been" restored by the abolition of the England, itwill be found that, between the interests of the sheep-grower, the monopoly, of food, the miner and the mechanic, there is perfect producer harmony^/

would

CHAPTER
HOW

ELEVENTH.
AFFECTS
THE

PROTECTION

PLANTER.

Having thus shown how the English, or colonial, system operates upon the farmers of Englandand of the world at large, I propose now to examine how it operates upon the planters. Of all the of products and the that

earth, cotton
which

is that which

is best fittedfor used universally it is not. that can defective There be

are verted con-

clothing purposes,
were are

it accessible to those who few commodities that can be into

at clothing

would be most desired to use it, which

more none raised, easily

less cost of

and yet, so labour,

the

that by the time it reaches the arrangements for its distribution,

consumer

that its consumption is almost nothing. costly of cotton raised is probably quantity 1,500,000,000 pounds, beingabout one and a half pounds for each person composingthe population of the world ; yet,notwithstanding the exceeding smallness of this quantity, the power of consumption the world is so small that the throughout
so

it has become
The

whole

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

103

with each other for the possession are of the markets : producers contending and the competition is so greatthat whenever the crop of this country reaches it is sold at a price less than the actual cost of pro1000,000,000 pounds, duction. Some of the countries that formerly exportedit to a considerable raise little than is needed for their own small consumption extent, now more ; and even here the question of limiting the quantity, the onlyway to as avoid ruin, has been the subject of anxious discussion. Throughoutthe the market turningtheir attention to food,although of food and unless continue must to be, glutted, is, description a changeof policy. There is a perpetual of over-production, and it is matter of complaint of short when, by reason the crop rejoicing or any other occurrence, seasons, is diminished 200,000 or 300,000 bales, the balance producing in the more for every have we market No of the world better evidence than could otherwise have been obtained for the whole. need be desired that there exists some in the distribution. error but under-consumption exist, may and does exist. there is to be consumed; and as every more the production, his
more

South, planters are

cannot Over-production

The
man

more

that is

the produced,

is

produce
exist
some

in the exact ratio of his consumer the better it will be for himself and

he

can

unless neighbour,

there

the various persons desiring to consume disturbing cause, preventing from producing what is needed to enable them to effecttheir exchanges with the planter, that is necessary to their comfort. to the extent of the cotton trade of the world,I may movements occasion to refer to facts already to given;and if I prefer ing of a proper understandre-state them, it is because,from the great importance of the subject, I deem it best to collect all the facts necessary to that In

examininginto the
have

sometimes

end under The

two

one

head. former

India and the United of the world are cotton-producers food and cotton, has long exported to distant markets and saltpetre, the freight and charges indigo bulkyarticles, upon which absorb the whole product, and, as a necessary consequence, the condition of nearly the peoplehas steadily of obtaining food has deteriorated. The difficulty and repeated famines increased as her manufactures have declined, steadily the power of comand pestilences have swept off millions, thus diminishing bination the and she cupied ocnow to men r ecently places ; therefore exports occupy and other of the West the slaves of Demarara, Jamaica, Guiana, by

great

States.

The

and

the cotton culture recedes from the low each such step, and poorer ones, and the condition of the the higher is of his product cultivator deteriorates, for with each a larger proportion swallowed in the of cost transportation. up In the early plied part of the presentcentury,the manufacturers of India supIndia colonies. With rich lands towards
cotton

ever, of the world. Englandhad then,howportion goodsto a large herself in its clusive exand invented machinery for its production, to secure and thus that of artisans, she had prohibited itsexport, as well as use the loom she compelled the cotton to come to the loom,instead of permitting of the facturer, manumarket she cut off the foreign to go to the cotton. By degrees the Company but his home market still remained to him, so long as retained and the of the exclusive control of the trade. from In

1821, the last year

of the

the export monopoly,

England to

4,000,000 of pounds of yarn.

first half of last year it was poundsof yarn. Large as are

of yards, India was but 5,000,000 In 1832, it had reached 60,000,000. In and 10,000,000 110*000,000 of yards, but little these figures, more theyrequire make
a

and would than 100,000 bales for their production, take bales the to 220,000 perhaps per annum,

of consumption

placeof that which

has

104
ceased
to

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

by

of importation, every step in the increase both have The culture and the manufacture fields lands The rich of the formerly from occupied Bengal. disappeared and if we desireto now have relapsed into jungle, this most useful plant be raised. With has diminished. production

the hills, where he seek him among must we find the poor cotton planter then and much for labour, spendsmonths obtains small crops in return miserable his where the is to product Ganges, in the work of transportation him the to at to return close its way to England, shippedto Calcutta on of poor cloth, him a few a combination perhapsof the second year, giving of an acre of land.* the cultivation for i n of cotton and flour, return

yards

and regularly, this system the value of labour diminishes steadily the of and cotton produced.t and with it the quantity quality yet Englishmen of labour as one of the elements of the low price accustomed to regard are to hopefor large and to look to it as affording goodreason cheap production, Under in supplies
"In
the

future.

Thus

Mr.

Porter informs

us

that :

"

other parts of Hindostan,cotton wool, plains of Candeish, and in many cultivators, at one to the seed, could be sold with a profit penny per the of conveyance to the ports is trebled or which quadrupled by cost expense pound, a of shipment." Porter's Progress ofthe Nation. level the freed from
"

where

which remains to the cultivator is one penny per pound,but price the whole wages consist in an insufficient is to be found when the profit" followed famine food and and the of clothing, by supply poorest to imagine. Such, of failure of crops, itis difficult in every case pestilence in England.^ The more this subject however, is the usual mode of treating The
" *

districtson the Nerbudda is carried on oxen, produce of the great cotton-growing rate, in fair weather, of seven taking one hundred and sixtypounds, at the extreme and the distance the Ganges, is five hundred to Mirzapore, on miles, miles a day. The it goes to Calcutta, tance and a half pence, or five cents, per pound. Thence a discost is two From another of eight hundred by steam. miles,by Water, unaided, I believe, districts, in the Deccan, the transport occupiesa continuous portionof the cotton-growing the road is impassable and the traffic and in the of season of two rainy months, journey with their pack the carriers, In the absence ofeven a defined the country is at a stand. road, compelled to travel by daylight to prevent the loss of their bullocks in the are cattle, dred junglesthrough which they have to pass, and this under a burning sun of from one hunand fortydegrees. If the horde,sometimes hundred to one amounting to a thousand, the cotton, saturated with moisture, becomes is overtaken heavy, and the black by rain, which lies the whole lineof road,sinks under the feet of a man above the through clayey soil, ankle, and under that of a laden ox to the knees: and in this predicament the cargo lies "Black the ground, and the merchant is ruined! for weeks on sometimes clayey soils,'' must here superabundant,but the poor wretch who raises the cotton rich and fertile, are and his masters take cultivate the high lands that requireneither clearingnor drainage, to make half the product of their poor soils while even a road refusing throughthe rich his cotton cloth to send to market to be exchanged for cotton ones: yet forcing him thousands of miles distant. A system better calculated to compel men to manufactured the poorest soils, could not be devised. continue cultivating by aid of sticks, Import of cotton from India into England : "(" 1844 88,000,000lbs. 1845 58,000,000 1846 34,000,000 The each
" ....

Total export of all India

1835-36 1836-37 1844-45 1845-46

to

all parts of the world

....

....

....

....

1846, 8 months
t A in series of

1,305,000cwts. 1,557,000 1,623,000 1,328,000 " 600,000 '"

" "

popular lectures

on

the

cotton

manufacture

has

recentlybeen

delivered

London, by

Mr.

Warren, of Manchester.

In his firstlecture he stated that should the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

105

labour can be made the lower will be its price, the more unproductive fident conwill be the hopeof using itto advantage, and the larger will be the sums in an effortthat must prove for ever vain, while the people shall conexpended tinue to be prevented from consuming the land the products of the land.* on The deterioration of quality is due to the recession of cultivation from the lower and that has In richer lands; and that recession is a of the system consequence ruined the manufacturers of India, and destroyed the power of combination of action. We know the superiority of the sea-island cotton. have always succeeded better on the seaplantations in the interior. So was it in India. Salt manure is deemed to be of absolute necessity if superior be desired, it gives at a as quality staple
coast

Demarara, cotton
than

once

strong and silky. Such

,

when of the sea, railroads by which

more costing

provement, beingthe case, it is useless to attempt imday by day the cultivation recedes from the neighbourhood in England a strong desire for the making of producing

it may be enabled to make its way from the hills without labour for its transportation than had been required for its production. Every such effort must prove a failure. Free trade with England

it to the hills. Freer trade will drive it to hills yet more distant. it is thoughtthat if the poor peoplecould be provided cases with but the use of such carts, theycould extend the culture with advantage, vehicles supposes the previous of something like laid-out roads, possession In
some

drove

and those

luxuries with which most of India is yet unprovided. are Like the peopleof India, those of the Southern States of the.Union have, thus far, had a bulky outward trade, that had, of course, to bear all the expenses of the voyage out and home. For distant from the machinery of conversion
a

time,this prospered.India was and Carolina was near, and while

itstill continued necessary to resort the that raised in the latter was

transportation. England
obtained twenty or above rose supply the
near

was

the priceof for supplies, to the former price in India, plus the difference of market in which the planter sort of home the
near

however, thirty gents per pound. By degrees,

demand, and

it became

necessary

to

seek

for

manufacturing population of that country increase during the next ten years in the ratio in which it has done during the last, it will become necessary, in order to employ them, to and be done, he thinks, This can vating secure a permanent cheap supply of cotton. by cultiof Major-generalBriggs, Sir Charles it in British India,where, on the authority of the entire Forbes, and others,there can be produced a supply sufficient for the wants New to the article supplied from Orleans,and cheaperthan it by world, equal in quality He states the wages slave labour of American Is. 6d. per to be equal to about one-half. day, while that of the freeHindoo is only about two pence. The advantages to be derived from such a course, he stated to be the certainty of a good and adequate supply at a cheap and the emanof commerce, cipation by the means rate, the consolidation of our Indian possessions of the American to the owners. slaves, by rendering their labour profitless * The London of a late date,has an article showing that the effortswhich Chronicle,"' India a cotton-growing have been put forth during the last few years to make country failed. It notices the failure and abandonment that might rival the United States have entirely of the experiments in cotton cultivation that have been carried on, under Dr. the proThis enterprise, which had for its object at Madras. Wight's superintendence, duction than the present badlyof an article less palpably inferior to the cotton of America and even supportedby lavishly, pinked and indifferent Indian commodity, was zealously, but the late failure of a similar experiment in Bengal,after an the local government; outlay of about "100,000, had already given fair warning of the probable issue of Dr. to settle would seem and with its abandonment Wight's efforts in the sister presidency, a the question that India will not again become, as it once great cotton-growing was, In 1796 America did not export a singlepound. In 1834 she exported as much country in 1846, out of 467,856,274 lbs. imported all the rest of the world put together. And as from the United while only 34,556,143 into this country, 401,949,893 lbs. came States, from India in wen supplied by the East Indies and Ceylon! The total value supplied 184i did not exceed "600,000. 14
"

106
markets

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

the price realized for cloth and yarn in India and China, in which be could there exceed that which it sold, could minus at not producer to diminish The necessary effect of this was the difference of transportation. and the power to consume of Indian labour, the productiveness cotton, and of and with every the be forced world, increase the to course to quantity upon

by the

there has been increased competition the of this operation, on the Indian which that result of the American is, ducer propart of the grower ; and the American is saved from ruin onlyby destructive one is ruined, and crevasses, of nature, frosts, freshets, by aid of which the operations

step in

course

within the limits of demand. of this country is not less than thirteen, and is, The average consumption least head and it is at fifteen poundsper less, one-half, most ; by probably, is retained supply
to the consumer. be but for the heavy cost, in labour, The outside of the the than of more Union, is little world, average consumption one pound per head, or about one-thirtieth of what it ought to be ; and are where everyyet cotton has become almost the weed of the world, and men that could be better grown to substitute in itsplace something desiring lands they substitute wheat, which would grow On theJiigh elsewhere.

than itwould

better farther north.

,

On the low lands theyraise sugar, which would be Here are serious discords, farther south. and it is much more productive with a view to provide of their existence, that we trace the cause a important

remedy for a
With
a

state

of

so things we

unnatural. do so, I

view that

may

givethe following

109,000 ports,Aug. 31, 1836, appears to have been, in Englishports, 90,000J The crops of the twelve years, from 1836-7 to 1847-8, were 23,571,000 To which must he added, for the additional consumption in the South and West, in the last two years, 125,000
The

stock in

our

own

That

of American

cotton

Total,
The stock in

23,805,000 1847-8,
520,000

port, and in G. B.

at the close of the

season

Thus

divided"

Consumption of English,
American, Additional, as above,
-

twelve
-

years,

23,375,000

12,100,000

4,052,000
125,000

Leaving for
*

the rest of the Courier and

world,

4,177,000 7,098,000 23,375,000

From

the New

York

Inquirer,

lb. taken off by Act of Parliament,passed 8th May, 1845. and the stock, at the imports of 1837 exceeded the consumption by 66,000 bales, close of the year, was from which, if we deduct the 66,000, there remain 92,000. 158,000, i The

f Duty,fed.per

THE
of the
.

HARMONY
first Two Years.
.

OF

INTERESTS.
Total of last Two

107
Average
.

Average

Average.

Years

American,
All

other,

846,000 236,000 444,000

1,008,000 348,000

1,028,000
542,000 648,000*

691,000 1,947,000

1,525,000
From

2,118,000
ceeded ex-

this we that the average consumption see of the twelve years that of the firsttwo, in the following ratio:
"

English
American, All other,
But when the
we
....

18 per cent. 50 22
" "
"

"

compare

the firstand

last two

years

of the

we period,

tain ob-

results :" following English

American All 21 per cent. 125
....

" "

"

other,

23

"

Europe that has most fully adoptedthe system of protection the it will be useful to compare the growthin their Zoll-verein,^ being consumptionwith that of Great Britain and Ireland. The imports of raw before the formation of the Tariffcotton into Prussia
remained leagueor Zoll-verein,
cwts.

The

of portion

from 1827 to 1835 stationary at 44,000 That of yarn increased from 1823 to 1835, from 61,000 total increase of twelve years, was The from 105 to to 115,000 cwts. shows the growth 159,000 cwts., or from 30 to 45,000 bales. The following from that period in the territoriesof the confederation :
per

annum.f

"

397,233 The has quantity

more

551,977

782,295

1,018,190

has doubled, and the home consumption increased about 75 per cent." in a periodduringmost of which part had remained of twist own our || The quantity consumption stationary. from Great Britain had increased 135 per cent. wadding imported than was shorter period in the latter for an increase in required and foreign of her home The 21 cent. to consumption only per power with the of that thus It is obvious the sumption conproduction. import grew power where there is tends,and mu"t tend,to increase most rapidly and equally and the consumer, the least intervention between the producer of intervention between demand, based upon the principle so that the English be largely the two, and consequent increase of cost to the consumer, cannot increased. That of 1846-7 was less than that of 1837^8, and permanently and in
a

than

and
was

that of 1839-40 and that of 1847^8, greatas the difference between but bales. the fallof prices, 171,000 was of the Zoll-verein is due to proThe greatincrease in the consumption
This

period embraces
Commercial

season

of

war

and

convulsion

over

the whole

continent.

De "f

Bow's

Review, Vol. V.

p. 267.

Magazine, Vol. XIII. p. 286. " Ibid. * Merchants' very rapid. As 1 The increase of consumption after the formation of the Union was "The that cotton had it manufacture of was already become said, Saxony 1838, as early
reached before the Union." Porter's Progress of the Nation, of cotton hosierymade in Saxony has increased immensely quantity and from its cheapness has not only secured the monopoly of the markets of the of late, to the United States. Union, but has also been shipped largely of twice the
extent

it had

"

Vol. II. p. 198.

The

108
tection.

THE

'HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
we consumption

If,now,

from

the additional British

additional yarn sent one protected country,we world. of increase in the unprotected how trivial is the power will then stand thus : account
see
"

to this

deduct the shall be enabled to

'

The

First two

years.

Last

two

years.

Ratio

of increase.

English
Zoll-verein (1836) American All other

840,000 100,000 235,000

344,000

958,000* 230,000* 542,000

378,000
at

13 130

per

cent.
"

125 10

" "

In the

one

case

England took 846,000

7d., total

$53,000,000

In the other, 48,000,000 958,000 at 5id fixed in her own In both,the price was ports,and regulated by her own power of purchase. Had our home consumption the supplyto absorbed 200,000 additional bales, thus reducing would would have been 8rf.and the amount 750,000, the price have been and the of the product whole crop would

$54,000,000

have been almost doubled. her foreign market is, The of this of extending incapacity consequence of course, the accumulation of large in English accompanied quantities ports, obtains a larger by a fallof prices, by aid of which the Englishconsumer for the labour quantity and of clothing, and unproductive, This will be
seen as

by

for the matethat he can afford to givein exchange rials that tends to decrease as his labour becomes more the disposition increases. to "flyfrom illstheyknow" the following table :
"

The totalhome consumption the population by the 27,500,000 composing of the United Kingdom, was thus but 1,200,000,000pounds, or an average of 120,000,000 per annum, 4j poundsto each individual, giving supplied at a cost so low as to ruin the producer. The average of the firsttwo years while that of the last two was but 102,500,000, withstanding not122,500,000, years was increase of population that should have brought it up to an

140,000,000.
From this statement it appears clearly that the power of the people of Great Britain and Ireland, to be customers of the world, to the cotton planters with cannot instead of increasing beyond $10,000,000; and that, go much the population, ittends decidedly The reason to diminish. of this appears obvious. The to me peopleof England are perpetually engaged in the effortto sellthe products of their labour in distant markets,in competition with and therefore at the lowest price;receiving labour, low-priced payment in food and other articlesof consumption distant which in markets, produced
come

to I have
to

them

burdened
and

with

enormous

cost

of

and therefore transportation,

two

deducted been
as

added

only 70,000 bales,supposing the last

years'export

not

have

great as that of 1 845.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

109

obtained

the cost of much labour. The natural growthof production tends to increase the supply of raw materials, but the power to pay for them does not increase, because the labour of British subjects, home and instead of of commodities to be given in colonial, becomingmore productive lessso from month to month and from year to year, is becoming exchange, and yet into that constantly market are thrown all the surplus diminishing
at

elsewhere

the world, that the price of the whole productmay there be effect of this is to throw oh the planters the loss that should belongto themselves,and thus enable them to supplythemselves at the lowest price the cotton planter shall cease to be depend; whereas, whenever ent be obliged to as formerly, upon them for his market, they will again, fixed. The

of products

buy at
the

the highest measured in the article of British labour, price.The product of first is small, and the surplus to be applied to food, necessity, remaining, is therefore very small purchaseof clothing, and engaged in supplying low-priced,

indeed. cessantly They are inoften worthless clothing therefore unable to clothe themselves. to the world, and are A That the tendency is downward, seems to admit of a doubt. scarcely few years since, the poor-ratesof England were reduced by a great effort, and those to less than "4,000,000. They have since risen gradually,

"7,817,000, or $38,000,000. Every ninth person is a is In the destitution of a large of the population Scotland, portion pauper. in a The are frightful. peopleof the Northern and Western Highlands of wretchedness state of pauperism; and Glasgowand its vicinity presenta scene Ireland is exhausted. if at all, to be exceeded in the world. scarcely,
1848
were

of

into that kingdom, it is not beingno separate accounts of the imports of cotton, but the condition of to ascertain the present consumption possible the people is now far lower than at the dates of the following returns : There
"

into Ireland from all partsof the world,in the dred both inclusive, amounted from 1802 1821 to 538,542 hunto twenty years about 150,000 bales, or being an average of 7500 bales per weights, and the whole importof cotton yarn, to 19,995,350 pounds, or about annum, The whole

importof cotton

of about 4000 bales, the product making a 1,000,000 pounds per annum, is not given. of cloth imported total of 11,500 bales.* The amount with an In 1825, the year of great expansion export to everywhere, almost to we Great Britain of agricultural $35,000,000, a mounting products and the import find the import of cotton-wool to have been 4,065,930 pounds, of cotton cloth to have been 4,996,885 yards, making in the whole quired about 6,000,000 pounds, or about 18,000 bales of cotton, in allits forms, reabout of almost 8,000,000 people for the supply three-quarters ; being of a pound per head. in In subsequent owing to changes years, no information can be obtained, but in on a the mode of keeping the custom-house accounts general report ; would made the state of the trade of Ireland, by a committee whose object it is stated that the importof have been promotedby under-estimates, cotton-cloth into that kingdom was, in 1835, 14,172,000 yards, equal being What to about 4,000,000 pounds of cotton, or half a pound per head. be ascertained, at that time, cannot of cotton-wool, or yarn, was imported quantity for establishments the shown that of but it is elsewhere some largest
not

manufacture, of
calico We

and had disappeared, somewhat earlier, period in a state of bankruptcy .t were printers of the colonies of Great look to the consumption may now
a was as

that the

Britain.

In the years 1845, '46,'47,the export to them of pounds:" 1845, 85 ; 1846, 87 ; 1847, 67.
Ireland before and since the

in millions follows,!

Of

this,however, large
to 60.

Union,by R. Montgomery Martin, pages 56

600.

\ Ibid

i Merchants'

Magazine,Vol.' XIX.

110

THE

HAKMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

to be smuggled Malta,Jamaica,and other places, went to Gibraltar, quantities of the colonies a nd the and other consumption into Spain, countries, Mexico, about have exceeded 170,000 bales, or 70,000,000, of themselves could not the average this time, of inhabitants. for more than 100,000,000 During that is the follows it $5,000,000 and fraction over 7 cents, was a price medium of the of trade maintained, England, amount maximum through by of the people of the States of the Union, with a large the planting portion of this two-thirds of the whole quantity world,although producing necessary world. the for the use of commodity of the United Kingdom and the colonies, Taking the total consumption : have the following we now quantities
"

1845.

1846.
.

1847.

Millions of

pounds

239

234

144

Need any better evidence be desired of the poverty inflicted by the system than the fact that an increase of price to it, subject upon all the people almost one-half? cent per yardreduces the consumption to one equal in the protected Let this be comparedwith the growth of consumption how steady will be and it seen markets of Germany and the United States, is the

real free-trade, or system, comparedwith the perpetual protected, How sumption great,too, the difference in the conchange of the monopolyone.
per head ! While

consumed but all her vast possessions 144,000,000 the consumptionof the Zoll-verein (population 25,000,000) had grown in nine years from 45,000,000 to 115,000,000 and that of the Union was 243,000,000 how slow has been the growthof the English We have seen demand, and well the wasteful and be it may now to see exhausting process by which even

Englandand

this has been obtained.

low price of cotton," extremely say Messrs. manufacture the of a very inr Rathbone, Brothers " Co.,* encouraged class of which of cotton compared ferior to the a great weight goods, require make and which the when labour expended ceases on cotton them, entirely of is moderately theycontinue, is high. The demand for very coarse yarn," but in the year justclosed it has exat very cheap prices, ceeded alwayslarge all precedent^ for export, qhiefly to the Levant, and in particularly instances to accelerate its make, it has not passed throughall the some
" "

The

has

"

of cotton for these classes of It is on the consumption that moderate advance in prices is apt so immediately even a theyadd, goods," tell." The thus forced the Levant the into to cotton same goes to countries that before were from India, and thus is the poor Hindoo supplied usual processes.
"

of deprived which
must

another portion of his market, the necessary consequence of further be a of prices, and increased inability to continue depression of The production. the probably
cotton

the work

is remarkable, and is markets with half-made

*

decline in the trade of Western India result of this flooding of the Asiatic

goods.J
ranging during largeportionof the year, from 31, 1846, were
exports
1846.
were as

The -f3d.
to

Circular, January3d, 1849. prices of ordinary cotton

Id.

imports of Bombay for the five years ending December i The average 63,000,000of rupees, while those of 1846 were only 82,000,000.The
follows
:
"

5 years

ending

December

31, 1846.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

Ill

how large the exportto,India in the firstsix months seen was and now we see by the newspapers of the day what are the year, Low the as has not was consequences. priceof cotton, the speculation answered. The markets are and the unremunerative. are glutted, prices " "Great caution," it is said, be exercised, houses must now or the exporting will suffer exceedingly."* The small rise in pricehas already caused and the operatives in them are workingshort-time, many mills to commence thus deprived of the power to purchaseclothing. It is the most gambling, of the and most extraordinary system, and the most destructive to the interests of the agricultural of the world that has ever The been devised. population fever and the chill succeed each other with such rapidity that we are advised of the arrival of the the before indications of we see scarcely one, the sale of this difficulty of extending approachof the other. The cause of cotton in distant markets is to be found in the fact that the labour-cost of cloth so obtained is great. We have seen that the extension of the manufacture in this country for a few years following of the -passage of the tariff a nd that then it became under the promise, Comalmost rapid, stationary yet the importnot onlydid not increase but decreased until it reached the lowest pointin the period labour-cost of of 1842-43. The 1828
was

It has been

but as the tariff of 1842 came into operation was clothing steadily increasing, the labour-cost diminished,and there arose a power to pay for finer cloths from abroad,and thus the import If and manufacture increased together. desire to see the operation of this, farmer need onlytake a single we we of Tennessee or Kentucky,who obtains 30 or 40 bushels of corn in return for the labour bestowed per bushel,twhen of land,and is happy to sellit at 20 cents acre in is 75 or 80 cents. price Thirty-five Liverpool bushels yield here $7, which is about the cost of 70 yards of tolerable cottonon an

the

and printed, when cloth, plain

yardswould
of
a

20 require well-cultivated acre.

those 70 received on his farm. To produce of one-twentieth of the or product pounds cotton, To convert those pounds into yards of cloth

for their far less than half the capital, and half the labour required requires and the conversion at one however, half, original adding production. Taking, of 30 of pounds,we that proportion obtain the equivalent to the number that bushels and of the for of return corn 35 cotton as raw corn, pounds yet almost a bale of consumption, for as much as would purchase at the place sells, of the cloth is low, the of cotton. the money-price It is obvious that though is latterthat the the and it is is labour-price high, by power of consumption of back the worthless. far measured. The cloth, is As as 1832, too, quantity stated at fortyflour required for the use of the cotton factoriesof Englandwas millions ofpounds, two J or almost as much as the weightof 100,000 bales of distant of cotton, all of which is traded off as cotton, to the poor consumers defrauded and who thus are lands, impoverished. ,Bad as is even it is far from all the loss that is sustained. The corn this, The land is impois sent from the land,and the farmer loses the refuse. verished, poverished. imto be again and its occupant is compelled to fly to other lands, value the than alone The lossfrom this source isfar more of all the manufacturall the imports into the Union, ofevery description,from ing is very dear. It The apparently nations of the world. cheapclothing when obtained. value of little and is obtained at the cost of much labour,
*

November. Morning Herald,

"

Tennessee "ftook the the

grows

to liberty
corn

price of

cents, and wheat i MeCulloch's

since we A few months than any State of the Union. in our Tennessee of who had drove streets, hogs a a worth ten that it was He replied he came. in the region from whence cents a bushel." AugustaChronicle, May, 1849. fifty
more corn

ask

farmer

from

"

Commercial

article Cotton. Dictionary,

112
What

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and India, of the other parts of the is equally so of cotton cloth. for supplies to depend on England compelled The poor Russian obtains less than a pound of cotton for a bushel of wheat, labour for one ; whereas, if he could have and thus he gives ten days' who ate his food,he would obtain cotton converted on the spot, by the man So is it with the German, the South Amerilabour for day'slabour. can, day's the Spaniard, and the Turk. The system tends the Mexican, the Italian, is tru'eof Tennessee
are

world that

to

of labour
are

and to diminish the value preventconcentration and combination of action, that almost all nathe world,and it is because of this, tions throughout
to endeavouring

shut

out
met

the manufactures
now by the smuggler,

of Great

Britain.

however, theyare Everywhere,

authorities of highest is maintained

regarded by the

of reformers. Great Britain as the greatest Gibraltar for the purpose of smuggling into Spain.Exhausted'Porgoods likewise to be smugglea tugalreceives millions of pounds of cotton goods,

into Spain;and thus is that unfortunate country keptin a state of poverty, of Englandare pleased because the people to believe that itis profitable to abroad,while the labourer at home is idle for want of buy cloth produced demand for his labour, and the food perishes the ground for want of on mouths to eat or roads to transport it. If the system tends to the exhaustion of the people who have to buy cotton less does it tend to the exhaustion of those who not at so higha price, have to produceit, and who are compelled the peoto sell at whatever price ple of be ascertained

Englandthink proper to fix upon it. Why that is so, table : by an examination of the following
"

may,

perhaps,

The

of the quotations about

being

4d., and

latter portion of the last year were below the average, about that pointthey remained for several

of the crop had months, until the chief portion

been shipped. The favourable unbut it prospects for the new crop tended to prevent a further fall, is impossible would have been the price to tell what had that of the present engaged in its proyear increased in its proper ratio to the population duction. It would certainly have fallen much below even An fourpence.
I think, examination of this table will, enable us to understand the cause of the present extraordinary of the crop of state of things.A large portion the present year has been destroyed "c, and that fact, freshets, by frosts, instead of bringing with it distress and ruin, has bn -uphiwith it increased

and activity

life among

and planters, is it
so

increased
answer

power
can,

to

consume

cloth,

"c. sugar, coffee,

Why

The.

be I think, readily

given.
that can be collected by Great Britain, amount can in payment for Ameriand for freights, at home and abroad, commissions. "c, cotton, consumed between $45,000,000 and $57,000,000, appears to be limited to somewhere The

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

113

with the

an

obvious

to tendency

diminution.

consumed quantity
not

among

Of the crop of the pastfour years, and exported to foreign ourselves, by us directly

ports,has
a

varied

who England, hale. The

The balance has gone to has $57,000,000 with which to pay for 900,000 bales, say $63 send her crop, however, reaches 2,400,000 bales,and we

from 1,000,000, materially

than within a smaller sum 1,400,000; all of which have to be compressed there are large "c, 57,000,000,for now risk, interest, expenses for storage, and the amount fallsto 50,000,000,leaving the planter but $36 a bale,, out he has to pay the high freights of which consequent upon largecrops, and upon a large number of bales, instead of that moderate freight that would

accompaniedsmall ones, and upon a obtained in England fixes that of the price
have
:
"

small number crop, and

of bales.

The lows fol-

the result is as

1,900,000 bales
Less low

at

$63
and

$120,000,000 abroad, upon

a

at home freights, quantity.

small

2,400,000 hales
Less

at

$36,
and

86,000,000 abroad,upon
a

at home high freights, quantity.

large

It is obvious

that

it would

have

bales should have been burned, or The 812,000,000 crop of 1844 was
at

far better that the 500,000 destroyed by frost before beingpicked. been

pounds,and

the

productwas
.

mated esti-

fellto In 1845, itrose to 958,000,000,and the product In 1847, it fell to 7 11,000,000, worth. In 1848, it rose to 1,100,000,000,and until the occurrence that itwould not the prospect was frostsand freshets,
....

$65,772,000 56,000,000 72,000,000

of
age aver.

at

New

Orleans

more

than 5i cents,

or

60,000,000

The
seen was

of the planters but steady to gradual subjugation

From
we

facts : from the following eleven about cents, which

was

1830

to

the system may be of cotton here 1835, the price it would

free of in England, yield

average about $35,000,000, and the average about 320,000,000,yielding weighing5 lbs. 12 oz., was priceof cotton cloth, per piece of 24 yards, of iron and that "6, 10*., 7s. Wd., f$l-88,) ($31-20.)Our exports would of therefore have producedus, delivered in Liverpool, 18,500,000 pieces 1845and '46,the home consumption or about 1,100,000tons of iron. In cloth,

may suppose to he about what and freight charges. In those years our

export

6| cents, making the product and that of 6s. 6ftf., of cloth then was ($1-57|,) $20,000,000. The price the could have,for nearly and the result was, that we iron about "10, ($48,) about of about of or cloth, 420,000 12,500,000 cotton, pieces same quantity between the two the return delivered in Liverpool.Dividing tons of iron, commodities,it stands thus:
was
"

almost of England was people pounds,and the average price here of the

the

same

quantity, say

311,000,000

into cloth had been for converting cotton labour required retained by the manufacturers was and yet the proportion diminished, will now be shown : as increased, The
"

greatly

greatly

Weight Weight 1830

to
of Cotton used.

of Cotton

to the

given planters.
-

Retained

by the manufacturers.

1835,
-

1845 and 1846.

320,000,000 311,000,000
15

110,000,000 74,000,000

210,000,009 237,000,000

114

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

would have had 34 per cent, of his cotton the planter In the firstperiod, of the form but in the second only24 per cent. him in returned to cloth, the farmer from The miller proportion gives grist year to year a larger and thus the latter has all the profit of every of his grain, of the product miller from the planter gives year to year a improvement. The cotton of the cloth produced.The one miller comes nearer to daily portion The other goes daily farther from him, for with the increased the producer. is increased. the cost of transportation product of the accumulation of stock in the into the cause We inquire may now shall he able to see why we market, and if that can be ascertained, English low. it is that cotton has fallen so ruinously Of the crop of 1828-29, our own was 118,000 consumption smaller
. .

and 1833-34, the average Of those of 1832-33 was 195,000 Of that of 1834-35, it was 216,000 increase in to an havingalmost doubled in six years, and with a tendency attended by no diminution in our the ratioof advance ; and this increase was cloth. consumptionof foreign
. . . .

with with

consumed Of the crop of 1841-42, we only cloth. in the consumption of foreign a greatdiminution
. .

268,000 607,000

of foreign cloth,the totalconsumption consumption having much more than doubled in a similar periodof time. In the period intermediate between 1835 and 1843, our consumption had been Had it been interfered with action of the not the Compromise stationary. by have doubled in that period, it would and probably bill, much certainly than doubled. increase of only12j per more If, however, we assume an the increase of population, the following cent, per annum, or quadruple would have been the home
1835-6 1836-7 1837-8 1838-9 The
actual
. .

Of that of 1847-48, increase in the a large

demand

"

243,000 bales 273,000 307,000 345,000 "

" "

1839-40 1840-41 1841-42

388,000bales 437,000 491,000 '"

"

Total

consumption

was

2,484,000 1,844,000 640,000

Difference

loss of demand thus more to the planter than the whole was leftunsold when that was the market broke down. to the present time at the same Following up the consumption obtain the following results : The
"

quantity
rate,we

1842-3
. .

1843-4 1844-5 1845-6 The

actual

552,000 bales 621,000 680,000 " 785,000

" "

1846-7
1847-8

1848-9

883,000 bales 994,000 " 1,019,090 "' 5,550,000 3,000,000 2,550,000 3,190,000

consumption has been about

seven

....

Difference in Total

years,

difference,
can

down, and yet with 3,000,000 bales that we

set

doubt that the progress would have been greaterthan is here than this, no should have used above more we have not used. Had we done so, the producer of cotton would have fixed the price and not the buyer. Under such circumstances would it have fallen below ten or twelve cents per pound? Would it not, on the contrary, have risen to fourteen or fifteen, unless the increased ? I think it would, and I feel assured that it crop had been much
one

No

will do

so

in

very brief

from period

the

of thoroughadoption

system

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

115
will enable for
so us

that will establish here such a market for labour the land the products of the land, on and my follows : are as
"

as

to

sume con-

reasons

believing

good labour requires

must

The

cotton

and

have

wages

To render them productive are now waste. To induce the application the labourer of either, capital. and the owner of capital Both must have profits. must any increased demand

lands of India

rise in

pricewith

for them.

Such

demand

musj

arise when increased

to look to India for any England shall find herself compelled she must do so soon demand home shall have as as our supply,

risen to the extent of 1,000,000 bales it will do in the next as per annum, three years, if permitted to do. so It will be asked, what should we do with all this cloth? In reply, I say and I repeat it because it is essential that it be recollected again, every
"

man

is

consumer

to

the whole

extent

of 1828 remained may be. Had the tariff in the same would have reached 15,000,000 tons, for furnaces and period would have been built throughout the country, and railroad rolling-mills bars would have been made by hundreds of thousands of tons, and treble the roads would have been made without producing The demand bankruptcy.

that whatever of his production, the production of coal unchanged,

for roads,and mills, and steam-engines and furnaces, of every description would have created a vast demand for labour that was wasted,and the surplus would have gone to the purchaseof clothing and other of the conveniences earnings and comforts of life, and there would have been made a market the land for the products of the land,to the extent of hundreds of millions of dollars, both farmer and planter to improve the machinery of enabling rich instead and of remaining production transportation, growing poor as they
on

have

done. would

With
as

and increased,
one

each such step the immigration from Europe would have would have at become man once a producer, every every
a consumer.

have

been

The

Englishmanwould

consume

twelve

where pounds, twelve would almost be

so

before he where far reduced

consumed

before

but four,and the Irishman would consume he consumed but one, while freights to Europe

that the

priceof

cotton

in New

York

would

be

as high as in Liverpool. here set down It will be observed that the quantity did consume. t hat which we actually by onlyone-third,

for 1846-7 exceeds, Had immigration

the present time, at the rate at which it would be greaterthan it now is by 20 then advancing, our was population the whole quantity, without any allowance for for nearly per cent., providing The whole increased consumption by the population previously existing. continued
to

from 1834 increase,

to

of coffee, would have needed silk,and a thousand largesupplies of which should have paid in from abroad, for much we things of obtaining have given roads to iron would cotton goods. The facility of their of the proceeds and all would have had more the farmer and planter, and his The planter of clothing. labour to applyto the purchase himself, but would now be consuming three yardswhere now theyconsume people, stead inand home-market would be bales, the 1,200,000 now absorbing one; with a crop then would be the price of cotton, even of a million. What stead Would of 3,000,000 ? it not be $60 a bale,yielding him 180 millions inof them other of 80 ? In 1845 and I think it would. for which, 1846, the planter 311,000,000 of pounds, supplied delivered lbs. in he could have had the delivered on sea-board, 74,000,000 him. He and the Liverpool, freight commissions,homeward, beingpaidby for 37,000,000, the chargesupon which, without duty, gave 156,000,000 and probably less. would have reduced it tb 30,000,000 on the plantation, and the difference, The 30,000,000 had, however, been twisted and woven,

116
one

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

what he gave for the twisting was millions, twenty-six millions. work of operatives, The men and thirty average of exceeds the of and conversion 3000 cotton into pounds women, girls, hoys The planter, such cloth, then,gave 126,000,000 of pounds of per annum. and he transcotton for the labour of 10,000 persons, chiefly ported boys and girls, hundred and and

weavingof

from

he to calculate the cost of transportaWere 156,000,000 to market. tion of shipment, he would the plantation to Nashville, or other place
was

find that that alone whatever. Had the whole have amounted
to

far

more

the cotton that he had in fact given

than the labour he obtained in return, and itselfaway, receiving for itno equivalent
at

156,000,000 been converted

about
seven

home
at

into cloth, it would

of poundsadditional, per head,for the people have then been consumed

have risen to a level with the present cause beincreased, consumptionof the North, and the latterwould have largely for labour that would have existed. Had that of the great demand been done, the and the of the whole crop would have been 8d. instead of 4jrf., price would have received seven cents on planter per pound, additional, and that, millions of dollars or sixty-three 900,000,000 of pounds, a large
"

the Union, and it would then of the South would

home, for the

sumption con-

sum a

as course

it is, is but of

part of the benefit that would

have

resulted from such

portant arrest consumption.If so, how imit is to the producer of the host to cut off the enormous of charges that intervene himself and those between who desire now to sume conpersons his products.High prices, consequent upon the maintenance of the do because and arrest it, existing theyare a tax upon both producer system, creased pricesrealized by the former, consequent upon an inof with the would latter, a facility exchanging produce contrary effect. They would increase it ; for we should obtain more from all the world for what we had to sell, and our w ould crease inown consumption The this would more raise to rapidly. increasing emigration country the value of man him from abroad,and those whom we now see expelling
consumer.

It will be said that

operation. would high prices

Such

their lands, burninghis house that he then find not return, would may themselves offer him inducements remain. to to compelled Agriculture would then improve and wages would rise, and the power to consume ton, cotthe both sides of the Atlantic, would grow, to the infiniteadvantage of With the increased demand, he would find someat length planter. thing like certainty in placeof the present gamblingsystem under which
on

he is so
seen

often nearly ruined. littlecertainty How he now can have, will be which I take from the circular of Messrs. by the following diagrams,
to.

" Co., before referred Rathbone, Brothers, Fluctuations

'

in the
May.

price of Cotton,in
June.

1848.
Oct.
Not. Dec.

Jan.

Feb.

Mar.

April.

July.

Aug.

Sept.

nBnHBgainHHaigiBasiaHHBBHBiLinnaaaHnBnBBHBaEiawMBBnHnnnnnnHni
UKaRMHEtHHRMinSBUI

gHHHBMHKKttlKnHHnEHMVWHHHaBHaHlSSrDMHinSllSSulaHHiaaMBIlHKM

"je?ojiJOtjiia"i

S3SSSB25SBSaS8S2*25?.l55:!:
""MM"amHMMMafM*naa3f9UMM"MM"SBMMOB"taawuHnainiati"*li2w.BMMfc*B

"ssaiawnaa2in5KBMaMu5Si"a3"*Ea!n5wnuSanraS535l:!SSl3HtlftMKil*l

Fair

Orleans.

f Middling.

J Ordinary.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

117
of 1848, in the prices

The

shows following

the variations, from 1844

to

and cloth. cotton, twist,

1816. 1847.

No. Best

40s,
2d

Mule Twist.
* Gray Shirtings,

72

Reed, "B

38$ Yds.
Cotton Fair

Upland.
The per.

highest and
lb.
on

lowest lines show

tables. the

the The

comparative
middle of the

prices of
the

yarn

the

left of the

quotations being per piece,on

right

line shows tables.

and cotton, the quotations being of a cotton long cloth,the fluctuations

Here we the price of cotton lowest when cloth is at the highest; see and the manufacturers realizing while the planter is being ruined. Such fortunes, the inevitable results of a system that forces almost all the cotton of the are

givenamount to be exchanged pound is dependent entirely upon the relation which the whole mass bears to the constantly sum diminishing that can be sparedto pay for it. It is a constantly Procrustean shrinking bed. While thus destroying the planter, and lessening his power to provide for his people, there is an abuse of him of slaves, as an owner unceasing and an unceasing threat to substitute the freelabour of the wretched doo Hina a

world into

market

in which the

and in which it, against

there is but priceof each

for that of the well-fed, and well-housed labourer of the well-clothed, and the lower the of cotton, the stronger is the determination to South, price to keep it low. Railroads are to be made in India,that cotton may come market cheaply, and cotton cloth go more to that country ; and yet with freely
more

every step of increase in the export of cotton and more and more enslaved,and more The difference between

the goods,

poor Hindoo the victim of famine

becomes and pestilence.

twelve cents and eight cents per pound for cotton about The of Great Britain cent one a yard. consumption average, and Ireland is about fifteen yards while the head, per average of that of her colonies is about three. It is absurd to suppose that this difference could
on is, an

any essential difference in the consumption of an article of the first immense under natural circumstances; but if it could, how importance, would result from that would be the difference in our home consumption make and of a system that would enable the farmers of Tennessee adoption for with the planter food for cotton acre to exchangeproduce giving swallowed bushels the difference instead for of,as now, being acre, pounds and Manchester. up in the transit of the food and the cotton to and from Liverpool the Ohio
" " "

throughout harmony of interests, every part of the Union, is perfect, needed all should understand that it. What the is, and all that is injures suffer without and the vice versa, the planter; cannot farmer injures planter the South, planters farmer. are cotton the to abandoning Throughout injury and that at a moment when the European market wheat,and substituting
The

118

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

the hundreds for food is to be closed against market. need a we now asserted,

of millions for

which, as

it is

I propose now to show As some may doubt the existence of this harmony, tends of action, relates the to how the. present course to food, as destroy

market for

cotton.

of Germany and Russia,after feeding themselves,have food The people desire the of that food to buy cloth. The sell. With to produce they t he cloth of the food theycan buy. The theysell, more higherthe price fill that is If we market, the price great food market, at present, England. If we do not, can of food will be low, and the German buy littlecotton. much We and he now cotton. are it may be high, converting may buy the consumers miners,and mechanics into farmers,diminishing labourers, the producers.The more and increasing consumers we have, the less shall have to spare, the higherwill be the priceof food in food we and England, by the German food
we

the greater will be the quantity of cotton that can be purchased The and the Russian. we more have, the more producers and the smaller will shall have to sell, the lower will be its price,
.

producedby the German and the to be true, that it needs only obviously stated. It has been seen that the price of food is here maintained by a home demand from the great immigration and we now resulting takingplace, know that if by causing for labour for the building of furnaces a demand and mills, and other similar works, we could cause the immigration to go there would be a further demand for grain, next year to half a million, that would stillhigher. Let us now the to a point gration immicarry prices suppose of next year to be 600,000,producing for a further increase of demand food to the extent of twenty or thirty millions of dollars, and see what would be the effect upon the planter. The Canadian would find a market for his would be sufficiently gTain within the Union, for the price highto enable him to pay the duty. The value of agricultural labour everywhere would rise with the increasing price of food ; and every farmer, at home and
cotton
seems can

be the

of quantity

that
to

be

Russian.

All this

me

so

abroad,would
his labour

because he could sell the products more of cloth, he could obtain more cloth and iron for it. The German, the Russian, the Irishman and the Englishmanwould be larger than now, while the home demand customers would absorb enormous tities quanthat would otherwise go to Englandto augment " the stock on hand,"
consume

i. e. higher,

by the
Our market

size of which

present
too.

and Atlantic, the labourer, is so much

the price to be paidfor the ensuing crop. the home market and the foreign destroy It diminishes the productiveness of labour on both sides of the all that is taken from the surplus that remains after feeding tends policy
to
or

is measured

purchaseof

cloth

taken from the fund that would iron.

otherwise go to the

THE

TOBACCO

PLANTER.

of the tobacco trade will show precisely similar results. In 1822, we and the price 83,000 hogsheads, exported $74 was 82, about $6,200,000. In 1845, we yielding and exported147,000 hogsheads, the pricewas $50, yielding $7,350,000. Deductingthe extra expense of transportation to the place of shipment, the producers received less for the large than theyhad done for the small quantity 1830 to one.v From 1835, the export averaged 90,000,and the amount was $6,200,000, yielding to the producer, his plantation, on much the larger as in 1845. as quantity The sum of $6,200,000, at these two would have in Liverpool

brief examination

periods,

brought

:"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

119
of iron, 200,000
"

1830

to

1845,
The
more

of cloth, 1835, pieces or 3,300,000, 3,900,000

" "

tons

130,000

is giving almost two-thirds more of tobacco for twenty per cent. planter his brother planter is almost ruined by the low price cloth, although of cotton; but in the case of iron it is worse, for he gives two-thirds more for thirty-five less. In the first cent. h e could have two and oneperiod, per fifthtons for a hogshead in the last he has littlemore than one; whereas third of the quantity, of a ton. It is obvious that he is being or seven-eighths taxed by somebody, that he is giving and receiving and that the more less, of this is, that the productive the of the outside cause power enabling people Union does not keep pace with the power of those inside to pay for tobacco, of the Union to produce it. What is his remedy ? It is to increase the number of people inside of the Union, with whom he can have perfect freedom of trade. The will six for that he consume one can now Englishman pounds burdened it is with of the 3s. German tax will as a consume, per pound; do the same; and
so

the tax that are

imposed upon

him

will the Frenchman, when he can free himself the by government monopoly. The more will be transferred from the listof small and the less will be

from
men tomers cus-

the cost of transportation from the placeof production in Marylandor Virginia, Ohio or Kentucky, of consumption, Berlin or Vienna ; New to the place or York, Philadelphia for the larger the bulk and value of the commodities west, the transported lower will be the of the tobacco
the eastward. Between chargefor transportation the and the there planter, manufacturer, ship-owner, perfect harmony.
THE SUGAR PLANTER.

the more imported, to that of large ones,

interests fore is there-

The sugar trade presentsthe same of state of things.The agriculturists of labour as the equivathe world are giving a constantly increasing quantity lent of a constantly The exhibit of the moveone. ment diminishing following of the great sugar market, since the commencement of the present ishing, diminpaidfor sugar has been constantly century,shows that the amount of the Englishcommodities price givenin exchangehas less that whereas in 1801 the consumptionof 14/j so much degree that of 24 was in 1831, and the prorequired portion persons paidfor a ton of iron, The whole sum has been steadily increasing. paidin 1847 for this millions of people, Jess than article of food; was by twenty-nine important and the contribution per head was was paid in 1801 by sixteen millions, and yet the difference in the price of iron was, by comless than one-half, parison, trifling.* while the varied in a
* The In 1 841 and is the same in regard to all other of the productsof the land. case 1842, the colonial timber received in Great Britain averaged 931,000loads. In 1846 In 1848, 1,102,000 loads. The and price, was 1,150,000 loads. 1847, the average after paying the and the colonist, meanwhile, had, however, fallen almost ten per cent.,-)have received must extra less,in money, for the largethan for the small quanfreight, tity, His timber would therefore while the price of iron had advanced fifty per cent. duction yield bim about fortyper cent, less weight of iron to be employed in the further proThe writer from whom I quote gives many other facts to show that of timber. that means or cost of labour," the increased supplies have been obtained at the same It does not own more have been found " for malting our [their] productive.''^ industry The former is the one, matter which, but of the two conditions he prefersthe former." that the poor and over-taxed colonists desire to be wondered and being such it is scarcely
" "

annexation.

f Edinburgh Review, July,1849.

$ Ibid.

120

THE

HA.KMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
Nnmber
of persons fed with in exchange for a ton of iron, sugar

retained Quantity

for

cwts. Population. consumption."

Price per cwt.

,

Total value consumed.

Price per head. Price of jron,

1801 1811 1821 1831

16,338,000 18,500,000 21,200,000 24,029,000

3,639,000* 3,818,000* 3,529,000* 4,233,000

45/t "8,188,000 4 l/6t "7,888,000

10/2
8/6 5/8

"7

5} 10J

14-2 18-8
23

"8}
"6

34/t "6,000,000 23/8t "5,000,000

4/2

"o%

24

does not come for Mr. Tooke's list of prices I do not extend this table, and I have no other that apto the end of the next decennial period, pears with it. Enough, however, is given to show that the to correspond less iron for more of the United Kingdom were steadily giving sugar. people down of 180,000 could have 1,100,000 tons as the equivalent In 1801 the planter the million of could have but as he of in 1831 tons but a equivalent tons ; there has been the an that time fort efFrom to 210,000. unceasing present taken for consumption(including to cheapen sugar, and yet there were in the years 1845 to 1847, after beingrefined) the large exported quantity
or an beingonly45 per cent, average of 5,300,000, increased had 90 per cent. It is while the in than more 1801, population and yet the prices of the obvious that the power of consumption diminishes, of this is seen in the fact world are fixed in England. The consequence while 3,600,000 but "7,200,000, that 5,800,000 tons,in 1847,would command

only15,900,000cwts.,

about "8,200,000. labour to return employed in the cultivation of cotton has fallen so Carolinian tries the that wheat, and the Mississippian low Sugar sugar. fallsso low that the West Indian turns his attention to coffee. By the time the pricehas so far fallen that he cuts his trees have become productive, in 1801 The them Thus is it the over-ridden ever producers by exchangers, and so must theycontinue to be while theyshall continue to have the price be obtained for a small of their whole crops determined by that which can and while that of sugar falls. rises, down, and then the price "

would

command

everywhere. The

are

market of England. in the constantly surplus diminishing The production of sugar does not vary greatly from a million of tons, and the be about the whole about the yield to $70, amount planter being may the have the of cotton crop at $80,000,000,we $70,000,000. sum Taking the value of the labour of that of the 6150,000,000 as portion large tion populathese two articles, essential to of the world employed in producing so the comfort of the rest of the world. The equivalent of this sum in 1845 and 1846 might have been (delivered the about on plantation) 2,500,000
tons

of iron, the article that, of all others, is most the of the or increase, productive power.
ton

essential to the maintenance,

of bar iron is

employed among
that rate, one man the whole

the equivalent of twenty-five labour, days' perly prothe coal and iron fields of the Union, but even at
not

would givemore than twelve tons per annum. To produce and sugar crops of to pay for the cotton required quantity the world would require, Is it not obvious then,the labour of 200,000 men. that the agriculturists of the world are taxed to a vast amount for the support
*

Porter's

Progress of

the

Nation,Vol. III. page

II. page
413.
to

32. Mr. Tooke of gives the various prices

Vol. Tooke's Historyof Prices, j-

I have taken what appears to me the year. t Ibid. p. 406. it is that coffee is now this cause " From

be the average.

and and high,and abundant scarce sugar cheap, the priceof the latter in London being but about 24s. How much is leftfor the from Benares,far up the Gangfs,and all the charges poor producer that has paid freight of all the persons be imagined. Twenty through whose hands it lias passed,may readily cloth. pounds of sugar must be required to pay for one of cotton, in the form of coarse

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

121

of the fleets and armies,the merchants and brokers, the paupers and the noblemen of Great Britain, and is it not incumbent selves upon them to free themfrom such a state of vassalage 1 To add to the present annual production of the Union in the next seven of iron years, the whole quantity to pay for the cotton and required sugar crops of the world would require and so far would it be from diminishing not the slightest the supply effort, of food,or cotton, that the production of both would increase at a rate more would rapidthan was ever before known, for the farmer and the planter thus obtain a market on the land for the products of the land, and goodroads to go to distant markets, and the chief part of the time and labour now wasted of transportation tion. to the work of cultivamight be given should then importhundreds of thousands of men make roads to the States instead of of hundreds through already organized, exporting thousands to California, and then squandering the in our resources ture premaeffortto make a road by which to communicate with them. We It is time for the cotton to look this question in the face. planter fully Had he a market, he could in a brief period increase the crop to 5,000,000 of bales. Having no market, he is compelled and to limit the cultivation, thus it is that the product of such a region South Alabama does crease. innot as it yielded, bales, 551,000 the present time the average has been only 440.000* The peoplewho should be raising are cotton, or making iron, perpetually the move, on in the following producing nothing.The picture presented taken from one of the papers of the day,is the one that meets paragraph, look where our we e)7es may : From 1845
to
"

in the work

In 1839

tide of emigrationcontinues to pour through our citysouthward and westward The rush is tremendous. volume. the day, from early dawn Throughout increasing until late at night, and forces are seen long trains of wagons, families, moving through Both our ferries are kept in continual operation. Mr. Fairhurst, of the streets. our one has kept a memorandum of the movers of the lower ferry, proprietors crossingat that In that time threehundred and fifteen point during the last two weeks. wagons have crossed for Texas, 89 for the southern counties Of the river,of which bound number 214 were It is estimated that,counting whites and and 12 for Louisiana. our own State, blacks,
"

The

with

there

are

passed this one ferry. We have no record of the number but if it is as largeas the lower, the number crossingat the upper ferry, of movers passing through our cityduring the present month will be about six thousand !" Nov. 16. LittleRock (Arkansas) Democrat, days
"

about five persons to each wagon. about fifteen hundred have movers

This

would

show

that within

the

last fourteen

soils of lower Carolina the rich and unoccupied thus creasing inlands of Arkansas and Texas, high their power to and diminishing their necessity for transportation, fast as to prevent obtain it. Let them fly so as theymay, theycannot fly stand at soon the increase of the cotton crop, the average of which must ? market find the shall bales where then Among 3,000,000 of planter a ; but the sugar planters of the world ? Like himself, theyare ruined for want of a market. theyare ruined Among the coffee growers ? Like himself, Russian wastes The ? the wheat for want of a market. Among growers with him for the American is his crop for want of a market, and competing ruined is petition while the the possession of that of England, by comEnglishman Those
men are

from flying
to

and

South

Alabama

the

with
"

both.t
Commercial

Is it among

the

? of England operatives

They

are

De Bow's

followingpassage "("The
view all
a are

of the

course

of

becoming

consumers,

Review, Vol. VII. page 446. of the journals rect corfrom of the day, presentsa tolerably one and thingsin Great Britain. The producers are being ruined, furnishes and thus it is that Ireland, agricultural, exclusively
in the
amount

market

for food.

It is

however, that every diminution forgotten,

16

of pro-

122
to endeavouring

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

the Hindoo, and their power to purchase cotton labour. Is their it in for market need a or sugar diminishes daily.They Her little. and at is consumption France ? France produces always war, 717,000 bales. In 1846 and in 1842 and 1843 was cotton of American

underwork

1847,

only575,000.*

of the world want that the producers see where he may, he must them of are that for want becoming poorer instead of they markets,and of production is the obtain even to that their and machinery richer, power wheat, of iron in or coffee, the c otton, indigo, sugar, diminishing, price daily of the earth, steadily upward,and yet tending any other of the products tend fallso steadily, would world that to the in there is no single commodity The be increased of the supplymight the existence but for monopolysystem. that far with of and a indefinite to an rapidity exceeding amount, Look of the earth. Make a market forit requiring annually any otherof the products Double it in ten years. this country could supply and of tons, 10,000,000 for reasonable whole in our the could pacity catime, treble and we it, supply or of half command the services the could and without we is limit, look and here alone,that the planter can labourers of Europe. Here it is, itselfin the ratio of the increase in his of expanding market capable the market for coffee, and here alone, can furnish Here, supplies. power to world be far enlarged the of the so all other of as and silk, products indigo, and of silk t o cultivator and the coffee enable the to indigo quadruple planter, for
a

of cotton. their consumption

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

ELEVENTH.
AFFECTS THE LANDOWNER.

fund is the land, and it is by the almost insensible The great saving The first object of the poor value. contribution of labour that it acquires for himself and his cultivator of the thin soils is to obtain food and clothing family.His leisure is givento the work of improvement. At one place
he cuts he
cuts
a

fuel for his

diminishes

little and at another he roots out a stump. drain, and thus clears his land,and family,
the amount

At

one

moment

at another

digs

duction

of commodities

that

can

be

productsof others,and
go in rags:
"
"

that those who

buy food have

littleto

the given as the equivalent-of and must give for clothing,

Irish demand is improving,and also that the dependence for corn an will graduallyincrease. The land monopoly of England, foreign supplies, a tax by adding the item of rent to be paid by the occupierand producer,made requisite which should protect him againstthe proprietary the foreignarticle, on producersabroad, had The removal of this tax has now who rent to pay. thrown directly no upon the before borne by all consumers English farmer the whole burden of his rent, "which was of bread. This burden will be enhanced, by the abrogation of the navigationlaws, will make the competition between the cheap rentless which, by diminishingfreights, and the landlord-burdened lands of other countries, soil of England, more severe, and, as much of the poorer soils will be abandoned, while the expensive a consequence, system quished be relinof culture before resorted to, to increase the quantity of protectedcorn, must as unprofitable.A considerable diminution in the product of a good English as compared with former years, may then freelybe looked for. We have given harvest, above of food taken for consumption in England, for the officialtable of the quantity an That 1849. in aid of the harvest of 1848, which was was "good," August, year ending but the acreable could not have been as largeas usual. product,from causes alluded, meet The result of this is, that the small farmers, with small crops at low prices, cannot and the last and the and their most bers numonerous tithes, rent, capital taxes, poor rates, ; in other employments." of bread-consumers are annuallydiminishing, swelling the numbers The

prospect of

of

England, on

Merchants' Magazine, Vol. XVII. page

562

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

123

well to facilitate the He stable-yard.

the

he perfectly The

his cattle, and thus keep his manure in that the machine will feed him better the more fashions it, and that there is alwaysplace for his time and his
knows
to given

of watering

labour to be expended with advantage to himself.

for his use, and the basis of the whole science man is be found in the law which to political economy governs his relation with this great and onlymachine of production. Mr. Ricardo taught that in the infancy of society could command men rich soils, from which they could obtain an abundant supply of food ; but that with the growthof population food became more for dispersion in a scarce, producing necessity
was

land

of

quest of those rich soils. The

contrary, and in this
is while right, all who
case,
as

common

sense common

of mankind
sense

teaches

the

in all others, the

the uncommon of the few is wrong, as sense will take the trouble to follow out the following sketch* of the of the earth : occupation gradual " The firstcultivator commences his operations the hill-side. Below on him are lands upon which have been carried, force of water, the richer by of those above,as wellas"the leaves of trees, and the fallen trees portions themselves ; all of which have there,from time immemorial, rotted and
"

of the many will be seen by

become fitted to which

with the earth,and thus have incorporated the to labour: yet for returns yield largest Their character exhibits itself in the of
are

been this

produced soils
reason are

they
with

inaccessible.

enormous

trees

the water they retaining but the settler to aid the process of decomposition wants ; poor either to clear them of their timber,or to drain them of the moisture. He
on begins

and in their power covered,

necessary the power

superfluous

but at the next step we find him hill-side, the a nd labour. He has returns to hill, more descending obtaining larger food for himself, and he has now the means of feeding horse or an ox. a that is thus yielded Aided by the manure to him by the better lands, we see his steps, improving the hill-side, him next retracing and compelling it to double that which he at firstobtained. With each step down a return yield reward for his labour, and at each he returns, the hillhe obtains still larger cultivation of the with increased power, to the original poor soil. He has and while their aid he from the new soils horses and oxen, extracts now by
for ages, he has also carts and wagons to while his step his reward is increased, lessened. He goes back to the sand and raises the marl, with and sinks into the the surface ; or he returns which he covers to the clay ing limestone, by aid of which he doubles its product. He is all the time makthe
manure

the

carry it up labours are

that had accumulated the hill: and at each

machine

which

feeds him he

while he makes it.

its powers the more fed and clothed him

takes from

to be fashioned to his purman pose. he fashions it the better it feeds him, because each step than the last; requiring is but preparatory to a new one more productive is great, The of clearing labour less labour and yielding r eturn. larger yet
"

mightdesire to use earth is The

The
more

for years, and now itwould pay him

and which increases in it, worthless. It has At firstit was it has a large value,and those who

rent. large

great machine, givento

the return is small. The earth is covered with stumps, and filledwith roots. enriched,while With each year the roots decayand the ground becomes At is diminished. the labour of the stumps disappear, ploughing length and the return is doubled,while the labour is less by one-half than at first. has done nothing but crop the ground: To forward this process the owner The aid he him thus obtains from her yields nature havingdone the rest.
*

in published Originally

my

book.

"

The

and the Present, Past,

the Future."

124
as

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and destroying obtained by the labour of felling was as in the outset thus yielded the trees. This, however, is not all. The surplus the poorer lands by furnishing for improving manure has givenhim means return with which to enrich them, and thus he has trebled his original in working the new soils without further labour ; for that which he saves He is obtaining increased a daily to the old ones. suffices to carry the manure of the earth. the various treasures over power of the earth, the connected with the fashioning "With every operation the most costly The first step is,invariably, one, and result is the same. the stream, where The firstdrain commences near the least productive. A little the fabour is heaviest. It frees from water but a few acres. higher, much food the

done,frees of labour, same profiting by what has been already quantity the and number is now most the doubled, twice the number. perfect Again labour with less than established be of was thorough drainage may system of the most for one imperfectkind. To bringthe lime at first required labour than was the into connection with the clay, acres, is lighter upon fifty for the each doubles the of return acre of a one, yet clearing single process fuel for his own who wants The man the fifty. a little use, expends much vein of coal. To enlarge this, so labour in opening the neighbouring as small labour; as is the is a work of comparatively to double the product,
next
a or

return
a

enlargement, by which he times greater than fifty

To
are

wheelbarrow.
a

sink

him is enabled to use a drift wagon, giving he used onlyhis arms, obtained when shaft to the firstvein below the surface, and
was

operations accomplished ; but these once steam-engine, expensive while less costly. To sink to future becomes more productive, step every trifles in comparison the next vein below and to tunnel to another, with are The each furnishes firstline of road railthe first, return a equally large. yet hundred houses and thousand two towns one or runs occupied by by
erect

far less labour than Half a dozen little branches,costing together persons. hundred into with it three the first, connexion or perhaps thousand, bring half a million. The trade increases, and a second track, a third, or a fourth, facilitates the passage of the materials The original one may be required. and three new and the removal of obstructions, be made with ones may now for the first. was required labour thus expended in fashioning the great machine, is but the the of further labour with still increased returns. to application prelude With each such application and of the hence itis that portions rise, wages "All when machine, as it exists, invariably exchange, less labour than
was

less labour than

broughtto market, for

theyhave

cost.

The

man

who

far cultivated the thin soils

obtain a hundred bushels for his year's work. With the progress of himself and his neighbour down the hillinto the more fertile soils, and two hundred bushels are His farm now required. wages have risen, will yield thousand who but the labour of four it bushels; a men, requires have two hundred bushels each, and the surplus is but two hundred must

happy to

bushels.

At
or

of four thousand a purchase this gives capital twenty years'

bushels,

of twenty years' it has cost,in equivalent wages; whereas the labour of himself, his sons, and his assistants, dred the equivalent of a hunof far all this or perhaps labour, more. time,however, During years it has fed and clothed them all, and the farm has been producedby the insensible contributions made
"

the

It is now

worth

taken from it a

from year to year, unthought of and unfelt. has for years twenty years' wages, because its owner thousand bushels annually; it had lain for cenbut when turies worth

wealth,it was accumulating

the earth everywhere. The left. When the coal mines of
more

nothing. Such

that is taken from

is the the more it,

case

with

there is

Englandwere

untouched,theywere

valueless.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

125

Now

their value is almost countless; yet the land contains abundant supplies for thousands of Iron and was a ore, a century since, drug, years. leases were at almost nominal rents. granted Now, such leases are deemed
to the possession of large equivalent the great, fortunes, notwithstanding that have been t he of known quantities removed, although amount ore now to exist is probably times than it then. was fifty greater The earth is the sole producer. Man fashions and exchanges.A part of his labour is appliedto the fashioning of the great machine, and this produceschangesthat are permanent. The drain,once cut, remains a drain ; and the limestone, reduced to lime,never stone. once againbecomes lime"
-

It passes into the food of man and animals, and ever after takes its in the round with the same with which it has been incorporated. part clay The iron rusts and gradually to take its part with the clay passes into soil, and the lime. That portion of his labour gives him wages while preparing the machine for greater future production.That other portion which he and exchanging the products of the machine, profashioning duces and him alone. Whatever tends, temporary results, gives wages to diminish the quantity therefore, of labour necessary for the fashioning and exchanging of the products, tends to increase the quantity that may be to the and of the great to preparing given increasing amount products, machine ; and thus, while increasing the presentreturn to labour, preparing
on

expends

future further increase. The firstpoor cultivator obtains a hundred bushels for his year's wages. To pound this between two stones requires and the twenty days of labour, work is not half done. Had he a mill in the neighbourhood he would have better flour, and he would have almost his whole twenty days to bestow He pulls he would have upon his land. up his grain.Had he a scythe,
a
"

for

time for the preparation of the machine of- production. He loses his and it of himself and his horse the on road,to obtain axe, requires days another. His machine loses the time and the manure, both of which would
more

have

been saved, had the axe-maker been at hand. The real advantage derived from the mill and the scythe, and from the proximity of the axeconsists the which afford in him maker, to devote his simply they power
.

production, exchange. The ploughenables him to do as much in one day as with a spadehe could four daysfor drainage.The steam-engine drains as do in five. He saves without could drained thousands of of labour. He much it be as by days
more more

labour and

and

such

is the

case

of the greatmachine of the preparation with all the machinery of preparation and
to

has more leisure to marl or lime his land. The he can extract from more because every thing he takes is, his machine the greateris itsvalue, by the fashioned to aid further production. The machine, it, very act of taking and ploughs, and steam-engines, spades, but the various forms into used by man, are in the which he fashions parts of the great original machine, to disappear The earth used ; as much so as food,thoughnot so rapidly. act of being of all other machines is the great labour savings' bank, and the value to man his deposits is in the direct ratio of their tendency to aid him in increasing

therefore, improvesby use

whereas

and all other of the machines

in the

only bank

whose

dividends

are

while perpetually increasing,

its

to do, all it may continue for ever so the manure that it asks is that it shall receive back the refuse of its produce, take their and the producer must ; and that it may do so, the consumer by each other. That done, every change that is effected becomes places

is perpetually That doubling. capital

permanent, and

tends

to

business of the farmer consists in

facilitateother and greater changes. The whole and the earth soils, making and improving

126

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. and food the

rewards him for his kindness by attentionhe bestows upon her.

The

him giving

more

more

more

with his rude machinery, the spotsthat, his crop nor cart, he carries home he can India. of He carries done in is as a now1 parts many upon his shoulders, miles,to obtain for it of exchange, distant, hide to the place fifty perhaps, More fertile increases,and roads are made. leather or shoes. Population settlerhas to occupy solitary cultivate. Having neither 'horse soils
to him, and he nearer cultivated. The store and the mill come of of less flour with the use obtains shoes and machinery exchange. He his of the leisure for has more great machine, and the returns preparation food from the same obtain More surface, peoplenow to labour increase. the spot, wool The on converted is, of and new places exchange appear. with the clothier. The saw-mill is at and he exchanges into cloth, directly The tanner the with giveshim leather hand, and he exchanges sawyer.
are

and the paper-maker for his hides, giveshim paper for his rags. With of both time and manure and he has more to each of these changes more of the machine, and with each devote to the preparation great food-making the use of the machinery are larger.His poioer to command year the returns therefor diminishes ; for b ut his of exchange increases, necessity towards having the consumer with each year there is an increasing tendency he with each devote more and the can ; producer placedside by side with and
more

of his time and mind and thus

to

the business of

the increase of

the great instrument fashioning essential is to the consumingpopulation

progress of production. " of exchange is in the ratioof the The loss from the use of machinery bulk of the article to be exchanged. Food stands first; fuel, next; stone and until for building, third ; iron, so fourth; cotton, fifth; on; diminishing material that in the The is laces and to we come raw production nutmegs. and by the production of which of which the earth has most co-operated, the land is most improved and the the of version nearer place exchangeor con; the less the in be the of the is loss can to place production, brought wealth the and the the of for tion producaccumulating greater process, power
"

of further wealth. The man who raises food

on

his

own

land is building up His

the machine

to neighbour, following year. work his loses still, on on a sitting given, year's is the pleasure of doingnothing.If he has machine, and all he has gained it home, the same employed himself and his horses and wagon in bringing ployed number of days that would have been required for raising he has misemit, his time,for his farm is unimproved.He has wasted labour and manure. has farm it is obvious that the who As nobody, a man however, gives, and obtains his food elsewhere, and pay also for transporting must it, pay for raising it; and that although he may have obtained as good wages in some other pursuit, his farm, instead of having been improvedby a year's than is and that he is a poorer man cultivation, worse by a year's neglect;

for

doingso
it is

to

more

in the advantage condition of

whom

he would
"

have been had he raised his own food. bulk is fuel. While warming his house, he articleof next greatest is clearing his land. He would lose by sitting if his neighbour idle, brought his fuel to him, and still if he had time in hauling to spend the same more because he would be wearing the manure. Were and losing out his wagon it, The he to hire himself and his wagon to another for the he could have cut on his own he would be property, would be uncleared.
"

same a

of quantity

fuel

for his farm loser,

If he take the stone from his own fields to build his house, he gains is and let and his land is cleared. If he sit still built, doubly.His house

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

127
"

him stone, he loses, for his fieldsremain unfit for cul neighbour bring If he work equally hard for a neighbour, and receive the same the apparent wages, he is a loser by the fact that he has yet to remove he cannot cultivate stones, and until theyshall be removed his land. With every improvement in the machinery of exchange nution there is a dimiin the proportion which that machinery bears to the mass of production, because of the extraordinary increase of product consequent upon the increased power of applying labour to building the great machine. It up is a matter of daily observation that the demand for horses and men increases drive them from the turnpikes, as railroads and the reason that the farmer's is, of improving his land increase more means than and horses men rapidly tivation.
"

his

for his work.

The

man

accompanied by

horses

loaded with hay or them when at market ; now fattens them on the ground, and sends them railroad for the His of the of use by ready slaughter-house. machinery is diminished nine-tenths. his He his and horses his exchange keeps men, The at home. former are wagons, and the refuse of his hay or turnips,

has, thus far, sent to market his half-fed cattle, men to drive them, and wagons and horses with which feed them the ten to on road,and to fatturnips
and

who

and draining, while- the latterfertilizes the soil heretofore employed in ditching cultivated. His production doubles,and he accumulates rapidly, while the peoplearound him have more to eat, more to spendin clothing, and accumulate
want
more

themselves.
The

He

wants

and labourers in the field,

and the carpenter, finding for their labour, the community, now join eating the food on the groundon which itis produced ; and thus the machineryof The while the quantity is diminished. exchange is improved, required that there exists
a

they

clothes and houses. demand

shoemaker

of flour consumed the spot induces the miller to come and eat on quantity that of others. The labour of exchanging is his share,while preparing turned up. is given to the land,and the lime is now diminished,and more Tons of turnips obtained from the same surface that before gave bushels are The quantity of rye. increases faster than the population, to be consumed and next the woollen mill comes. and more mouths are needed on the spot, turned to and which now The wool no longer are horses, requires wagons and to with enable the farmer his to woods, to coal, dispense transporting reduce to cultivation the fine soil that has, for centuries, producednothing takes the and the new wealth now but timber. Production again increases, form of the cotton-mill ; and, with every step in the progress, the farmer demands the great machine he has constructed, finds new on accompanied and stronger,and to with increased power on his part to build it up higher ter, beef and mutton, wheat, butsink itsfoundations deeper. He now supplies of and luxuries of the comforts and other cheese, every eggs, poultry, land which afforded, suited and from the which the climate is f or same life, ; soil cultivation on the light when his father or grandfather firstcommenced of the hills, sufficient rye or barley to support life." scarcely of value in land,it will be the If we undertake to study cause anywhere The newspapers of result from diminution in the found to cost transportation. the railroad of of the of the day, in speaking recently operations tellus that constructed from to the Illinois river,

Springfield (Illinois)
was can
"

"

One

week
a

before the railroad bushel.

cents.

at

15

cents

Not

bushel

less than 25

This," it adds,

is

here in any quantity, Saugamon Journal, be had for the effect of the completion of the railroad on the
corn finished, now," says

could be had

the

"

price of The

one

article of the

of products

our

farmers."

that is so When first thingto be paidby land is transportation. uncultivated. remain the will great as to eat up the whole proceeds, land

128
Diminish

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

removing for transportation, the.necessity altogether making a market on the land for of the land,enabling all the products the farmer readily to return to itall the refuse of its products, and it will acquire the highest value of which land is capable. ; The commodityof which the government and people of the Union have' most to sellis land. In quantity it is practically unlimited, and long before our shall have been even laid out for sale present territory within the limits of the Union. In vast countries will have been brought it is entitled to stand first in the world. The area of the coal quality is 133,000 square miles. Iron ore is everywhere, untouched. Copper, region
South Carolina has millions of of the finest meadow-land and she has lime and iron ore unoccupied, in unlimited abundance. is in a similar condition, and yet people Virginia are is all that is needed to place both,when population them in the leaving firstrank among the States of the Union in point of wealth. Of ihe three States of Alabama, Louisiana, and Mississippi, with advantages unrivalled for the production of the great clothing material of the world, two-thirds of their whole surface, or 83,000,000 of acres, remain unsold. The land
acres

the cost of transportation so as to leave sufficient to pay the wages it will be cultivated, but it will pay no rent. Diminish it and above the reward of the labourer, to leave a surplus so as over further, and the land itselfwill acquire value. Diminish.it still further, by of labour,and

zinc,and almost all other metals abound.

yet

the command of the government counts and to by hundreds of millions, giveto all this value we need onlypopulation. In Europe, on the contrary,population is held to be superabundant. is regarded as a luxury, Marriage not to be indulged in,lest it should result " in increase of numbers. " has a right to live," Every one," it is said, but this beinggranted, itis added that "no has a one to creatures
at

right
laws

bring

into lifeto be
who

supported" by other people."* Poor

"

are

denounced,as

to promote tending

do not work man, has "a right" to claim to have a seat at the thought, great table provided by the Creator for all mankind, or that " if he is he must be to work willing fed." Labour is held to be a mere and if the labourer sell it, he has
"

increase of population as a machine for those supporting " out of the earnings of those who do."t No it is

not can"commodity;" but to starve his wife,and his chilright" dren. himself, The particular to error social tendency apparent in the prevalent of the day,"to which it is deemed philosophy direct to special necessary no
"
"

maudlin tenderness the fashion to regard and Such paupers criminals."} the doctrines of the free-lrade school of are England,in which Political Economy is held to be limited to an examination of the laws which regulate the production of wealth, without referenceto either morals or intellect.Under such teaching it is matter of small that pauperism and crime increase surprise with which itis now held in low esteem. They are considered be expelled the better it will be for those who can afford to remain behind. To this object, tion Colonizaaccomplish Societies are. formed,and Parliament is memorialized who desire men by to export their fellow-men by hundreds of thousands annually.Whig and unite in urgingthe Tory journals! for expelling from the man necessity
are

is "the unsound, exaggerated, attention, and somewhat

to

rate so rapid. " men Throughout Europe, be surplus, and the sooner
at a

theycan

J. S. Mill's Principles of Political Economy. f Edinburgh Review, October, 1849. $ Ibid. " See article on Transportation, Blackwood's Magazine, November, 1849. The II
number
annum

"

of Blackwood's
to

Magazine, just received, advocates

the

"300,000 per

of application

this

object.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. calculations ingenious

129
as

Jand of Britain.

Secretaries of State furnish

to

for accomplishing the amount the work of expulsion.On all required that it is and that their numbers too men are hands, agreed numerous, grow and yet there is not a country in Europe that can too fast, justly complain the type of thisfree-trade of over-population. Ireland, system,has millions of
acres

of her

richest lands

as

yet untouched, that would

alone,if drained,

food in abundance yield

for the whole population. It is not, however, the labourer alone that stands in need of aid. The condition of the land-owner is little better. This system of universal discord described of the thus in of the day: is one journals
"

The

state

per week, another hundred, in the civilization. With

half

The assassinations are computed at more of the country is frightful. than ten added to the systematic starvation of almost a hundred month, which, per
same

time, gives a state of thingswithout parallelin modern of the people,the million of work-house inmates and than a proprietor's life is dependents increases. In less than a month it will be more nominal in collection, worth to be seen by his tenantry. Rents, which of course are have, amount. sunk to the fourth of their nominal Lands, let hitherto at "2 therefore, lately of the starving 10s. per acre, are offered at less than 15s; and such is the exasperation that the landlords are afraid further to aggravate their sufferings." millions,
this diminution
"

The

Parliament
to

of

England is

now

engaged in passinglaws
two

to

transfer,

for the fourth time in little more ruined. needed The

to

of Irish perty proundertakers. little cultivator land The of has been English Labour has become labour alone is valueless, utterly although
mass

than

the centuries,

world, now

into cultivation 7,000,000 of acres bring unproductive. of India has been ruined.

of the richest soils in the The immense

land-owner

body of

lage vil-

that but half a century since existed in that country,helping proprietors and governing themselves,has disappeared. The been The has Indies of Demerara and Berhice has of the West and the condition of the labourers has been not ruined, improved.
" "

land-owner

land-owner

been

of Great Britain of Portugal the continental colony land has been steady and with diminished value of there ruined,
"

"

of Portugal has become almost until the name deterioration of civilization, and barbarism. with weakness synonymous New If we look to Canada, Nova Scotia, Brunswick, the same or picture " Land of the same minute north of the view. at one meets our quality, from line dividing the provinces imaginary half
as

the Union, is worth

south of it. Lord

less than

much

as

that which

is

one

minute

Durham,

and made but a few years since, in his report, says that "land in Vermont is five dollars per acre, and in the adjoining close to the line, New Hampshire, and that on the northern side of the line, British townships, onlyone dollar," unsaleable even at such low prices." it is with superior "wholly fertility, Canada of because has
no

market
eats

on

the land for the the

of the products of which is

land, and the

cost

transportation

up

much product,

wasted absolutely

labour of men, and The it cannot women, go at all to market. and that of wagons and horses,is everywherebeingwasted, and children, desires a changeof government that will therefore it is that the Canadian him to the tariff. Give him that annex enable him to obtain a protective
"

Union

value similar to that of the Union. mers Faracquire and the power to conand labourers will grow rich, will then grow rich,' sume which with it cloth and iron will grow with the same cently rerapidity
"

and his land will

grew

with

us.

of England would Every colony

connection with her is synonymous unite its fortunes with would gladly one
17

with deterioration of condition. those of

our

that gladly separate from her, feeling Every

Union,

that feeling

130
connection

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

with us is synonymous with improvement. The for reason and all this is, that the English is based tends system upon cheaplabour, for the benefit of the few. the many In our to depress system, it is the and that who them and experience prosperity havingtaught govern ; many inconsistent with each other, have " free free trade with England are we duties of thirty creased. to be inprotective per cent., and likely ruined desire The and they are annexation, by free trade, that they may have protection. colonists. It is This idea of cheap labour is universal among English If theyfail to succeed,it is because labour is "too found in all their books. because they can be had to receive convicts, high." They are willing that men cheap." They tell their correspondents may be had from the Continent who will work for small wages, while Englishmen must have largeones, i. e. enough to feed and clothe themselves comfortably. They too dear," and emancipatethe negroes, and then theyfind their labour send to India, for cheap"labourers. The Times or-to the coast of Africa, informs us that the greatworks of Englandare based upon an amplesupply of of the cheap labour." The whole system looks to the degradation him to underwork and supplant the labourer of other labourer, by requiring with all the disadvantage of distance and heavy cost of transportacountries, tion. Protection looks to raising the value of labour,and thus promoting colonies
"

with trade" tariffs

"

"

"

the annexation of individuals, and the establishment of perfect free trade between ourselves and the people of Europe by inducing them to transfer themselves to our shores. It is a bountyon the importation of the machine need value to the machine man we have in such abundance rto give we
" " "

It leads to perfect free trade the annexation the value of man the world. throughout
"

land.

of nations

"

by raising

that the hundreds been, at times,matter of surprise of thousands arrived in this country have been so instantly absorbed that has been unfelt, their presence and that the more the larger we received, the quantity of food,fuel, was a nd iron in for labour, cloth, given exchange who have but such is the natural result of a system which tends to enable the miner and the worker in iron, the spinner and the weaver, their exerto combine tions with those of the farmer and planter. Had the policy of 1828 remained and were we million of men, now the onlyeffect unchanged, a receiving that would be observed, would be that wages and profits, and the power of labourer,landowner, and capitalist, the good things of life to command would be steadily and with each step forward the tendency to increasing,
to increase in the value of land would grow with accelerated We need population. pace. In the thorough of this course of the Union, is to adoption by the people be found the remedy of the illsof both the land-owners and the labourers of the rest of the world, and the removal of the discords now universal. so

It has

and immigration

That The

we we

may
must

how it would contribute towards producing see mony, harclearly firstinquire into the causes of discord. that is that The
more

labourers of the world have one and common interest, labour should become everywhereproductiveand valuable. wheat the

of labour, the more of itwill givenquantity shoemaker obtain for his work, and the more the maker advantageously shoethe more can w ill self himthe farmer applyhis labour, readily provide and his family with shoes. is the case with nations. Such, likewise,
return to
a

producedin

It is to the interest of all that labour in all should become and if productive, the labour of the cotton-growing nation become the that of unproductive, or nation feels the effect of in increased sugar an wheat-growing difficulty

obtaining clothing.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

131
and that is, that interest,

The land

land-owners of the world have

should

one

common

everywherebecome

may

with every be, seen by

It does so become increase in the skill and intelligence of the labourer, as of times present with times past in every improving a comparison and productive

valuable.

of the various countries of the world at country,or by a comparison the present moment. In Russia land itselfhas little value. In Belgium, where cultivation is carried on with intelligence elsewhere unknown, it has great value. of obtaining cloth for food, or food for cotton, Every increase in the facility the quantity of labour to be given for food or clothing, and enables the producerto obtain other commodities and things needed for the improvement of his mind, or which tend to enable, him more to apply advantageously landed proprietor his labour. The of England is therefore directly rested intein.the improvementof the mode of cultivating cotton in the United because ittends to improvethe condition of the man who labours on States, diminishes his land ; and
more

of Russia, because wheat-grower

the cotton-grower is interested in the improvement of the the latter is thereby enabled to purchase

clothing.
Among

and labourers of the world there is, the land-owners therefore, of interests. them stand the meri Between harmony employed in perfect the work of transportation, conversion and exchange ship-owners, facturers, manuand merchants.
"

had in view in the prohibition nies of manufactures in the coloobject the colonists to use shipsthat theywould not that of compelling and to pay manufacturers and merchants for doingfor otherwise require, could have better done themselves. The them those thingsthat they, The
was

of this was. which in our case led to war, discord, necessary consequence of time and money. Another that the and vast waste was, consequence work in the of and creased inconversion, transportation, engaged exchange, people food to than the producers, and England, from having rapidly the of food. Next became came corn-laws,by a sell, purchaser foreign owners, of food was for the benefit of landto be prevented, which the importation the for the benefit other laws of and prohibiting export machinery, of shipsand machinery of various kinds. of the owners By the one the enabled the labourer and the to tax of land were mechanic, and by owners
more

The effect to tax the world in return. the labour and of English to has been that of preventing application capital work of and driving it into the far less profitable of production, the work that the conextent verters to such an conversion,and exchange, transportation, and have abolished become of the land-owners, have at length masters

the other the mechanic

was

enabled

tection, importof food which the latterhad established for their proconclude that the we and as revolutionsnever backward, fairly go may has been to ruin thus far, corn-laws will not be re-established. The result, be to ruin those of Engand the next result must the landholders of Ireland, land,

restrictionson the

if the system be allowed fair play. food have been compelled to waste of Russia, we are assured, people of would give Rather than do this, a bushel of a market. for want they, afford to do this, we are for a yard of cloth. That they cannot wheat assured but what else can they do ? If theycannot make cloth theymust The
;

and they must buy it,

givean
seek

and equivalent, Until Russia

can

in England market at any price, and the price a the farm between which the of on cost much transportation cannot which it is consumed. the whole the and at town Nearly it was produced both the loss of land and to the must of that price exchanger, labour, go to exceed

they yards, food,it will surplus

must

givethem.

make

if that be even a market

bushels for for this now

132
both The of which

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

must

tend of
now a

towards market

the Russian
on

now level,

because

class in England is that of bringing dominant Such world. a measure about free trade with the adopted by this countryand woollen cotton and and would close every furnace rolling-mill, every of both value labour and would diminish the in the country,and factory market in seek food of to a the producer England. land, compelling of object

of the absence the

the land for the

very low one, of the land. products

a

by

Similar

measures

would adoptedby the Zoll-verein,

of compel the people

"

The market of attended with do the same, and the would fallso price England would be borne down with the weight, land to pay rent for the power of the labourer on low as utterly to destroy class intermediate to improve it. The its use, and the power of the owner in various parts of the world, would daily the producers between grow in

Germany

to

similar results.

numbers

and

and strength,

the

of productiveness

labour

and

land would

diminution in the value of both. with steady diminish, daily of the Union, of Russia, and On the other hand, let us suppose the people enable them to consume of Germany, to adopt such measures aS would on the and thus to land, the land the whole of the food produced put a upon which the is the now enormous to Englishagriculturist by imports stop the that labour and immediate effectwould be land The of crushed. being crease all those countries would rise in value,and therewith there would be an inin the value of both in England. The demand for labour here would hands employed in factory and the labour, drain off the surplus speedily induce the application of increased demand for home-grown food would and the value of both would rise. Consumption labour and capital to production,* would increase as labour became and the power more productive, would be restored, while that of the mere would of the producers exchangers be diminished. To the improvementof the condition of labour and land in the United Kingdom the abolition of the colonial system is essential. Its maintenance
"must

all ofwhich involves the payment of taxes to an amount that is terrific, and those who own be paid by the producers the machine ofproduction, The abroad or at home. tax that is nominally paidby the man who who sells the wheat, it,and produces
or

is really it, by him who transports paidby the man him that it. Three-fourths of the nation consumes by the work in of the proare or exchanging engaged transporting, converting, ducts whatever while of others, the to addingnothing produced, quantity and thus deteriorating the condition of the land-owners and out of it, living labourers of England and of the world. The land-owners of England have been the legislators of England.They made the system which revolution that which has depopuour produced lated now to it and they are India,and must ruin every country subjected of the people payingthe penalty.Each step towards the degradation by whom theywere surrounded has been attended by loss of power in themselves. Their policy has converted the little occupant into the hired and the labourers on land into the tenants of lanes and alleys in labourer, and Manchester. stituted much of Scotland theyhave subLiverpoolt Throughout whom gow, in Glassheep for the men theyhave driven to take refuge and with each such step theyhave weakened themselves,converting
" "

meeting in London, Dr. Buckland asserted that the product of all the clay might be doubled by a moderate expenditure for drainage. greatest crowding of populationin a neighbourhood is in a districtin Liverpool. "("The England, containinga populationof 8000 on 49,000 square yards of ground, being in the of 657,963 to a square mile. proportion
*

At

recent

lands oi"England

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

133
live at the cost Commerce is shall have they

those who ofhoth.

were

their

own

support into the tools of those who

set

The

exchangerhas

his foot upon

and so theymust King. They are prostrate, from abroad. Their natural allies the land-owners of the rest of the are help world. The East India Company, as the great land-owner of India,is i nterested. That is less and less able to greatly becomingdaily country the power so to do must diminish with the continuance of Were the machinery now cotton into employed in converting cloth for India employed in making cloth in India, thus making a market the land for its products, the culture of cotton would revive, the demand on for food would increase, would would and be cleared, population jungle grow, and the Company mightthen obtain a constantly rent from taxes increasing in their constantly decreasing weight, paidby a people constantly improving of labour would rise, in condition. The price and the necessity for armies pay taxes, and

their necks. remain until

the, system.

would

and the Company mightthen,at no distant period, sell out diminish, who would thereafter govern themselves. its establishments to a people of the United It is to the people States,however, that theymust chiefly of the chief part of North America, theyare Owners already whole. the The national, not party or sectional, soon to own tion adoplikely would of the protective raise the value of land throughout at once policy be the Union, because it would then be feltthat a market would everywhere look for

help.

would of the land. The British provinces the land for the products the and the of food be into to then speedily incorporated Union, supply and thus would British markets would cease; Cuba and Mexico would follow,

made

on

of allSouthern Europe; and with each market for the population followed by a necessity, would the partof value of labour rise, the on such step their for effort retain if they landholders to the everywhere, an rent-payers," and Italy would become manufacturers would preserve the value of their land. Spain for themselves, and thus the colonial system would gradually the labourers and over pass out, and with it the power of the exchangers land-owners. of the Union would be alone that the population It is not by immigration much abounds. value the land which increased and so givento augmented, be made
a

come to build up great cities, to bewould have remained home thousands who of atof tens the resort woollen cotton had furnaces, rolling-mills, or parents and friends, among and mind. The for time them same cause mills afforded employment and the in the one while, West; to fly to case, compelsanother portion The the country present system degrades
we

have

have New
to

the poverty,vice,and disease of crowded and men, women, those of scattered population; and children York, while other men, women, of occupation
new

in the other cities,

we

and children starve in of fevers incident perish

the

would
grow,

of the arrangements that countries in advance ment. of settleextension of the area have resulted from the more gradual did the discord. If It will be said that here is population not city what would become of the
owners

terests lots? The harmony of incity would and cities Towns is here,as everywhereelse, grow perfect. than ever, but theywould grow more preserving healthfully, more rapidly of the country, whose trade theydesired relation to the population a nearer York would a great wen, to be, as now, cease absorbing to perform. New of hundreds of thousands of the poor farmers,her customers, all the iprofits for the labour of one labour employed in raising corn who give ten days' would British iron. The country and the city day employedin producing the citywould towards of the and the country jealousy together, grow of

speedily pass away. of China The people

constitute

world of themselves.

They

have little

134

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

intercoursewith the exterior world,nor

to

is the exampleof Hindostan likely itsextension: desire for not, while theyshall continue produceany certainly of opium intheir desire the recollect that to prohibit volved to importation that resulted in the destruction of citiesand the ruin them in a war

of hundreds of thousands of innocent people. The system of that country of ours, in the fact that the government is in the hands is directly the reverse it labours under infinite of one, while here it is in the hands of all. In this, results the there of the of combined disadvantage, spectacle presented yet action puts to shame the condition of the
"

our

boasted civilization. A recent

:
"

writer thus describes

people

of from one to four or five acres, indeed, small,each consisting every little tea garden, the produce of which supplies the wants of his which are spent on the other necessaries surplus brings him in a few dollars, to Chinese agriculture. in every thingrelating of life. The same system is practised and managed upon The cotton, silk, and rice farms,are generally all small, the same plan. There are few sightsmore pleasing than a Chinese family in the interior engaged in gatheringthe tea-leaves, pursuits. There is or, indeed,in any of their other agricultural the old man, it may be the grandfather, the great-grandfather, or even ing directpatriarch-like of whom his descendants, in their youth and prime, while others are in are many their childhood, in the labours of the field. He stands in the midst of them, bowed down with age. he is always looked up to by all But,to the honour of the Chinese as a nation, with pride and affection, and his old age and gray hairs are honoured, revered and loved. and When, after the labours of the day are over, they return to' their humble happy of rioe, fish and which they enjoywith great homes, their fare consists chiefly vegetables, believe there is no country in the world are zest, and happy and contented. I really where the agricultural population are better off than they are in the north of China. Labour with them is pleasure, for its fruits are eaten and the rod of the by themselves, farms
are

The

cottager has his and the family,

own

oppressor

is unfelt and

unknown."*

Let this be compared with the results of the system that has desolated Ireland and India,and that drives our peopleto Oregon and California, while men are ourselves, everywhere, farms, half-cultivating large among when then and let it theymight obtain treble the result from half the surface, be determined which is the one that tends most to promote the prosperity and happiness of the labourer, and to improve the condition of the of land.

owner

of England tending she desires to facilitate to dispersion, the policy of roads which all the commodities of the world be making by brought may to her,thence to be returned to the places from whence they came, retaining so the destruction of the land and its owner. to cause a portion as large Lower India is utterly exhausted,and England desires railroads to more will be then exhausted in their turn. From 1834 to iron to make roads in new a nd ruined we countries, were From 1843 to 1847, we filled up the spaces, the policy by dispersion. that of concentration, and we being is that grew rich. The present policy of dispersion. It is proposed to make that men a railroad to the Pacific, may scatter themselves more we now a widely, although occupy space that would be sufficientfor almost the population of the world,if properly vated. cultiThe more roads we make in the now-settled States, the richer and stronger we shall grow, and the greaterwill be the value of land. The roads we make in yet unsettled lands, more the poorer and weaker we shall the and less will be the value of land. It behooves the farmer, grow, then,to look carefully to every scheme for 1840 she lent
us

The

distant

which points,

promoting dispersion.

The that
can

value of labour and of capital is dependent the quantity of both on be given to the work of production. increase in the Every quan

Fortune's Wanderings in China.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

135

of either required to be givento the work of conversion and transportation, tity tends to diminish the value of all. Every diminution in the quantity tends to increase the value of all. The nearer the consumer and the producer can be brought the greater is the quantity and labour that can of capital together, be given to the work of production, the smaller is that which is required for and the transportation, land.
now more

rapidis
consumer

the advance the

in the value of both

labour and We are low.

the separating
cent,

is,that five per

are

stocks

Were the tariffof 1842 and labour would command the consequence of which return a large would be a great increase in the consumption of food,and wool, and cotton, and the value of land would rise. The annexation of a million of people, from Europe, to our emigrants establishes free trade with them. The annexation of the land community, and the people of Canada, and the other British possessions, would enlarge
cent,
"

and the consequence producer, and land is cheap, wages par, interest would rise to six, re-enacted, per
are

from
at

the domain
or even

trade. So would that of Cuba, Mexico, Ireland, and free trade thus established would be beneficial to all, England,*
not to object

of

free perfect

the

annexers

The

and the annexed. of the north would people

a measure

such although
are

could

them profit

the annexation of Canada, but little.They and the Canadians

south side of the line

to

both sellers of food, value of wheat and flour on the and it is the superior which divided that induces the Canadians are by they

desire to be brought within the Union. The of the South would people the admission ,of of such a measure the effect Canada, although oppose instead of permitting the Union, the consumption of cotton in the British provinceswould rise from speedily of of 20,000,000 pounds,to 30,000,000 of yards,weighing 5,000,000
to convert to

would

be

the Canadians small

into

customers, large within

them

remain

ones.t

Once

and pounds,

thus would

the

gaina planter

market

for 50,000 bales of cotton.

The material interests of the South would be promotedby the annexation the groundof supof Canada, yet would the South oppose the measure on posed interests. dangerto political The South would
a

advocate
measure

the admission

the effect of such the ruining

now can

would, under
"

into the Union, although be that of circumstances, existing

to

of Cuba

cultivation of sugar, the look with hope the onlyone

only resource
that has

which him

the
to

planter
bear
up

enabled
cotton

under
man

the late and

condition of the present hopeless

oppose the measure, and cloth the present one,. and a market for grain sugar Political interests are thus at variance that would absorb of both to a vast amount. while the In both cases the discord is but apparent, with material ones. harmony is real. The establishment of that real freedom of trade which
at
a

of the north would

cost

culture. The it would give him although

far below

results from the

can

cotton f^The

of communities, of individuals, or from the annexation immigration of benefit to all. failto be productive in the cheapsells his product have seen, now as we planter,
never

Ireland

and

England

perfect free trade with

that would +
result from

of having only to show that the difficulty by the change in the value of labonr change of their political system.
are

mentioned would

here

them

be

removed

Export to

British North

America
1846.

in the firstsix months

1847.

of
1848. 1849.

Plain calicoes Printea

"
.

7,483,318 8,483,163 16,966,481

7,339,686 6,497,845 13,837,531

6,745,536 4,589,811 11,335,347

5,079,991
5,701,857 11,681,848

136
est

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

He gives and buys his cloth and iron in the dearest one. away his system,and and is then unable to buy the other. By changing to the food, the loom to come to the cotton,and the anvil to come compelling in and iron his cloth and obtain his he will sell cotton exchangefor cloth will then to all the wasted. He is labour that now export being will of cultivation the for to the cease. world, and sugar necessity resorting that all the Cuba will then the North consume can The sugar peopleof market the one, and produce,
consume

those of Cuba

will

require pounds of

cotton

where

now

they

but ounces.*'
CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

THIRTEENTH.
AFFECTS THE

MANUFACTURER.

of cotton and his customers, stands between tne producer The shipowner bears to the number the quantity to be transported and the larger proportion thence suppose We might will be freights. of ships to do the work, the higher of a course that be promotedby the pursuance that his interest would would compelthe cotton to go to the loom, and that he would be injured by loom to come to the cotton. Directly the loom can have seen, is the fact. The more valuable are the services of men, to the cotton, the more come the number of comthe larger modities the number of men to be imported, the greater the business for ships. and the larger that can be exported, the of adoption
one

the requiring
we

the reverse, be made to

however, as

stands between the producer and the of cotton to be converted the quantity of cotton, and the larger will be his charge the larger of conversion, comparedwith the machinery that he be supposed for the use of his machinery. It might, therefore, the loom in the the would be injured to measures adoptionof tending place by The in like manner, manufacturer,
consumer

cotton-fieldsof the South, or on the coal-fieldsof the West, but the reverse is the fact. The more peoplemake coarse cloth in the South and West, wrffThere be to require fine cloth and silks from the East,and the more for labour in the one, the greater will be the requithe demand the greater
'
"

with sitions made upon the other for the skill they have already acquired, increase in the power of increase of wages, and equally constant a constant and iron. The more theycan make their exchanges consumingfood,cloth, whose labour is valuable, will be the equivathe larger at home, with men lent labour ; and the more received for their own rapidthe increase in the the greater will be the value of their own. value of that of others, Every the monopoly of machinery tends to increase to break down measure tending the world, and none the value of man could have that effect to throughout would the transfer of the machineryof Lowell to the such an extent as order.~7 to be replaced of a higher cotton-fields, by other machinery of the South need no furtherprotection But, it will be said, The people than they have. They are satisfiedwith 30 per cent., and why, if they now
"

without any increase of duty, should they to manufacture on impose cloths fine and duties for the North and East? benefit of the on silks, higher We know that the lattercannot make fine muslins at the present rate of manufacture silk with France. can they duty nor goodsin competition the The South will work up its cotton and make its own leaving exchanges,
can

go

"

duty as

down, for

it stands,and then Lowell, Lawrence, and Providence must go is Such the views perpetually are competitionimpossible." mulgated prowhose editors profess with political by journals great acquaintance
Great Britain
to

The

export from

all the

over foreignWest India Islands is but little

20,000,000 of yards.

THE
,

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

137

economy, readers. The

and whose received as are speculations authority by their terests however, could be less in accordance with the true inNothing,

of the

planters.

the quantity of the machinery for the conversion of larger prepared into cloth, the smaller will be the charge' cotton The for its use. planter to rid himself of a monopolythat limits the increase of that machinery, requires and compelshim to give to the owners of the littlethat exists, whether Englishor American, a share of the product disproporentirely tioned to its value as compared' with that of the machinery required for producing his cotton. To break down one monopoly and establish another

'"would

answer his purpose, and yet such would be the result at which arrive were he to pursue a course, that would merelysubstitute of the South for Lawrence. The man Augusta for Lowell, or Qraniteville do as he of the North now would, and necessarily, does, buy his cotton at the market in England,and sell his goods as fixed at the market price,

not

he would

os price, fixed in England, for so

of machineryshall be quantity stocks in England, of large the price continue to be there fixed for the world; and so longas we must shall continue to be compelled of of our supplies to go there for any portion the price of the whole will continue to be fixed by the cost of obtaining cloth, shall be needs is that the price What the planter the last small portion. fixed here,for both cotton and cloth, and that it may be so, he requires an increase of the quantity of machinery to do his work, and not the mere ready until the far increased
as

to

prevent the accumulation

substitution of that of Southern How indispensably necessary from

an

men

it is that

for that of Northern theyshould do

men. so

will be obvious

It is there shown how at page 75. given diagram the charges for cotton of the manufacturers when the quantity enormous are for converting to be converted bears a large to the machinery proportion requiring table are given, it. In the following examination of the First. The Second. the world Third. of time. Fourth. of the crop. amount The prices of cotton in Liverpool, by which those of the rest of settled. The dates taken are March, 1844, July, 1845, May, are of best price mule No. twist,
2 per
at pound,

1846, and June, 1847.

The the
same

periods

twelve per cent, for waste, The pricethe whole crop, allowing of yarn. would yield, if converted into this description from the whole crop so sold, Fifth. The yield to the planter, supposing which are to be deducted all the freights, "c, between his plantation charges,

and

Liverpool. by
the manufacturer
as

retained Sixth. The amount co*ton-wool into yarn.

his

verting chargefor con-

small sum deduct from the crop of 1846-7, the comparatively of that and from of 1844-5, the f or "c, charges, freight, payment required how will be the it for seen cant insignifisame the large sum required purposes, what he for a large is the return to the planter crop comparedwith receives for a small one. In 1847, the manufacturer gave Id. and sold at an advance of about fifty
If
we

per cent.

"

i. e. he

half charged

as

much

for

the converting

wool into yarn

138
as

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

paidfor the wool itself. In 1845, when he paidid. he sold at nearly the wool twice as much for the work of twisting i. e., he charged a shilling because of two do enahled He this, to wool. the for was he as paid conversion to the of was the disproportioned First, reasons : machinery the market for cotton goods and be second, to of converted; cotton quantity and because the world was comparatively peaceful, itself, was extending effect usual. The of the than labour was m ore productively beingapplied view of the the following from be occurred seen since has will that change of 1848. operations
he
" "

Crop.

Price.

P""f

Amount

of yarn.

Amount

of crop.

*"g".

1847-8 The

940,000,000 4rf.

8d.

"28,000,000 "15,600,000 "12,400,000

but the market was been increased, Wars, gone. had it. and of and threats revolution, war revolutions, destroyed The whi"h of w as had id. a portion swallowed up in large planter per pound, obtained as much for twisting manufacturer and the of the cost transportation ;

machineryhad

received for raising, the wool into yarn as the planter ginningand and thence the of first and for to it, place shipment, it, transporting baling of the all the with numerous to Liverpool, charges together persons through whose "_ The also a
to

hands market

it passed on for it when

itsway. converted. The the conversion of his crop, and failure of either is equally fatal

needs planter

to machinery adequate

,' have under the monopoly firsthe cannot system. It is one of mere ruined. The while few make the are fortunes, a gambling;and many the cotton-lords of not the distant few, already England" are wealthy and the with it. It is he look him to himself, to provide to whom must men and abound in the home. Fuel and iron like himself, at South, ore many in which cotton fieldsfurnish cheap sites for the erection of.acres of factory, The
"

him.

of cotton could be converted by aid of the of thousands of acres the product coal wasted the and the iron ore whose powers remain labour that is now the water that remain unimproved. By their aid, unused powers every by Great Britain pound of cotton now producedin the South, not required immediate could be converted into and others for their own consumption, would furnished to the world. The and cheaply planter yarn or cloth, instead of then receive a yard of cloth for a pound and a half of cotton, five poundsfor one. giving and The difference between the price of the crop of cotton, in Liverpool,
" "

the

in 1844-5, would have exceedecUa yarn, also in Liverpool, hundred millions of dollars, beingtwice the amount* that it would costto in the cotton fieldsof the South spindles for converting into yarn the place whole crop that is now sent, without the limits of the Union/ -j and then his He would then have yarn or cloth to sell instead of cottbhj

priceof

five millions of bales, for the labour and manure absorbed by the road would go upon the land. now Capital ing and distant manufacturers, would be applied to the makbrokers, ship-owners, sion of railroads, the improvement of the machinery of cultivation, the diffunow

rise to cropjvould speedily wasted

on

of
moro

and in a thousand other knowledge, Where, however, is he to productive. is but

an

to render labour ways tending find a market for his products,

thus increased? Commerce pace with

*

silk, coffee, tea, and other commodities

increase in

of iron, exchangeof equivalents ; and if the supply the do not keep required planter, by the supplyof cotton, he will be constantly giving

See

No. XIX., page 421. Plough, Loom, and Anvil,

II." 85

Vol.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

139

more

cotton

from resulting

for less iron or silk, and thus others will enjoy the whole advantage his increased exertion. That the advantage may, as

it should,be his,it is justly

of the commodities necessary that the production that he desires to receive in exchange in increase to a manner on go with that which he desires to give. If it does so, he gives correspondent labour for labour. If it does not, he gives labour for less labour. more The arises: Can the production of the world, under the now question to the planter as to give existing system, go on to increase in such a manner for his production ? The answer is to be found in the fact, a proper equivalent that it has already failed to do so, and that he is even to abandon now obliged for wheat and sugar. cotton to do so in How, then, can it be expected The average crop must future ? reach 3,000,000 of bales ; and, speedily when The
own

it shall have of production

;

done so, his condition will be worse than at present. the world does not increase correspondingly with our

much giving

until it can be made niust work at disadvantage, so to do, we labour for little labour. "~i With all its immense mass of richfand unimproved the United Kingland, dom little. It does not even feed itself. It has a littleiron and produces

and

coal to sell, but a demand for an extra hundred thousand tons of the former would greatly increase the prieeof the whole without producing terial any mafor cotton ; for the rich iron-master would be increase in the demand made while richer, look for
a

the poor miner market.

would

remain services
"

as

poor

as

now.

Great her

Britain has
we

to' sell but scarcely any thing

not

products.To

cannot

of France, almost half a million of those most Of the people of capable of the muskets, and a large portion workingemploythemselves in carrying food for them and other non-prolabour of the rest is employedin raising ducers, for them to wear, and powder for them to burn in making clothing few products to sell, and, like Great Britain, theyhave They have, therefore, but services. little to offer in exchange of Italy and India raise some but the chief part of both The people silk, and so are theylike otherwise occupied than in labours of production; are their increase cannot to to be, and product keep they pace with ours. and little sell. maintains So it is with to armies, large produces Germany Mexico has little silver and cochineal: but the quanand a Portugal. Spain tity Look where we the does not grow, nor is it likely so to do. may, power of increase under existing is not onlysmall, but incapable of production unless find markets and be cannot can we effected, a circumstances, change What is the reof our constantly for the products medy population. increasing where alone their labour can the people to the place 1 It is to bring free trade with them. and thus establish perfect be made productive, distributed among and furnace miners thousand men English Fifty the coal and iron-ore fields of Pennsylvania, Ohio, Indiana, Tennessee and Alabama, would produce600,000 tons of bar iron,to be exchanged for his cotton, and the his for .farmer wheat, and the planter with the

latterwould
of and
two giving

then
or

obtain

ton
one.

of the He

one

for

three for

could then make

would become of his people cloth and thus would be made the five times theynow consume, double market for his cotton. raise quadruple the silk we of Italians would now number The same the labour
consume,

bale of the other, instead roads to go to market, and theywould consume valuable,
a a

and

theywould

be

consumers large

s^

made here,we market for silk once almost all we raised. and consume all the world beside, make market the farmer must and a The planter

should in

Were of food and cotton. raise much time as a little

the
as

on

the land for the

140

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

here the peopletheydesire to employ of the land, by bringing products in the production of the commodities theyrequire to consume ; or they must for of labour continue to givea continually a continually increasing quantity the firstcourse, theywould convert the conone. sumers decreasing By adopting and the consumers into consumers of one pound of twenty pounds, the opposite of twenty poundsinto consumers of forty pounds. By adopting called free trade will that of twenty now convert consumers policy they v*v of into consumers one. pounds it now known in Europe that suchTwas the fixed and unalterable Were the the would the transfer of population see nation, to of present year policy half million of persons, and of capital, in the form of mathe extent of a chinery, to an incalculable extent ; and once here,here they would stay, creasing inthe market forboth food and cotton. at once, and immensely, Five before itwould reach a million ; forwith every year elapse years would scarcely the power to obtain food, and the machinery for profitably clothing, applying would increase, inducements for the transfer of both labour,, new offering labour and capital. With each year,' the desire of our neighbours, north and south,to enter the Union would increase, and but few would elapse before itwould embrace all North America, and a population of forty or fifty millions of people, themselves consuming far more than allthe cotton we now raise. The Canadian, in the Union, would find his labours trebly profitable,
" "

for he would obtain treble the iron and cloth in return for less exertion. mines of Nova Scotia and New would Brunswick give forth their in return to the labour of men treasures who now but little can food consume but would then have power to consume or clothing, much. The mines of Mexico would be made to yield three dollars where now theyyieldbut one ; and all would obtain silver, and all other of the necessaries, lead, iron, cloth, gold, The
cost of labour. each step of this progress there would be increased demand for the and mental, of the manufacturers labour,both physical of the North,for the demand for fine cloths and for silkwould with the growthof the power grow cloth and iron; the demand to producecoarse for fine books would grow with the increase of school-books and for cotton newspapers ; and the demand and woollen machinery would grow with the increase in the power to obtain railroad iron.

and luxuries of life, comforts, at diminished With

Between the manufacturer ,and the planter there is,therefore, perfect harmony of interest. All are alike interested in the exertion to shake off the load imposedupon them by the present ; but monopolyof machinery of all the agriculturist is most interested. Its tendency is to reduce the power of production the world, to diminish the throughout power of consumption, thus to destroy and the customers of both planter and farmer. The of protection is to raise the value of labour throughout tendency the world, the estimation in which is held abroad,and thereby by increasing man to

augment
in the

and production
to

the power

of

consumption.

With

every increase

tendency endeavour to keep

flyfrom

the will the labourer of the world be raised to

Europe, it would be felt more necessary to peopleat home. By that process, and that alone,
a

level with

our

own.

"j

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

141

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION
"

THIRTEENTH.
AFFECTS
THE

CAPITALIST.

If thus

be protection the
to

labour and capital," it must sening tend,by lesupon of and to prevent its proper employment, productiveness labour,
a war

wealth by the clearing, ing, drainaccumulating of houses,the construction of roads building and bridges for facilitating and of machinery for converting transportation, the products of the earth into the form required them for the use of man. to fit the contrary, it be really, on its name If, as to the labourer, imports, protection then must it increase the power of accumulating wealth, to be used for his productive the accumulation of increasing power, and thus facilitating and further wealth. of production The more is the land. the more given to its cultivation, rapidwill be the larger will bejhe return and the to capital, production,

diminish

the power of of lands, the enclosing

/,The

great machine
be

that can

time and mind the increase of

more

rapidthe
chinery ma-

improvement in
The
more

the condition of man."/ time and mind that muff be

givento

the

of preparation

will be the increase of production, the smaller will be the return to capital, and the slower the improvement in the condition of man. The object of protection is that of bringing the consumer to and place transportation, by the side of the producer ; thus saving the of labour while the to facilitating application production, diminishing number of persons among whom the produce isi to be divided. A furnace,capable of producing 5000 tons of iron per annum, may be in motion would of These 5000 at cost tons a $30,000. exchange in put Ohio for 150,000 bushels of wheat, the produce of 12,500 acres of land that has cost $40 dollars an for the labour to $500,000, acre, equal employed and draining in clearing in making fences, it, barns,houses and building Let us suppose the doingall other things necessary to fitit for production. of the mines, "c. to have cost furnace, houses for the men, preparation the and is five to one, to obtain precisely $100,000, employed capital yet all. the same is The wheat weighs4000 tons, return. not This, however, this and to transport York ^.nd thence to Liverpool to New more requires
to produce wagons and canal boats than would have been required the iron at home ; and far more than would have employedin ships' capital done it; and thus we have a totalof seven if not even ten times the or eight, the same that is needed, while the return is precisely 5000 tons of capital
"

of

the slower transportation,

take his

in capital

iron. The invested capital have in the mines, would been the furnace, the houses,and in preparing building and would have givenvalue to it permanent,

around, because if would have made a market on the land for every acre and canal-boats disapthe products of the land,whereas, the wagons, ships, pear and becomes with time ; and the land,constantly exhausted, cropped,
abandoned is frequently by the owners, and thus is the whole wasted. iron on the spot The farmer will say that he could have obtained no more of his land,that the iron-master paidhim for his wheat and for the produce and that he in Liverpool, to the price charged him for his iron according other.' This is too the the much in in one as as place by exchanging profited inferiorlabour he is with the So to compete true. longas compelled nearly So longas he is he accept this as a consequence. of Europe,so longmust of of wheat, bushels for market for million a a single on England dependent he is of all that is produced she will fix the price dependent ; and so longas she will fix the price of allthat her for the lastfew thousand tons of iron, on

142
is

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of food up to the the home consumption bring the of iron and the home and consumption, production production, up to little wHLthen yield the price of both will then be fixed at home. ^JA. capital little iron. 7 is required to produce much iron. Now, much capital the that whole of the cotton, 311,000,000 It has been shown (page74,) consumed of pounds, by the peopleof Great Britain arid Ireland in 1845 and 1846, would have been paidfor by 6,250,000 piecesof plain cottons,and delivered in Liverpool. 210,000 tons of iron, By the time this cloth and iron reached the plantation theywould have shrunk into 5,000,000pieces and 160,000 tons of iron; and perhaps of cloth (120,000,000 of yards) into smaller compass, even them imported a still supposing duty free. To have producedthis 120,000,000 yardsof cloth in those two years would have each capable of converting into cloth 20 mills of moderate size, required have required 2000 bales of cotton, and to have producedthis iron would consumed. He needs to little more
as

in existing To

than two establishments, such as the one described at page the Lehigh region of Pennsylvania.

42,

the 700,000 bales of cotton must have required 60 ships, transport and making three voyages a year. 2000 bales, Add to these, carrying tic, steamboats, warehouses, packing-machinery, "c, on this side of the Atlanand the docks,drays, "c. on the other side, warehouses, cars, railroads, and it will be found that the capital for the work of transporting required these 311,000,000, after was they had reached the placeof shipment, three times more than would have furnished that would machinery have enabled the planter the whole of them on the spot. For all to convert this the planter find him to have sent away pays, and therefore it is that we 31 1,000,000of poundsof cotton, to be exchanged in Liverpool for74,000,000 of pounds in the form of cloth, and then to be reduced to 60,000,000by the time theyarrive on the plantation, thus giving five pounds of cotton for one thus far, much capital is required even yardof cloth. It is obvious that, each
to

obtain small Let us now

at

product.
see

the

two

years

the amount what was in producemployedby the planter ing, of shipment, the 250,000,000 of pounds that he gave in those place to the people of England, for twisting and weaving the 60,000,000

back in the form of cloth. The annual average is 155,000,000 came sent out, and 30,000,000 returned, 125,000,000beingloston the road. The average of cotton land is under 300 pounds an acre, at which rate 416,000 product would be required for the production of the 125,000,000, saying nothing of the remainder of the various plantations not under cultivation. The average of labour, amount to fitthese lands for production, ing includper acre, required h ouses, less has been not fencing, roads, machinery, "c, gin-houses, than one hundred and I should be safe in it much days, higher. putting those days at only50 cents each, we obtain $50 as the actual Estimating
acres

that

for each acre of land, in land at which expenditure required rate the capital would be $20,800,000. Estimating the hands employedat no more than the land, have a further sum we of $20,800,000. Next, we have the capital to the place of shipment, idea and that some employedin transportation be formed of I the that, give following may statement, by one who furnishes it as the result of his personal observation :
"

be formed by those who have dragged slowly along 20, 30,or 40 it coming into Natchez and Vicksburg, miles,as we have seen hauled by five yoke of oxen carrying2800 to 3000 pounds, and so slowly that motion was perceptible. scarcely So many perish in the yoke in winter and spring that it has been said,with some geration, exagthat you might walk on dead oxen from Jackson to Vicksburg. That was fore besome seen

"

Of the expense
it

coming

over

of this firstmovement, dreadful roads,up

idea may

to

the hub,

the railroad

was

made.

A wagon

is loaded

up, say 14

miles

from

Natchez, and

THE
"

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
"

143
to
"

started

at

up."

Thus

and reaches there in time to get back the next nighttime enough night, ten oxen have been wearing and tearing and dropping their manure
to

load the

on

road for 24 hours

make

one

load."*

have five yoke of oxen we tance 3000 poundsin a day,a distransporting of only fourteen miles. the average distance to he 75 miles, Supposing and the roads to he similar, it would take them, on an average, a week to that quantity from the plantation of shipment. I will, to the place transport of however, suppose that a single oxen can or yoke transportfour hales, 1800 pounds,per week. The numher of loads would be 70,000, to he in the shipping which averages ahout eight months. To transported season, do this would require, alwayson the road, 2300 4400 2200 wagons,
oxen, men,

Here

average
" "

cost
"

"

$80, $40, $600,

"

$175,000 175,000 1,320,000 1,670,000

Total This

capital,

....

$43,270,000

is a very low estimate of the fixed lahour, called capital, givento the the of these of at pf 125,000,000 pounds of cotton. production place shipment Let us now how much is the fixed capital, the use of which is given see by for all thisi A mill that will work up the distant manufacturers in exchange be producedat a cost not exceeding 2000 bales of cotton can readily $100,000. These 2000 bales contain 900,000' poundsof cotton. Thirty-four such mills would work up 30,000,000 of pounds, and the cost of all these

mills would
the return? The The

be $3,000,000,or about one-fifteenth of the capital employedby him a small capital yields planter.Need we wonder that the planter's
more

the more is applied, it is applied. efficiently directly power less the smaller the that the is and the intervenes, more machinery power of obtains his cloth and iron by the indirect means effect. (The planter if would his food send he and abroad,whereas, cotton to apply power raising would be doubled and his of both, production to the production directly the planters of 1845 and '46,provided power of accumulation quadrupled^7Had Tor the conversion of cotton into cloth, to themselves with machinery would have in England, seen the extent of the 155,000,000 consumed they treble the iron theycould of producing them furnaces rise among capable

have obtained forthat cotton, and thus would have been made a market on the have been that of the land,the result of which would land for the products their the balance of far for obtained more crop than they theywould have those of whole.'l The 155,000,000 would then did obtain for the produce miles of railroad, hundred make have bought them iron Sufficientto many kets, to distant marfor their necessity and thus, while diminishing resorting their they would have increased their power so to do, by increasing It will be said,however, that while the labour employed in producing capital. for its the cotton is set down, there is no allowance for that required labour of men, The conversion into cloth. No such allowance is needed. in every county of the South and the cotton that is for five such mills, than would be required is more lostfor want of aid in harvest-time would twice over pay for it. of cotton consumed by the people The whole of those 125,000,000 of pounds thus absolutely wasted,and therefore it was of Great Britain and Ireland was
women,

and

now children,

wasted absolutely

'

Skinner's Journal

of

Vol. Ill, Agriculture, p. 483.

144
that the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

for five. Could the obtained one pound of cotton in exchange planter intervene the be saved that between on now one side, and charges planter the spinner the he would obtain and weaver two on other, poundsof cloth for three of cotton, and' to acornplish mode of proceedthis there is but one ing, the machineryto come to the cotton, and thus and that is to persuade for sending the"cotton to the machinery. At present, obviate the necessity would- be pursued by the the courseThat be to same we seem pursuing hundreds should of thousands who of man expend daysof labour in clearing land for the production of wheat, and then wasting and cultivating twothirds of it on the road to and from the distant mill, for want of the application of three or four thousand daysof labour to put up a mill on his own land. all the grain A grist-mill 5,000 days of labour will grind costing produced upon land that has cost 300,000, and perhaps500,000, days of labour to itin its existing condition ; and yet the man above referred to, would place the road annually than would build such an one. waste on more days So it is with our and farmers. We in see planters munity every littlecomthat mills speedily rise for the conversion of graininto flour, and are satisfiedwith one-eighth toll in every neighboursee ; and so we hood, timber and a little water-power, saw-mills are got up into boards ; and with each such operation, flour and boards are obtained at less cost of labour, and the farmer has to giveless of wheat, and of timber, to have them converted into flour and boards. What would the wheat-grower say who should have to givefive bushels for getting back in flour* and what should the cotton-grower one say to getting back one bale of cotton in the form of cloth ? Let him reflect thisquestion, on and then answer the following should not every communityof'someone : Why what size have in like manner its own larger cotton placefor converting into cloth ? Could that be done, the planter would obtain half the cloth yielded by his cotton.
are

where

there

for

lumber converting

"

The

latterwill at firstview
to to

probably deny this.

factory, place the year, of the employmentthroughout in case of need, persons who might, aid him in his picking, and thus save for him the labour that is now loston cotton wasted in the field, overtaken there by frost. Let him consider or these things, and he will probably find that the loss in them alone is equal to the value of the labour required for the conversion of all the cotton of the into yarn. If theycould be saved, and he could thus,with neighbourhood
placesin Virginia in Rappahanock, for instance the farmer does pay as to get four transported to Fredericksburgh, to apparently not stopping calculate at what price and what yieldper acre that becomes a losing and game, rently appanot reflecting, that while they pay 25 cents for transporting dollar's worth of one wheal they could transport the same weight,or fifteen dollars' worth of wool or $7 50 of cheese, or $18 worth of live beef" at the same cost!'' Ibid.
" *

will giveme no If I had a manufacturer the ground, on I should the Such be the same. must case he shall so find himself as pay long to compete in the market of England with the compelled Hindoo for poor the sale of his cotton, and compelled to purchasethere, Of his a part supply of cloth, for so long will the prices of both be fixed in Liverpool. With every however, he would find himself a step in the progress of emancipation, gainer.Let him look around and see how much of the labour of his neighbourhood and of his own is wasted for want of the demand that plantation would be produced of the factory and bythe vicinity then let him reflect ; to be derived from in that of upon the advantage a having,
on me

my go the manufacturer it will cost cloth,

cotton

Manchester, it will producerne

the he ground,
ten.

He will say: If I sell five cents. If I sellitto If I buy English more.

In
as

some one

"

"

much

barrel

"

"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

145

the

hours would

send yarn to market instead of cotton, he and his neigh labour, be great gainers by the operation. done let him look to the price this, at which he sellshis corn, and Having
same

what would be the difference to him if he had a market on the ground in consequence of the conversion of some of his neighbours into mechanics, mill operatives, "c. Instead of remaining poor on the produceof little
see

of land,they would obtain good wages, and pieces while producing He would none. presentquantity,

consume

double
save

their of

at

once

much

the
to

cost

of

He would transportation.
cost to

with buy it,

would if

of commissions it to increase its price, at Manchester be great gainers by the operation. added

sell food at home instead of and transportation from his own

or

having bourhood neigh-

Lowell, and all

Let him then look to his cleared land,and studywhat would be itsvalue the manure went yielded by his hay,and oats, and corn, and fodder, all^ back upon the land,instead of being wasted on the road,and if all of that

yielded by
to

his wheat
or

and

corn

remained
see

Lowell
Let him

Manchester, and

upon the if he would

not

ground instead of going be a gainer by the

operation.
and calculate how much it would then look tq his uncleared land, the timber. Let him then calculate the value of the him to destroy maker, were near him, and if the blacksmith and the shoetimber,if the factory and the carpenter, needed the hatter, and the tanner, the bricklayer and its inhabitants houses ; and if a town were growingup around the mill, and and potatoes, wantingpork and meal, and milk, and beef, and flour,
cost

by the operation. mutton, and see if he would not be a gainer and of land upon which this timber stands, Let him look to the quantity interest. Let him then look to the quality which he is paying, or losing, on late cultivates. Let him calcuand compare itwith that which he now of that land, and compare their value, how many bushels of potatbesit would yield, with that of the 300 poundsof cotton consumed the ground, when upon if he would and not be a gainerby the see an now acre, yielded by operation.

Let the

him

add all these

and freights

commissions

and see if he would not save together, things he obtained no more even although ;

all for

by merelyexchanging themselves. Wagons and wagoners, carts consumer nothing producing and are sailors, carrying everywhere and cartmen, boats and boatmen, ships and and as if for the pleasure flour, wheat, about cotton, and wool, and corn, sends his cotton to Manchester to be of Tennessee of doing it. The man twists it. It who with to feed the man "twisted. it, His corn goes along chester consumed it is the time by the Manleaves him worth twenty cents. By that it at labourer dollar. The it is worth, perhaps buys a spinner, and he for dollar it, him a charges to pay price. The manufacturer gives
" "

for his cloth. Let him see if he would not his cotton, and paid as much but onefull value of his cotton, instead of, as obtain the^ now, obtaining I third of it.* of built up out of the spoils of the world are The great citiesand towns in in New around or York, the farmer and planter. Philadelphia, Looking of perto avoid being struck with the number sons or Boston, it is not possible to the the from who producer live passing

and the Tennessee and cotton become cloth, The corn it to the cloth at $1 10. sometimes He can man buys it back, payingfivebales for one! and the reason send his potatoes, why he send his corn, but he can never the earth yields that theyare of the,class of commodities of which cannot is, he can raise for The will not things that freight. only pay they so largely and that will therefore pay little, market are those of which the earth yields
19

146

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

/He raises three hundred poundsof cotton, allof which goes to market, freight. fashioned into cloth ; returning to the him back but sixty nothing bringing
land of what it drew out of the land,whereas, if he had consumers near the manure bushels of potatoes, for him, he would raise almost as many himself rich. He and make which would go upon the land to enrich it, and drain, and cultivate the richest and ditch, could then afford to clear, covered with timber,or with water. ' t profitable Why does he not do these things? Why-does he not convert the unaround him, into profitable ones?* consumers, everywhere Why or cotton, to the distant does he continue, year after year, to send his grain, mill The reason the and for ever, to him ? instead of bringing, once mill, Two cotton manufacturers, years since, maybe found in the newspapers every day.

land,now

Now wool manufacturers, and iron manufacturers were prosperous. work. ruined, and many more Many are already they are ail stopping to be. ,inour so are Why is this? Does it arise out of any change likely abroad. Two years It arises out of changes ? affairs It does not. own then was and consumption railroads, large.This year is small. Two and consumption she does not make roads, we years since, and furnace-builders manufacturers built factories and furnaces. This year", All of them would be ruined,had theynot a Tariff of proruined. are tection, that is is that of 1846, to give them that protection as inadequate such changes. Prosperous them against needed to secure theywould now

since, Englandmade

unaltered ; and the thousands emthe tariffof 1842 remained ployed for the farmers, customers in them would have remained profitable driven over the country to become the rivals of the farmer, instead of being of which there is already the quantity of provisions, dance. reduna increasing

be, had

the transport of cotton is more than would build crop into cloth. The mill is saved labour. The mills once is labour lost, never to be regained. The built, transportation for of production, the whole of that labour might be applied to the work
1 The

employedin capital
the whole

mills to convert

* The followingpicture of some of these unprofitable is from a letterto the consumers York Herald :" correspondentof The New I travelled yesterdayover a public road twenty miles,and stopped at nearly every house. occupied by what are called the poor white people.1 I found fifty They were You pass through a forest and come You see on to cleared land. on log-houses my route. side of the road a field of corn, say five to ten acre? ; off a few rods back from the road, one stands. a log cabin,the smoke in these amid this corn curling up in blue wreaths even hot days. There is a wicket gate opening from the road,through which you pass and There is a stone for a step, until you reach the entrance of the cabin. follow a footpath The woman of is spinning. She asks you to a seat, which and you enter. is made There are two both uprightsand the seat. three mOTe like it. In the corner or hickory, is a bed is very large, and the chimney is built of mud outside of the room ; the fire-place There are some nails for hats and clothes. There is a rifle on wooden the hut. pins; a of a broken consisting shelf, with a few articles upon it, comb, a Bible printedby the In a corner Bible Society, and a case-knife. American and you is a barrel. Look into it, will find a half bushel of corn meal inside, and over is a pieoe of bacon. on a string, it, and perhaps There is a cupboard in the corner ; open that, you will find a cup and saucer This a picture from the life. You ask for the and and perhaps you won't. a plate, is pulling fodder.' How and by children have you?' 'Six;' My man family many and by you will see the whole half dozen flaxy-headedchildren peeping in through the tween crevices of the hut,for in the summer in beseason, as there are no windows, the filling the logsis taken out for air. You wonder how people can live in such a one-room Yet they do live, den. and get on very well. They keep a cow sometimes, a few pigs to make ham and bacon,and they raise corn, wheat, and oats. The cabin is worth twenty if it was to be bought." (dollars,
"
"

"

'

"

'

'

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

147
"

iuu

"

lost labour of the hands and of the upon the plantation, poor white t he is would people," than be South, everywherethroughout more required for the work of conversion. Protection seeks to enable the planter to save thjslabour and accumulate capital. It is said to be a war tainly ;" but it would here cerupon labour and capital seem to be, what its name of food denotes, to the producer protection and wool against a system which him to give the use of fifteendollars compels of capital in exchangefor the use of one. Its object is that of promoting concentration. That of the system falsely called free-trade is to promote dispersion. The last twelve months have witnessed the expulsion of many thousands of men, and many millions of capital one-tenth not to California, of which will-ever return. One of the papers of the day states that
"
"

Considerable excitement

has been created here

(New York)among

those who

have made

shipments-of merchandise to California, of letters from commission houses by the receipt in San Francisco, of sales. It appears that the.charges containingaccount have,in several used up entirely the proceeds of the sales. We instances, hear it stated in dry-good circles, that one of our largest auction-houses sent out over two hundred thousand dollars' worth of dry-goodslast winter, for which, up to this time, they have received no proceeds."
"

Hundreds

when nothing,

Other

and earning shipsare now in the Pacific, doingnothing be and we are now theymight cotton, carrying building to replace invested in those shipsand them. The capital now ships

of

in California would have built mills for the conversion of half the cotton of the South, and furnaces for the production of as much in iron as is produced Great Britain, ffor all this waste of capital the farmer and planter pay, for the harmony of interests is so perfect and that the losses of the ship-owner manufacturer are borne,in largest invariably proportion, by them.f /

The

wasted

in

following estimate" of the quantity of labour and capitallost by ourselves and is from the New York Herald, and is not far from the truth : California,
"

at San November, had, up from the United States and ^Europe, and' that at least 100,000 people were, at Francisco, The average that time, in California. cost of outfit for each be less than person cannot $200, which makes an aggregate of $20,000,000. It will cost an average of at least $300 for each This amounts to live. to $30,000,000. This makes- a total of per annum The 500 vessels which had for one $50,000,000,for the bare outfit and provisions year. about at the latest date, and, the '500 on the way, are worth, on an average, arrived, estimate time of each individual we to $10,000,000. The $10,000 each, which amounts of living cost to be worth, on an total, $20,000,000. Grand totalof outfit, average, $200 and value of time one one year, $80,000,000. year, cost of vessels engaged in the trade, This is a moderate the actual outlay and absorption of capital, as calculation, up to this have thus far offset to this we to full $100,000,000.As an time,will probably amount in gold dust, from California and the received about six millions of dollars ($6,000,000) balance against It will be perceived that there is stillan enormous Pacific coast. whole before we shall and that it will be-a long time, at the rate already realized, California, receive even the sum expended,to say nothing about profits. It is our impression that ments. of those most engaged in the trade would be satisfied with merely the cost of their shipof them will never all idea of profits, and many Most of them have abandoned realize a cent : the charges,such as freight, storage, "c, will eat up every mill of first of property, is gold. amount for this immense The of to California, pay cost. only product

"It is estimated

that about

500

vessels

to

the 1st of

arrived

"

It is now a of none but its minerals. At present it has no other resource, and we know since the emigration to California commenced, and there than twelve months little more has been preof the world, such a movement as has never been known, in the history sented have departed from all the hundreds of vessels which have nearly a dozen of the finest steamships in the we California, this port and world, regularlyemployed in carrying passengers and the mail between Several large steamers the way now are on via Chagres and Panama. San Francisco, and in a short time to San Francisco, round, to take their place in the line from Panama in this.

Independentof
for

parts of the world

we

shall have

two

or

three

more

on

the line between

this

and Chagres." city

148

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.'

The ThfiJandcwners of theworld are the great capitalists. exchangers the chief part absorb arid their the small onesfand are macTnriefy yet they birt small return to the therefore yields of the land, which of the products

everywhere the cost of this country it is of small value,rarely exceeding throughout that landowners and That it be i and buildings, otherwise, may fencing may that theybring the loom to the cotton, and the anvil it is require? grow rich, the mass of cotton and food, instead of sending to the food, year after year,
laboUF in search of the loom and the anvil."1 of their capital is capable How rapidly lesson that the The first have learn. of the Union of the farmers and planters mass yet to but in of labour ; amount here,as settlement of land involves a large many other cases, it is the firststep that is the most costly.The land cleared, is a accumulating and the road made, the cost of transportathe house built, the farm enclosed, tion that the whole has little of the product stillabsorbs so large a portion of cloth or but the quantity value. The making of a railroad doubles it, be obtained for wheat or cotton is yet so small that the land iron that can value. To bring the furnace or the cotton mill to the spot, has still but little of the land,requires and thus to make a market on the land for the products of labour that is absolutely amount an compared with the insignificant doubles the value of allaround. The and yetit amount already expended, of the difference in the value of land anywhere" quality being is to be found in the proximity to, or distance from, market. had annually Let us now the last twenty years we suppose that during has wasted the road, of the labour that been on a small appropriated part sole
cause
"

Almost its preparation^ for_production. ernpToyeSTin,

equal

of the food and cotton that have been lost in distant markets, portion of furnaces and the erection of cotton mills, and that building the Southern States now of the farmer,each capable a hundred possessed of producing and rolling mills to convert it into bars, and 5000 tons of iron, the lattercapable of converting into cloth 500,000 bales of cotton, and that roads upon the spare labour of their hands had been employed in grading which theyhad been for years laying naces furthe bars produced in their own the whole and mills, and see what would be the result. Throughout of their South there would have been a market at hand for a large portion its while would be facilitiesfor products, transporting enjoying every part and food distant the one-fifth of cotton to or at markets, surplus presentcost, thus the land of every part would have been acquiring value,to an extent almost incalculable. The planting States have 400,000,000 of acres, and and
a

small

to

the

the addition of ten dollars an to amount to the present value would acre four thousand millions of dollars, while the cost of building furnaces, rollingand all other of the machinerynecessary to have covered those States mills, with cloth

roads,and filled them

as

much

cotton

as

into with machinery to enable them to convert would free them from all dependence the on ments move-

of distant markets, making them would not have been independent, a nd it the return would have been an millions, as fifty yet, large may seem, of dapital augmentation counting by thousands of millions. in the annual value,or rent, of a planan acre tation, than ten dollars an acre The farmer to its value. sends his corn to market and brings back twenty cents, yet the consumer now He back iron that bushels him 300 costs fifty. brings pays per ton, of that iron obtains but 25. Had the iron and cotton yet the producer manufactures been allowed to develope themselves Virginia, throughout Tennessee, Alabama, and other of the Southern States,, 60 bushels of corn, An
one

addition of would add

dollar

more

"

or

half a bale of cotton, would

would
now

this day pay for a

ton

the case, what

be the value of land ?

and if that were of iron, Would it not be greater

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.
'

149

than at present by

than twenty dollarsan acre ? If so, would not that amount to eight thousand millions of dollars? It is almost inconceivable how trivialis the amount of capital to double,treble, or required quadruple the value of land,after the firstand most expensive process, that of the first has been performed. occupation, Let us now look to the state of things in England. The fieldof
more

great

is the land. The number of acres in the United employment for capital millions. An expenditure of labour to the extent of Kingdom is sixty-four would absorb the enormous of three only twenty shillings sum per acre hundred millions of dollars, and an average of three guineas would acre per absorb one thousand millions ; whereas the whole capital employedin the manufacture cotton is but thirty-four millions of pounds,*or about one hundred and sixty millions of dollars, and that invested in shipping is but little more. Now, if we suppose one-half of the cotton machineryto be for the domestic trade,and the other half for the foreign, and one-half of the the to be for home of tea, coffee, navigation including procuring purposes, reign capital provided by the fotrade is but one-sixth of what would be required for agriculture, at If we take the average duration of shipsand onlythree pounds per acre. trade machineryto be ten years, we have art-annual demand by the foreign for three millions only, less than one nually anbeing equalto shilling per acre and "c, for the home market sugar, silk, the result will be that the market purposes,
"

the other half for

to

be for other

improvementof land. No one who is familiar with and of a largeportion of that of Engagriculture, land doubt that the of twenty times that amount and Scotland, can expenditure in the gradual of cultivation, and in the improvementof communications improvement would be attended with a large return. Land, however, is everywhere centralizedin the hands of great owners, and cultivated by that capital does not find employis, great farmers ; and the consequence ment in its improvement, and has to seek a vent in manufactures and commerce, afford a field so small, that competition is great which, together,
and the rate of profit is very low. The savings of Ireland are forced into of all modes of local investment. From because England, 1821
to

invested in the the condition of Irish

of the absence less than show

ten

1833, no

millions of
course

pounds

were

thus transferred

and later statements

that the

of events from that time to the present has been nearly the same. Of the deposits in the Scottish banks, a large is invested portion habitually

there is a constant in the funds ; and thus,local investment beingprevented, the which the centre, deprives capitalists, great and small,of pressure upon remuneration. for applying The natural consequence of this absence of facilities capital of largequantities it is owned, is the accumulation low market is be in London, for which rates of interest. to a sought at that is to say, to buy cloth then invited to borrow money are Foreigners
at

the

at places

whieh

"

and has and and

this process the unemployedcapital a crisis, been scattered to different parts of the earth, there comes called in, with bankruptcy to the debtors of England, the debts are iron
on

credit; and
"

then when

by

from

tory of England. Such is the histhe merchants ruin among wide-spread and repudiafrom 1835 to 1842, ending in bankruptcy of the period tion. have bought We of the tariffof '46. Such is the history, so far, and the day of of dollars of credit, millions on t o goods thirty forty
must
come. a

payment

By
"

succession of

of operations
78.

this kind all the customers

of

England

McCullooh'a

Vol. I. p. Statistics,

150

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and there remained,in 1842, had been ruined, be trusted. there

no

foreign country that could

was was

Interest appearedsuperabundant. Capital

and very low.,

for prepared no improvement. Every thing appeared the of the railroad became and the soon hobby a great home day. speculation, in which It was a peers and paupers, bankers and half-pay great lottery, all certain of drawing boughttickets, officers, clergymenand pickpockets, have been made, at a nominal cost of prizes.Five thousand miles of joad has been merely of this vast sum "148,000,000,* but the larger a portjon into that of another, of one gambler as transfer from the pocket may be seen The of the mere from the following statement. Parliamentary expensest amounted Blackwall railway to, per mile,$70,000 25,000 Those of the Manchester and Birmingham to

prospectof

"

And The

those of the Eastern Counties' road to allowed for land by the Manchester amount
......."

"

23,000 80,000 75,000

and
"

Birmingham,was
Eastern counties In this manner,

swelled to $250,000, the cost of the works executed was to $1,400,000 per mile, the consequence $300,000, $400,000, and in one case few have been enriched, of which has been that while the designing the many have been ruined,and England is covered with the wrecks of this which owed its existence to the fact that the whole disastrous speculation, of the countrytended policy which
to

force

into commerce capital

and

manufactures,

an

and to drive it from agriafford the smallest field for its employment, culture, the onlyone that affords a field constantly and in which enlarging, almost unlimited amount of labour and capital at a mightbe employed of return. the system operates here upon the moneyedcapitalist In 1835,aswe have seen, the natural outlets forcapital to be examined. closed. We ceased to build mills, and the or furnaces, rolling-mills,
manner

rate constantly increasing

The is now
were

in which

diminished. The necessary consequence of ships and houses was building of this blocking that the of dividend-paying of stocks capital price was, up and stocks with the this desire then idle to create new a pital. carose, produced Roads
were or

and canals

were

commenced
to

at

and the capitalist led created, was fifteen per cent, per annum for the the control pf strangers. The

use

the west and south-west, banks believe that he was to obtain ten of the means that he thus placed

under she

England claimed
invested in

might have roads,and unproductive

;

payment for the cloth and iron ; but the means been paidwere scattered to the four winds
in banks
as

however, arrived. day of settlement, by which

that were many ruined
as

of heaven, by the failure would have

of their debtors

and thus

were

wasted

millions

the iron we ever yet have used,and converted producequadruple into cloth all ofthe cotton we then produced. The of smaller mass made rich. ruined, but the few were were capitalists We direction. Money is said to be cheap are now movingin the same ; that is, there is much in bank at the credit of depositors, for which they are interest. The papers of the day informs us that Western cityno receiving stocks and bonds are cominginto demand; and here we have the beginning of a movement similar to that of 1836. In a littletime it will be judged and then a little while and England to create banks at a distance, expedient will claim payment for the cloth and iron we and are now buyingon credit, then will be re-enacted the
*

built furnaces to

scenes

of 1842.

f The Parliamentary expenses Ibid. 850,000,000"

Herapath's Railway Journal, quoted in North British Review, August, 1849. or of 1845,'6, and '7, were upwards of "10,000,000,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

151

desire to know who are the persons from whom is derived the we the movements of the world, it is needed only to look power thus to derange of cotton and yarn between at the prices the periods of 1844 and 1848, as shown in a former chapter. The farmers and planters of the world first

If

give away
and

their

iron,and when

then borrow a part of products, ruined by the operation are

the

them

in the forms of cloth

as

denounced

bankrupts

and swindlers. The tends

well-understood interests of
to

harmony with each other.

diminish the return the'labour and

Whatever
to

of allnations are in perfect capitalists tends to diminish production in one, in all. The British is a war capital system
"

well as that of "the world ;" upon her own as capital upon of other nations. Its effect is to keep the return to the capitalist at a very low point, and often to deprive him altogether of return, and all because it tends to compelthe labourer to underwork the Hindoo and the Russian, and of Therefore it is that labourers and capitalists /The immediate forced of to resort to measures are protection. effect of the adoption of efficientand complete sure, a national meaas protection, would be the transfer' to this country of an immense bodyof capital
to

sink him

to

their level.

other nations

in the form of which could would

not

followed by a gradual rise in the machinery, tend to attain a level with reclaimed. Like the men follow from necessarily valuable the most of all,
our we own.

rate

That

of profit abroad, once here, capital,

be

it would import, be

stay,and the
an

effect that would

its transfer would

increased in and

import of
To

men

"

of capital, species thoughnow, need

to

Europe,the
attain

most

despised.
raise the labourers
own.

freedom of trade,we perfect of Europe to a level with our capitalists both. to depressand destroy

The

colonial system tends

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

FIFTEENTH.
AFFECTS THE LABOURER.

whether that of any commodity, there is in market a surplus the of the whole the effect of natural or artificial price causes, whenever be sold" and which the last can at fall that to tends to portion that rise to whole tends to of the the point at there is a deficiency, price "Labour is be obtained. needed is a commodity, that can which the last portion it with other seek of to exchange which the owners persons, giving "Whenever be surplus and iron, it in the form of cloth and receiving of sugar or cotton, commodities. So all other laws to the same as and,beingsuch,it is subject to tends the of it anywhere, everywhere price longas there shall be a surplus the the diminution of the surplus anywhere, fall to the lowest level. With in the form will everywhere price Mere
no man axe

tend to rise to

level with the

highest.

unaided labour,
no

can by machinery, can

and he who has no pullup the grain, reaping-hook is the condition Such back. his his horse or load'upon transport of Ireland. of the that is and people of such, of the people nearly, India, low. its is and price Labour is consequently unproductive, which is of three men machinery, require To render labour productive, of lands that are of consisting Machinery production, kinds,to wit : First, cultivation. for the work of fitted otherwise Second, and drained, cleared, into and which convert planks as saw-mills, logs Machinery of conversion,
must

cannot who has

fell a tree,nor

he who

who has effect little. The man The earth. has no spadedigthe

cart must

convert wheat into flour ; cotton and woollenwhich convert lime, fuel, mills which convert wool into cloth ; and furnaces, of by aid of which the transportation, and ore into iron. Third,Machinery

boards

"

which grist-mills,

152
man one

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

who who The

raises food is enabled makes cloth

or

to

it where,he place

can

it with exchange

the

iron.

of food or make addition to the quantity latter descriptions no The wheat or cotton that goes into the mill wool that is to be consumed. The barrel of flour that goes into the ship out flour or cloth. comes comes neither more and it will feed no more out a barrel of flour, nor less, people
two

when The

out than when it went it comes bushel of wheat that is sown

in.
comes

out of the earth

or eight, six,

ten

bushels. of potatoescomes out twenty or thirty while the the machine of othershave been in have production, placed They in the machines of conversion or transportation. been placed
and bushels, the bushel of production, labour that can be applied to the machine the more the will be the the of food and and will be wool, larger supply larger tity quanlabour. of a day's1 of both that will be deemed the equivalent The be place the place of conversion can be brought of production, for transportation, the less will be the necessity will -oie more steady will be the quantity be the demand the year, the larger for labour throughout the better will the labourer be that may be given to the work of production, The
nearer

fed and

the form of

are

more rapidwill be the accumulation of wealth in be used in the further increase of production. machinery than population, because bettersoils Wealth tends to grow more rapidly into cultivation and does whenever people it more rapidly brought ; grow

and clothed,

the

to

abandon

swords and muskets

to

in the ratio of wealth

of the labourer that when low the
"

and take to spades and is attended with population

or

'pjoughs. Everyincrease
an

as

compared with that of landed

other

increase in the power We allsee capital.

abundant than passengers, the price of passage is are more ships and that when, on the contrary, abundant than ships, passengers are more When horses is and than are more price high. ploughs plenty men, plough-

the latter fix the wages, but when ploughmenare more abundant than the owners of the latter determine the distribution of the product of ploughs, labour. When wealth increases rapidly, soils are broughtinto cultivation, new and demand becomes
more

ploughmenare
more men

wanted.

The

demand

for

a ploughs produces

for
a

coal and smelt iron ore, and the ironmaster for the employmentof the labourer, who obtains a competitor
to

mine

of proportion larger

the

return constantly increasing

to

labour.
a

He

wants

competitor His proportion is again and he wants and now the ship-master increased, sugar, arid tea,and coffee, the iron-master and the farmer; and thus competes with the manufacturer, with the growthof population and wealth there is produced creasing ina constantly
demand for

clothes in greaterabundance, and the manufacturer with the iron-master and the farmer for his services.

becomes

labour,and

its increased

and productiveness,

the

sequently con-

of accumulating wealth are followed necessarily facility and certainly His wages rise, by an increase of the labourer's proportion. and the proportion of the capitalist accumulates the latter now falls, yet fortune more than ever, and thus his interest and that of the labourer rapidly in perfect are it is harmony with each other. If we desire evidence of this, shown in the constantly the derived amount of rental of increasing England, from the appropriation of a constantly of the product decreasing proportion of the land : and in the enormous of railroad tolls compared amount with those of the turnpike : yet the railroad transports the farmer's wheat to back sugar and coffee, not one-fourth as large a market,and brings taking f or the business the claimed of the wagon as was owner proportion doing by and horses, and him of the turnpike. The labourer's product is increased, and the proportion that goes to the capitalist is decreased. The power of the first the product over of his labour has grown, while that of the latterhas

increased

diminished.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

153
that where that

Look
to

whore

be can is and the labour of return to the or production least, given wages labourer in food, and other of the necessaries and comforts of life clothing, least : and that where transportation lis is least needed,the quantity of that can be given to production /labour isgreatest, and wages are highest: or in i other words,that the nearer the consumer and the producer be can brought
" "

of machinery

this country, shall find we throughout is most the of labour transportation needed, quantity
we

may,

the larger is the return to labour. together For forty years past the cultivation of cotton in India has been gradually from the lower lands towards the hills, creasing inreceding a constantly producing for the of and diminution means constant necessity transportation, a in the quantity of labour that could be applied With each to production. such step labour has been becoming and and the reward more more surplus, of labour has been steadily diminishing. of this period, such has been the case with Southern Duringa large portion labour. It has been graduallyreceding fromthelower landsof South Carolina and Georgia, increase in the necessity for transportation, a constant producing
.

while the commodities

to

be of

arrested by the large at degree consumption labour the culture of but to were applying sugar ; to change freedom of trade, we now our revenue perfect system,establishing the home manufacture of cotton and the home production of sugar must and cotton wool would then fall three to cents cease, per pound,for the would then be reduced that he to the for as planter thing could cultivate only sale. Labour would become more with tion diminuconstant and more a surplus,
some

decreasing This tendency has been and the home, by power

measure

would command transported other of the and cloth, iron,

in return

stantly con-

necessaries of life.

in

of

of the power of the labourer to obtain either cloth or iron. has it been, and so must it continue to be,with the sugar and coffee Their of planters. yieldthem a constantly products diminishing quantity either cloth or iron, with constantly of obtaining clothing increasing difficulty So
or

In New in in

in exchange for labour. machinery and iron i. e. the power to obtain food, clothing, England, wages for labour but tend rise with to are exchange high, they every increase will theyconthe productiveness of Southern and Western a nd so tinue labour,
" "

because become men manufacturers, With any for labour. offer in exchange diminution in the productiveness of labour South or West, the wages of New because there will then be less to offer them in exchange. must fall, England
to

do

as

Southern

and Western
more

the latter will then have

to

for labour, is or iron, poTver to obtain food,clothing, of the it tends to diminish with every increase in the proportion and every diminution in the propopulation dependent portion upon transportation, itselfto production, because with each such stepthere is that applies In and small,
a

England,the

for greaterexertion necessity annual wages even now are With in food and clothing. is seen as surplus, becoming

whose

the Hindoo, and supplant to underwork self but six dollars, out of which he finds himlabour is and more every step downwards, from the
to expel tion, populaanxiety growing

more

at almost any presentsacrifice. Why it is so we may now inquire. of Englandis commerce. The great object moral and of condition, tends to produce Commerce men equality among standard of conthe tend raise it shall to to dition, or Whether depress physical.

must

depend upon

the character of those with whom The

man

that it should be maintained. and the the idle, the dissolute,

it is necessary to associate with is compelled to sink to the level of his drunken,is likely who
commerce

companions.
So is it with labour. The

for depending on necessity

20

with

men

154
among whom the lowest.

THE

HARMONY is

OP

INTERESTS. to sink the labourer to the levelof

an

the standard Place half

a

low,tends
men on

dozen

two island,

of whom

are

trious indus-

to work,to provide less disposed it to the others, and raisefood, leaving will be industrious and the and to excompelled change clothing, shelter, meat, fish, and shelter are as necessary as bread, and those with the idle. Clothing who playwill therefore profit by the labours of those who work. The latter,

and by degrees to work with spirit, will cease be the result, idle. Here lies will become equally of the littlecommunity and socialism. They seek to compelunion, the error of communism and to with each other, the necessary effectof which is to to exchange force men sink the whole body to the level of those who are at the bottom. So, too,is it with nations. The industrious communitythat raises food much of the one the idle one that makes iron must give and is dependent on such finding
to

all the members

for littleof the other. The peaceful pendent community that raises cotton and is dethe that raises much cotton for little must warlike one on silk, give thus makes a community silk. Dependence others for articlesof necessity on of goods, and the sober and industrious must to help supportthe idle and the dissolute
"

So

more

well as individuals. as the condition of each is deterthis mined state of dependence exists, longas other. If the idle become and the that of the more dissolute idle, by those who stillcontinue to work must dissolute, steadily givemore nations

-labour for less labour, and their condition must deteriorate unless theyadopt such measures shall diminish and finally terminate their dependence as gradually nations. among for supplies of food and clothing, the articlesof prime necessity, her rice from the obtaining from the Kussian serf, wretched Hindoo, her corn and her wool from the her own Australian convict, neglecting of labour to become productive. The rich soilsthat wait but the such companions. on The policy of Englandhas tended to produce communism She has rendered herself dependent other communities upon

application

downwards in the condition necessary consequence of this is a tendency and as it is with those of England that those of this of her people, dition country are invited to compete,it may not be amiss to show what is the conto

which

theyare

now

reduced

with by competition
"

the

low-priced

labour of Russia and of India. informs us* that The Spectator, a free-trade journal, in classes engaged labouring
in
to

the condition of the

has not civilization,

ment to our advanceagriculture, longan opprobrium while exhibit dency a universal tenimproved ; wages

The

lowest levelof recent times." decline beneath tlie has Chronicle a series of letters from a correspondent Morning recently given to into the condition of the labouring deputed inquire specially
are

classes in the agricultural and by him we counties, and Oxfordshire the average wages Buckinghamshire exceed exceed

informed

that in

per week, while in Berks and and with this it is to be borne in mind that "when a for a day, half a day,from working, his or even poor wretch is prevented and for the time." The wife sometimes works in the fields, wages are stopped adds three shillings to the fund out of which these unfortunate people a week

9/=$2-16

of the year will not Wiltshire they will not

7/6=11-79,

will be seen to be subsisted, as yet this gain is not without a drawback, account of the condition of the English by those who may read the following in the middle of the nineteenth century, as labourer, agricultural which, long it is, will be found interesting :
are
"

November

12, 1849.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

155

leave her children at work, she must left when they*are by themselves, many young The sum generallyleft in charge of a young girl hired for the purpose. paid to this vicarious mother, who is generallyherself is from 8rf.to Is. per week, in mere child, she is fed and addition to which This is nearly equivalent to an lodged in the house. members more addition of two to the family. If, the mother works in the fields therefore, for weekly wages of three children for the week, it is,in the equal to the maintenance first place,in many But this additional mouths to feed. cases, at the cost of having two One of is far from being all the disadvantagesattendingout-door labour by the mother. features the worst attending the system is the cheerlessness with which it invests the On returningfrom work, instead of finding his house in order and a poor man's house. meal comfortably prepared for him, his wife accompanies him home, er perhaps arrives all has to be done in his presence after him, when which should have been done for his that home is made distasteful to him, and he hies to the nearest reception. The result is, where he soon ale-house, spends the balance of his wife's earnings for the week, and if any of them have been A great deal is lost also also those of his children, at work. through the unthriftyhabits of his wife. Her expertness at out-door labour has been different acquired at the expense of an adequate knowledge of her in-door duties. She is an ina woman

"When

married

goes
are

to

the fields
to

to

home.

In

cases

they

too

be

"

cook

"

bad

housewife

in

every

respect.

She

is also

in

numerous

instances

All that she wants knowledge of the most ordinaryneedle-work. lamentably and was if she stayed more less in the fields. at home in these respects she might acquire, her children would have In addition to this, the benefit of being brought up under her neglected and left to themselves ; for the own eye, instead of being,as they are, utterly is so" is generally herself and it is not always that any one party left in charge of them It is under these^ that the circumstances having no control whatever over them. a child, On the whole, as regards the system of married sown. seeds of future vice are plentifully but look on the I cannot, when the children are women working in the fields, young, I think it would be decidedly balance as being on the side of disadvantage. In that case that his wife better for the poor man, having reference only to his physical comforts, In many this is the position of many And a labouring man. cases, stayed at home. of the family is large, of the children are at work, adding their scanty wages some when deficient in
"

from

Is. 6d. to 2s.

seven

week

to

the

common

fund.
was

But I have
not

known

numerous

cases

of

families of these
of
are

of "which children,

the eldest

eightyears old.
soon

"when Besides;

fit to work and

set

unless his family, way up him, while diminishing at one end, is increasingat the other. There can be no doubt but that family is frequentlyaided by the earnings of the children,but in by far the greater From of support are the means of cases procured-by the parents themselves. number has been already said of the disadvantage to the whole what family at which the wife bears her share in procuring them, it will be evident that the husband's earnings are, condition and that of those dependent upon after all,the true test and standard of his own
a

and earn of their own, wages This is in one for themselves.

his children

become

independent

relief to

him,

a.

him.

Moreover, in a very large proportionof cases, the wife remains at home, attendingto in which there is no other aid to be case more appropriateto her sex and position, We of the children. have and fitfulearnings of one or two had, unless it be the trifling there are about 40,000 married couples, who, with in the counties in question, seen that, labour for their children, numbering about 120,000,depend exclusively upon agricultural to do at home, some one-half Of compelled being the 40,000 mothers,fully stay support. when their families save of the extreme account youth of their children ; and others, so on from calculation to do so, as being the best mode somewhat advanced, preferring are with half This maybe taken as the case to good account. of turning their scanty means about 100,000 individuals. will number the married couples,who, with their families, in about the same proportionof So far, therefore,as these are concerned, the children, is nothing else to there add the common to too to stock, thing being any families, young adopt as the test of their condition and the standard of their comforts but the earningsof pendent deinto the condition of a family thus solely Let us inquire, therefore, the husband. the received the husband the during as on such past has, average, wages upon of the numerous I can best illustratethat condition by one year. portionof the current
duties
cases

which 8s.
a

came

under
was

my

consideration then

in Wiltshire.

The

labourer in that

case

had

had

week, but he
a was girl, they were

of whom, school
a

;" but
which

the eldest of 7s. He had seven in receipt children, only, dunce's at a Two of his children had been in her eighth year. then attending it, not simply because he could not afford the 4i
"

week

had

to

be

paid

for their education.

To

ascertain

how

far he

was

really

156

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of his household for incapable in this respect,I requested him to detail to me the economy The following is the substance of the conversation, a v"ek,taking his earningsat 8s. the names are in which given. for the reader's sake,the portions discarding, a fortnight. but often only once When paid ? On Saturday night, are your*wages on What do you do with the money receivingit ? I first lay by my rent, which is a and I then go to the grocer's lay in something for Sunday and the rest a week. shilling for fid. Sugar is cheap, I but I of ounces which two I buy a little of the week. get tea, but generally drink sweeten the tea wifh a littletreacle, sometimes afford it. We cannot
" "

it unsweetened. Do How you purchase any butcher meat It is seldom that I much?
"

?
can
"

"

Generally for
afford
more

Sunday
half
a mere

than
a

we buy pound. we

bit of bacon. have

Half that the Do make Do

pound
rest

among

of the week.
your
or

nine of you ? It costs me be

Yes ; it is but about 5d.

?
"

taste, but

not

even

you
it
at

buy

bread,or make
it would
a

it at home

We
to us.

buy it. We-have

"

not

fire enough

to

home,
a

We buy it as we need it. quantityat once, you need it? for which J garden attached to your cottage? I have about fifteen poles, of an acre. pay l$d. a pole. It is less than the eighth We raise some What do you raise from it ? potatoes and cabbages. No, not even Do you raise a sufficient quantityof potatoes to serve you for the year ? sound. all if they were how much bread do you In addition to the potatoes and the cabbages which you raise, you buy Have you a
" " "

great saving or a loaf when

children for the week ? support, and that of your wife and seven requirefor your own least. of bread at We seven gallons require It is a loaf which used to weigh 8 lbs. 1 1 oz., but which now What is a gallonof bread? make itover 8 lbs. seldom weighs above 8 lbs. Those who supply bread to the union seldom What is the price of the gallon loaf? Tenpence. It is cheaper than it was, but then of it. It is often of short weight. there is not always so much I believe would it not? 5s. 10d., of bread at lOd. a gallon would make Seven gallons about that to know. make it would you ought than six. Do you always get seven gallonsa week ?i" No, seldom more of more bages Then you spend 5s. in bread, and make by potatoes and cabup for the want
" " " " "

"

Yes.
some have still
"

It costs us something for washing. money left ; what do you do with it ? and for needles and thread for mending, we For soap and soda, pay about 5d. a week. would cost us about Is. or Do you buy fuel ?" We get a cwt. of coal sometimes, which When took in any quantityand paid ready money. do neither it costs Is. l^d. if we we You
us

about for How

Is. id.

cwt

If there is there
a are

one

poor

man

who We

can

afford
it last

to

buy it in any quantity

way
or

ready money, long would

who forty
serve

cannot.

cwt.

of coals

you ?

"

make

one

another for

two

weeks. Your will therefore, fuel,

cost

you
"

about We
are

8d. a week

"

It will.

Is there any thing else you have? get from 6%d.to lOd. "x pound. We

buy a little salt-butter sometimes,which we can of course, to take the cheapest; "and obliged,
"

it is sometimes with." not hardly fit to grease a wagon really, sir, But your money is already all gone : how do you pay for your butter ? It is not always and we have it, can that we ourselves in other things. only have it by stinting You have said nothing about your clothing:how But for the do you procure that? could not get it at all. we get during the harvest time, we high wages How long does the time last when you get high wages ? About ten weeks, and but
" "

for what From

as

we

then get I do

not

know

how

we

could get

on

at all.

it must recapitulation certainly they get appear a mystery to the reader how The weekly expenditure, in our view, is as follows, the family being nine, 8s. : and the weekly receipts

this

on

it is.

"

s.

d.

Rent Tea Bacon Bread

10 0 0 5 0 0 6 5 0 5 8 0

Soda, soap, "c

Fuel

Total

THE
The

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

157

cannot

prqvisionfor clothingis in the extra wages paid at harvest time, while the family to the luxury of bad butter without sacrificing the tea,two ounces of which for a week, the half pound of bacon, which must serve affords but a "mere taste" of the bread which on Sunday to each ; some is already but too scantily or a supplied; the absence of which renders their home portion of their fuel, still more cheerless and desolate. Sugar, too, is out of the question, without trenchingupon items more absolutely Nor is there any reserved fund for medicines,too often requiredby a family necessary. of nine thus miserably circumstanced. We have we here ? have nine What, in short, for seven people subsisting days upon 60 lbs. of bread a scarcely pound a day for each, half a pound of bacon, and two ounces of tea, the rest being made too up by a provision, out of ten, of potatoes and scanty in nine cases cabbages raised in the garden. Could when they descend much lower in the scale of wretchedness,especially we couple with their stinted supply of the less nutritious kinds of food the miserable hovels in which it is taken by them, either shiveringin the winter's frosts, or inhalingthe pestilential odours heats ? engendered around them by the summer I could no longer express any surprise at id. a week being grudged for the education
be treated
"

of

two

children.

in which his weekly wages being the mode were expended, I asked the same to give me of his dailylife, account an includinghis labour and fare. In reply Jo my follows : as questionson this point he answered, in substance, At what hour do you go to work? At six in the morning, generally, in summer ; but I earlier. In winter time work have gone much begins at a later hour. Do you breakfast at home ? When I do not go out very earlyI generallydo. Of what does your breakfast consist? of bread, and sometimes tea. a little Principally Sometimes, too, we have a few potatoes boiled.

This

individual

"

"

"

"

When Of makes
what
a

About twelve. do you dine ? does your dinner consist?

"

"

On

the

Monday

my

wife

gets

littleflour and

Sometimes have a we pudding, which, with a few potatoes, forms my dinner. and pudding on other days, but generallyour dinner is bread and potatoes, with now then a little the family is not large, there may be a bit of bacon left that cabbage. When has
not

been
return

used

on

Sunday,but
again?
"

that is

never

the I

case

with home
tea

us.

You
tea at

to work

do, and
my

when

come

at

night may

have

little

again, with the bread which night it is very weak.

Do your children get What is their drink ?
is your
own

forms have

supper.

The

is

never

strong with

us, but

tea

"

We

not

enough for that.

we

"

Water
"

; sometimes

get them

littlemilk.

What

drink?
"

Water.

Do you never drink beer? Never, but when it is given me ; I can't afford to buy it. it When your dinner consists of bread, potatoes, and water, have you nothing to season and we salt butter; can it palatable? Nothing,but a little only afford that when or make and our we are the bread ailing, or potatoes happen not to be very good, or when
"

stomachs When relish the

are

little dainty. bread

or

your

potatoes
you said

are was

butter
to

which take.

bad, or your stomachs scarcelyfit to grease

to

are a

dainty,you
with?
"

take

as

wagon

We

have

nothing better

Suppose you
at

had
course

work And

in the

nothing but bread Two of a day?

"

eat, how
at

much least.

would

you

to require

sustain you

pounds
as a

A child, the same. and growing, always work, man; although I want it when food refuse to them and like they does not to one to ready eat, always I it. could if help would sooner go without myself than stint my children, Then, at the rate of two pounds a day for each,you would requirefor all about 126 lbs. how much
at

would

one

not

will

eat

as

of your much

children

require?

"

About
are

children

I suppose about that. ? of bread you only get about sixtypounds of bacon, and potatoes and cabbages, your half pound the sixty-six pounds which you cannot get? We have for the week
"

And,

as

week, you
two
ounces

have

to

relyon

of tea, to make
to
as

your up for be in 1

"

nothing else
nourishment

rely on.
there would

Have

you

enough of these
?
"

to

afford you

as

much

pounds of bread sixty-six

Is what have And work. when you have you have

Not

stated your
not to

nearly enough. of living from week manner

is it with mouths. you ?
"

to

week?

"

It is when

work, how
put in
our

In

the winter

months

we

have

sometimes

scarcelya

bit

158
Such is the substance made
the
too to me

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

last nine months

and his family's circumstances, of the statement, as regards his own rate of of the in the man average labouring receipt wages for by Comment is scarcelyneeded, the facts speaking hut in Wiltshire.
a

Had the wages a littlehigher, the family been smaller, or plainlyfor themselves. But even then a week. taste," they might have had a meal of bacon once a the stapleof their diet, bread still be but once constituting a week, potatoes and it would if they had in sufficient quantity. Besides, even these not being had by them and even in the of butcher food is the most meat b acon not shape it more nourishing frequently, ; lean that is in it is almost destroyedby the process of and goes to fat. The little it is fat, instead of
"

curing. But it is greasy, and the reply given to meat," was

fault is that it does well
to
as

soon me

satisfies. "It fillsus when I asked

sooner

than

any

other kind of

not

But the why they preferredit to beef? Bulk is requiredas them. fill them ; it satiates, without filling The
not

nutriment A
man

in food. could

stomach
live
on

has

mechanical

as

well

as

chemical

action

having in them cheese,nor could he exist on pills perform. of beef. essence the concentrated They buy bacon because it goes a longer way than Nor is it always that they in truth, other meat they buy it because it soon cloysthem.
"

have

even

"

taste" of it once of any kind

week.
at

I have
a

seen

several families who When French and

had

not

tasted

butcher

English workmen it was found that of the French railways, came together during the construction of some work than his French the Englishman could perform far more competitor. This was it being supposed but reasonable on attributed to the superiority of his diet, universally
meat

for weeks

time.

all hands

to

expect
was

more

work and

from

the

man

who the fare

fed

on

beef
man

and who

porter than from him

whose labour

fare
to

bread

develope,year
cases,

after year,

grapes. the

But

of the

wealth agricultural and

water
"

of

is expected by his in a largeproEngland, is, portion

of

littlebetter than of the

eats

bread

the fare

of the

condemned

cell!

Contrast Canada. he has

the condition In much

of it

English farm
-butcher-meat

labourer with
once a

that of the farm

labourer in

week, and not always that; in Canada twice a day. Contrast his frequently In Virginia, condition even States of America. with that of the the it is seldom that a..day great slave State, passes without the slave eatingbutcher-meat of kind or other. In addition to this, when he is old and infirm, he has a claim on his some But the English labourer, for support. if he has a family to sustain, has not, even master when he can nutritious diet during the days of his strength, do, and does work, the same he is disabled, the slave ; while, when loses his work, he must as or starve, or, as the of a formal and organized charity. In the become alternative, a vagrant, or the recipient words of one of themselves,"it is not a living, sir it is a mere being we getj"by which that their reward he intended to convey for their toil was their being barely enabled to England he
as as

he

wants

and once, at least, slave in the Southern

"

exist. It may have be said that the

are case

put is

an

extreme

one.

one-half of those who

dependent

upon

labour in the fields.

It is the case, however, of nearly But it maybe said that I

omitted to take into account little privileges which the labourer has, and some he avails himself of them, tend to enhance He may keep a his comforts. which, when and his employer will sometimes find him straw for it, pig,for instance, which, in process of time, will serve for his little as manure garden. This looks very well on paper, but that is chiefly all. In the four counties under consideration the number of labourers It is also a striking illustration of the condition of keeping pigs is about one in twelve. the labourers, such of them as do feed a pig seldom that even in the eating of participate it. Then hear a great deal about the coal and clothing I shall herewe after to which clubs, more particularly advert,and the chief merit of which is that they tend to render life not pleasant, but barely toierable to the poor."

The
"These lead

accommodations sleeping

are

thus described

"

of a few are above, and are gained by means greasy and ricketysteps, which through a speciesof hatchway in the ceiling. Yes, there is but one room, and yet counted nine in the family ! And we ! The such a room small window in the roof admits just lightenough to enable 'The dimensions. you to discern its character and which all exposed, spring from the very floor, are that it is only in the very rafters, so of the apartment that you have centre The thatch oozes any chance of standing erect. which the whole through the wood-work supports it, being begrimed with smoke and There dust,and repletewith vermin. his are no cobwebs, for the spideronly spreads net where flies are likely to be caught. You look in vain for a bedstead;there is none in the room. But there are their beds, lying side by side on the floor, almost in contact

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. length of the apartment.

the labourer sometimes and the father and The

159
beds
are

with

each

and occupying nearly the whole other; his

large sacks,filled with the chaff of oats, which

purchases from

employer.
next
a

The the

chaff of wheat

gets and at others barley is used on the farm for with mother, whom

other purposes. The bed horn but sleepsthe infant,

hatchway is that of
ago

few

months

the boys and girls the children, together. boy having nearlycompleted his eleventh ; and they are

In the other beds sleep in this very room. The eldest girl is in her twelfth year, the eldest them.

for years yet in to remain likely the exception of the youngest the family retire to rest about the same children, hour,generallyundressing below, and for the then ascending and crawling over each other to their respectiveresting-places night. There are two blankets on the bed occupied by the parents, the others being covered with a very heterogeneousassemblage of materials. It not unfrequently happens that the clothes worn by the parents in the day time form the chief part of the covering the nine of the children by night. Such is the dormitory in which, lying side by side, whom have just left below meal will pass the night. The sole at their wretched we dow. ventilation is through the small aperture occupied by what is termed, by courtesy,a winin the hour In other words, there is scarcely a den any ventilation at all. What the sable godof sickness or death ! What time ! And dess a den, indeed,at any yet when the soft downy couch in Mayfair,such are stretches forth her leaden sceptre over the circumstances of her slumbering in which, in our rural parishes, she leaves a "portion

the circumstances

in which

we

now

find

With

domain.
for- effect, be said that this piatureis overdrawn, or that it is a concentration, As a type of the extreme of effects spread in reality over a large surface. point, The cottage in of domiciliarywretchedness in the rural districts, it is underdrawn. to of inmates Some have only one, with as great a number question has two "rooms. of them, again,have three or four rooms, with a family occupying each it. Some occupy viduals. amounting each,in, some cases, to nine or ten indiroom; the- families so circumstanced In some ment apartcottages, too, a lodger is accommodated, who occupies the same is not the condition of all the labourers in the the family. Such, fortunately, as of Englishmen not districts ; but it is^the condition of a very great number agricultural in of a remote but in the heart of Anglo-Saxon civilization, in the backwoods settlement,

Let it not
one

into

"

the year of grace

1849:"

Bad, however,as
are

of in the number districtin a writer, any persons to be employed. commenced." of these counties " where the work of reducing wages has not already a reduction from In one of them,as early as lastJune,there was

beinggivenof

is all this, it is likely to he worse. diminution of and reduction a wages, There is scarcely, says the

notices Everywhere,

entertained that theywill be and " apprehensions 8s. to 7s., are everywhere " " Is it with such a 6$. reduced to =$1-44." any wonder,"he adds, that, their circumstances should brood labourers over prospectbefore them, the agricultural ? that 1 What is sullenness of with the ominous prospect despair
when is required most winter is approachingthe season by us all to with here that season administer to our comforts. They are entering upon families. of their the but 5s. a week for there 6s., and there again support 8s., households of How far will these pitiful five, six, seven, eight, portions go in The
"

or nine,

ten

individuals?

We

a labourer'scomfortsat cannot,in estimating

applyto them the test of his average wages. It is his wages time, any given of his condition. Had he at any that decide the measure for the time being his family time more than was up to the line of necessary to carry him and But he never has for adverse times. he might layby the surplus comfort,
what
secures

to spend tempted he does every winter, this winter, as all he gets. He therefore commences that, without any reserve-fund to fall back upon ; and the fact is appalling thousands of families in the very heart of England in this month of October, and even on ,6s., before them than that of living 8s., have no betterprospect homes." and 5s. a week,in their cold, cheerless, unhealthy damp, The Canadian farmer is invited to contend in the market of Englandwith to whom a of supplying with food men the serf of Bussia for the privilege

him

and comfort, perfect

is

more always

than

160
morsel of bacon and
on

THE

HAKMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

when Sunday is a luxury, by the simpleprocess of he could his side the same to and conmen vert bring protection is invited to conand valuable customers. The planter them into large tend of clothing who want in the market of Englandfor the privilege men when could exercise his will he of to buy bread, an means by bringto his the millions of each of would then require whom same side, annually, men, much millions half two a as as was consumed consuming twenty pounds year, millions of the people of Englandand Wales. in 1847 by almost thirty that with such people The system of Englanddemands shall as these we establish a communityof goods.Were it allowed free play were the people
a

annexation

"

and thus unite their efforts of the world to establish what is called free trade, for the maintenance of the monopoly system, wages universally would fall to the level of those of the poorest countries of the world, for with every step those of because theymust be keptat that fall, Englandwould,of necessity, which would enable her underwork the and the tendency t o point world, people would has been in Ireland it and as downward. be, everywhere India, The adoption of perfect free trade by this country would,for a short time, but a very short period would prove that we produce some there, activity
,

and in the boughtfar less under free trade than we had done with protection, time the disproportion of the Englishpopulation would have largely mean and the difficulty would be then far greater than it is now, great increased,
now pay for far less merchandise than we did three years it that still able to buy on credit, not were should make we are we smaller demands than have done at any period since 1842. on we England The greater the amount of 'capital thus lent to us, the lower must fall the condition of the English labourer. made by England Every step now being is a step downwards, and if we would not have our labourers reduced to a even as

it is.

We

and since,

level with hers we endeavour to raise hers to a level must, by protection, with ours, as itwill do by relieving from the necessity for dependence us upon with a people whose labour is lower in the scale than our own. commerce It tends to raise the value of man abroad and at home, and to enable all to obtain less labour. Under it immigration with its diminution. That it must tend to raise wages abroad is obvious from the fact that so many hundreds of thousands of the population of Europe, held to be surplus, have sought our thus diminishing the quantity of labour seeking there to be employed. shores, With the approach to what is called freedom of trade, that system which has tends to the maintenance of the monopoly of machinery the in England, value of labour here is falling towards the level of that of England. The of coal and iron is maintained aid of presentdiminished production
a

and clothing with more food, fuel, and it has declined always increased,

greatdiminution of wages.

Labour is becoming aid surplus,

onlyby is immigration

This year will show a large and diminution therein, be attended with a rise of freights every step in that direction must tending to diminish the power to exporteither food or cotton. With the diminution of wages at the North,there is already either a diminished power to consume food or clothing, with increase in the surplus that is to be sent. Thus the same that increase the necessity measures for depending portation of transon machinery diminish the power to obtain it, to the deterioration of the condition of the whole body of the people, labourers and capitalists, farmers and manufacturers and ship-owners minish and the which tend to diplanters, same ; necessities for depending our tend increase to our thereon, power to obtain it,to diminish the burden now and land-owners the pressing upon labourers of Europe, and to bring about that state of things which shallgive to us and them perfect freedom of trade. The harmony of all interests, 'whether individual or national, the becomes more and more obvious the more is examined. subject

off. already falling

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

161

It may not be uninstructive to review the last few years, with special reference to the discords that have occasionally been seen to exist between the employers and the employed, strikes, accompanied by combinations, "c,

with

their cause. a view to show It is within the recollectionof most of my readers that the years from 1836 to 1839 were for disturbances of .this kind. is obvious. The cause distinguished Production was the labourer himself unable and found diminishing, to obtain the quantity of food, and clothing to which he had been accusr fuel, tomed. He desired a rise of money-wages to meet of the rise in the price but the could not and for hence arose combinations food, employer giveit, the purpose of compelling him to do 1844 to 1848,harmony was From and the labourer found
so.

because production restored, increased, that each year enabled him to obtain more food and and better with clothing, shelter, the same labour. The last year has been marked by a succession of combinations. In the coal of Pennsylvania, at Pittsburgh, and various other places, there Lowell, region have of them long-continued some turn-outs, ; and everywhere there have been clamours for the passage of laws restricting the hours of labour ; but those who thus clamoured desired that wages should remain
as

been

strikes and

theywere.

These things all result from the one of labour is diminishing, and that wages
cause was

greatfact that the productiveness

are

towards tending gave

the

Europeanlevel.
To that due the of foreigners which jealousy almost "native"
to
was party. In 1842, employment were

and unattainable,

rise to the the

nativeworkmen
be had. "native" and be be

the little that was to divide with strangers indisposed of labour wages rose, and the productiveness was rupled. quadparty almost died out,while the import of foreigners With the increased

If the system of 1846 be continued, the same will re-appear, jealousy diminished. be will be while will proscribed, immigration foreigners should that the wages of Europe It is to the interest of the native workmen

broughtup to a level is for us accomplished

in

with
to

our

own,
a

pursue

course

and the onlyway in which that can that shall tend to render it the find that
means comes

interest of every man endeavour to reach our and "something, Look where
we

Europethat can shores. Every one

therefore
a

to pay his passage

to

will be

of producer

every may,

one

customer

to

others for their

products.

there is the most

harmony of perfect

interest.

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION AFFECTS

SIXTEENTH.
THE SLAVE AND HIS MASTER.

of labour. tends to increase the productiveness Many of the to render tend must and labourers of the Union are held as slaves, protection be rendered who valuable to their owners, their labour more may, therefore, the be to If such were fact, with them. protection to less likely Protection

disposed part
would tend to

and slavery, perpetuate

'

all who

were

to opposed

ance itscontinu-

should advocate free trade. it is hold that the and by many ourselves, writers, among By all English the value of slaveis to destroy the existence of slavery way to terminate slaveWith that view the British governmentis urged to prohibit labour. India and to encourage the extension of the cotton culture in grown sugar, lar,) wretched the Hindoo, who labours a whole month for two rupees, (onedolof which he feeds and clothes himself, beingheld to be a freer man
"

out

than the

labourer and well-lodged well-clothed, well-fed, have become free

as

of

or Virginia

tucky. Ken-

men the world, Throughout

wealth

and

population

162
have

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

when
were

grown, and Latium was free. So With

as

land has increased in value. In the early daysof Rome, filledwith prosperous cities, land was and men valuable, the gradual land lost its value, of Italy, and depopulation in the hands In the of great proprietors surrounded by land was valuable and daysof Solon,

masses large

accumulated
was

slaves.
men were

it in Attica. In The

those of Herodes Attieus, land was valueless and men richest lands of India have been abandoned and are now were and the descendants of the little of the last century jungle, village proprietors sell themselves to slavery in Jamaica and Demerara. In Russia, now free. slaves. land Has
no

its serfs. In

Europe.
became Poland

value of a propertyis estimated by the number of land has greatvalue, and the people the freest are in Belgium, With the gradual increase in the value of land in England, men

value.

The

whereas with every step tending to increase dependence free, and Russia for food, land is becomingless valuable, on labourersare and more the inhabitants of parish work-houses and the becomingmore slaves of parish and landowners are becoming and more more anxious beadles,
more

that would otherwise give Talue to the land. The expelthe population land of Ireland has almost lost its value, and the labourer of Ireland has become a slave to the caprices of masters who regard him as an encumbrance to be gottenrid of by any process, however cruel. Increase in the value of land tends towards freedom ; decrease tends towards
to

it tends to the proto add value to land, motion of freedom ; if it tends to diminish its value, it tends to the maintenance of slavery. The leastvaluable land is that in which men most rare the most valuaare ble
;

If protection tends slavery.

is that in which theymost the two is to be found in the

rent

of exchanges. The for from six to eightdollars'; and for flax land in Flanders, ten to twelve dollars per acre is a common rent ; while cotton-producing land of the highest for one-eighth of the lattersum. quality may here be had,in fee, The one has a market on the land, and the other has not; and in this single and simple fact may be found nearly the whole reason for this enormous

The cause of the difference between in the labour required for the perdifference formance hills of Limburg, the poorestpart of Belgium,

abound.

disproportion.
lives in Arkansas has to employ numerous men, horses, and warehouses, in the performance steamboats, of every exchange, ships, and the consequence is, that he receives for the produce of his land little
man

The

who

for his labour, and his land has scarcely compensation any value. raise for market little else than cotton, of which the earth yields but for -which reason it commands little, a price that will enable it to bear transportation. His surplus is almost valueless; corn while to attempt to raise for market potatoes of which the earth or turnips, hundreds of bushels
more

than

He

can

yields by

to the acre, would

with the consumer exchanges directly the commodities that he desires to consume. He raise potatoes, can and cabbages, articles turnips, bulky ; or strawberriesand raspberries, delicate ones of which will bear transnone portation. He sells his milk, and is not compelled to convert it into butter cheese. He is not required or to convert his corn into with a view to
man

The

who

be ruinous. lives near New the

York

of his

and products

of producers

"

pork,

its bulk and enabling it to go to diminishing consumed near him,and he can readily return its
more

market. The

all His products are

amount

to the land the

year year. than wages for his labour, and the whole surplus is the rent he derives from his land, fifteenor twenty of which is market its years purchase

productive power

from

to

ing increasrefuse, is far yielded

value.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

163

dollars per acre, while land offered in free gift to those who will come and pay the taxes. The sole cause of the difference is, that the owner of the one changes exwith the men who make hats and coats, shoes and stockings, direetly and harrows/ and the other does not. To make the land of ploughs Arkansas as valuable as that near New York, it would be necessary that its should exchange owner for hats and shoes, and harrows, as freely as in Arkansas is now

That value is three, six hundred or four, five,

ploughs

does the man of New York ; that is, he must make a market on the land for the products of the land. The return to labour would then be large, and the value of man would rise ; but all that was returned over and above the be rent, and the value of land would rise. wages of the labourer would Men would then become free ; first, because the cost of raising a slave would be far more than he was worth when raised and, because the land second,
'

would

be too valuable to be cultivated by slaves. The man of Wisconsin can affordto raise hogs, because corn is but twenty bushel. cents a The man New York cannot, because corn is worth near The man cents. of Arkansas can afford to raise slaves, because they sixty worth as much as theycost to raise. The man are New York could not, near because Arkansas would The labour.

theywould
a

cost
on

him

more

than

their services would of products the

repay.

Had labour

market
so

the land for all the valuable

hired land,

that no man would desire to raise a slave. cheaper machinerycannot afford to employ poor The interest on his factory but is as great if the looms produce if With the former as twenty-five yards day theyproduced fifty. per tity quanman

be found

much

who

owns

he would will

be ruined.
"

With

the latter he would

grow

rich.

The

slave

him the one the freeman the other. To make the slave work like give the freeman, he must have an inducement he must receive wages. that is, landholder near Were a large New York offered the services of men, their wives and families, the same has those of his slaves to terms as the planter on clothe and lodgethem^" he could not profitably feed, accept them ; and yet the money-price of such labour is at least twice as great as at the South. The price of their food, would be thrice as great, and theywould however, their children be and to obtain and must more educated; clothing, require all these things there would be needed the exertion of the man workingfor himself and his and the of who looked the future for to one himself, economy such the would Were offer an speedily accepted, party accepting family. than those of his neighfind that his people less and wasted more bours, produced diminished by the arrangement. and that the rent of his land was into cloth half a Place in the Southern States machinery for converting half a million of tons of barand for producing million of bales of cotton, of The facility for labour. and there would be created a greatdemand iron, of the and would iron in exchangefor corn cause cotton making obtaining
" "

demand for labour. and here would be a new railroad, filledwith the furnaces, and the roads would bring The mills, tailors, towns, makers of ploughsand harrows,looms, blacksmiths, shoemakers, hatters, thousands of miles of and steam-engines, and spindles, while labour, then How become could the number here would be
a new

and

demand large

for

of labourers The

would

not

necessary to economize it be done ?

an

labour because

be increased. of its increased value.

It would

than his accustomed do no more The increased that is to be found in wages. himself. labour would thenceforth of his to product go dred Large crops would then be obtained in lieu of small ones, and one hunhundred pounds of cotton would then buy bushels of corn, or one obtained for three. The increased value of are cloth or iron than now more

slave would

work, without

and inducement,

crops would

raise the

of land, and price

if that should average but ten

164
dollars per
acre over

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. four thousand

the

South,it would
the

amount

to

millions

and thus would of dollars,

be made planters

rich.

in value, both increasing and land, two commodities, man that of the while other the to the man in one but the increase himself, goes market their value ? this the effectof on would be What goes to the owner. for sells and it in is twenty, thirty, Where growing value, property steadily Such would be the case with land. of its rent. even more purchase years' ten years' or in value, it sellsfor six, eight, When propertyis decreasing Such would be the commanded for its use. that be of the rent can purchase of his labour he the increased With with the slave. productiveness case

Here,then,are

would be
one

for himself obtaining

an

increased

a diminished leaving proportion,

to his owner, and

thus would

the value of the slave be transferred to

the land.

What then would become To raise a slave would then become too costly. for their offspring, make sacrifices of the children ? The parents, everywhere, valuable. land is To induce w here children be raised, and by them alone can for their know that theyare working own those sacrificestheymust
not for their master's slaves. Great plantations the division of land. increase in the value comes than is now more would become small ones, each of which would yield yielded by the whole. Small farms would come, cultivated by negro tenants, become free, their wives and children, and thus step by stepwould men,

and children, With

rich. becoming of the it is necessary that the people these objects should have mills and furnaces to make a market on the land for the have without protection the of the land. Those theycannot against products
as

their late

owners

were

To South

both accomplish

monopolysystem by which
and

theyare

now

beingexhausted.

The

abolitionist

for the adoption of the slaveholder should then unite in the demand to the abolition of the English measures monopolyof machinery. tending The former would,however,say that the process would be too slow. On the contrary, it would be most rapid. Had the tariffof 1828 continued in be trebled the lands of the South would now existence to the present time, and the slaves of the South would now be far advanced towards in value, freedom. The latter would would say that theywould lose their property. The answer be that for every dollar of diminished value in man, theywould have It would be precisely or ten,or twenty in the increased value of land. five, valuable that man would become free. as land became The

Union

is

now

whether agitated by the question

or

not

shall slavery

be carried the Wilmot

determined to force are beyond its present limits. The agitators the and the the latterdeclare that of South, proviso people upon

theywill
to

rather than submit to it. Neither is disposed below the surface of difficulty. to understand the cause penetrate If a demand for labour existed in the Slave States, consequentupon making
on

dissolve the Union

would the land for its products, the necessity for emigration and would South would The the of immigration begin. people pass away, it then desire to go to California, North deem not would those of the nor tween beto laws them discord to from All the so prevent doing. necessary pass of the Union the different portions results from the existence of the market colonial system,which it is the object of protection and thereby to terminate, raise the value of land and of man, black or white, the world. throughout has thus far been looked at as one of dollars and cents merely, This question in which it should be examined. and such is the light it can be When shown to be the interestof a body of men to pursue a certain course, we may of them ; but calculate upon its beingpursuedby a largeportion safely

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

165

confine ourselves to showingthat it is their duty, and that in the that must performance their interests, of, we dutythey neglect may as safely calculatethat very few will follow in the course thus indicated. The agitators of the North would impair the value of property and destroy the peace of the while the South, of their sympathy, and deterioratingcondition of the objects
we

when

all this each and

theywould

It is time

do that otliers to performtheir duties. mightbe compelled that the reasonable men, North and South,should understand that would the value to labour give incident to the agidangers tation

and determine to adopt the course other, land,and thus relieve themselves from of
men

who

would

the destroy

value of both.

there would come every step of improvement in the value of land, in the physical and moral condition of its owner. improvement Throughout the South, there is even now to hold men in slavery a growing indisposition ; but how rapidly and widely would that feeling extend itselfwere the owners of land and of slaves to feel themselves growing richer instead of as
poorer,

With

is
to

now

the

case.

The

cause

of

has emancipation

been

the last twenty years, and those who desire to know look to the fact, in 1845-6, 600,000,000of pounds of cotton would that, not bring much iron to the plantation would have done as as 100,000,000

goingbackwards for why it is so have only

or thirty quence 275,000,000 onlya dozen years before.* The conseyears before, has been a growing tendencyto the abandonment of land, and an increased regardfor that species of property which was of being capable which land Harassed and annoyedby abolitionists on not. was transferred, the one hand,and on the other by a constant deterioration in the value of the and compelled to onlycrop upon which he has been accustomed to depend, that there changefrom that to sugar or to wheat,it is no matter of surprise

should

have

been

produced the

state

of feverish excitement

now

witnessed

in the planting and which must increase unless the loom everywhere States, be brought can to take its place by the side of the cotton. It is a common that the peopleof South Carolina have exhausted impression, their rich lands, and that theyare moving away from poor ones, yet has erroneous. as nothingcan be more They commenced upon poor soils, been done in every country of the world,and they are from now flying meadow-lands the finest artificial of yielding capable grasses, of which they have millions of
acres

swamps in almost unlimited

and from undrained,

river bottoms from uncleared, ; from and and iron all of which exist marl, lime, ore, that has done for State Nature quantity. every thing untouched

but exhaust the poor that could be done ; but man as has, yet,done nothing first soils upon which the work of cultivation was commenced,and therefore and their newspapers it is that their agricultural repeat, reports, year after year, the
"

question,What
"

shall the cotton

do planters
"

1"

This," says the editor of the South Carolinian, is a question daily asked by our " at present great solicitude as to the policy plantingfriends. There seems," he continues, We hear the cry of less their next which is to be pursued by them in pitching crop. We other. not State the are prised surfrom end of the to one and more cotton grain ringing that many plant heavily should say their present crop will bring planterswho make both much longer. No plantercan them in debt if the ruinous prices continue four five for his cents or receives ends meet who only cotton, and has to pay the present Mules and iron. salt, exorbitant pricesfor bagging,bale rope, pork, mules, sugar, coffee, are high,pork is high, bagging and rope are up to the prices of the twelve and fifteen If and salt steadily stand at the old rates. iron, times of cotton, and sugar, coffee, cent his the add to has for these articles, planter clothes, negro to expenditures necessary him for his labour. he will have nothing left to remunerate shoes, hats, and blankets,
*

See page

58, "mle.

166

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.

which they should ponder over, and a system of planting, These are reallymatters which does not repay for the labour and investment we of capitalengaged in it, reasonably think would
soon

be abandoned.
not

But it will
cotton tjie

not

be.

Our
vacuum

planters are
which take several

taught no other
be made

systems ;
an

they do

know

how

they will supply the

crop.

would

by

immediate

abandonment

of

It would

with the strictesteconomy, which those arrangements perfect, of it Therefore the step taken should be marketable as a independent entirely crop. caution should be observed in making, wisely considered before adopted,and the utmost believe would what we sincerely be, if once begun, a radical change in our system of therefore advise,for the coming year, a reduction simply of one-third agriculture.We at the same of the cotton crop throughoutthe State devoting, time, the land thus thrown the increase of labour, out of the cultivation of this crop to the production of grain and which would thus be given,to the proper manuring and improved tillage of the cotton plantedand the generalimprovement of the plantation. By this process the cotton lands would would be increased in fertility, and the increase of grain which follow would the facilitate a nd and in a short time the of sheep greatly rearing mules; hogs,cattle, ; whole State could render itselfindependent of the exactions of our Kentucky neighbours, of the prosperity who kindly supply us with all such things, of simply at the expense the country of all the in practice, our agricultural population; for, they annually sweep We for their bacon' and mules. surpluscash which is afloat in payment would, if this cotton be able to produce as much on acres do as we adopted, soon fifty system were of the State at home, now on one profits hundred; and the investment of the agricultural have influence on generalprosperity, a wonderful although they might be small,would and build facilitiesthroughoutour now desolate and almost unapproachable State, which would but induce not only enchain our to her borders, to come into own sons capitalists our their dollars tell by learningus a lesson of practical midst, to make enterprise.We raise less cotton, more more mules, more hogs ; make your own grain, say to the planters, clothes ; raise sheep blankets ; erect make makers shoenegro tan-yards encourage your own and hatters in all artisans of kinds settle to fact, permanently amongst ; you ; labour at making your soil rich, and do not devote all your energiesto wearing it out, and all thingswill go well with you. You will not make soon bales of cotton : in so many not cut such a swell on word for it, fact, may your factors' books ; but,take our you will have happier slaves, richer lands, thrift and fewer debts,and sleepless more to thoughts, could
" " "

years before they would render them

harass

your

hours

of rest."

It is impossible struck with the fact, to read this without being that, while, from the exhaustion of her original and her inability to clear and poor soils, drain rich ones, that State is unable to produce cotton in competition with her neighbours, she is a large of other importer agricultural produce.Her is supplied with hay from the, ance her abundcity North,notwithstanding of rich meadow land. She consumes the pork of Ohio, and she uses the mules of Kentucky; and thus, while selling her products at the low is necessarily at consequent upon her distance from the place her food and cotton are to be converted into cloth, she buys of others because of her distance from the place food, mules,"c, at the highest price, of production. She wastes labour and manure and is then upon the road, at the exhaustion that results of from such surprised a course necessarily which that price

chief

policy. The remedy for all this be found, in diminishing first, may, it is supposed, the quantity of cotton ; but that is already that the s o diminishing rapidly the tion cultivaState be that its to seems great cause of apprehension throughout must nish dimibecause soon of to it. She desires to inabilityproduce cease, the supply of cotton,while her people the seek from to her are flying there to the cotton. lands be to west, manured, are producemore Second,
but
we are

not

told from whence of

the

manure

is to

come.

The

State has

are scarcely engaged any in its production, and their consumption Her but little manure. yields horses are always the the manure on road,wasting yielded by her hay and her corn, and her rice and cotton are consumed the consequence of abroad, consumers

agricultural produceexcept those who

THE

HARMONY is

OF

INTERESTS.

167

which

that is, its

of what

land and his

owner

become

such circumstances it is useless to her swamps in which and river bottoms, has for ages accumulated, manure will not pay the cost of clearing for the o f three four hundred of Give her a or raising pounds cotton to the acre. t hat will make a market on the ground for the tons consumingpopulation of potatoes, and turnips, and hay,and the milk,and the veal, that will be talk about artificial manures, and

Everybodyis and his capital

and the yielded by the land nothinggoes back, Her diminishes. impoverished population together. find elsewhere for to better a seeking place employing labour. Under

yielded by
Union.

rich soils, and the State will become of the richest of the one It is population that makes food come from the rich soils, as we see to be the case in Belgium, and England, and New England; and it is depopulation that drives men back to the poorer ones, as is shown in Ireland, South Carolina, and Virginia. The peopleof Ireland are flying from India, each other as if from pestilence, in which and yet that unfortunate island, restricted almost entirely offers us to the cultivation of the land, men are the chief European market for our surplus now while South Carolina, food, destitute of consumers, is one Ohio of the principal markets of populous for her surplus to Whenever the former shall consume on products. begin the land the products of the land, tion to keep in cultivashe will have manure her poor soils, and she will acquire to clear and drain the rich ability and then she instead of it. Ireland, like importing ones, may export hay South Carolina, abounds in rich soils untouched. She has millions of acres of bog that could be drained with far less labour, and at far less cost, than have been required for similar lands in England, it and is estimated that three millions of these acres millions of people; would afford food for six the road the like South Carolina, to waste on she is compelled but,also, labour and manure and is yielded by the poorer soils now in cultivation, rendered too poor to clear and drain the rich ones, which never thereby have paid, without the presence and never can pay, the cost of preparation, and the the potatoes, and the turnips, of a consumingpopulation requiring bushels. earth and not of the which or pounds tons, yields b y by hay, of the Southern States, the last twenty years, been Had the people during of their for o ut an own themselves, coal, ore, and limestone, making average made in that time would have of only250,000 tons of iron,the quantity been forms be there in the various five millions of tons,all of which would now motives, and manufacturing of agricultural railroads, machinery, cars, and locobe adding to the quantity at the rate of half a and theywould now

annually. track thousand tons of iron would make almost 500 miles of single Fifty that but half Let us suppose that theyaveraged road. quantity, annually through and had now, as theymighteasily have,5000 miles of road running their cotton in which theywere converting villages manufacturing populous of the world,and then let us estimate what into cloth or yarn for the supply
of those States. An the increased value of the landed property time to the extent of that of the annual present productexceeding average Dixon's line, would and the south of Mason of States dollar acre onlyone per five of thousand millions six dollars, beingperhaps of represent a capital would be at which their slave all of of value the times population,

million of tons

would

be

present

the highway towards freedom as their masters were this moment on making their way towards fortune.* that would have enabled them to profit a course by the Instead of pursuing
* Emigration from the rich lands of the older States of the South would then cease, and be begin,and thenceforth the increase in the value of land would immigration would

immense.

168
of magnificence

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

the planters have allowed themselves to their position, who producelittle the of of maintenance be taxed for the people England, for the vast but little in to therefore and have give exchange very themselves, of which the that of agricultural is, mass produces theyreceive, consequence are their customers becoming poorer every day,and theythemselves are fast towards passing
to
a

state of exhaustion

similar to that

in theyhave produced

the India, Ireland, submit

to

West

and Indies,
:

their most
"

pelled every other country that has been comunnatural system. A writer, the describing

of presentposition
"

affairs, says

As

ten

years
never

disinterested spectator of events, I assure you that during a residence of nearly of trade in so disastrous a the different branches not seen in England, I have
at
so

as they are position

present ; and

from

the

petty dealer

to

the wholesale

I tradesman,

state of trade, not only in the complaints about the wretched I confidence the in the statemore ments place country. generallythroughout metropolis, put which tradesmen than I do in ' trade circulars,' are of a dozen respectable usually and incite speculation. If I the real truth, or to cover certain interests, got up to serve I should unhesitatingly an to were impartialopinion, say that the repeal of the corngive laws, the repeal of the navigation laws and the railway mania, have togetherproduced of the present panic for it is useless to say that there is not a panic ; the leading men their words, and their actions. nearly every class declare it by their looks, of the richest parishesof the metropolis, where The parish of St. Clement's Danes,one shows the real condition of the general trades-peopleof London. I am now residing, that three applications had been me of this parish recentlyinformed The Church-warden of their poor rates and other taxes, and not more for the amount made to the parishioners and he intended to issue summonses than one in twenty had paid their bills, againstthe delinquents. He also remarked, that during a residence of eighteenyears in this parish,

have

heard

many

"

"

he had

never

known

trade

to

be

so

dull

as

it is now."

What

prospectthere is of improvement may

from
a

extract
:
"
"

that journal

is the

be gathered from the following free-trade authority in Enghighest land

far as- Ireland is concerned,a conso siderable unreasonably fear, therefore, that, progressiveincrease of the populationand wealth of the empire Other sources dried up. of increase have, at the is much diminished, if not absolutely than balance, these will balance,or more the same time, been opened to us ; but whether than we For can loss occasioned by the condition of Ireland is more say. many years while their numbers the condition of the population there was graduallydeteriorating, increased ; that terrible process has at length reached its climax, and the present generation and we fear demoralized has diate to sustain the deteriorated, mass, without any immeright to put hope of their being restored to habits of productive industry. It seems of populationnoticed in the last their guard, lest the decrease on all classes at once have the be index to a permanently slower we from causes an mentioned, quarter, may, increase in population than has hitherto taken place." Economist (London.) We may
not
source

of the

"

With increase. Whenever

such
The

state

of

of thingsthe consumption

our even

cannot products

to be answered question

is,

"

Can

it

be maintained

?"

diminishes population and condition, demand for

in its ratio of that is

deterioration of the diminished

when

it is an a growth, going on, the firsteffect is feltin that must be first

evidenceof

for clothing,

food is the want

supplied.
Let it but be known and that the

peopleof

this country,North, East, South,

West, are
as

of the world be such

consume

that the seat of the cotton and iron manufactures will is to be here, and the transfer of men and machinery determined

exceed all presentcalculation, will and every man that comes twelve times much at or cotton as as five, s ix, three, four, present, while taking all his food from our own three who then will consume farmers,
to

pounds where
of the

now

theyconsume
own

but

one.

The

remedyfor

all the

grievances

is in their planters

advocated

by

and it lies in the pursuance of a policy hands, the of fathers of and by every chief magistrate the Revolution,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

169

the Union,

from Washington to Jackson, and of all of them but two were from south of Mason and Dixon's line, and all but those two elected by the that same now party repudiates protection. Of all the chapters in the history of the people of this Union, the most

honourable
the negro

to

them,as
The

race. now

I believe, is that in which is recorded the history of three hundred thousand barbarians imported into this almost four millions of
to

far advanced people, they have grown because theyhave been well fed, well clothed, and reasonably well sheltered, worked. It is a case totally without a parallel of the history in the world, which may be challenged for the production of a body of men invested with

country are

represented by

towards

civilization and

and freedom,

that number

so much power the South, and

over

their fellow-men
so

usingit
greatan

numbers

and

so

Nevertheless, theyare and by the nation which lives out of them, and which of all the breeders, nations of Europepossessing colonies has most misused its power over the negro has established laws prohibiting the race, because the onlyone which and the producerfrom takingtheir places consumer by each other. It was remarked many years since, that to the traveller,* English by an intelligent French islands men and to exercise trades, but to the Engwent to remain lish and then return. ones theywent onlyto endeavour to make fortunes, So has it everywhere and what have been the results ? In India, been, poverty the most extraordinary, and a succession of famines and pestilences without of life equally a a waste parallel unparalleled, ing requir; in the West Indies, constant for the mere maintenance of their numbers. From importations reduced 1817 to 1829,a period of twelve years, the slaves of Jamaica were in numbers,by death alone, ten per cent. ; whereas had theybeen here they The number into that one would have increased thirty imported per cent. island could not have been less than double that imported into this Union, and yet,while the larger number is at this day represented by three hundred the smaller is represented by almost four millions. The slave thousand, that of the Union is honourable. of British history is as disgraceful as chapter is due to the monopolysystem That slavery exists even us, yet among the West Indies, which has destroyed the value of land in Ireland, India, and yet the nation by which that sys* and all other of the British colonies, while converting the instituted heads the crusade against tern was slavery, and denouncing, the planters, freemen of Ireland and India into slaves, at be received into o f freewhose expense she lives, to the as unworthy society united in the supportof the bom Englishmen are ; and those very planters and the people by whom theyare system by which theyare impoverished,
thus denounced !

has been exercised by the people of as advance in to permit as so an moderately rapid of condition. improvement slave-drivers and negroas unceasingly stigmatized

the position and prospectsof the cotton trade, on confirms the that the above was in the press, so fully it that I to reprint as views given in a previous am is, induced, long chapter, the free-trade It is from the London it at full length. Economist,^ highest The article following received at the moment in Europe : authority
Great Britain draws her supply of raw cotton may be classed quarters whence North America, Brazil, Egypt, India,and Miscellaneous Countries, five divisions: the proOn the increase of productionin these lands,and on colonies. our own portion chiefly
"

The

under

"

of that increase which

our

cotton

manufacture,or
each of these
sources

even

consider

of extending, to this country, depends our capability maintaining it at its present level. Let us therefore of supply in turn, that we be able to form a fair estimay is
sent

of

Coleridge. Six Months

in the West

Indies.

f Dec.

1, 1849.

170
mate to

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
the most
we important,

of

our

from expectations

each.

North

America,

as

will leave

the last. Bbazii

is the chief
us as source :

whence

we

draw

our

cottons. supply of long-stapled

Brazil

has

sent

follows

Brazil Cotton.
Bales illfive years. imported Bales

imported per annum.

1830"1834, inclusive
1835"1839 1840"1844 1845 In
" " . " .

1849

" . .

744,884 643,438 471,226 495,685

....

....

....

....

148,977 128,687 94,245 99,137

the succeeding tables the imports for 1849 have been found by addingto to expect, or imports for the first ten months, the quantitywe have yet reason arrives in November and December. that which ordinarily annual supply has diminished nearly 50,000 bales ; or if we our From Brazil, therefore, 1830 and 1848, the fallingoff is from extreme the two years of the series, compare 192,267 bales to 100,244,or 92,000 bales. is also long-stapled Our Egyptian supply,which Egypt. lows cotton, has ranged as folthis and
the known
"

:
"

Cotton. Egyptian
Bales

importedin five

years.
....

Bales

imported per

annum.

1830"1834,
1835"1839 1840"1844 1845"1849 The

inclusive
" .

" . .

" . .

99,899 173,031 207,913 224,579

seems

....

....

....

19,899 34,606 41,583 44,918

reached its maximum in 1845,in 81,344 bales. This year it does not reach half that amount. to be Moreover, this country, from the peculiarcircumstances of its government, is little the supply having varied from relied upon, 40,290 bales in 1832 to 2,569 bales in 1833; and again from 18,245 bales in 1842, to 66,000 bales in 1844. the West Indies, the supply has been : Otheb. Quahtehs, chiefly From

supply from
we

Egypt,however,

to

have

which

year

received

"

"

Miscellaneous.
Si

1830

"

1834, inclusive
" "

1835"1839 1840"1844 1835"1849 East bales been Indies.

per
"

"

Our

annum, divert

inasmuch

prices may
as

supply from this quarter varies enormously, from 90,000to 270,000 as we only receive that proportion of the crop which our from China or from internal consumption. Our imports thence have
East
Bales

follows.

India Cotton.
in imported five years.
....

Bales

imported per

annum.

1830"

1834, inclusive
" . " .

1835"1839 1840"1844 1845"1849

" . .

403,976 723,263 1,167,294 899,213

....

....

....

80,795 144,653 233,459 179,852

is:
"

The

summary

of

our

supply from all these quarters combined

Summary.
Importsin
five years.
....

Importsper

annum.

1830"1834,
1835"1839 1840"1844 1845"1849 The

inclusive
" .

" . .

" . .

1,317,632 1,701,101 1,964,320 1,664,310

our

....

....

263,526 340,220 392,864 332,862

annual supply from all quarters, in five years ending 1849 lessby 7,358 bales than in the five the United Slates, was except years ending 1839, and lessby 60,000 bales than in the five years ending 1844. Of this diminished supply, have been exportingan increasing viz : we 396,000 quantity, moreover, bales in the last five years, against342,000 bales the previous five years.
average
"

result of this

then is, that inquiry,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

171
main
source

United

States.

"

We
has

may
sent

now us :
"

turn

our

attention

to our

last and

of supply,

America,which

American
Importsin

Cotton.
Importsper
....

five yean.

annum.

1830

"

1834, inclusive
" "

1835"1839 1840"1844 1845"1849 The

one

3,241,958 4,308,610

648,391
861,722

....

5,802,829
6,188,144
so.

....

"

....

1,160,566 1,237,619
ever

last five years, it should be rather and one very deficient,

a

observed,include the three largest crops

those
conversant

known,
a

It is

known
a

and

admitted

fact among

with

these

matters, that

to middling uplands,laid down in Liverpool, leaves sufficient profit the American planter to induce him to grow as much cotton as his negroes can gather; and that, the average as therefore, price has scarcelyever ranged so low as this for any increase of the crop of cotton of weeks, the possible will keep pace with the great number actual increase of the Negro population; the negroes and cannot Now do more. increase at a very these premises be correct, If, regularrate of 3 per cent, per annum. therefore, it will follow that the cotton crop of each year will surpass that of each preceding year of equally conditions (i. c, as to good plantingand pickingweather, late frosts, favourable from freedom Accordingly,we find this to have inundations, by 3 per cent. worms, "c.) been pretty closely the case, as the following tables will show. The years 1840, 1 843, Let us and 1845, were very favourable years for the growth and gatheringof cotton. what crease,) see crop each of these years, calculated on the above bases (3 per cent, yearly inwould give for 1 849, also a favourable year :
"

price of id.

lb.for

Actual

crop.
.

No.

of years.

1840 1843 1845

2,178,000 2,379,000 2,394,000

.9 .6 .4

Average
Actual From the point, leached the crop table it will be in fact wherein
seen

2,784,833

2,730,000 that, assuming

the year 1838
as a

following
cent.
:

average

increase and

of the American

3 per

crop for the last 12 years has for any short series of years this rate
unusual
run

not

starting quite
been

has

exceeded, it has been attributable simply

7"ar.
"

to an

of favourable

seasons.

What the crop would have been with traordinarv casualties, and increasingat the rate of 3 per cent, yearly.

Actual crop.

1837"38 1838"39 1839"40 1840 1841 1842

"

41
42

"

"

43

1843"44 1844"45 1845 1S47 1848

"

46

1846"47
"

48

"

49

1849"50

1,855,500 1,911,200 1,968,500 2,027,500 2,088,300 2,151,000 2,215,000 2,282,000 2,350,500 2,421,000 2,493,000 2,568,300 2,194,400
. . .

1,801,500 1,360,500 2,178,000 1,635,000 1,683,500

2,379,000
2,030,500 2,394,500 2,100,500 1.778,500

2^347,500
2,728,500 2,350,000 estimated 2,080,500

Average

conclufor any practical the mark near It is clear, then,that we shall be sufficiently of the American cotton ncrease the average crop at 3 per cent, per assume sions,if we such as sometimes of,disasters, barring any unusual freedom from, or occurrence annum,

what inquire happen. Let us now The consumption of the United

now

of this proportion States itself has

rate
now

increase

will fall

to our

share.

been

on steadily

increases

at

an

bales bales. and

yearly.
America will

That and

average annual of the continent

of about reaches

35,000 bales.

(ofAmerican

advance, and It is now about 520,000 about 700,000 cotton)

the

more require

bales at present, require about 1,200,000 the continent, therefore, take will precedenceof Great each year. always Moreover,they

172
as Britain,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
small increase of

their

margin
much
American

of

is larger, and profit than

to ours,

priceis of less consequence

less.

to

their manufacturers
on light

and

checks

consumption

The

following
cotton retained

table will throw

this

question:
American cotton into Great Britain.

Crop of
6 Years. cotton.
.

Import of

Export of
ton from
.

American cotGreat Britain.

.

American for home

consumption.

Ig40 1845

"

14 49

"

9,905,638 11,349,921 1,444,283

5,802,829 6,188,144 385,315

295,600 596,640 301,040

5,507,229 5,591,504

Increase

84,275

in the last five cotton while the growthof American From this table it appears, that, that of the previous five by the unprecedented quantityof nearlyone years exceeded of this increase million and a half of bales, only 385,000 reached this country, and of than three-fourths,' this we had to re-export more leaving an annual increase available forhome of only 17,000 bales. consumption
we

For

any

augmentation of consumption beyond this,

the whole

have We

been
now

will

drawing on bring into

in Great

our one

stocks. view the whole supply and during the last ten years :

consumption of all

hinds

ofcotton

Britain

Decrease We
have

269,895
taken the
actual

53,980
at

consumption

of 1849

1,650,000 bales only,for

reasons

hereafter stated.
in mind that the figures in the above tablesare, with scarcely an Now, bearing exception, tained ascerthe conclusions to which and not estimates, let us sum they have conducted facts, much if not to alarm to create and uneasiness, us, yet certainly us; conclusions sufficient, the part of all concerned,directly to suggest great caution in the great on or indirectly, of England. manufacture 1. That our supply of cotton from miscellaneous the United States) quarters (excluding has for many decreasing. though irregularly, years been decidedly, the United States,) 2. That our available supply of cotton from all quarters, (including off at the rate of 1,000 bales a week, for home consumption,has of late years been falling while our consumption has been increasingduring the same period at the rate of 3,600

bales

week. the United States is the is

3. That

only country where

not
on an

the

growth of

cotton

is

on

the

increase ; and that there even 80,000 bales annually,which

own

the increase does

barely sufficient to supply of Europe. this annual increase, 4. That no stimulus of price can the plantas augment materially ers always grow as much cotton as the negro populationcan pick. 5. That,consequently, manufacture if the cotton of Great Britain is to increase at all, it can on itspresentfooting, only be enabled to do so by applying a great stimulus to the growth of cotton in other countries adapted for the culture. Within the memory of many now a great change has taken tries living, place in the counfrom which our main bulk of cotton is procured. In the infancy of the manufacture, chief supply came from the Mediterranean,especially from Smyrna and Malta. our Neither of the places now than sends us more chance a few bags occasionally.In the Indies were last century, the West our principalsource ; in the year 1786, out of from Smyrna, and the rest from the West 20,000,000lbs. imported, 5,000,000 came Indies;in 1848, the West Indies sent us only about 1,300 bales; in 1781, Brazil began the supply thence continued to send to increase, till us cotton, and though irregularly, 1830, since which time it has fallen off to one-half. About 1822, Egyptiancotton began in considerable quantities, its cultivation having been introduced into that counto come try The two of import exceeded 80,000 bales in 1 845 ; the average years before. the last three years has not been a third of that quantity. Cotton has always been grown in Hindostan;but it did not send much tillabout thirty to England largely years ago. In the five years ending 1824, the yearly average import was 33,500 bales ; in 1841,it reached 274,000,and may be roughly estimated at 200,000 bales a year. now consumption, and
for the continent

average exceed 3 per cent.,or the increasing demand for its

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

173
produced
recent
so

time after having at one reason why these countries, well, should have ceased or curtailed their growth within It is clearly consider a few of the cases a questionof price. Let us : is the and largely
so

Now, what

years

42

be read the explanationof the deplorablefalling laneous off in our miscelthe great stimulus was supply. From the four years ending 1839, when given which procured us so ample a supply during the succeedingperiod, to the quinquennial less, Unon an period ending 1848, there has been a fall in price, average, of 40 per cent. either an enormous in the earlier period, we or an assume therefore, margin of profit extreme diminution in the cost of producing the article of late years, such a fall in price would be quite sufficient to direct capital into other channels, and industry and to prevent article as cotton from being grown forwarded. so bulky an or In both Brazil and India, freightand carriage form an inordinate proportion of the In both countries the bales are carried great distances on the backs price of cotton. cles, The of mules other beasts of burden. or deficiencyof good roads,convenient vehiand swells the safely navigable rivers,in the cotton districts of both countries, of bringing the bales to the shipping when prices extent, that, expense ports to such an low in England, the ultimate net remittance to the planter is quite insufficient to repay are and packing. In some of the the cost of growing, picking, years, the price of much low Surat cotton sent to this country was so as only to remit one penny a pound to the shipper at Bombay; and by the time this reached the actual grower, it had probably dwindled of carriage, to a sum to pay the inadequate even away, through the expenses Our supply from both these countries will depend entirely rent. government upon price. than formerly, where believe In Brazil, the sugar cultivation is less profitable we a range of prices50 per cent, higher than those of the last few years would probably induce the plantersto increase their cotton grounds,and would repay them for so doing. In regard to the East Indies, where largequantities are always grown, our supply thence depends upon which is usuallysupplied before Great Britain ; the demand for China, two first, things the questionwhether will pay for the net price at Bombay or Madras on and, secondly, Under the stimulus of high pri'ces, to the coast. packing,and transporting picking, cleaning, as largequantities, would, we doubt not, be sent forward ; prevailat this moment,) (such such to secure and the price that will be requisite large supplieswill diminish as the increased and cheapened. If the prices of the last five years of carriage are means continue to be no doubt that the supply will inevitably believe there can we continue,
"

Here, surely, may

fall off. which tertain, enin the sanguine expectations parties however, participate many of East Indian and quality ootton sent with higher pricesthe quantity can to this country can progress so rapidlyas to render us at all independent of the Amerisupply. For, in the firstplace,the absence of good roads or navigable rivers in the of the length of time and expenditure of capitalneeded before the want cotton districts, and the languid and unenterprising those can be supplied by the establishment of railroads, increase of supply (at cause character of the people, must necessarily any material and be of slow operation. matter bales to costly a least over 250,000 very per annum) in India is peculiar of the cotton grown ; and this And, in the second place,the quality and from is still traceable, though in a modified degree,in whatever locality peculiarity as in the best specimens (improved they unquestionably whatever seed the plant is grown, even will are) which have of late been sent to this country; -and this peculiarity We do not,
that
even

always, we
limited Our

fear, prevent it from being substitutable

for American

cotton, except

to a very

extent.

and look to our West Indian,African, hopes lie in a very different direction ; we only afford every the quarters from which, would government as colonies, facility, possible (we ask and wish for no more,)we might, ere long, draw such a supply make the fluctuations of the American crop, and the of cotton as would, to say the least, to our share,of far less consequence perity prosvarying proportionof it which falls to our
Australian
are. they now have we as alreadyseen, used to send us, sixtyyears ago, about Indies, realized on profits 40,000 bales,or threerfourths of our then supply. But the enormous

than

The

West

174
the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

duties on all by our prohibitory growth of sugar, partlycaused,and much prolonged, in that direction. As competing sugars, directed the attention of the colonists exclusively of protected wheat in this country, other cultivation was in the analogous case gradually in soilsand localitiesutterly artiole ; the cane was abandoned in favour of a single grown and and into which nothing but the protective unfit for it, system could have forced it, neglected. Many parts of the West Indies,St.Vincent especotton was soon altogether cially, which are worst adapted for the cane, are the best adapted for the cotton plant, the sea-coast. The artificial near and dry soils, and especially which flourishes in light to cultivation, mistaken so having been sugar our stimulus which policy long applied well replaced and would be unsuitable abandoned in all must be localities, it withdrawn, we cannot What price would be required to repay its culture there, by cotton. say; ship-boardin all these small a cost it might be placed on but consideringat how and how large a portion this item generally forms of the whole expense colonies, in the Antilles as should not be grown cannot see we of production, why cotton relied for steadyand be United the can the i f in States, as negroes only upon cheaply Now, the price of West Indian cotton continuous labour during the picking season. higher than that of the bulk of the American crop, as being longer in staple. Our ranges directed to this article, once the attention of our planters energetically belief is, that were and thus find a they might soon send us a regularsupply of 100,000 bales per annum,
use

for many The

estates

that

must

otherwise

be

abandoned.

in one Of our most been tried with success experiment of cotton growing has already hopeful African colonies Port Natal. We have already received above 100 bales from this colony the main portionof which consists of the indigenous cotton, very similar to brown but of a light colour. On that shipped from New Orleans, tenacious, clean,fine, in the market and worth article for ordinary purposes, admirable the whole, it is a most from to-daynearly Id. per pound. The remainder of the shipments have been grown the sea-island seed,and are of excellent quality. The cultivation is rapidlyincreasing, has been formed and about 500 bales are expected next year from the colony. A society and a ship full of emigrants sailed a few days since. for promoting emigration thither,
" "

Mr.
"

Byrne,the agent, says : Natal is situated in a sunny

and with

abundance,
countries
some

of

and copper in and brightregion. It has iron, lead,coal, of the finest and wealthiest one industrymight be made the globe. The on country is admirably calculated for the growth of cotton, cultivated which is of a superior chiefly description. In America, cotton was British
at a cost

by slave-labour

of about

35/.

year for each

slave ; whereas

at

Natal the labour

of the Zooloos could

be

proximity to the sea, was England in competitionwith the States. I would not advise you to cultivate sugar; you will be able to get that article perhaps better from the Mauritius, where you will find a produce. I intend in the beginningof the highlyremunerative market for all agricultural
year to send out a From Australia
screw we

purchased at a cost of 10s. a month ; and Natal too, from its most advantageously situated for carrying oh the trade with

steamer

to run

to and
no

from of

that island and

Natal."

under are supply,but several acres the and the samples sent are of so fine a quality to prove as cultivation, beyond question adaptationof the soil and climate for the production of as good an article as any grown We in America. have now lyingbefore us, along with the Port Natal cotton, samples South Wales, near of some from sea-island seed at Bolwarra, in New Maitland, grown about 80 miles north of Sydney. It is long,fine, and silky. We under due encouragement, the cultivation of cotton believe that, in these quarters Let us now might increase in a steady ratio equal to our increasingdemand. see, on have
as

yet had

bulk

how stands. the matter summary, We have seen that of the American

cotton

crop,

our

annual

supply during the lastfive

bar and that, the yearly increase of the crop being years has nearly reached 1,120,000bales, demand for the United States and forthe continent, lanced by the yearly there is little increasing than this on an average. Let us suppose that a due of our ever more getting probability advance in priceraises the productionof Brazil to what it had attained in 1830, and that in 1841, and that Egypt and our own of India nearly to what it was colonies will again send us some imports : appreciableand increasing
Biles per annum.

United

States

say

Brazil
India

Egypt
Our colonies

1,200,000 200,000 250,000 50,000 50,000

1,750,000

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

175

this year.

supply of 33,500 bales a week, the apparent consumption of depend on the increase of the colonial supply, or on priceswill enable us to wring out of India The conclusion from the whole and Brazil. such a in order to secure clearly is, that, material as is needed to meet must our we own supply of the raw consumption, present in fact, to pay a decidedly than has of late years obtained; higher that, beprepared range ofprices the average pricesof the, last five years have proved quite inadequate,in spiteof large to draw actual machinery in to this country sufficient cotton to enable our America, crops must full time. should spinners obtain in future ; nor o work Higher prices, therefore, that no circumstances wish it otherwise ; for experience has fully and manufacturers shown them them so great or so certain a loss as an cause can inadequate supply of the and higher pricescan alone avert this supreme evil. raw material, So much of the supply of the raw material to this counto the probable sufficiency as try, that the consumption and will continue what itis. is what it appears to be, on the supposition But are we in these two justified assumptions 1 Let US put togethera few facts which bear upon the question. the actual ponsumption has been let us ascertain what during the last ten And, first,
us a

This

would

allow

For any addition to this we must that which of a still higher range

years. year. But we

We

know

this with

accuracy

for nine

years, and

for the first ten

months

of this

During these ten months, the deliveries to the trade have reached 1,495,000bales. manufacturers have been purknow that, during the latter portionof this period, chasing while the actual quantity than they need for actual use, and that, worked far more the production of finer fabrics, of a general tendency towards up has, in consequence since the beginning of June, the purchases of cotton have been increasing, been decreasing of 217,000 bales. A lull has the unprecedented amount in October,they reached till, in assuming that the purbelieve we shall not be far wrong taken place,and we now chases of this year, will not exceed 205,000 of the trade,during the last nine weeks in that case, they will hold at the end of the year 50,000 bales more bales ; and that, This would than usual in stock. give the consumption of the year at 1,650,000bales. than under the mark, and that that this estimate is rather over Our own impression is, be sufficiently we cannot assume spinners hold a largerstock than we ; but,in any case
wide of the truth
Year.

to

affect

our

conclusions. Weekly consumption

Year. Britain. of cotton in Great Britain.

of Weekly consumption cotton in Great

. . .

1840 1841 1842 1843 1844

....

....

24,868 22,134 22,949 26,693 27,439

1845 1846 1847

1848 1849

....

....

....

and notice readers to consider this table carefully, in each connection with the facts we of cotton worked year, quantity up The weekly average fell nearly3,000 bales from 1840 to 1841; then about to state. are tionary stajumped up nearly 4,000 bales from 1842 to 1843; in 1845 and 1846, it remained for obvious the anomalous and over reasons at a high figure (passing year of ; years 1847)it had again fallen in 1848, when the quantityonly exceeded that of eight the machinery engaged in the duringthe whole of thisperiod, by 4,000 bales. Yet, previously increasing cotton manufacture though not regularly, was constantly, ; and, except for a short have thrown of our out calculation,) period in 1842, (and in 1847, which last year we in stating, correct all at full work. Indeed, short believe we are the mills were, we

Now,

we

wish

our

30,120 30,000 21,270 28,950 31,730 the extraordinary

in the fluctuations

"

time"

is attended under

with

too

tremendous

loss

to

the mill-owner

ever

see During the last year, we the direst pressure. nearly 3,000 bales a week, though the hours of labour have been reduced,by legislative enactment, from eleven to ten per diem. that our consumption to the conclusion, ofthe raw All these considerations point clearly than other causes affected some and is but a varyingquantity, by material is not a faced, which it is the hours employed. in or during of amount operation, either the machinery be at no can we it is capable of operating, to which and the extent What this cause is,

be resorted to, except creased the consumption has into

loss

to

discover.

The
to

weight of
nature

raw

cotton

consumed

by
We

given amount

of

machinery varies according

fabrics of which
not

the

of the article

produced.

produce in England
fabrics of which

the

raw

material value.

forms

two-thirds of the

value,and

it costs

materials cost We spin yarns of which the raw that produce two have spindles pounds of the finished price. We one-twentieth, that do not produce two pounds a quarter. But,without of yarn a week, and spindles

of the one-fiftieth and yarns of which three-fourths, it forms

176
going to these
"
extreme

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
statement

Company They say :

in their

will here copy a we varieties, the accuracy monthly circular,

consume
"

made
we

of which

by Messrs. Du Fay can fully confirm.

cotton

840 840
840

will working 20's twist, spindles,

" "

1,340 lbs. of
840 525 224
cannot
"

30's 40's 60's

"

"
"

"

"

"
"

'

" '"

840

"

'

"

"

produce No. 60's, to produce yet Now, though machinery it can, without material change or difficulty, produce No. 30's ; and machinery adapted In fact, mill has a range of at least and so on. every for No. 30's can change to No. 40's, its consumption of cotton easily reduce or augment it can ten numbers,by varying which In many looms The same mills, from 25 to 50 per cent. may be said of weaving mills. of which produce 60 lbs. some construction, working side by side of the same may be seen
accustomed No. 20's mill where the amount at least one only 25 lbs. We could mention fineness of the article produced, the to according varies, weekly up and we demands of the market, from 30,000 lbs. to 18,000 lbs.; the fluctuating to meet of last Saturday the followingcorroborative statement: find in the Manchester Guardian be gathered from the folwill effect may lowing Some idea of what a change of numbers
a

week,
raw

and

others

of

cotton

worked

"

instances

; the

names

of the firms

are

before

us

: Previous Reduction.

weekly. consumption.

No.

No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5 No. 6 We have been informed

10,000 lbs.out of 40,000 lbs. 60,000 lbs. 18,000lbs. 115,000lbs. 25,000 lbs. 30,000lbs. 10,000 lbs. 30,000 lbs. 10,000lbs.
" " " "

70 bis.

"

120 bales.

that the reduction in his establishment by another very extensive spinner, is more than 40,000 lbs. per week." to finer numbers It is not easy to ascertain the extent this change from coarser to which is actually carried at any particular period. We know, however, that it does go on to a unprecedentedly,during the last six very great extent, and has done so, perhaps almost consider the immense we proportionof the weight of cotton used in months; and, when think England, which is consumed by the makers of heavy cloths and coarse yarns, we for printers, affirm that a brisk demand and India yarns on the we shirtings, may safely for domestics, and German one long-cloths, hand, with a dull demand yarns on the other, of these conditions of the market, if continued for any time,will make a or a reversal difference of at least 25 per cent, in the weight of raw consumed. cotton felt in the coarser Now, an advance in the priceof cotton is much more strongly yarns An and the heavier cloths than in the finer ones. advance, such as has taken place in material of a stout calico which the last twelve months, of nearly 3d. per lb. on the raw the manufactured sells in the finished state, at 8d. per lb. is nearly 40 per cent, on ordinarily "which sells at 126?. per lb. it article. On a printing cloth,or a fine shirting, is only 25 per cent. ; and on the piecewhen printed, it is far less than this in fact a mere of 3d. per lb.on a heavy domestic trifle. Or, to put it in a still clearer light, advance an will compel the purchaser to pay id. where he formerly only paid 3d. per yard. calico, The same 3d. per lb. will be 15d. on a piece of printing cloth 30 yards in length, which, when sells in the shops at about 12s. "d. ; in other words, it will raise the price printed, to the customer from 5d. to 5"d. is only ten per per yard. Now, this advance, which or rapidly to check consumption ; the other advance, cent., is not sufficient materially which is 40 per cent., is. It is clear, that an advance in the priceof the raw therefore, material will check the demand and consequentlythe production of,heavy fabrics, for, much and more the following ones. sooner as decidedly than that of light Accordingly, table will show, the range ofprices limited in the former than in the latter; and is more never material : keeps pace with, or nearly so, that of the raw
" "

Price per lb. of the 1845. d.

articles in following

1846.
d.

1847.
,)

November. 1848. d.

Extreme 1849. d. ranee.

"

Raw

cotton, fair uplands No. 20's water twist, good seconds No. 40's mule

4J
.

5J

9
.

8J
9"

7j
8" 9J

6}
7 8

6J 8"

2J 2J
3

fair seconds twist, Stout domestics,18J lbs. for 60 yds. Medium domestics,12 lbs. for 60 yds. 27 in. 72 reed,5 lbs. 2 oz. Printing cloths, It is obvious from
raw

10

this table that while cotton, and find

no

exceeding that of

li 24 13 3$ 13J 10$ 14J even printingcloths have a range of price brisk where there is a reasonably difficulty,
.

9J ll"

9J

fif

9J

ll|

ty 12$

10

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

177

the very reverse trade,in followingits fluctuations, with heavy domestics, is the case into which bulk of the raw a very disproportionate material is worked compared up, when with the machinery employed. For these last-mentioned articles there is a very extensive at lew prices; demand but. with any material advance, this demand immediately falls off. A great proportion of them is exported in the form of T cloths and long-cloths to Forthe Mediterranean, and the Levant,as long as prices tugal, about 8d. a lb. when range it approaches 9(2.this export is almost wholly suspended, and the manufacturers who are ordinarily supply it, compelled to turn their attention to other fabrics. Another contributes to this change. In unprofitable cause years, such as always occur when the raw material is deficient in quantityand has rapidly become enhanced in in the present year,) is of minimize manufacturer both his anxious to course value,(as every It is evident that this and last as long,as he can. loss,and to make his capital go as far, will be best effected by turning his machinery to the finest range of numbers it is fitted to produce, and working up (say)20,000 lbs. instead of 30,000 lbs. of cotton weekly. trade is dull, and when to sell, manufacturers, from inability Moreover,in years when the same inducement to produce as fine fabrics as are stocks, compelled to accumulate felt. A manufacturer with 500 looms on possibleis still more strongly lightprinting afford to hold a stock of 50,000 pieces, cloths can but a manuor four months' facturer production, have a much with 500 looms who can afford to hold 25,000 must largercapital In round numbers, the firstwould four months' productionof heavy domestics. or pieces, locked have 12,0001 and the second 18,000'. up. of all the above considerations From from observing that this change a combination from occurred in the past to finer fabrics has often from coarser knowing how easily, be effected and from perceiving the vast inducement and to what an extent, it may has recently occurred offers to this change such a rise in the value of cotton as which to a far feel no doubt that such change has,during the last six months, been carried we the actual conthan is generallyestimated ; and we sumption questionwhether greater extent of what itappeared to be in May within 5000 bales per week is at this moment We feel convinced,too, that with it actually 3000 of what our was. within nor last, material, as developed present and future prospects as to the supply and price of the raw
" " " " "

in the

earlypart
the

of

this paper,

our

manufacture

must

run

more

than

it has

done

of late

and consequentlythat our consumption of cotton finer yarns and fabrics, upon years tend to miscellaneous the supply from quarters has been greatlyaugmented) must (till
chinery otherwise,notwithstanding the increase and improvement of mato believein a diminished those who the speculators refuse up (to whole) willfind to fare thefactofan inadequate who refuse supply, and these manufacturers consumption, call the attention of the latter in error, and in .danger. We themselves equally particularly accounts of the coming American partiesto the consideration that the better or worse -the We have assumed it at 2,350,000bales in no degree affect our argument. crop

decrease rather
; that

than

sum

"

highestestimate being 2,400.000 bales.

There without We not are tend to corroborate this conclusion. are yet other reflections which for the manufactured the demand have over-estimated and outrun indications that we the supply of the rawmuch have outrun as we as article from our .markets', existing from

material

existingsources.

goods about keeps

machinery
and
we can

has

pace with the world's growth of increased faster than either. We can

consume we this,

to ascertain

though the demand and commercial convulsion, yet on the other hand it has been increased political the working classes, expenditure among unexampled an of tlrattime by a during portion and others,) and the supply has been checked labourers of to the form railway wages (in for many years. by one of the most deficient cotton crops known formation We have constructed the followingtables with the greatest care, and from the best incorrect :" We believe they will be found essentially obtain. can we

requirement of cotton But unfortunately our calico than. is wanted, produce more think We than is grown. that,in endeavouring cotton more since, safelytake the data of the last five years as our basis, may dous by a tremenhas in that period been checked manufactures for our
It is

probable

that

the world's

cotton

wool.

Lob.
d.

1-75

0-35 1

178

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

In

estimatingthe second column

in

all these

we tables,

have

taken

there has been the economy, in the cost of workmanship, where any, and in the waste will account owing to the varying priceof cotton, which

into account both also the variation for the

slight

fluctuations observable. Cloths. Printing

important to observe that the experience of isolated individuals will not invalidate show which of these tables, the margin between the raw material and article attheprices much the year; the manufactured during oftheday. These prices vary who has laid in his cotton his conand a manufacturer at the cheapest time,and made tracts of sale at the dearest, realize a profit,though the general trade incurs a loss. may The in which these tables may lead to an incorrect conclusion is, where the only case relative pricesin November are not fair representatives of the average pricesof the year. In the year 1847 this was and the case, the margin between cotton and yarn, or cotton in November than during the chief part of the year, and the loss cloth, being much greater consequentlyfar less. The average of that year left a large loss on all articles.
the conclusions From with these tables it would
"

It is

appear

"

as

indeed

has been

well

known

to all

connected

and manufacturers and with a on an cotton-spinners average, have been carryingon their works few exceptions, to a loss, since 1845. This has ever occurred during a period in which the price of the raw material has fluctuated upwards Now and downwards can countered at least 40 per cent. it be supposed that they would have enthe impossibility, which it is evident they have encountered, of obtaining if they had not produced more than our actual markets can, on an remunerating prices,
that
our

the trade

average

of years, take off?

entertained of our home demand. were beginning of this year, great expectations ment argued, and with good reason, that we never yet had a year of general employand low prices of provisionscombined, which not also a year of very large was domestic consumption of manufactured fabrics. This year labour has been in very brisk been so cheap and plentiful since 1836. Yet our expectations request,and food has never At the
was

It

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

179

not been The answered. sellers of printingcloths and dium mefully demand shirtings has,on the whole, been good ; the sellers report that their home the contrary, a decidedly dull business, of domestics than that of last worse report, on believe all agree that the anticipations with which they began the year year ; but we We have by no means been realized. this : The depreciation to be suspect the cause in railway property, the effects of the Irish famine, and the commercial crash in 1847, than has been have impoverished all classes of the community to a much extent greater' " the of allowed for in the calculations of our tradesmen. We whether question power in 1845. the part of the British community, is nearly equal to what .itwas on purchase,'' One fact alone may of exenable us to 'guess penditure at the degree to which its aggregate means have been reduced. In round numbers, the sum i n railways must actually expended is 210 100 millions: their actual value at the pricesof the day does not exceed
...

these facts have

"

millions ; and Let us now

1. Our

many
sum

of them up

pay

little or

no

dividend.
our

the conclusions
has

which

tables have

solved

:"
"

supply of
except under

cotton

increase 2. That

under

fallen off during the last few years, and will hot materially the last few the stimulus- oi much higher pricesthan have (till
its

months) obtained.
rate,

(orsay 32,000

such ranges of pricesour consumption will not maintain be the increase bales a week,) whatever or

present apparent

improvement of

machinery. our 3. That, except under the stimulus of low prices, existingmarkets cannot take off as our machinery can produce. as much deductions pointed to by these facts are two 4. That the practical a permanent -first, and secondly, to the increase a check tendency towards the production of finer fabrics; tillthe increased supply of the that is, of mills and machinery of our producing power material on the one raw hand, and an increased consumption of the manufactured duct proshall once have restored the balance." the other, more on
"

"

"

of the last five years is greater It is here stated that the consumption by but it is not shown whence bales per week than in the previous five, in the The whole quantity retained for consumption this cotton came. bales than in the first, and yet the consumpis less by 269,000 second period tion is said to have been greater by 187,000 per annum, or a total quantity 3600 which- added to the deficiency in the quantity retained, 935,000 bales, hand at the close bales. The stock of American on would make 1,200,000 and that of other descriptions less by 400,000 bales, of 1'849 was may have be accounted but leaves this to for. even been reduced 250,000 550,000 ; in this without examine the It is scarcely to figures given possible paper of is exaggerated. at the conclusion that the consumption arriving that is I will to show how large all now claimed, proceed however, Admitting, elsewhere. of resulted from the existence has this increase of protection a portion of in cotton that two our It has been shown* import goods years, endingJune t of was very small,he average having 30, 1843, the period almost freetrade; this add the increased importof the to we been but $7,184,000.If, now, about obtain of an $9,000,000 June, 1844, we average year ending the 16,000,000 From June, 1844,to June, 1849, average was about and during the tariffof 1842 was in existence, Duringone-half of this period that of 1846 was almost altogether tive inoperathan half of the balance, more and for the balance of the time the duty has been thirty per cent. and the excess has been almost double, the amount imported^ Nevertheless, making an average of is not less than three-fourths of a pound per head, about 35,000bales per annum.
. . "

Page 394, ante.

By

reference

to

the tables in

ChaptersII. and
obtained
in

III. it will be

seen

that much

of these

power credit. on

fore debt,and thereexchange imports in the last two years was those of import as there given,the objectin constructing deducted from the amount from the resulting the power of consumption tables having been that of showing what was resulted from the impoverishing not that which system of buying goods ofproduction, for certificatesof

180

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

The average import the Zoll-verein. of yarn into the pther country, protected from 1837 to 1841,was 351,000 quintals. That of 1843 was and 475,000, the average from 1840 to 1844 was about 440,000. In 1845 it probably
was

574,000. Takingthat
an

as

have been,* have we bales of raw cotton.

to

excess

the average from 1845 of 134,000 cwts.of

1849,as it appears to 40,000 yarn, equal

to

make 75,000, which,beingdeducted from the excess consumption together have taken leave and the to account will 112,000, place, alleged 1840-44 annual average stand thus now 1,290,000 1845^9 1,402,000 increase of little than eight while the low prices more an showing per cent., have been lower than those of the firstby twerityof the second period It is obvious that the increase, trivial as it has been, cent. five per been obtained the has at the cost of the unprotected consumers, among and that the collected from the amount of planter, population England and that of the world at large less in the second for his use, was greatly than in the first. The American of in Great Britain, cotton period consumption in the presentyear, is estimated at only about 1,100,000bales, being little more the average price than it was ten years since, when was as highas at present. It is clear from this the market of Englandcannot be made to grow in such manner to keeppace with our production.Why it as be shown by an examination of will I and. think, cannot, readily not,may, The
two
. . .

"

"

the

of the past year, in which there has operations and in which, no no on famine, potato-rot,

has tended to

a produce existing system. The totalvalue of exports of the kingdom for the November 5,1849,was ending

railroad specuno lation, the contrary, every thing realization of the anticipations of the most perfect
ten

existed

friend of the sanguine

months
,.

"49,400,000

the

and flour and meal as grain, in grain, imported at was which, an average period, 10,300,000 quarters, of 36*. per quarter, would amount and to about "18,500,000, with 43,000tons of potatoes, to about 18,600,000 The number of oxen, bulls, "c, 144,000, cows, sheep, 150,000 say Of bacon, beef,pork, hams, butter, and lard, cheese, which at 30*. would be 1,500,000 cwts., 2,250,000
same
.... ...

The total of

Grand

total of commodities but with now imported, the peopleof the United Kingdom supplied themselves almost entirely onlya few years since "21,000,000 which
.

the Deducting these, The

amount

of exportsremains

28,400,000

and yarn ("5,833,000) if and estimate the cotton rewe "22,550,000, quired for their production at three-eighths of this amount, we obtain as its value The wool imported to be manufactured and exported amountcotton

exportsof
to

manufactures

amounted

8,500,000

The
was

export of yarn
as

to

the ports

through which

Germany
1846.

is

in four oif those supplied,

years

follows

:
"

1845.

1847.

1848.

Belgium, lbs.
Holland
"
.

Hanse

Towns, "c.
Total lbs.

3,917,000 21,556,000 40,315,000

5,359,000
24,662,000 45,041,000

3,520,000 36,123,000 55,849,000

3,168,000 32,910,000 54,955,000

16,206,000 18,877,000

64,788,000 75,062,000

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
a pound, shilling

181

ed to would

of pounds, at nearly 60,000,000 which, be flax

3,000,000 2,500,000

and the average Was imported 1,553,000 cw-ts., the amount is price 32s., being add for the hides, If we now timber,' copper ores, Swedish iron, block-tin, brimstone, indigoand other dye-stuffs, silk, and other foreign materials silver, quicksilver, sugar, gold, included in this vast amount of manufactures exported only
.

The

2,500,000

materials exported as the total of foreign raw the value of the products of the labpur and. land as leaving of England exported in ten months
.

We

obtain

"16,500,000

or

per

annum

being at

the rate of 9/6

to 12-28 per head,to be applied

"11,900,000 "14,280,000 the purchase of

and all other articles timber, cotton, dyingmaterials, tea, silks, sugar, coffee, of luxury for domestic consumption, of necessity or required grain, potatoes, live and animals, cured alone excepted. provisions compare this statement
no

If the reader wilL now before given,* he will, I

"

have think,

in satisfying himself difficulty

with those of other years that

the power of purchase" of Great Britain is in a state of rapid of the people and that to that fact is due the distress existing diminution, among, her people. It will be said, that she does consume much more than this however, I propose now She does, and how she is enabled to do it, to show. made out precisely are however,the accounts of the various periods far, the presentwith the past. and answer for the purpose of comparing alike, that the prices of all the articlesI have particularized It will be seen here. Of the grain, three-fourths are wheat or wheat would be low even nearly the but 4s. 88 delivered in England. a nd is cents or price flour, per bushel, and butter are at 6J cents per pound, also The bacon,beef,pork, lard, cents per pound. The wool is at delivered in England. The flax is at seven be about to the cotton and bid. per pound. These are a shilling, supposed
amount.

Thus

at prices

commodities at New should not desire to deliver the same their Great Britain to on or Philadelphia, Nevertheless, Liverpool. way of other and immense commodities in addition, all obtains quantities these, in debt the She business. and yet bringsus largely on uses year's which
we

York

of hemp, and sugar valued at "5,000,000. Large quantities cotton,silk, Her of is 40 consumed home. tea millions of at consumption are hides,

pounds. Of timber she consumes red pine is "3 per load. How ? things
The the

and the price of Canada a million of loads, does she acquire do all these the,power to

from Bombay, as stated above, to cotton that comes frequently yields but a penny per pound,which will not defray the at that place shipper of production of shipment, to the place from the place cost of transportation the and the cost of production, for whatever yet poor producer nothing leaving of that land, which taxes taxes for the use the to heavy Company pays "c. remitted to Englandfor the payment of expenses, pensions, dividends, are The sugar from the Mauritius sells for 22s. per cwt.,or 2?d. per pound, than a penny the shipper more that cannot yield much, if any thing, a price almost It shown receives The was nothing. by the producer per pound. of real in that t hat for estate owners several of island, houses, accounts large and her is it whatever. So with received Canada, nothing years the estates

lumber.
"

See page

57.

182
The and
are

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

charges upon theycannot be

all commodities otherwise.

many, and the latter must families must eat and but one and therefore it is that the farmers and be small, must
are

that pass into England are immense, The producers are few,and the consumers be supported former. the Wherever four by raises food, the share that falls to the former of planters the world

keptso
With

more

poor. the operation of the system tends to become every step downward taken that sellsfor a shilout of a pound of cotton A penny ling, severe. but a penny out of 3d. fallsheavily. When cotton is high, is a trifle,
are charges numerous.

and the it sellsrapidly the charges are slowly, other of the

few.

of products

the earth.

When the crop is large and itsells So is it with sugar, tobacco, and all rice, With the diminishing power of consumption

have diminished, while the necessity for advances, universally prices has increased, to the exchanger "c., giving storage, power to take for himself but a larger than before. Hence not only a larger proportion, quantity it is that Great Britain is enabled to consume much while producing so
so

her power of taxing the planters and farmers of the world, and be seen that the power of consumption that even exists now speedily results from the ability to throw upon others the burden that she should bear alone. The Economist, of exaggerating not to be suspected a journal the evils of the present state of things, the power of expresses its helief that the part of the British communityis not nearly on to what purchase" equal That such is the case there can be no doubt, in 1845.* it was and that the it will
"

little. Diminish

journalbut a fortnight assured its readers,tbat since there had ever before of the duties of the slidingscale, and a probability that the corn laws would be abolished, the farmers have steadily improved their cultivation and produced If productionhas increased, more." how is it that the power of purchase has decreased? If the power of purchase has decreased, how are the people enabled to purchase all this supposedincreased domestic product,and the enormous quantitythat is imported? The power of consumption and that of production with each other, and go hand in hand of purchase" has diminished,as it unquestionablyhas;it is because the if the power of producing thingswith u-hich to purchasehas declined. power Much of the diminution in the of purchase" is ascribed to the railroad specupower lation, but it is difficultto see how that should have produced effect. Under it any such much property changed hands, but the actual expenditurewas merely the cost of grading and laying the roads,and it cannot be doubted that the labour that has been saved by of the use of the roads has been quiteequal to the amount means expended. The price paid for land,and the fees to parliamentary agents, "c, were merely transfers from the to that ot another, pocket of one man and could not have impaired the "power of purchase." The railroad speculation produced the roads,and existing as they do,they tend to increase the power of production' and consumption. It is to look necessary, therefore, for the causes elsewhere of the state of thingsnow in England. They are to be existing found in the necessity ion competing with the lowest priced and most worthless labour of the world. The results of that necessity exhibited in the following facts, are which will not only account for the present diminution in the power of purchase," but relieve us from difficulty in accountingfor future diminutions.
same
"

This
a

been

reduction

"

"

"

"

It appears
over

310,000
thousand of the

parliamentary return, that the holders of farms, who in'1845 were have in 1848 sunk to 108.000. Isle, Two hundred and two cultivatorsofland have disappearedin three years, and with them at least half
a

from

the Emerald

capital by

means

of which The fallen in

was

the land

was

made

to

December,1849. Magazine,
was

bank-note circulation of Ireland, which

produce any thing." Blackwood's in August, 1846,

The poor
rate

"7,500,000, had

August,1849,

to

Ibid. "3,833,000."
to

of

"1,900,000. That of Scotland has risen in three years from "185,000 to "560,000. In anterior to 1846, it was Glasgow, "30,000. In 1848-9, it was "200,000. The number of paupers in 1845-6, 7,454. was In 1847-8, 51,852. The railroad tolls of 1845 averaged "2,640 In 1849, per mile. * "1,780." Ibid.

which Ireland,

in 1846

has "200,000,

risen

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

183
in the mense, imWill

power power We

of of
see

must purchase

is production,

continue to diminish with further diminution certain. quite

low prices for grain, the importsare that, notwithstanding than nine millions m ore of bushels our averaging per month.

this continue ? In answer, the domestic nor crop of this year lias not failed, have there been any reasons the tries counwhy export from the grain-producing of the world should be larger than usual. We are assured that Kussia millions can of and supply fifty quartersannually, that much of it is now wasted for want of a market. She has now and so long a market, as a bushel wlieat will the to the liewill of yield producer priceof a yard of cotton cloth, that rather than waste it. We are assured that he cannot afford to even accept raise it at any such price, but what else can he do ? Deprivedof other employment for his time, he must raise food for himself, and with the surplus if he have to starve himself to obtain the little even purchase clothing, that he wears. The error of English writers consists in assuming that there is such a thingas a necessary price. The poor labourer in India,we are assured

of his

obtains for his cotton no more than the mere rent writer, for his he stillcultivates cotton to land,leaving labour, nothing yet for the of cloth with which he his loins. covers exchange yard The people of,Englandfirstinflicted upon themselves a necessity for competing

by

this same

That

"cheap" labour of India in the manufacture of cottons. for competition with the labour of Kussia a necessity produced cheap"
"

with

the

in the

the consequences of which are thus described in food, " the recent quarterly The population of : report of the Registrar-general has a nd the of to died, England suffered, decreased, during quarter, a degree
"

of production

which

has gone on example in the presentcentury." Emigration " much and in advance of that so rapidly, so immigration, Englandhas now less inhabitants by several thousand than were within her shores at midsummer." The system tends to increase man's necessities and to diminish his power. It the how enormous differencein the o f the cotton in two was prices and we may now look to see whether the price of cloth and iron changed periods, is here shown therewith. cloth
ten
was

there is no

From

1840

to

6s. 7d. ; from 1845

of 1844, the average price above 6s. to 1849,it was

of piece

Here

gray cotton is a reduction of

of 40 per cent. The average price of changes per cent, to set off against 50 the than that of cent, iron in 1845,1846, and 1847, was higher per while the cotton was lower than before, the four previous years ; and thus,

which,of thing higher. He was

that of surprise deteriorated.

of cotton desires to use, was producer vastly and and it is no matter more less, steadily giving receiving diminished and his condition steadily his power of production

all others, the

that the power to pay for cotton cloth on the part of the and that " the conto the system is steadily sumption diminishing, subjected people but the stimulus "we be maintained." cannot are assured, Nothing, markets" to take off the prowill enable " the existing of low prices" duce To this it is due of the every of England ; and,to secure machinery is looking for writer on the subject English That
"

at supply

low
"

what

is called

prices, bour." cheaplaNatal is

of the Zooloos may

be had
"

at

10s. per

month, and

with the States." situated for maintainingcompetition advantageously and that which most to by these facts/' deduction pointed The practical is that there must be "a check to the increase of mills interests the planter, material" shall until the increased supplyof the raw and machinery," level of the consumers, the of the of to the cotton down price powers bring shall rise to a level with the existing the power of purchase" until prices. or of communities has the the That the latter, unprotected world, among
" "
.

1,84

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and there exists series of years, is obvious, a long declined, steadily during from the past. The the future will be different that for supposing no reason the balance" is that of mode of cotton restoring reducing only remaining to the level of constantly "power ofpurchase." diminishing unless the planters determine to help That it, will be so diminished, can
" a

doubt. The men who have heretofore raised no about their attention to turn to cotton, as likely sugar and coffee are now than either. The people of Jamaica have been forced to be more profitable inform us, be any longer and sugar cannot, to abandon as their journals coffee, cultivated. it the Economist informs us. Why cannot, profitably there themselves,
can
"

be

The same number, from which the above longextract is made, informs us that the sugar market is " drooping," the " expectation of a large additional not been realized." The consumption having consequence is seen in the fact, that the sugar of the distant Isle of France is quoted at 22s. bd. per cwt., two and two-fifth pence per pound, to the shipper, after paybeing yielding ing and charges, about as much the cotton above stated to have as freight been shipped from Bombay, to wit, one bis on penny, and to the producer, but little more than is necessary to pay his rent. Under such plantation, labour the of the people of the Mauritius becomes circumstances, cheaper/' and may ultimately become as cheap"as that of the Zooloos. Thus is it everywhere. The late cotton planter of Alabama is trying and the o f Jamaica is determined to try cotton, under sugar, sugar planter that isnot yet raised to meet an the demand a sufficient impression supply which exists for the article." The real cause of difficulty that the cotton is, and his unable obtain to one-third as much sugar as are planter neighbours is unable to obtain onetheywould desire to consume, and the sugar planter
" " "

much cloth as he would desire to consume, because the eost'ofboth in as labour is so greatly enhanced by the necessity for making their exchanges in the distant market of England. Were both determined to make a market the land for the products of the land, on each would obtain in return for the labour of same thrice much if theycontinue as as now quantity ; whereas,
to

third

maintain the monopoly system of than now, little it is. as Among the

England, they must obtain even less of the world, there is perfect planters and those of all are to be promotedby the adoption of harmony of interests, to raise the value of labour, a system that shall tend the thereby enabling
of who now consumes one to become the man Ireland, pound of cotton, America,consuminga dozen or twenty pounds. The object of every effort at maintaining in existence this greatmonopoly of

man

is that of preventing increase in the value of labour and land machinery the that commodities throughout world, may be had "cheap." How greatis the power exercised for this purpose, will readily be seen by all who study the sliding-scale is diminished with any small system,by which consumption advance of price, and the tendency upwards thus counteracted. The existing be maintained only can at the presentminimum and the consumption prices, it reason that "cheap"cotton and "cheap" why can onlybe so maintained is, make the labour-cost of cloth and iron so great that the vator poor cultiof those " cheap" cannot afford to purchase either. Dear as isthe things cloth to the consumers, and little as the cotton has yielded the to itsproducers, manufacturers been workingat a loss are we have, assured, sugar

of

duringnearly pound the accompanying at page 75,as one of diagramgiven enormous to ^manufacturers." profits The differences in the prices of both cotton and from yarn as here given, those given by Messrs. R.,are sometimes remarkable. The cost of converting a pound of cotton into yarn No. 40, is also remarkable, and must embrace
all those five years, and the profits set down are at onlylid. per in 1845, in their circular designated by Messrs. Rathbone,
"

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

185
.

many

and tear, wear management, "c. A mill in this neighwork upon No. 35,converts into cloth above a million of pounds, with the labour of 300 persons. The average wages of Englandare under 30Z. per head,and this would about two millions of pence, or give9000/.,
at bourhood, two

allowances for

for converting a million for wages of labour required pence per pound. there has been,as we are the this Notwithstanding

or pounds into cloth, succession of losses, unceasing

of

increase of machinery for doing a constant assured, while the whole increase of is trifling. It is difficult work, consumption to reconcile these statements. Less difficult is it to ascertain what is the policy It is to of the planter. break, down the monopoly and bringthe machinery of England to the cotton and fields,
cotton

there it will come whenever the producers of food and cotton, shall declare to. the world that it is their fixed policy to extend the consumption of themselves by enabling
to
to supplyit cheaply

is to be
now

the

so that he cannot tinue conthat he cannot continue to consume. It cannot fail to strike the reader as singular, that the clever writer of this article supposes that the system which destroys cultivation in India and Brazil

themselves from the accomplished by freeing and move, and have their being, live, by means the one producerand the consumer, impoverishing
to

the consumers, a work that control of those who of standing between

and produce,

the other

so

has

no

can, whereas

such effect in this country. He assumes that we produceall we the South is to limit know that the greatobject we throughout that the
to

and production, been exhausted road

more

seek new labour than would

from lands that have are producers perpetually flying and wasting the to be again ones on exhausted, add to the crop hundreds of thousands of bales. since determined that the loom should come with than of two millions ; for should

Had
to the

the be be

planters eight years

and the price the crop of this year would exceed three millions, cotton,

would

than it is now higher much more consuming"

one a

we

selves our-

be found among 1500 thousand of

the purchasers of which would million, who would be 1200 or makers of iron, producing prosperous to the making of roads for the use of prostons to be applied perous

farmers and

equally prosperous

miners

and manufacturers. such is the

Increase

price thus

produced increases

and consumption,

tendency of

from Increase of price resulting protection. and such is the the power
f

of tendency
the power

the

short crops tends to diminish consumption, It both monopoly system. destroys

to

and produce

to

consume.

CHAPTER
HOW

SEVENTEENTH.
AFFECTS
THE

PROTECTION
"

CURRENCY.

tend to produce it must capital," diminish the return to those disturbances of the currency that tend so greatly to a sysresistance of it be a peaceful measure tem to both. If,on the contrary, the of and capitalists labourers world, the of the to oppression tending that steadiness of the currency so desirable to tend to produce then it must and merchant. farmer and planter, labourer and mechanic, ship-owner all, If be protection
a war

upon

labour and

"

The
men are

real currency

spective is merelythe standard by which their redenominated " currency," usually The labourer sells the exertions of a week for values are measured.

to give willing

for which of the world consists of labour and the things That which is "c. iron, fuel, food, clothing, labour,

five bushels of wheat, also valued at and he receives in return five dollars, and for twenty thousand dollars, house sells a The five dollars. capitalist measured the of stock of shares by which, of orders the purchase a quantity of dollars. number of that the be found to equivalent are same standard, with the size of the crop. So does that of The priceof wheat changes

186
sugar. will be The If the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. that of sugar much small,

of wheat supply

be

and large,

wheat

for little given sugar. introduction of a third is the with

itself liable commodity,

case as money, tends to supply, that must be the quantity of one commodity

to variation in the additional variations in produce another. for if the Thus, given

be large and small among set of wheat one raisers, among the raiser of will sell in the firstand in the buy last, another, obtaining sugar littleto the other. much money from the one and giving Were all arrangements for the production, or sale of commodities purchase, of supply
money

this cause of disturbance would scarcely propertyexecuted on the instant, because all would be the prices of affected, similarly beinghighwhen exist,
or

money

be

and plenty, given for wheat,or

was

crops

almost
to

as

it was of sugar to scarce, and the quantity for sugar, would depend upon the size of the if no intermediate commodity were as used. completely wheat the
case.

low when

is not Such,however,
contracts

time money than would may be so scarce have been done in January to by four pounds. The merchant commences build a shipin July,when and the price of labour is low, money is scarce and he finishes it when money is plentyand wages are high, and it costs him than he had calculated upon. The or ten, fifteen, twenty per cent, more little the contrary, who buys and sells from day to day,loses on trader,

deliver its

buys coffee in at which money in July, that six pounds of coffeewill command no more
in equivalent

The

merchant

and January,

nothing.If
makes The them

he buys high he sells low to sell, and the measure

and high,

if prices low to are of his business is the measure

buy,he
of his

profits.
nature of whose property, the character of whose business, them to make arrangerequires ments far ahead, and to take the risks incident to changes in the currency for the whole periodthat elapses between the commencement and the conclusion of an undertaking. Such are all the persons the products of whose labour are not intended for immediate consumption the owners of houses,
or
"

great sufferers by such variations are- those the

railroads all, in fact, connected farms, factories, furnaces,

"

with the improvement time of pressure for money in one place, flour, cotton, and other articlesintended for daily be transferred to cloth, consumption, may other places where money is plenty, and the changes in their prices fore thereare of land. In
a

small when compared with those which are experienced by the possessors of propertythat cannot be transferred, and is therefore obliged to bear the whole burden of the change. In such cases land becomes entirely unsaleable

except at
many

an

enormous
a

reduction of
to position

in theyare placed

sions ruined by revulthe operations of the retail grocer. slight degree is the case with -labour. The man and Such,likewise, who has a family finds no demand for his labour cannot his his and He change locality. must suffer together. Food may be at a low money-price, but if he family obtain no employment, (he labour-price can is so high that he cannot purchase it. Land and labour, interested in the maintenance are then, specially of uniformity in the standard by which the products of both are measured, because theyare the great sufferers by the changes which occur in the progress of time. Time and distance are, in this respect, the equivalents of each other. The
man

persons connected that affectbut in a

to which its owners price, render sales necessary, and with land and its improvementare

must

submit if
so

thus it is that

who builds a house calculates duringthe period upon the continuance, of its erection, of the state of things that existed at its commencement, and he who remits to China to purchaseteas, bases his calculations on the state of affairsthat existed in that three months previously. If money in country

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

187

the

than

time has become more for his teas he may pay higher abundant, he had calculated becomes less upon, and if before their arrival it abundant here, he will obtain less, of and thus will reap loss instead profit. The man who raises cotton when he might have raised bases sugar or wheat, his calculations on the state of affairsthat he supposes will exist in a foreign country,and is thus forced to superaddthe risks of distance to those of time. If he exchanged his products with his neighbour, to both would be subject the same the currency was If money were so far as concerned. variations, less abundant, and iron would feel its effects flour, cloth, sugar, pork, cisely precotton felt them, as and thoughhe mightobtain less money, he would have precisely the same of of the commodities for the purchase, quantity which he required to have money. and the The proximity of the consumer to lessen the difficulties from changes in the producer tends, then, resulting the chief sufferers. currency by which land and labour are always The object of the colonial system was that of compelling the farmers and
mean

of the planters
to

world to make their exchanges in a distant market, and1 thus increase the time within which such risk must be borne, allthose addingtliereto which result from distance. When the Hindoo exchanged his cotton on the the prices of cotton, and labour were spot for cloth, cloth, governed by the for the exchanges same made on the instant. To make were circumstances, his exchanges time are required, and he is, now, two years' duringall that
to the risk period, subject

of

like those changes

which

have marked

to pay the losses. the losses he and his fellow-planters do pay, as will be seen by those who will study out the workingof the system. The the wool, the cotton, sugar, and the food of the world are sent to Englandfor exchange.Her the time that is required between to elapse people buy and sell on the instant,

is rendered one of mere pursuit of holding his own bound advantage cards, although All

1847

and 1848.

His

without gambling,

the years the

the

of the wool and the sale of the yarn not exceeding week. a single purchase If yarn fall, does cotton. If cotton rise, does yarn. The whole loss so so from changes of currency resulting from time and distance is thus thrown from the diminution of the risks upon the planter. The whole gainresulting of both goes to the proprietor of the small and easily the transported spindle, of which is as nothing with the cost of the greatmachine when compared for producing the wool. required The nation that thus (Jesires to compelall the other nations of the world their products, that they may there be measured to bring to her by that it is one her standard, the length, the to be able to show or oughj;
cost

contents,of which
The

must, under

any

and

remain every circumstance,

changed. un-

standard of

and weight

So should be that of value. standard for the measurement of the values of that great and important the directors of of the world is placed in the hands of the bank of England, for the important business delewhich have proved their utter incompetency gated
to

fixed and unchangeare length able. is it. The control Far,otherwise, however,

that of

at four different periods within the institution, by bringing of Their within the is to bankruptcy. jaws object thirty years, that itis to make large as is, object, called, dividends, and, accomplish money and thus block up the the directors overtrade largely, made plenty ; that is, to take from the bank of individuals, who find themselves compelled capital of deposit) when not evidences of debt (certificates interest, bearing they other evidences bearing and would have obtained would have preferred interest, had not the bank commenced them at reasonable prices to overtrade. called deposits, the bank considers With every increase of this indebtedness, until at length is produced, itself richer and overtrades further, speculation and houses are built, and then the day of settlement railroads are made,ships

them

the last

188
when arrives,

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

itself. The in the effort to save the bank crushes everybody f of fixed propertyfinds himself and the owner standard of value shrinks to half, he had looked where obtains for while the threepence planter ruined, his food where on in debt for he is farmer and the charges brought sixpence,

had looked to realize a dollar a bushel. sufferslittle who buys cotton and sells yarn or cloth, of England, The man he from those changes.On the appearance of the first signof change, and then, of his hands, when shortens his hours of work, or diminishes the number in whole are he closes his mill. His work-people thus, the time for it arrives, food unable rendered to ing, and or clothof in purchase or part,deprived wages, and reduced prices for the consequence of which is diminished demand and the farmers of the losses thrown all the thus and are planters upon both, for dependence on a country which ruined by the necessity are for the supply of iron desires to establish for itselfa monopoly of machinery with all of which theymightsupply and for the conversion of wool into cloth, themselves at less cost than is now imposed upon them in each and every year.

world,who

It is usual to attribute the disasters of the from in our currency, proceeding derangements those who

from period
erroneous

will find that theywere examine more carefully to show. I from other as resulting causes, propose now is only but the standard by It is usual to talk of capital as money ; money of the one suffices and a very small quantity which commodities are measured, dollar may be used a of the other. The same to measure a large quantity times in a week, each time acting as have been measured. "c., flour, cotton, sugar, thousand has of 'sugar
a

1836 to 1842 to action at home ; but themselves effects

the standard The

man

by which labour,

acquired credit with

a

cargo of flour. The borrower and that neighbour transfers it to a third, who transfers to his neighbour, divides it among his workmen, and by itsaid theyobtain food, and clothing, shelter. Whenever the demand daily for labour and its products is equal to the

has sold a cargo he may obtain somebodyby from a bank has acquired a credit which he aid of which

who

daily

the rate of interest, of capital will remain or the price investment, supply, seeking landed the of the of and other fixed capito owners stationary, tal. greatadvantage of the demand is less reason cause Whenever, by whatever, daily any than the
are

the supply, daily

accumulation

of

There capital unemployed begins.

and the consequence is, that there is less demand for built, t he which of and the food and clothing labour, price falls, power to consume is diminished. The demand for iron and cotton is lessened, and furnaces and mills cease to be built, and the power to consume is thus food and clothing further diminished. With each stepin this progress, there is a tendency still

fewer houses

has it in the form of of unproductive One man capital. another that third in of that in of and a fourth has it a cloth, iron, labour, in the form of a debt due to him by a bank which pays him no interest. By the iron and cloth pass off to be consumed,and,as their owners do degrees
to

the accumulation

not

which

desire to reinvest the proceeds, theytake still pays no interest. In this manner
rate

further credit

on

the

the accumulate, securitiesrise.

is blocked up, capital of of interest necessarily and falls, the prices

bank, deposits

existing

With this rise comes investments similar to those a desire to create more which still continue to pay interest, and there is a rush to seize on those supposed and than others. Speculation to possess greateradvantages begins, gins. bethe downward course run prices Having reached the zenith, up rapidly. and Thenceforward the progress is rapid, fortunes in disappear
a mo-

THE

HARMONY
"

OF

INTERESTS. The

189

not ment, leaving

even

wreck behind."

after having been capitalist, rally, gene-

for

longtime
the laws

of interest, now deprived of 1832 other and

By

loses the capital itself. French merchandise 1833,railroad iron, freed from

descriptions of woollen manufactures were reduced to ten per cent., and a general reduction was established, commencingin 1833, and increasing biennially until there should be reached a uniform rate of 20 cent. thereafter, per The passage of these laws diminished the demand for capital to be employed in the making of iron. As they into action, there was nution came a dimigradually in the tendency of producing iron and cloth, to build mills. In place we and the prices of dividendboughtthem on credit. Capital accumulated, established for making railroads, were payingstocks rose. Next, companies and States made roads and canals, for which the iron and cloth were bought credit. The difficulty on of employing in the East caused it to seek capital investment in the South and South-west, there to be employed in the making of banks and roads, and there to be sunk for ever. The day of payment The iron and cloth had been used,and the certificates came. of debt given in exchange for it were abroad. The banks were to the peri n debt heavily sons whose capital had accumulated in their hands, able to pay and not being the most disastrous to the theyhad to stop,and thus commenced a period labourers and the owners df capital fixed in land, that the and roads, houses,
country has
An
ever

and linens,

were commodities,

duty.

Some

seen.

of the tables I have furnished will show that, this during the of the in was period, productive Capital country was stationary. power demand for distant speculation, but for littleelse. Houses,ships, factories, and all other of the modes of investment by which value is mills, furnaces, to felt the effect equally, while the labourer suffered in and thus, given land, the diminution of wages, the land-holder suffered in the diminished value of land. Had the roads and canals of 1835 made hometo 1839 been based upon cloth and iron, would have produced made unmixed good; but being they cloth and borrowed iron, theywere accompaniedby a deterioration of condition throughout in the the community, resulting with borrowed of and repudiation. bankruptcy

examination

general disgrace

By

those who

will trouble themselves

to

look below

the

it will surface,

that now is precisely be seen that the state of things here desgribed readily that brought ruin and that the process at presentgoing is the same on existing, iron obtain of since. Companies English eight large quantities upon years the day of securities that would not be received in this country,and when will it must, the cry of American defalcation shall come, as come bankruptcy week but since. be as rife throughout it five a as was Scarcely Europe years and yet the with it a notice like the following, that does not bring elapses at when consumed is less than it iron was produced home, and of quantity wasted. labour that is in now paid for being
Railroad of England, to purchase iron for the Great-Western the whole furnish with to quantityreturned in the Cambria, proposals ling required for the road from Cairo to Chicago,receiving in payment the six per cent, sterbonds of the Company, payable in London.''
"

The

agent

who

went

to

has Illinois,

for those who have and interest is low is said to be abundant, Capital outlets for capital natural that the securities. The reason is, unquestionable and furnaces are not built. Coal is closed.* Iron is superabundant, are and mines are not opened. Cotton cloth is superabundant, superabundant, of ships, and the building are and mills are not built. Ships superabundant,
"

It would for

mand of investment tending to produce debe nearly impossible to find a mode in which employed,and hence it is that there capitalcould be profitably labour,
a

is

so

universal

demand

for bank

charters.

190

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

credit the cloth and We are buying is diminished. and schooners, on brigs, that should be emwhile the labour and iron we should be making, ployed capital seek in for vain in their production employment.The heavysufferers land. The broker takes his usual shave his and the grocer charges his usual for the notes which pass through hands, and with the is it the furnace demand cent per pound on closed, sugar, but the mine is abandoned, and the miner suffersfrom want for food and labour and ihe desire of clothingthe constructor of railroads obtains no dividend, has and with it the to make roads as an investment of capital passed away,
are,

and

are

to

be, labour

and

"

"

demand be

for

the and clothing. labour, food, By degrees,

same

results must

by every interest of the nation. The return to labour is experienced and every other and the value of land, railroads, houses, ships, diminishing, of that return the extent of property, is dependent on as it rising species and falling it falls. as rises, be brought The nearer and the producer to each other, the consumer can and consumption, the more will be the adjustmentof production perfectly will be the value of the more will be the currency, and the higher steady is to accomplish all these objects, land and labour. The object of protection the loom and the anvil to take their natural places by the side by bringing of the plough thus makinga market on the land for the proand the harrow, ducts
"

of the land. Of all the commodities in

use

by

man,

there

are

none

that contributeso

goldand silver. They are useless for of houses or mills, or the construction building of ships railroads. They can be neither eaten,drunken, to or nor of all theyare the two whose arrival and Nevertheless, any extent worn. chronicled. most are departure carefully of producing in a year three milTen furnaces and rolling-mills, lions c-apable of dollars' worth of iron, even a passing may close without producing remark from a newspaper, but no vessel can arrive or depart, with fifty without the arrival being noticed in half the papers thousand dollars in gold,
of the Union. The thus factitious importance
to brought

littleto his comfort or convenience as the clearing of lands, the or draining

givento
demands

the
to

metals precious be submitted

man a

is one

of the of the

effectsof the colonial system,which world shall be Its effects at home have been

that all the commodities

to
one

dhe market,there
to make

standard.

every

seller of almost all he

our

and a buyerof almost all he consumes.* "In produces, the Mr. man traveller, accomplished Laing,f "every says and sells all he ''is often

buys all

social system," he sells,

produces. The

very bread

of

our

he continues, labourers,"

boughtat the manufacturer's shop." The system has converted a of the little from six to large portion occupantsinto hired labourers, receiving where and occupying houses nine shillings in a week,| villages, poor poor
*
"

The

evil

of

our

economical
starves.

masters

the suffer,
he would

servant

system When

that is,
wages
"

too

many

of

us

stop, he has

When

buy with?
may
can

eat, he has every thing to buy But the seed-time and harvest of the

lose kill

crop,

him, or yieldher milk, whether ports are open, or discounts are raised. Take labour out of the of payment, market, and wages rise the great body of consumers possess better means The farmer flourish by cheap food and better wages. and manufacturers and tradesmen
"

and, wages fail him. He never spade husbandman but something is stillleft. When the slug takes his patch of wheat, he thrust in cabbages,or barley, or or vetches, something. The cow will

When live by wages. nothing to fall back upon. stopped,where has he to

is

relieved in his rates, and

the landlord gets

better

rent

for

his land."" 113

TAe Mother

Smith. Country, by Sidney Notes of a Traveller, \ page 152, American

edition.

\ See pages

"

117,ante.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

191

under a different to waste much of the time that would, theyare compelled be infinite to themselves and others.* employedwith advantage one, The man who exchanges with his, neighbour food and labour for directly coal or iron, has littleneed of money. He exchanges and labour for labour, it is frequently balanced by the transfer of jfthe account do not adjust itself, 'the difference to the credit of another, and thus is there established in every combine their exertions, sort of charing communityin which men a lwv.se, effectivein its operations as the celebrated of London.-)as one quite The man who sends his cotton to Liverpool trades altogether or Lowell, for money. He desires to know how much gold he can have for a bale, and how which much iron he can the others can have for
a

pound of gold.

He

uses

with machinery

dispense.

Whatever tends to increase the quantity of machinery for the required of a given tends to increase the frictionand augment accomplishment effect, the power required for its accomplishment. Such is the case here. The for using of disturbance cause necessity gold tends to introduce a new and powerful in the operations of the planter, to augment the cost of and greatly the friction and diminishing the effect. Gold and them, thus increasing silver are reduced in weight and and for all thislosstheproducer by abrasion, the consumer The exchanger pay. pays nothing.He lives at their cost. for we were we Twenty-five thoughtmuch of goldor silver, years since, extraordinaryproductiveness of land, under the of the cultivators are rested intemost directly for themselves,and consequentlywith ardour which be expected from hired labourers. ever, cannot an Every farmer might, howmake almost hi* servants munerating equallyzealous in his cause by alteringthe mode of reentitled to them. instead of being paid a fixed rate of wages, If, they were of the crops, they would strive to make the crops as abundant a certain proportion as * * * is wanting to cure than to make Nothing more over-population possible. people and to make the.continuance of their comforts dependent on themselves." comfortable, principal cause
of small occupiers, that all or is, management in the success of their labour ; they work
"

"One

of

the

Thornton

on

Over-population.
'

societies" established in New England,in which workmen "fSuch are "the protective required for their consumption. They supply themselves with the various commodities desire to dispense as much as possiblewith the servipes of the exchanger,as common I take the following paragraph, illustrative of this would teach all men to do. sense from one of the journalsof the day : movement, unions in New "Mr. Kaulback, the purchasing agent of the several protective England, of has paid for the purchase of goods for the quarter ending January 1, 1850,the sum This is an $23,000 over the previousthree months. $102,000,being an increase of some it is a so as us, the more important brauch of trade that has recentlygrown up among There in for. asked active in are now cash business, credit case ever being no any England, nearly all stocked by the above-named operation109 union cash stores in New
"

agent."-^-Boston paper.
of action is now remarkable of combination going the rounds of cases district to build a ship in a remote Captain Geo. Kimball determined in a forest, at a distance of one, without capital, there, alone,a company joined by a soon his noble enterprise. He was from even deep water, he commenced and the contributed provisions, few weeks others followed ; women single man, in velty were farmers sent in cattle which exchanged for materials for ship-building.The noand experienced from a distance, builders shipattracted adventurers the of undertaking All who aided and skill to the work. arrived to give their strength and joiners share whether or in the enterprise, children,received their proportionate women, men, November she in was and launched, In work last the was commenced, in the ship. April than tons six hundred burden, and christened the California a splendid ship of more on She is now Packet.' in Boston with her passengers board, those who built and own One of the most the newspapers. of Maine, and
" n. "

her,and

to

whom

she is

now

home.

We
our

need New

not

say that the

men

and

women we

who
can

this company are compose Boston refer with pride.";

"

specimens of

to whom England population,

Transcript.

192
then

'

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

Under the tariffof 1828, we imported to exportthem. obliged them, the Compromise;' of thought. Under little the were subjects they for so much coin that we became and then there came a demand bankrupt, Under the tariffof much we for 1842, came a imported gold. gold, rage mind. Under the tariffof 1846, and the idea ceased to occupy the public in debt, to a dehave exported mand we preparatory much, and have run largely that shall come, it willagainbe sought for as it was for gold. When
and then in 1842. the evidences of the wastefulness of the existing system may be at which the number of places the rage for increasing goldis to be The neither adds the quantity marked called mints. to and mint weighed that and it the of the is is now minted, nor thing yet improves quality posed prosix or eight hundred thousand dollars in makingan addition to spend

Among

found

"

to

the number
are now

there The

is to be performed, although for the work that is to be done. of freight and interest. Were the governin view is the saving object ment for it at full price, and then to to receive bullion in New York,paying of in which buildings
more

this work

far

than

are

needed

it at its own transport

amount -to

cost

half

as

much

as

back and forth, the freight and interest would not and were the same the salaries of the officers, would

it would erect as many as of furnaces, to the building capital applied than half the goldand much iron would for more as as produce pay
*

silver coined in the year 1848, the amount of which was $4,450,000. It is time that the planters and farmers of the Union should look to these matters for for theyit is that have to suffer by the waste of capital. themselves, evidence of the diminishing of Great Britain Striking power of the people and Ireland to obtain the comforts and conveniences of life, may be found in the of gold and silver plate, of statement of the quantity following including, and other articles of at the ing followstamped forks, daily course, spoons, use, : periods

The

to

last thirty years have witnessed the passage of a series of compelthe peopleto use more goldand silver; yet,with of the system, their ability to be customers to the men The market

laws tending the sion extenwho mine

those metals has declined almost one-third. well as that of the planter. as With the diminution The of his powers. the distant The

of the miner is diminishing

of the necessities of man there is a constant increase furnace and the mill diminish his necessity for going to

while giving him roads by which to seek it at his pleasure. market, to eat the food and wear the cotton, and the shipbrings immigrants food received from them tends largely to diminish the cost of sending freight and cotton to distant lands. So is it with gold. The nearer the consumer be brought the less is the necessity and producer for it, and the can together, it. The tendency, of the tariffof 1846 is to greaterthe power of obtaining the necessity for it and diminish the power of obtaining because it increase it, tends to diminish the value of both land and labour.

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.

193

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION AFFECTS

EIGHTEENTH.
THE FRIENDS OF PEACE.

and ploughs the larger is the return to labour. spades employed, more the greater is the number of persons perfectly peace is maintained, who may employthemselves with spades and ploughs, the more must rapid be the increase of production, and the larger be the reward of the must labourer and the capitalist. The more swords and muskets employed, must be the return to the.smaller
more

The

The

be the number of persons must are made,the greater and muskets, the slower must be the increase of production, and the smaller must be the reward of the labourer and the capitalist. Protection is said to be a " war If it be so, it upon labour and capital." tend to promote war. must We are urged to adopt for maintaining the measures and are assured that, bute monopolysystem of England, by doing so, we shall contrito the establishment of peace. To prove that such would be the effect, it would be necessary to show that the colonial system had heretofore tended of that greatend. to the accomplishment what has been the cause examine of most of the wars of If, however,we the last hundred and fifty shall find that has been the it desire for years, we
more wars

labour. The

swords employing

the possession of colonies whose people could be made " customers," and thus taxed for the supportof the country that ruled over them. Prance had and she desired the countrywest of the Mississippi Canada, ; she had islands in the West Indies, and she wanted more. had and wanted more. some England France and England both in settlethe which should to were India, and, question desolated by the march of contending armies seriesof France had colonies a nd hence the of to a long war lose, during years. and hence the rupture 1793. France wanted colonies in the Mediterranean, of the peace of Amiens,and the series of wars that closed with Waterloo.
tax

the

that country was whole,

Since that time we have had a succession of wars in India for the extension of British power over and the Punjaub. Siam, Affghanistan, Scinde, Ceylon, her to open The chief object of the war with China was that of compelling her portsto foreign and it accounted a was righteous enterprise commerce, thus to trade.
not to

compelthe poor Chinese to with At the Cape,the war

be seized outdone, makes
war on on

of free open their eyes to the blessings the Caffres has cost millions. France, and deposed its poor queen; and at Tahiti,

because theywill the poor Sandwich Islanders, China did with her do with in to not permit as England opium. One brandy the of to enable nation sells to of the people Africa, English powder portion who are sold as slaves, them to carry on wars in which theymake prisoners, while another portion watches the coast to see that the slaves shall not be for colonies has caused the waste transferred to Cuba or Brazil. The anxiety hundreds of millions on the worthless of thousands of a nd of hundreds lives, this moment it is the Algeria.Thus everywhere nations to measures is seen stimulating
same

for trade the anxiety everywhere and the to impoverishment tending

;

highor low valuation of man. because men are Russia makes war cheap. France supportslarge readily, armies at small cost. The East India Company'sarmy consists of many Men in India are cheap. Belgiumsupportsbut a hundred thousand men. valuable. Englandis weigheddown by are more small army, because men and than on the continent, because wages are higher her fleetsand armies, Could the enlistment. to depend on she is therefore compelled voluntary and with fleets to dispense be raised,she would be compelled priceof men
the
25

destruction of their fellow-men. The power to make war depends upon

194

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

to exist. Throughout for colonies would cease and the necessity the armies, of small account, held where armies have been large were men and world, throughout theyhave tended to become less valuable as armies became more
numerous.

is to be found in the diminished or diminishing tiveness producThe increasing shows. of labour, as our own experience difficulty the dispersion from 1835 to 1842,produced of support, of obtaining the means Texas the and the in of of men that led to the war Oregon, Florida, occupation with Mexico,and the occupation the war with Great Britain, of difficulty The
cause

of

war

about the The

and this latteris now leading us into discussions with Great Britain California; the of to California, which,but for the dispersion king, Mosquito rights would those of the King of Bantam. little than would interestus more
avenue

the colonial system is with us, as with all, land. diminish the of labour and tends to value When
we

to war,

because it

from an anxlook to the internal condition of those nations that, iety and have in wars, for "ships, been always colonies, commerce," engaged maintained fleets find it a scene of universal discord. Louis Philippe we the of and at 'others and armies, at one time in subjugation Algeria, engaged similar elsewhere-. The unproin the seizure of Tahiti, and in enterprises ductive and the burden to be borne by the pronumbers, ductive of 1848,followed by class increased in weightuntil the explosion barricades of towns, and by a series of disturbances a producing necessity still further the number for increasing of unproductive men rying carconsumers, the maintenance of internal peace. Engto secure muskets, required land maintains large fleetsand armies for the protection of commerce and class increased in her whole empire is " a scene of rude commotion." At home, chartists her in Ireland, monster we see revolution; attempting meetings followed by appeals and effortsat separation, to arms effortsat ; in Canada, followed by the presentdetermination to effect peaceable revolution, tion separaand colonies, universal discord among and the the employers Indies, and everywhere for a perpetual difficulties, India, necessity armies for the purpose of maintaining internal peace, or, in maintaining large other words, for preventing those who have property from being plundered by those who have it not, and enabling those who are strong to tax those who
; in the West

employed ; in

are

weak. With the diminution gradual

see an

we England,

in the productive of power of the people increase of discord between the employers and the employed

and accompanied by more serious numerous, and machinery added to the injury buildings being from long suspensions of labour. of In Scotland, the population resulting whole districts is expelled to make while other districts way for sheep, sent prethe results, destruction of view outrages similar to those exhibited in the lands further South. of almost universal war, the land-holder in one we see a scene Ireland, his tenants and destroying their houses, while in thousands place expelling
to

more ; strikes becoming

In

of others tenants

are

seen

off and secreting their crops, to carrying

see

avoid the

payment of
If
we

rent.

similar events resulting from every attemptto assimilate our system to that which has produced the ruin of the British colonies. At no periodof our history such universal discord among has there prevailed and employed employers of the lastfew years of the Compromise The productiveness as during act.

throw down

look at home, we the barrier of

and protection

labour was, as we have seen, gradually and the employers were diminishing, unable to pay to the employed such wages as would enable them to obtain the same of conveniences and comforts as theyhad before enjoyed. amount The year that has now closed has been signalized by the same state of things

THE
"

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

195

we

coal region, labour became less productive. At one time as have had turn-outs among miners coal operators, another and at among and labourers, and the result has been that the year has been one of almost total loss. If we compare with, this the period that elapsed between 1844 and 1847, increase in the productive steady power" attended by an the natural and employed, increasing tendency harmony among employers
we see

the roughout

in the latter a

to

result of

improvementof condition.

from the maintenance of the colonial system thus resulting nance turbulence and radicalism that compels the mainteto a tendency produces followed results of armies, and all the injurious by further exhaustion, borne land. and exceed production, Cannot are by labour and Consumption mouths to whatever decreases the proportion which hands to producebear to falls fed backs diminishes that be and the share of food and clothing to be clothed, to each. Englandnow raises almost seventymillions of taxes,very many of which are required in the work of collecting for the payment of those employed into the treasury.To these millions raised the remaining millions that are paid millions for the supportof one-ninth of by the State must now be added eight who for the supportof the population of England are paupers, and many more The.exhaustion millions the paupers of Ireland. Here is a burden of above four hundred and land of which is to be borne by the labour of dollars, the whole weight her The and ultimately land alone. of Englandand of the wprld, people by but the land cannot. The power to pay rent depends can fly, upon, the power
to

make

and

and,as that increases with increase of numbers, produce, and intellectualcondition of the in the physical, moral, improvement
the land

dition. with diminution of numbers and deterioration of conof the In the three years endingwith 1845, consumption spirits, amounted to domestic and eolonial, 23,422,295galls. in 1848,it was In the three years ending 25,326,861* " with the diminishing to inebriation increasing a tendency power to showing

it diminishes labourer,

for labour a suitable reward. tion, increases demoralizaand pauperism Demoralization produces pauperism, of the of the out be supported and the inebriate paupers must products cultivation in and diminished food of Russia has Ireland, The surplus land. with Irish is England now overrun has,of course, diminished production. follow in labourers and paupers, and what has happenedin Ireland must and cotton goods England. More corn will continue to be imported, more out of which rent and taxes of the land, but the products will be obtain irireturn
.

exported ; will diminish, and,while the mouths to be fed will increase paid, in number, the food with which theyare to be fed will continue to diminish The corn-laws constituted the barrier of the land-holders of in quantity. ing deterioratthe effectsof.the system by which Englandwas Englandagainst Their abolitiontends the world. the value of labour and land throughout and the onlyremedy is to and more more it daily to bring upon themselves, 'of the be found in the abolition of the colonial system and the suppression
are

to

be

The diminution of its existence renders necessary. will he attended by an increase of productive ones, consumers unproductive to home-grownfood, and the exportsof Englandwill then againrepresent rection and with every step in that diand cotton, be returned in sugar, tea,coffee, and the power to pay them will for taxes will diminish, the necessity fleetsand armies which increase. If
we

look at home, we
fact is adduced

see

to tendency

increase in the

for taxanecessity
of the evidences

July,1849, as by the EdinburghReview, trade. free from of the advantage resulting

*

This

one

196
tlon with every

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and dimito thev colonial system, nished step towards subjection

direction. The exin the opposite thereto as we move penses tendency of the governmentunder the administration of Mr. Monroe averaged thirteen millions. Those of the administration of Mr. Adams little averaged of 1828,and in the twelve millions. Duringthe existence of the tariff over maintained at thirfind the expenditure teen we Compromise, of population the gradual arrive at we dispersion and thirty-three of thirty, the Florida war, and an expenditure thirty-seven, until we millions in three successive years, and afterwards falling gradually With the adopof 1843 to 1844. find it at twenty millions in the period tion to war, and the find an increasing of free-trade doctrines, we tendency it is difficult millions. Lookingat all these facts, to sixty rising expenditure of period early the but with millions, tends to increase the arrive at any other conclusion than that protection and to diminish and the reward of labour, demand for spades and ploughs, that demand for swords and muskets which leads to the destructionof both
to

and the plough. The friend of peace is therefore directly interested in the destruction of the English monopolyof machinery. should find it attended be a war labour and If protection we capital, upon the contrary, with diminished production and increased expenditures. on If, the labourer it be,as its name to both labourer and capitalist, protection imports, tending then it should be attended with increased to augment the value of the labourer, have diminished We before and now us expenditure. production the
at

while fact, that,

one more

about

dollar per

to period

the government, from 1824 to 1833,was administered head,the cost of administration rose in the free-trade in the periodof proto fall again to one than two dollars, tection,

free-tradeone.* Trotection and to. rise to almost three in the present looks homeward. under existing looks abroad, Free trade, and circumstances, needs fleetsand armies, with hosts of officers, houses, greatcustom-houses and warebranch mints in Californiaand New York, ministers plenipotentiary without number and hosts of officers at home, to be supabroad, charges ported of labour and land. The one looks to cheap and out of the proceeds the. to good government ; the other to a splendid profitable one, governors, but fatal to the governed. that under protection the value of labour at home has increased, We have seen and increase in the power of conan suming do not ourselves produce. We have also seen that while it tends to increase the importation of people from abroad, it tends likewise to facilitate the transmission to Europeof our modities, bulkycomand

that therewith there has been

as we

such commodities, foreign

us by enabling

while thus, the number who remain

and that to send them at almost nominal 'freights, it raises the value of labour throughout the world by diminishing

of persons seeking it also raises it by enabling those employment, abroad to obtain sugar, cotton, and the other productions coffee, of the West, at diminished cost. The way to promote harmony among and in the bosom of nations, is to increase the value of man, and nations, such has
once

That object been,and must continue to be the result of protection. all necessity for custom-houses, whether for protection or accomplished, will
cease.

for revenue,

contributes to the supportof war makes war, and if he does and he it voluntarilyis accountable for the results thereof in the deterioration The
man

who

and

the amount of money paid for the expenses of the Mexican war issued' to sol have been ninety thousand land warrants purchase of California, diers who served in the war, giving to them Estimating as bounty 13,800,000acres. this land at the government $1 25 an acre, we have an aggregate of $17,230,000. price,
*

of Independently

the

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

197

destruction of his fellow-men. Of all the people of the world, there are none who have contributed so largely of the fleets as ourselves to the maintenance and armies by which Ireland has been ruined, has been carried and war throughout we Europe and Asia. So far as we have done this voluntarily, much for the destruction of life and propertyin China, are as responsible and Scinde, Affghanistan, the
as Punjaub,

the

men

by whose

command

these

things
We
consume

were

done.

that Englandproduces littleto export, seen yet is she enabled to much. The producer obtains little for his cotton, yet the labourer obtains little clothing for the time employed in converting the cotton into obtains little cloth, The sugar-planter iron for his sugar, yet the miner has little The tobacco-grower has littlecloth for his prosugar for his labour. duct, but the
to
can spinner consume

have

little tobacco.

The

reason

for all this is

the consumer and the producer stands a host of exchangers, the greatest of which is that which collects taxes to b% out for the supportof fleetsand armies. Everypound of cotton that travels paid contributes its proportion on an to the "108,000 of taxes railway, English the single London and North-western railway, the "68,000paidby the Great Western,* other of the immense ways. some or sums paidby other railof tobacco 72 3s. towards the nance mainteEvery pound cents, pays

be found in the fact that between

paid by

of the fleetsand armies of Great

taxes
on

bills of warehouses,

in addition to Britain, and promissory exchange, notes, stand between

its share of the

other taxes the consumer. be

paidby

the various persons who

men

of the thousand the producer and

must
"

These

paid for them

by

the land

and their taxes themselves, produce nothing and labour that do produce whether

it be

domestic. or foreign war-making Englandis now the great power of the world. the of iron, and of machinery for of the monopoly production

It is by means for the

sion conver-

that she is enabled to tax the world for the nance mainteof cotton into cloth, for the prosecution of those wars. To destroy of her fleets and armies,f would be to bring about peace. Protection tends to her power to make war of the world, and thus to limit her power to tax the farmers and planters while for the payment of soldiersand sailors, limit her power to raise revenue it tends to raise the value of man, and thus make soldiers and sailors more In both ways it tends to diminish the power to maintain fleetsand costly. and to promote the maintenance of peace. Every friend of peace is armies, therefore bound to use his effortsfor the destruction of the monopolysystem. with approbation, Times recently a letterfrom the The London published, from in the battle of Goodjerat, East Indies from a British officer engaged the careful consideration It is deserving is an extract. which the following who has heretofore aided in the maintenance of the system : of every man
"
' "

"

The
. .

dogs.

enemy Some
men

were

in
men

the

sands

of

our

screamed

them over like knocking tryingto escape, and our men off at a out, They are off!' Fordyce'stroops went
'
"

our gallop,

giving them

three cheers

such

cheers

"

it was

a was

scream perfect

and eagerness ! and you may be sure Sikh was either shot or wounded and found four grenadiers;
men

I assisted and

yelled till I
. .

hoarse !
up with
a

ofdelight Every
.

bayoneted (! !)

1 rushed
were

few

of the
was

their re-loading

hacking away
*

at the head

when of the fourth,

pieces; three Compton, of the

bayoneted,and I

shot him. grenadiers,

The

North

British

Review, August, 1849.

fillsfive closely has addresseda letter to the public,which The sum of the navy and its expenses. Times, upon the subject millions about that have to ninety we seems he be, of what spent and substance says twice over, and now we in our rebuilding the last navy twenty-eight years during sterling colonies, find the fragments." Such are the results of the system of " ships, even cannot rSir Charles

Napier

columns printed

of the

"

and

commerce."

198
last shot
was

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.
who seated
can

fired
. . .

at an

unfortunate waited I

Goorer

in the camp,
never

was

their Grunth!
were

We

at thisplace about two

ever

hours; and I

assure

quietly reading you they

so

about the !" life

two hours jolliest

passed. I

enjoyeda

bottle of beer

much

in all my

CHAPTER
PROTECTION

NINETEENTH.
AFFECTS THE EXCHANGER.

HOW

and the consumer. He himstands between the producer self exchanger for which he in exchange much,although consuming nothing, produces sumers, onlyservices. He buysa bale of cloth and divides it among the congives but he make's to to and one a a another, no yard piece giving that the commodities the of his in o r through quantity quality pass change The The bale of cloth would clothe as many men, and the cargo of flour with them. the as as Nevertheless, many, without his services, merchants of before the The takes rank of London, producer. exchanger hands. would New feed

York, and
over

of

have Boston,

more

influence

over

the action of government,

hundred times than twenty,fifty, or even one public opinion, the quantity whose every hour is given of men to increasing and the of to the quality of things use man. improving necessary and the number The
to
reason

that such is the

case

to increase the necessities of the

for goingto producers

is that the presentsystem of trade tends distant markets, and

by the

of iron takes his place diminish their power so to do. When the producer his potatoes, side of his producer of food, the latter exchanges his cabbages, his milk, and his butter, with the former, and obtains his veal, directly

enabled to improve his wagon his iron at littlecost of labour. He is thereby and to go to market cheaply, thus increasing his powers while and his roads, his necessities: The more and the producer, distant the consumer diminishing be the quantity and the poorer the greater must of machinery of exchange, be its quality, and every such changein regard to either tends to the of the farmer and planter. impoverishment Such beingthe case, it mightbe supposed that here was of discord. a case The exchangers would suffer by the adoption of measures to bring tending ever, the consumers the reverse, howto take their places by each other. Directly is the fact. The quantity to be exchanged dependson the extent of the surplus and that increases with prodigious that is produced, as rapidity food the power of production is increased. The man who produces no more than is absolutely has nothing to exchange consumption, necessary for his own he may exchange whatever for cloth or iron. Once fed, the whole surplus, it be,and therefore it is that the amount of exchanges increases with such when production wonderful rapidity the case from 1843 to as was increases,
must

1847.
the return to labour applied the less must be the to production, larger in for the work and the lesswill of seeking e mployment necessity exchange, be the competition in trade. Our citiesare filledwith young men from the The

country who would

the cotton them give
or

have

remained

at

home

among

had parentsand friends,

the furnace or the rolling-mill, been there to factory, but it been not have as was compelled employment there, they ; almost infinite number of clerks, to add themselves to the already hoping, obtain and vainly for themselves. t o stores or bringing hoping, shops By in future, to the side of the producer, the consumer such young men would, remain at home to swell the number of producers, and to increase the amount each exchanger of busi of production, amount to perform a larger enabling the him rich with and commission that to of rate same now keeps ness, grow

woollens

poor

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS;

199
fourcities,
are

It is asserted that of all the in our persons engagedin trade, fifths fail. The cause is to b'e found in the fact that so many into trade, for want of being enabled to themselves to

forced

that when which sells at

there

theyare

result from
one

and production, the effects of the enormous changes the existence of the Englishmonopoly system. Iron

apply

exposed to

time at ten has

a

pounds,and
on

soon

after at five. The

man

of small

in hand,is ruined. Cottons and woollens change like manner. At one moment change Englanddesires to sell iron and cloth in exfor certificates of debt, and money is said to be plenty. At the next, she asks to be paid, and money becomes is The little capitalist scarce. ruined by the change.. The consequence that filledwith cities our are is,
men

who capital,

stock

who In

have adventured

in

and trade,

failed.

effectsare far more felt. The country widely is filled with anxious to be men in of young employed any department for in the work of production be found no demand for time or can trade, with large The consequence is a perpemind,unless accompanied capital. tual strife for obtaining the means of subsistence, even shopmen, among and journeymen,* while the unceasing clerks, changes carry ruin,at brief the The last three have to disappear seen intervals, employers. among years number of the a firms in the large principal trading kingdom, and the exhibits theyhave made of their affairsafford proofconclusive of the ruinous character of the system. In Liverpool, at one time,there were 7000 houses and stores unoccupied. What had become of those who had been their occupants ?
to

these-disastrous England,

the whole system is to produce for trade, and a necessity the power to maintain trade. " Commerce," "is there, king," and like other kings, his own he is exhausting subjects. Havingplundered and ruined India, the West Indies, and all other countries Ireland, Portugal, diminish

The

of tendency

he is now to his control, the same With every step at home. subject doing he is diminishing the power of applying labour to production, and increasing the necessity for looking of employing to trade as the only means time, with constantly return to all; and hence it is or talent, capital, decreasing that so large of the people of the United Kingdom desire to escape a portion to other lands, where Commerce, finding in agriculture and manufactures his be king. In his proper place he is most useful, cannot but as equals, he has always than any recorded even master in the a tyrantworse proved of the colonial system was that of making annals of Eome. The object him
to

master, and
his true

its effects are

an

now

felt at home
to

as

well

as

abroad. him bring

The back whose

of protection is to put object interests are those who

end

condition ; and among to be promoted more by the

now

his tyranny,and to the whole people there of accomplishment

are

none

that

than object

are

the amount increase in the

*

crease engagedin commerce, because with every stepit will inwithout a corresponding of exchanges to be performed, number of exchangers.
tailors are in London unemployed, and hundreds daily totally dred call; the funds are, however, exhausted, Nine hunand seventeen hundred the books, are have their names on
now

"

Fourteen

hundred

applying

for relief to the houses

out

of

shoemakers

of work The
so

working for half

There trade
were are now
"
"

wages. known

curriers and

leather-dressers

are

in the

same

situation.

never

holding

to

working jewellersout of employ, and meetings of the many petition parliament for protectionagainst the competition of

labour. foreigr.

Morning Post.

200

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

CHAPTER
HOW

TWENTIETH.
AFFECTS WOMAN.

PROTECTION

the condition of every increase in the value of labour and land, her she has With in is improved. woman condition, every improvement them her and leisure to devote to the care of more children, to fitting worthily If protection value to labour and land. their station in society, to fill giving diminution tend it in the to be "a war upon labour and capital," must With value of labour and land, and to deterioration in the condition of the weaker examine. How far that is the case we may now sex. of this is almost a country,the time of women large portion Throughout if but there would work is no valueless. They theycould, gladly entirely

employmentbut

that

on

the

in every county of the Union a and for that now labour, surplus and and better food and clothing,

farm, for which they are not fitted. Place and there will thus be produced a demand mill,

the workers in the mill will obtain more theywill be able to obtain more and better their minds, books and and and fit by which to improve clothing, education, to which theywill then be called. For them to fillthe station of mothers, of

forced to seek the cities, are or to local, employment the young men thousands of women thousands and of remain at tens the and to fly West, while other thousands also seek the citiesin search of emhome unmarried, ployment, because unable to comand terminate their career as pete prostitutes, of the following with the " cheap" labour of the unhappysubjects cle, artiwhich I take from one of the newspapers of the day:
want
"

"

The
have

distressed needle-women examined

a

of London

have

been

made

the

of object
well

commission in^litera-

of

inquiryinstituted by the body

of about

Morning Chronicle.
of this unfortunate

Three

gentlemen

known

luie

the state

London

33,000 women

that there lives in and the result is, class, working at permanently at the starvation point;

of a few pence the wages a day. " The greater portion of these poor

state, resort

to

a as prostitution,

means

as they do,far beyond the social creatures, living, of eking out their miserable subsistence ; whenever

the pressure then they turn threatens their extinction, into inevitable vice. Since the disclosures of the

into the street,and pauperism runs Morning Chronicle,many humane for disconsiderable sums of money to the office of that journal tribution persons have forwarded necessitous the most forward objects among ; and Mr. Sidney Herbert has come for promoting their emigration. There is something like half a million to found a society in excess in Great Britain ; there is a correspondingexcess of men of males in of women The society the British Australian Colonies. above mentioned aims to bring these marriageable partiesin contact; and it is hoped, that when once it is in operation, government

will assist it with funds.

It

costs

some

."15

to

transport

passenger

to

Australia.

Now, if privatebenevolence raises a sum of "30,000, this will only relieve 2000 of the whose be sensible in the metropolis. It sufferers : a mere absence would not fraction, would to lade out the misery to.the proper requireten times that amount extent, and also of the colonists." the wants to satisfy and such are his female subjects. is king," To the same with them, fallall those who are under the necessity of competing the results of the approach now to the system that looks to are even the maintenance of the English monopolyas beingfreedom of trade. The for female labour is even miserably small, compensation now, but it must fall "Commerce level must and such far lower when of shall be called upon to settlethe account for the modicum a nd earthenware that for all our receive in we silk, iron, wool, exchange
we

and evidences of debt. flour, tobacco, rice, pork,cheese, butter, cotton,

"

So God

created

man

in his

own

in image, And

the

image of

him;

male and female created he them.

God

blessed them

God created he and said

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. the replenish

on or

201
earth and he due sub-

unto

them, Be

fruitful and

and multiply, of God to man a moral

it." Such was does not

to

the firstcommand

earth, and,as
immoral

does the

or sociation as-

he complywith it, of
man

is found

being. If

with his fellow-man

tend to the elevation of character and

of civilization, how infinitely is such the result of that more promotion intimate association resulting from obedience to the command, "Be fruitful The relation of husband and multiply." and wife, and that of parent and both essential to the development of all that is goodand kind, are child, tle genand thoughtful. The desire to provide for the wife and the child prompts the means of present the husband to labour, for the purpose of acquiring port, supand to economy of preparation for the future. The desire as a means the and the children prompts the wife to exertions to providefor the husband and to sacrificesthat that would otherwise have been deemed impossible, but a wife or a mother could make. none " tiply. The modern school of political economy says, Be not fruitful; do not muldience disobeIt faster than food." tends increase to prescribes Population Obedience thereto, in those who to the earliestof God's commands.

dent improvidence ; and to those who are so improviand amplesupfor no sure provision the future, port to pronounce it is thought important for the present," distinctly even have theyany claim to share of social right or justice, on no that, principle selfof their more more the earnings the more or energetic, prudent, savings with whom whom a nd wife for to have fellow-citizens."* To a labour, denying abstinence from which is placed is a luxury, to enjoythe fruits of labour, and proall the kindly vident iigh among the virtues. To have children to develope of crime is of the a worthy punishment.Charity parents, feelings To rent land of population. to promote the growth is denounced as tending the numincrease it tends to because ber is at less than the full price, an error,
are

poor, is denounced "with to marry, as

as

no

"

have lived and be fed. To clear the land of thousands whose ancestors " but places for allotments are died on the spot,is improvement." Cottage
to

breeding paupers. denounced Southey

may we of the of the

and so satanic," Byronianschool of poetry as that has of do with the school grown out political economy fairly the make of to work-shop England colonial system,and the desire ings and that any feelIt teaches every thingbut Christianity, world." the
" "

of kindness towards those who are so unfortunate as to be poor should have not is due to the fact that those who teach it. remain in England, still what theypreach. faith to practise in their doctrine sufficient monopolyof machinerywhich it is The direct tendencyof the existing is towards barbarism. It drives hundreds the object oifreetrade to maintain, and barbarize and sisters, wives, to abandon mothers, of thousands of Englishmen behind a large while of those who remain themselves in the wilderness, in the which are seen of the to too consequences are marry, poor portion child murder. of occurrence and the perpetual of prostitution extent immense thousands of men hundreds of the almost Of the is it same. In this country would have a vast portion who have fled to the wilds of Oregon Or California, been allowed the consumer had sisters and mothers with remained at home since have would he the as of long side the producer, to take his place by unnatural system. done,but for the existence of this most is a perfect there the of harmony of interests, world, Among the women and be elevated, should all condition of the that all It is to the interest of The labour. of the value in increase object such must be the result of an
*

Edinburgh Review, October,1849.

,

26

202
of

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.

the world the value of man, and is that of raising throughout protection who has condition of thus improving the woman. Every woman, therefore, the should of her fellow-women at heart the elevation throughout world, of protection. advocate the cause
CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

TWENTY-FIRST.
AFFECTS MORALS.

The

moral

man

and himself. society,

is sensible of the duties he owes neither taverns He frequents

to. his
nor

his children, wife, His gaming-houses.

is home. place the the morality The more perfect

will he the labour of a more productive of its members be the to improve will and the community, greater power be " a war upon labour their moral and intellectualcondition. If protection and the tion diminuit must tend to the deterioration of morality and capital," between the sexes, the greater a community and the will be morality. will be the power to contract higher matrimony, and produce the men in the The monopoly system tends to expel inequality number of the sexes, and thus to diminish the power to contract matrimony, The object of protection to immorality. is to a tendency producing thereby enable
men

of the reward of labour. The more the division of equal

to

remain

exist where The more

to

the
men

about equality, which cannot home, and thus bring exists. to tendency dispersion remain at home, the better theycan perform their duties can
at

their children.

The

monopolysystem
and

tends to
to

compel them

to

their

in distant markets exchanges

separatethemselves

form perfrom

the consumer wives and children. The object of protection is to bring to enable the side of the and them effecttheir take his place to by producer,
at home. exchanges with the producer, the lesswill The more the consumer exchanges directly be the disposition and the power to commit frauds. The farmer of Illinois is cheap has no object his corn, because corn in adulterating ; but the miller is dear. The planter of Englandmixes beans with the corn, because corn would gainnothing flour for cotton, because the of Alabama by substituting of Englanddoes so because cotton is latter is cheap; but the manufacturer delivers coffee. The Englishshopkeeper tutes substidear. The coffee planter b ecause the for latter is dear. The inducement to chicory coffee, results from the distance between the producer fraud in these cases and the of protection The shoemaker to diminish. consumer, which it is the object his shoes for but he makes indifferent for the customers makes good ones ; deal with that distant. furnishes traders who The gunsmith to are persons his neighbours guns that will stand the proof;but when he makes others to he cares little if theyburst at the firstfire. The necessity be sold in Africa, the monopolyof machinery for maintaining now by Englandleads enjoyed the of every description, with a view to displace to frauds and forgeries foreign produceand deceive the foreign producer.*The power to commit I take the followingfrom one of the journals of the day : specimen of this, to see surprised ginghams in market, sent out from England by the house of A. " S. Henry " Co. of Manchester, imitatingthe above goods in patterns,width,and of But and finish. most unfair imitation is in the label, a palpable where, preserving style the same to size, colour of paper and ornaments, the word as general appearances
*

As

"

We

are

Lancaslman

is substituted for Lancaster.

That

the whole

is

manifest

and

intentional

The goods will, be a doubt. there cannot undoubtedly,be sold for American counterfeit, of Lancaster ginghams, to which they are inferior in firmness of fabric and permanency manufacturer of the profits and reputation to the manifest injury of the American colour, "Boston paper.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

203

frauds thus results from the distance between the consumer and the producer. Protection looks to bringing them near and nishing together, thus dimithat power. The planter who exchanges the spot with the iron-master and the on makes large and the gainresulting from successmiller, ful crops and grows rich, frauds would be trifling with the loss of character. The one compared who is distant from both makes small increased in crops, which are sensibly amount by the substitution of stones in lieu of cotton or tobacco. The inducement and the
nearer

frauds here resultsfrom the distance between the consumer is diminished as the loom and the anvil come to the plough and the harrow.
to commit

and producer,

who makes his exchanges man in distant markets spends much time the road and in taverns, and is liable to be led into dissipation. The he can effecthis exchanges more at home, the less is the danger of any such result. The object of the monopoly him to system is that of compelling effectall his exchanges at a distance^ and to employfor that purpose numerous and other persons, most of .whom .have scarcely sailors, wagoners, porters, any home except the tavern.
on

The

less does trade resemble is monopolysystem to subjectthe produceof the world to a standardof the most variable kind, and to render agriculture, and The is to mere manufactures, trade, objectof protection gambling. withdraw the produce of the world from that standard, enabling every comr
more

The

uniform

the standard

of

value,the

gambling. The

of the object

munityto
The

measure

of its labour the products the

by its

own

standard, giving

labour for labour. and its Englishsystem is to promote centralization, that of the is o f in man dispersion compelling necessary consequence search of food.* London and Liverpool, Manchester and Birmingham, have grown with vast rapidity by the same system which has exhausted and the West Indies. The same India, journalinforms us of Ireland, the construction of a new town of the.great additions opposite Liverpool, for promoting from Ireland, to London, and of the absolute necessity emigration from each As and successive even Scotland, provinceis England. arises and for t here even a a desire, exhausted, necessity addingto the list. be ceased and is attempted, to productive, Bombay having Afghanistan Bengal The ruin of the West Indies is followed by and the Punjaubis conquered. the Chinese to perfect for the purpose of compelling invasion of China, an and freedom of trade. The Highlands are depopulated, Australia iscolonized. cities to be "greatsores." He desired that the Mr. Jefferson held great that the should take his place by the side of the agriculturist and the harrow. to the plough loom and the anvil should be in close proximity for himself. He had studied political Mr. Jefferson looked and thought manufacturer
"

of object

before it became necessary for Mr. should that account satisfactorily population economy
*
"

Malthus for the

to

invent

of theory

of food under scarcity

seem

to exaggeration suffer physieallyj general from and under-fed ; and yet I am vinced conbeing over-worked intellectually, the more shall be investigated, the subject deeply shall we become that the more It is true that but few impressed with the truth and importance of the statement. the absolute want food for several successive direct starvation, of or from die persons whose days, but it is not the less certain that thousands upon thousands are annuallycut off,, nourishment. of of shortened labour and excess deficiency been by lives have greatly * * It is a rare thing for a hard-working artisan to arrive at a good old age ; almost all become prematurely old,and die long before the natural term of life." Combe's Philosophy

To

those who
a

have

never

reflected

pn

the

it may subject,
of the

like

that,as morally,and
say

feet,at

least nine-tenths

lower

orders

"

ofDigestion.

204
the unnatural

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and thus relieve the law-makers of that of England, policy of He studied, too, before Mr. country from all charge mis-government. of which it was of for the maintenance Bicardo had invented a theory rent, the work the of that beginning settlement, poor cultivator, necessary to prove and river-bottoms and commenced always upon the rich soils the swamps he had recourse to the poor soilsof the that with the progress of population labour and therefore it was to return a constantly diminishing hills, yielding Modern financiers have blindly that he thought for himself. the adopted and the perEnglish system,based on the theories of Malthus and Ricardo, fection
"

"

"

held to be found in that system which shall of civilizationis now the manufacturer build and most widely most separate rapidly up greatcities, The more the the greater, from the agriculturist. perfect centralization, towards will be the to tendency improvement. according them, that which Would in favour of combined action, as being was tend human to most and moral, improvement, physical, intellectual, promote That it does so, would seem to be obvious, as it is where bination compolitical. live best and are best instructed of action most exists that men Mr. Jefferson
"

commit least crimes, and think most for themselves. There, there exists too, the strongest desire to have protection. A recent traveller* in the United States, with which says that "the facility accommodate their speculative to their opinions conscientiously every people local and individual interests, is sufficiently demonstrated the that fact, by " the several States and sections of States, embark as in theysuccessively the whether manufacture,
converts

to

other articles, become immeor diately iron, cotton, which had views, protectionist against they previously

of

declaimed." the desire for protection results from a selfish b ut the devoted to manufactures of others, persons exclusively kind few in number too to affectthe and are elections, yet wherever mills any furnaces are established, the majority of the people become advocates of or the doctrine of protection, and that majority consists of agriculturists, mainly
"

It is here desire to tax

that supposed

farmers and planters. perience Why it is so,may be found in the fact that theyexthe benefits resulting from making a market on the land for the of the land, and desire that their neighbours products may do the same.

selfishnesswould induce them to desire to retain for themselves the Ignorant selfishnesswould induce them to advantage theyhad gained.Enlightened teach others that which theythemselves had learned. selfishness is the characteristic of the savage. It disappears as Ignorant the habit of association with their men The men. acquire neighbour claimed proof the monopoly for a necessity object system is that of producing ourselves of over and thus the scattering large surfaces, increasing difficulty and the i s attained. The of heaven association, object says' itself," prospect in one of his novels, "would have no charm for an American of the Cooper, if he thought there was further west." backwoods, any place Such is the common It is believed from that men impression. separate each other because of something in their composition that tends to produce a desire for flying there probably to wild lands, of fever, on to perish brought to leave behind them all that tends to make life by exposure, and certainly desirable. Such is not the character of man anywhere. He is everywhere remain to when at he of and if the farmers and planters disposed home, can, the Union can be brought to understand their true interests, he will at home and doing remain, so, his condition and that of all around him, will be im"

Sir Charles

Lyell.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

205

proved. The
With it comes

habit of association is necessary to the improvement of man. the love of the good and the beautiful. "I wish," says the " that author of a recent could create a general agricultural we address, for gardening and horticulture. We want," he continues, "more passion about our houses. The scenes of childhood are the memories of our beauty future years. Let our dwellings be beautified with plants and flowers. Flowers ' the in the of late a of childhood and language are, cultivator, playthings the ornaments of the grave ; theyraise smiling looks to man and grateful to God.' " ones about our houses, and not onlyabout our houses beauty and that it may be obtained, must rid ourselves of we minds, makes the producer a system which the servant of the exchanger. Such is the object of protection. It is most truly said that '.'there is no friendship in trade." As now carried it not does tend to certainly on, promote kindly feelings among the human it do so while the system remains unchanged.The great can race, nor of traders of discord. By so doing, object appears to be the production has obtained the supreme control of India. Her journals are ceasingly unEngland in sowing discord among the various portions of this Union, engaged
more

We do want but about our

be successful were it not that there is no real discordance in their true interests. It is time that the people of Great Britain should open their eyes to the fact that their progress is in the same direction in which have gone the communities and every other that has desired to support It is time that theyshould awake to the fact that the numerous and splendid the perpetual of child-recurrence gin-shops, murder for the purpose of plundering burial societies, and the enormous crease inof crime* and pauperism, but the natural consequence of a system are and that tends to drive capital from the land, to be employed in spindles itselfby the labour of others.
*
"

and

the effortwould

of

Athens,and Rome,

Humanity
were

cries
tied

to us

from
our

millstone
sense one

about

the depths. IF we necks,and that we

we
"

will
were

not- answer cast

her,it were
the
sea.

better
we

into

Have

no

of the

on precipice our

which

stand ? does

Have
not

not

the books of the

now

prophetessbeen
at our

by
us

one

burnt before

from us and leave us to the Furies ? Crime, not volume, tion onward. but striding Murders, poisonings, becoming almost a domestic institustealing, our villages husband, children, parents, drugged to their final home for the among Incest sake of the burial fees. Vice within the law, keeping pace with offence without. winked at by our magistracy from its fearful frequency in our squalidpeasant dwellings. at increasingly meet so that, can Taxation reachingbeyond the pointat which resources it, have to borrow from ourselves to make expenditure square with we shorter intervals, where known never extended to Scotland and Poor Laws income. Ireland, they were of rates, and the Poor Laws in England to check the advance and new failing before, up by the progrowth of inveterate beggary,until property threatens to be swallowed division of us to be realized among by a legalized and a terrible communism pertyless, fearfullest the who have the not those socialism, those who the goods of have, among Three and millions a half of the redress!' strike! of 'Speak! beggary. equal republic the broken,the lost, plead to you in a small still houseless and homeless, the desperate, sulted, of Man, abused, intheories constitution-mongers. the mouthing voice, yet louder than carcass, degraded, shows to you his social scars, his broken members, his maimed blurreil in the conflict of a selfish and abused community. a by-word and to gods and men no We longer be. We are a spectacle say it must feather-head in the midst of our nations.' civilization, the Savages to grow up a hissing and neglected than the Camanches, or the earthmore forgotten, forlorn, wilder,more ditary, deserted infant wretchedness,paupers hereHolland. (if New Ragged foundlings, eaters from older than of our nobles, pedigree grow a beggar up year many boasting eat with brazen front into the substance of struggling to generation, generation j year, offer her final
" "

and eyes she turn ere

the

sybileven

knock

doors

to

"

"

'

industry." The
"

Mother

Smith. Country, by Sydney

206

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of the country, and labour from the healthful and inspiring to" pursuits ships, and Manchester, where severe labour in the in Liverpool seek employment the poor Hindoo, and drive him from his loom, is reeffort to underwork warded sufficientto keepthe labourer from starving in the lanes with just and cellarswith which those citiesso much abound. in trade," and yet trade is the is most true, That "there is no friendship " this school. In is in it and yet to comcommerce merce king," worshipped deity much of the demoralization of the world. The anxowe iety we existing sell cheapinduces the manufacturer to substitute cotton for silk, and for flour cotton,and leads to frauds and adulterations of every description. and loss of honour foliow in the train of itsperpetual revulsions.' Bankruptcy hour beforehand of an approaching obtain and To an intelligence famine,
to at less than it is worth, to hear in advance or thus to be enabledto buy corn than it is worth, at more and to sell it. of the prospectof goodharvests, is To in the coat evidence of superior but an sagacity. buy your cheapest of the poor tailor, and sell your market,careless what are the sufferings is the cardinal in the dearest, thoughyour neighbour may be starving, grain

of this school. principle examination will sufficeto convince the .reader that, has A very slight as frauds increase these and in the ratio been already of shown, overreachings the distance between the
consumer

and travelled far is dear, lands is in remote shoemaker who

poor workmen.* there to eat plenty of good and nourishof food to the side of its producer, ing of cotton to the side of its producer that he may not food ; the consumer of wool and paste need to wear a mixture ; and the shoemaker to the side of the farmer and that planter, the lattermay be
"

cotton produced with to and it is mix it flour. The dear, profitable the auctions and uses supplies employs poor leather, The object of protection is that of bringing the consumer

worthy

to

and the be mixed

producer. The
with beans.

food that has The

with supplied custom-work," He less food, and gains doubly. gives his and condition so own doing, physical the moral condition of the shoemaker are both improved. The whole tendency of the system is to the production of a gambling it makes In in railroad railroad kings, bankrupts, spirit. England, ending like Henry Hudson. If we could trace the effect of the greatspeculation and not " slop-work." By this he better in return. clothing By gets the father, should find thousands and tens of thousands was we build t o of husbands and wives, parentsand children, beggared utterly tion of socialcondiup the fortunes of the few,and thus increase the inequality ing which lies at the root of all evil. If we examine it here, it sendwe see health both for there lose tens of thousands to California, to gold, eager and
*

of which this man

It life.f Take,
as
"

is sending thousands of
illustrationin the head end of the

to boysand girls

our

cities the former

"

an

at

auction.

The

piece is

sold system, the fraud in carpets,such as are usually the web when woven firmlyfor a few yards,

is

side. so that the inside of the piece bears no graduallyslackened, comparison with the outThis is done so adroitly that it is impossiblefor any, but the best judges to tell in for the fabric not only what the cheat consists. There is a double evil in this imposture, but the figures, containingof course grows poorer and thinner as the piece is unrolled, number of threads throughout, the same will not match, their size being increased with interferes with the slackness in weaving. This is not only a positive but it greatly cheat, the honest dealer, whose of course cannot goods being alike throughout, compete in price. It is incredible to what an extent this practice and is carried, it is high time there was some legalremedy.'' Dry Goods Reporter. "This I know who were is one of the strangest placesin Christendom. "jmen, many and all that sort of thing, models of piety, when morality, they first arrived here,and
"

Vol. Ill- -1 J

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

207

to become
are

at

the

same

and the latter prostitutes, while hundreds of thousands shopmen, time making their way to the West, there to begin the work With

of

while cultivation,

untouched.

same

millions upon millions of acres in the old States remain quality social ineevery step of our progress in that direction, tends to increase. The skilful speculator realizes a fortune by the that ruins hundreds around him, and adds to his fortune by operation

facturer manubuyingtheir propertyunder the hammer of the sheriff. The wealthy is unmoved revulsions in which the British market by sweep away his competitors, and,when the storm blows over, he is enabled to double, his already that or quadruple, treble, overgrown fortune. The consequence is, while most alof the in towns one Union, manufacturing spring great quarter up effort and the to localize manufactures the loom (thus bringing every anvil really to the side of the plough and the harrow)is followed by ruin.

The

miner

system tends to make the rich richer and the poor poorer. The coal tains obof the present year works forhalf wages, but the coal speculator
double and thus is it ever the producer is sacrificedto the exchanger. profits, citiesrise filled of the class, growth exchanging great up, become intoxicated. New York has men can cheaply with the and the Five-Points are peopled is sold, liquor make riots. merchants 160 clerks, Astor-place Single employ
"

With the at which with shops, 4567 places at which

men

who

of those who are forced into our citiesand seek to obtain salaries paidby trade ruined. receive are by Opera singers living large the contributions of men whose wages whose shirts are made women by enable live. to them scarcely while thousands
a

and as it must at present tinue conconducted, is if the colonial system be permitted to longer exist, all that which most of and of mere one distinguishes gambling, qualities, nings is ignorant selfishness. He ruins his friends and wastes his winthe gambler been this has extent To what on a running-horse, or on a prostitute. The
to

whole

as system of trade,

be conducted

who have figured the characteristic of the'men most in the walks of largely who familiar with the. concerns be determined those are might by commerce, which I take from of many of the persons described in the following passage,
one

of the

of the day : journals

who were looked up to with reverence "The great merchants of this great mercantile city, phen by the mammon-worshipping crowd twenty years ago" where are they? Ask Stewith survived the shock, of few who have him those and years' thirty Whitney temporaries changes,and they will tellyou, in commercial language, that 93 or 95 per cent, of their conat that date have since become bankrupt,and that the widows of most of those leftfriendless orphans to "the tender or have deceased are either keeping boarding-houses"
"

mercies"
"

of the

commercial of New

world. who of this and last year's accidentsl in the wholesale ask where
or now
"

Look

at

ephemeral

creatures

figure largely
whether

in the great world

commerce,
are

York, whether
or
"

retail line

in

theatricals fashion,

and 'religion

and what

theyor their children

of those most The answer will be such as none to be twenty-years hence. likely ' or They shall heap up probable correctness. deeply in it will be apt to give with precise shall gather them ;' they shall build houses and know not who not who riches and know shall inhabit them;' 'they shall plant vineyards and shall not eat the fruit of them;" names,' and a generationshall rise up and they shall call their lands after their own the oblivion that into a contempt from which possess them who shall laugh those names Herald. N. ". deliverance." a happy shall succeed will seem
' '
"

dated San Extract from a letter most who now desperategamblers and drunkards." are Francisco, July30. " American sixty-six numbers, twelve Lottery- Class No. 1 $10,000 in actual prizes, will be drawn Whole at the ballots. $10 ; half do. $5. This lottery drawn tickets, the third day of October,'49, at twelve on Public Institute in San Francisco, o'clock, M., Newt. of the managers/' Pacific "under the superintendence
" " " "

208
As
a

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.'

the system, and more money becomes more necessary consequence. of the in the contraction of consideration of important engagement object settlements beginto appear among of matrimony,and marriage us. The of for inform, of the execution recent one of the us $200,000. day newspapers
an

Centralization produces it is the same. westward, depopulation, London grows upon the that is followed by povertyand crime. The West and it with bands of plunderers. system that ruins India and fills abound. The late war with gamblers, and land-pirates South-west are filled the of in has brought into existence a new of fraud, species counterfeiting but of the evils from and this is that one land-warrants, resulting many If
we

look

and

measure.

If we look back but a few years, we may see that the periodbetween remarkable for the existence of crime, and it was that 1835 and 1843 was look to the If we now most existed. in which the tendency, to dispersion one between 1843 and 1847,we can see that there was a gradual period tendency and morality the Union. to the restoration of order and quiet throughout In the last year, we may see the reverse. It was marked by turnouts, ordination insuband violence of various kinds in country and in city.Such is the direct consequence of a diminution in the productiveness of labour. The employer to receive less must and the employedis unwilling pay less, than that to which he has been accustomed. The tendency of the colonial system is to increase the number of wagons the men who necesand wagoners, ships and sailors, merchants and traders, sarily much time in hotels and taverns,living the proby exchanging spend ducts of others. The tendency is to increase the number of proof protection ducers of the class that lives at home, surrounded by wives, and children,
"

friends. The one builds up the city of the country at the expense ; the other causes both to grow together. Cities are rivalsfor trade, road to marand when the farmer desires a new ket ton to Charlesit should enable him to go more cheaply New York more than to Philadelphia. London readily is jealous of Liverpool, Discord is everywhere, and Liverpool of London. and the smaller the amount of production, the greater it necessarily be. must than
to Savannah;

he is

lest opposed,

Protection seeks to increase production, and thus establish harmony. It is asserted that protection and therefore to tends to increase smuggling, custom-houses. 1830 to 1834, the chief part was done by men who had homes occupied for whose sake reputation but from 1835 was by wives and families, dear, to 1842, it passed almost entirely who lived in hotels into the hands of men and boarding-houses, and who had neither wives nor families to maintain.
our

deteriorate morals. To determine this question, itwould ascertain what description of men transact business at Prom

be

onlyto required

returned almost back to the former class. It has now and who of agents men whose business is trade, to a false invoice for a commission. swear The honest man, who desires to and to to his country, to society, performhis duties to his wife and children, his Creator, cannot merchandise. The system is a premium importforeign
"

From

1843 to 1847, it went into the hands entirely

on

The

and fraud. immorality of protection is the object

establishment

annexation of men and of nations. domain of free trade, and diminishes

man

free trade, by the perfect here increases the brought Every man for custom-houses. the necessity Every of

here consumes brought four, six, ten,or twelve poundsof cotton for one that he could consume at home, and every one to the farmer is a customer for bushels instead of gills. who Between man the honest and intelligent

desires to
an

see

in improvement

the establishmentof real free-trade, the Christian who desiresto see the standard of morality, who desires an inthe planter

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS. desires
returns larger
at

209
to

creased market

the landowner who labour, and the labourer who land, there is perfect harmony of

for his cotton, the farmer who desires to see an interest.

his

increase in the value the

of his

desires to sell his labour

highest price,

CHAPTER
HOW

TWENTY-SECOND.
AFFECTS
INTELLECTUAL CONDITION.

PROTECTION

The higher the degree of intellect applied to will be the return to labour, larger and the more of capital. If protection be a war upon tend to prevent the growth of intellect.
"

the work

of

the production, be the

lation accumu-

rapidwill
labour and and efforts,
to

it must capital," the greater the the more

The

more

men

are

enabled

to

combine

their

to tendency
can readily

the larger is association,

the return

and labour,

their children.

and schools for theyobtain books and newspapers for themselves, The object of the monopoly system is that of compelling to scatter themselves over men and into distant colonies, and surfaces, large thus to diminish the power of obtaining books,newspapers and schools. The object of protection is the correctionof this error, and to enable men: to combine their effortsfor mental as well as physical improvement. The greater the tendency to association, the greater is the facility for the dissemination of new ideas in regardto modes of thought and for or action, aid in carrying them into practical effect. The object of the English obtaining from each other, and depriving men monopoly system is that of separating them of this advantage. The object of protection is to enable them to come and beingso, it would seem to be the real friend to both labourer together, and capitalist. If we look throughout the world we shall see intellect increasing as men in communion live more and more with each other, and diminishing as they who is distant from market spends to separate. The are man compelled much of his time in taverns, where he obtains littletending to the improvement of mind books and
or

morals.

The and

man

who

has

market

newspapers,

he is surrounded

by

at his door, may obtain skilful farmers, from whom

Not being his time on the road, to spend he obtains information. compelled both time and mind to the improvement of his land, he is enabled to give to which himself grows Of all the that most be returns the refuse in the form of manure, rich. of pursuits tends to the
man,

and of

thus it is that he is production

"

the agriculture
"

work

the

of intellect. It is the greatpursuit of one expansion " in which of the laws be nature must is of There so none sulted conman. many and understood as in the cultivation of the earth. Every' changeof of the winds,every fall of rain, must affect the season, every changeeven of the farmer. In the improvementof our of the manifold operations some various domestic
must
some animals,

of the most

abstruse

of physiology principles

that men thus called upon to study, be consulted. Is it to be supposed with its powers, to observe the laws of nature,and labour in conjunction or of the the merchant the science than of or the less highest light require

manufacturer?"*
and knowledge,
man,

It is not. the
one

It is the science that

the greatest requires

and

and wealth,
on

that pays best for it : and yet England has driven of fashioning mind, into the less profitable pursuits other lands
:

and

of the products exchanging fleetsand armies when trade,

worth's

and has

millions poor
*

to enable her to drive with

her

own

soiloffered her the richer

to

thousands of expended nations the foreign that tends to produce one

Wads

Address

the New

York

Agricultural Society

27

210

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

which have in all that increase of wealth and concentration of population that the all neither times and in requires self-protective power ages given In her efforts to force this trade, she nor nor tax-gatherers. armies, fleets, of the United States to extend themselves over vast has driven the people
tracts of inferior land when

theymight more

have advantageously

trated concen-

she has thus delayed the progress of ones themselves on : and She has made home. it at abroad and civilization necessary for the people the of her harvests, in to deficiencies countries of grain-growing as rejoice rich them affording that
was

the outlet for

abandoned on instead of beingenabled sometimes be fed as her wealth

were

to likely

consume, and the cost of harvesting; in the knowledge that others to rejoice Her internal systemwas as themselves. abundantly the field as
not

food surplus

that

theycould

not

worth

gave her power to make that unsoundness a cause to be everywhere world the of disturbance to ; and hence she has appeared of common as a sort enemy. regarded To this unsound system we are indebted for the very unsound ideas that and unsound, Men are crowded into large the division of labour. towns the only idea ever acquired where labour is the in greatshops, and cities, to of health the cost and at and that is life. The of a needle, acquired pointing of the is moral,and general inferiority physical, necessary consequence observable all classes of workmen. that is in mental condition, English is Man, and yet the duration to produce the most costly Of all machines, and beautiful machine is reduced to an average of twentyof this expensive exist in
to regard

five or thirty years, under the vain idea that by so doingpinsand needles The principle is the same that is obtained at less cost of labour. may be Cuba when he stocks his estate the of with said to govern planter exclusively slaves than them. to to raise As it a necessary males, deeming cheaper buy and so is itin the crowded factories consequence, the duration of lifeis there short, The idea is vain. Pins and of the great"workshop of the world." the workshops of needles would be obtained at far less cost of labour were scattered throughout the kingdom,thereby Birmingham, of take their the side of the produeers to places by producers pins all the air to and and of food, enabling enjoy pure pure water of the village, the after foul of the workshop of instead compelled, breathing atmosphere being to at retire in the cellarof the the to rest unnight during day, filthy Sheffield and of the enabling the ore of Ireland converted into axes Were and railroad "drained street. the cellars of Manchester bars by aid of the coal and the labour of Ireland, dreds and Birminghamwould not be filledwith starving Irishmen, by hunflying of and famine, and compelling the labourers of thousands from pestilence United the Australia. to or States, Canada, Englandto fly The

treats man as a mere machine, Englishschool of political economy earth for the of the or on food, cloth, iron, producing pins, placed purpose and and takes no account of him as a beingcapable of intellectual needles, moral improvement. It looks for physical rance power in connection with ignoof and the result is disappointment.* The workman and immorality,

of mental
"

into the state of education in Wales,describe a state inquiring in condition of their physical perfectly keeping with the followingaccount The houses and cottages of the people are wretchedly bad, and akin to Irish : Brick chimneys are very unusual in these cottages ; those which exist are usually hovels. In few cottages is there more in the shape of largecoves, the top being of basket-work. it is that than one for the purpose of living and sleeping." Hence serves room, which volting of chastity, the re"from (here is so universal a want resulting, say the commissioners, unconnected often of both habit of herding married and unmarried people sexes, in the same sleepingrooms, and often in adjoining beds,without partition by relationship,
*

The

commissioners condition

for

"

or

curtain."

[SeeWestminster

Review, No. XCVL]

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

211

this countryis infinitely the superior of the workman of Manchester, and the that of not he is treated machine. The reason as a mere is, object what called free The object trade is the the the other. to degrade to is level of one that of enabling the poor artisan-of Manchester or Leeds, ,is protection to transfer himself to a country in which he will Birmingham or Sheffield, of
not be
so

and treated,

in which

he may
an

have books and newspapers,

(

and his

children may be educated. The colonial system involves

and for ships of war, soldiers, expenditure than would be required for giving to every child in the kingdom sailors, greater education of the highest and men order ; and those ships are an ported supout of the proceeds of taxes paid by poor mechanics and agricultural whose children grow up destitute even of the knowledgethai labourers, The object there is a God. of protection is to do away with the necessity for such ships and men, and to raise the value of labour to such a point as schools for themselves. will enable the people of Englandto provide bidden, has forthe perpetual exhaustion of the land and its owner In the colonies, the idea of intellectual improvement: To the West it now as forbids, The plantations to remain. Indies no Englishmen were went managedby under their agency, died the poor blacksj annual an importation merelyto keep up necessary from the earliest period where education was an India,

agents,and

so

fast as to the number.

der ren-

In

of object

interest

to the

school

had its public village every well-regulated well and so which information was so it has almost the idea the Lancaster furnish of to as system, taught cheaply there In the thana of inhabitants, 184,509 Nattore, containing disappeared. scholars. The teachers with 262 but 27 few a schools, years since, were, with salaries of $2-50 per month, and the and ignorant, were simple-minded

government, and.where
and its

in schoolmaster,

scholars 6000.

were

without books.
was

The

number
in
a

who

Such

the state 25

of education

Bengal.

In the
were

with Bombay presidency,

could read and write was of of the best portions half and of six a population
one

there millions, there millions,

was

and 1680 with 1315 scholars, government schools, Madras female

out presidency,

with schools, village

were

33,838 scholars. In the 355,000 male and 8000

of 13 instruction the and scholars, and

In

Upper

of the worst kind. Canada, in 1848,the number

Of

male children,

female,

of whom but 80,461 attended under fourteen years of age, was 326,050, colonies ; but when in other better than of is So far the state school.* things The intellectof man not is the difference to look further, we" come very great. is to be

quickened by

communion

with

his

of fellow-man, the

which

there
men

can are

be but littlewhere

the loom

distant from is widely

and plough,

following of working up the produce perhaps yardsof flannel and other inferior cloths, at which about 2,000,000 mills exist, pounds of 250,000sheep. Fulling
woollen cloths of household
,1rope-walk.
1 candle 1 cement

of agriculture. all engagedin the single distant from each other, pursuit that concentration in How slow has been the growth of province, may be furnish mills woollen small facts. Numerous 584,008 from the seen

manufacture
1 1 2

are

fulled.

there Further,

are"

11

factory.
mill.

1 last

pail factories. factory.

factories.

4 oil mills.
3 tobacco

1 sal-eratus

factory.

8 soap factories. 3 nail factories.

steam-enginefactories.

3 1

1 vinegar factory. 5 chair factories. triphammer. 2 brick-yards. paper mills.making 1 axe each. produe1900 reams factory, ing 5000 per annum. potteries. mills, f 6 plaster comb factory.

ship-yard.

And

these constitute the whole

firstReport of Board

of the

establishments manufacturing

of

Appendixto

of

Registration.

f IHt*.

212
that

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

much districtof country, great little' or for employment

of it

so

long settled.

There

quently, conseis,

the consequence is, that all no of those to the than other in who desire to engage agriculture fly pursuits less than not is it within the South. There are now said, 200,000 Union, increases.* If we to emigration and with every daythe tendency Canadians, There is there it is the same. look to Nova Scotia and New Brunswick,

mind, and

it fliessouthward. and any man possessing Forty intellect, " Who book ?" That question American reads an asked, years since it was in reference to be repeated has long since been answered ; but it may now Who reads a Nova-Scotian, or a New a British all the Canadian, provinces.
no

demand

for

Brunswick

of producing capable Upper Canada has two paper-mills tenth of what is rea of quired about ten reams perhaps, paper per day,being, the Cincinnati. of the to supply Forty years since, question newspapers machine 1" and yet the American Who uses an mighthave been asked, directed by our of Austria and Russia are now machine shops countrymen, in machineryfor the conversion of wool into and the latest improvements book ? have had the adThe British provinces invention. vantage the of which trade with free of perfect is, England, consequence and machine and printing-offices, that theyare almost destitute of paper-mills tem, sysshopsare unknown, while the Union has been a prey -to the protective that the consequence of which is, that " war upon labour and capital," unknown in the world, abound to an extent and printing-offices paper-mills cloth
are

of American

and "f equalin number and power to those of the whole world, These differences due not to exist almost are everywhere. shops for that of Canada the of in abundance difference or Upper quality land, any inferior to none the and is in quality is yet to a greatextent unoccupied, on for continent. They are not due to difference in other natural advantages, Maine and New has every advantage New Brunswick by shire, Hamppossessed situated and Nova Scotia has coal and iron ore more advantageously for than any in the Union. They are not due to difference of taxation, and almost machine Great Britain has

then, to subject
can

theybe
the

paid almost all the expenses but to the fact that attributed,

of government. To those provinces have

what,
been

labour to waste .their own monopolysystem, and compelled while giving their products in exchange for the services of English men, men, wobetter and children, them what could have in for employed doing they done the it and losing in the transitbetween four-fifths of their products themselves, and the ? the within the Union Place consumer producer give colony in and dozen its and its a protection printing-offides paper-mills years
" "

will become

and many will then read Canadian books. numerous, and In England, of the people neither read nor write, a large can portion there is scarcely looks effort to them education. The colonial an give system followed by an inability lectual to low wages, necessarily to devote time to intelthe enable Protection the that looks to improvement. highwages

labourer

to improvehis mind, and educate his children. The English t ransferred this becomes to educated and responsible an child, being. country, If he remain at home,he remains in brutish ignorance. To increase the
* "

I do

not

exaggerate
two

when

United
before

States; and, unless

ten

I say that there are no less than 200,000 Canadians in the efficacious means taken to stop this frightful are emigration, thousand their
more

years

hundred

American Union

their arms,

and intelligence,

of out; compatriots will have carried to the Letter of Rev. Jrthur their hearts."
"

Chiniquy.
The whole quantity of paper requiredto supply the newspaper press of Great Britain Ireland is.170,000 reams; while that required for the supply of fourpapers printed in New at and Baltimore, is about 1 10,000,and the whole number York,Philadelphia,

and

newspapers

is about 2400.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

213

of labour, education productiveness diffusion of At

no

is necessary. Protectiontends to the and 'the elevation of the condition of the labourer. education,

of our history has the demand the for books and pictures, or period of authors been less than in the period of 1842-43. or artists, compensation have theygrown so rapidly At none from 1844 to 1847. as They now tend that is stillmaintained by the power a demand downward, notwithstanding that yet exists of obtaining' merchandise in exchange of debt. for certificates When If that shall pass away,
we

shall

see

recurrence

of the events

of the

free trade

period.

desire to raise the intellectual standard of man the world, we throughout be accomplished the value of man, as a macan chine, only by raising object the world. and every throughout Every man broughthere is raised, elsewhere. to diminish the supposedsurplus of men so broughttends man 1844 and Men come when the reward of labour is high, did between as they 1848. when the reward of labour is return as is small, disappointed They the case. Protection tends to increase the reward of labour, and to improve now
our

the intellectual condition of

man.

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION AFFECTS

TWENTY-THIRD.
THE POLITICAL CONDITION OF

MAN,

the return to labour, the greater will be the power to accumulate larger which capital The larger the proportion be t o capital. employed seeking bears to the labourers who are to employit, the larger will be the wages of the greaterthe power of the labourer to accumulate for himself, and labour, the more will be his control the of his labour the and over disposition perfect to to of its w hether or private public application proceeds, purposes. sells his labour, The freeman chooses his employer, and disposes of the these his The slave does of His master at none things. pleasure. proceeds and returns him such portion suits his takes the produceof his labour, as pleasure. Throughoutthe world,and in all ages, freedom has advanced with every When the people of England to population. increase in the ratio of wealth" with wealth have become b ut were they enslaved, growing poor, theywere So and in France. is it in free. So has it been in Belgium now more it be. India is and the Russia and Germany,and so must everywhere poor, is there unknown. in Ireland. Freedom many are slaves to the few. So is it desires a bit of limited to the labours of agriculture, The poor Irishman, of his year's labour for and he givesthe chief part of the product land, be remain t o to the on starve to permitted balance, h appy permission upon of the without slave the He is rent. of this land-owner, enormous payment
even

The

the slave's from

power
taxes

imposed the on luyingblack men, and women, and children, and white herself to women, men, ready give holding
who

of sickness, or caping esclaim of him supportin case if, him of the survive to an age that deprives for his support. Englandemploys fleets, of labouring paidfor out of of Brazil from the to people on Irishmen, prevent starving
to right

he should famine,

coast

and

of Africa, while to any children,

of and even to add thereto a portion will carry them from her shores, the without she does this and requiring the cost of their transportation; evidence that they have been the slightest transporterto produceeven " good order and well-conditioned.'-' delivered at their destined port in When Ireland shall become free. When and productive,
at price

become
was

and man will labour will become valuable, rich, labour filledwith prosperous communities, was Italy in demand ; and then it should be sold. With
men

it was

who

had

it to sell

fixed the

which

labour growingpoverty,

214

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

in demand, and the buyerfixed the price. The labourer then ceased to be. follow the history find men of Tuscany,we can became slave. If we a and succeeded wealth enslaved as againmay we trace poverty becoming ; and more has grown with continued them becomingmore as wealth free, and Spain. Everywhere it been in Egypt, and Sicily, which constitute wealth, of those aids labour to is, poverty,or a deficiency and the of and has invariably everywhere companion slavery been, wealth, ; peace. So has
or an

and

and harrows, and horses, and cows, and oxen, ploughs, and has been the and houses, and mills, cultivated lands, is, invariably abundance of

the cause, of freedom. it must tend to prevent be a " war If protection upon labour and capital," condition of man. and thus to deteriorate the political the growthof wealth, who produces his food with the man iron by The farmer who exchanges and companion, and sailors, of horses, merchants, ships, gives wagons, canal-boats, his products for food for littleiron. The iron man, who exchanges much iron for the instrumentality of the same machinery, gives through littlefood. The chief part of the product is swallowed up by the men who
means

much food

remain poor. The growth stand between, and grow rich while the producers of political condition is maintained. of wealth is thus prevented, and inequality with the producer of iron gives labour The farmer who exchanges directly for labour. has
no

Both

thus grow

because the rich,

class that desires to stand between

themselves at their expense. Equality of enriching opportunity of condition is thus promoted. the consumer of food to take of protection The object is that of bringing his place of food, and thus promoting the growth by the side of the producer of wealth and the improvementof political condition. That it does produce in periods that effect, is obvious from the fact that, of protection, such vast numbers seek our and that immigration becomes or shores, stationary, with every approach towards that system which is usually denominated diminishes, free trade. colonial system is based upon cheap labour. Protection seeks to increase the reward of labour. The one fills factories with children of tender and Australia ; the other unites the men to Canada men years, and expels and sends the children to school. The The in Irishman him
at

home

is a slave.

He

his employer and a freeman,choosing is a slave that would gladly Highlander to make remain at home ; but he is expelled for sheep. One-ninth of room the population of Englandare slaves to the parish the bread of beadle, eating and a large enforced charity, of Ijhe slaves are portion eight-ninths remaining which produces of chillsand fevers overto the policy work a constant recurrence the price of fixing
"

pay Transfer

for quartersof pounds sterling here and he becomes his labour. The

to remain and prays for permission and his request is refused. acres,

small wages at one time,and no work at any wages at another. and Transfer them here and theybecome freemen, their employers selecting and the reward of His the hours labour. The Hindoo is slave. a fixing
at

landlord's officersfix the quantity of land that he must He is not rent he must on allowed, payment even pay.
assessment

and cultivate, of the

the

highsurvey those fieldsto which he gives only the preference to him,and he is constrained to occupy ; his task is assigned all such fieldsas are allotted to him. by the revenue and whether he officers, cultivates them or not,he is saddled with the rent of all. If driven by these oppressions to flyand seek a subsistence elsewhere, he is followed wherever he goes and oppressed at discretion, of the advantages or deprived he might expect from a changeof residence. If he work for wages, he is and in grain when it is low. He, therepaidin money when grainis high,
fixed
on

each

to field,

cultivate

THE

HARMONY the
an

OF

INTERESTS. his labour.

215
ferred Could he be transconsume more

has no power to fore, he would here,

cotton

determine be found
now

of price
a

efficient and would labourer, year, and

in

week

than he be

does in

by the changehis political

condition would

greatly improved. condition of the human of the political improvement be raised, To accomplish that object, it is needed that the value of man race. and that men should everywhere be placed in a condition to sell their labour bidder to the highest to the man who will givein return the largest tity quanof food, and other of the comforts of life. To enable clothing, shelter,
Protection looks to the
"

the Hindoo

to

sell his labour and to fix its That

cotton. of his chief product, price is to -and that object consumption,

it is necessary to raise the price, the is to be done by increasing be attained by diminishing the waste of

labour attendant upon its transit between the producerand the consumer. in and railroads will be made Fill this country with furnaces and mills, to twenty the of will rise cotton and direction, consumption speedily every

poundsper head,while and capitalists will cross

for one-fourth
as

millions of the

mechanics,farmers, Europeanlabourers,

every million will be a customer the people of Great Britain The harmony of the interests of the cotton-growers and Ireland in 1847. from the power of and all the discord comes the world is perfect, throughout discord. to produce the exchangers apparent tends to build up a body of capiIt is asserted, talists however,that protection tion. of condiand thus produce at the expense of the consumer, inequality is not to be doubted. That such is the effectof inadequate protection much
as was

and Atlantic, consumed

by

for for seeking in England a market longas we continue under a necessity the and will fixthe for her markets so world, long price products^ surplus there a small supply for seeking shall continue to be under a necessity we as of all, in her markets fix the price of cloth or iron, so longwill the prices of the difference of cloth and iron will profit and the domestic producer by which he takes the risk of With this home. and out ruin, both profit freight Those who are the men of small capitals. occurrence is of perpetual among and mills until their furnaces but have to or rise, prices stop wealthy already have for their poorer competitors then theyhave the markets to themselves, fortunes accumulated of many of the large Such is the history been ruined. in this and iron of cloth manufacture country,and such the almost by the So
our

universal of New

of history

manufactures every effort to establish

south

and

west

England. benefits the farmer and planter little, and uncertain protection Inadequate and the the rich richer tends make it to poor while the uncertainty attending social and political thus inequality. producing poorer, tends to the production th"3contrary, on Adequateand certain protection, for the aid on because by its foreign necessity depending of equalityfirst, of the or supply our wants,will ba markets for the sale of our products, beingfixed at home, will be broughtto an end,and thenceforth the prices, be enabled to maintain competiwill tion and then the smaller capitalist steady, the to consumers farmers, with the larger one, with greatadvantage its benefits will be, as they because labourers second, and and, ; planters, of labour have been,felt chiefly by the many with whom the price always constitutes the sole fund out of which theyare to be maintained. from in the factoriesof the country, If we take the labour that is employed the whole of it would it will be found that nearly to the other, one extremity in getting that which is take If we employed if not so employed. be waste, it will be and factories for furnaces, the and stone building out the timber If be otherwise waste. we of it would inquire found that a large portion of that the find a or the of factory, we vicinity farmer, into the operations
" "

216

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

enables him to furnace, that would many things

seem

save

much

of the labour of

to

be all on

otherwise be waste. Thus and not the side of the employed,

and to sell transportation, the advantage would far, that of the employer. on

and that perfect were abolished, now suppose that all protection that the result and of trade were established, were, as it inevitably and coal-mine in the would be,to close every factory, furnace, mill, rolling The of such property be the what would and result. owners see country, Let
us

freedom

but the supply few millions of dollars of rents, or of a profits, be less by three millions of tons,that of iron would be lessby hundred thousand tons,and that of cotton cloth would be less by almost eight would lose fuel would
a

the

for the labour now millions of yards. The demand in employed be and the those commodities would at of an end, spare-labour production and the various and wagons, and horses, of men, and women, and children, would then be wasted, used in and about factoriesand furnaces, now things thousand coal and iron and cloth would in
or a

and labour would be dibe doubled in price, minished to The or importiron, coal, corresponding degree. power
-

would cloth,

not

be increased
to

by

would be obtained.

locked up in factories or furnaces, were means of but the o f loss engaged mass some persons possessed dis; be would able of State to and the receivers mand, comdividends, capital, of labour than before. for the same a much reward, larger quantity for labour, and its The object of protection is that of securing a demand " The of condition. of is to jealousy overgrown tendency produce equality
.

compelled whose The capitalists,

suffer

with dispense

necessaries of life that

and the peopL ton, or yard, single are now readily

would

have changesof policy ; but, so far as they have tended the to invariably protection, they The of suffers loss but he some capitalist production inequality. wealthy ; A change takes place, and he is ready to avail himself of it, is not ruined. with vast increase. The small all that had been lost, and at once regains has been his mill is in a state of ruin. By the and capitalist swept away, time he can prepare himself to recommence his business, the chance being he for the last time. is and perhaps past, swept away again, has caused capitalists" tended
to

many the abolition of

of securitieshas For months past, the rate of interest on a certain species been very low. The wealthy could borrow at four per cent. ; the poor man could scarcely obtain a small loan on a second-rate security, man, requiring who has coal to sell, it at any price. The man must have the or iron to sell, aid of middlemen have and been the paper received from his customers, the miner The of profits. wages while the profits of the speculator have been reduced, greatly of all this is, The reason the there prethat, throughout nation, vails
to act
as

endorsers

their commissions

absorb

upon the

increased.
no

confidence in the future.

It is

seen

that

we

are

more consuming

are imports produce ; that our exportsdo not pay for our ; that we debt that furnaces and mills in closed and one are being running ; ; every knows what must be the end of such a system. Re-enact the tariffof 1842, we

than

would be at an end,because confidence in and the trade of the middleman the future would be felt from one extremity of the land to the other. Should find in this evidence of the of the principle not soundness we some upon which based ? The system which gives confidence must be right it was ; that which it must destroys be wrong. the future in Confidence nities. Hope gives power to individuals and commuracter It is that which enables the poor man and the chato become rich, ency tendall action is be less of to legislative judgedby its greateror this effect. A review of the measures to produce urgedupon the nation
"
"

by
an

the advocates

of the

system miscalled
tended

free

trade, shows,almost

without there-

exception, theyhave

to the destruction of

and confidence,

THE

HARMONY the

OP

INTERESTS.

217
referred to in the first

fore to the

of production

revolutions political

chapter.
The direct effectof the insecurity that has existed has been to centralize the business of manufacture in one part of the Union and in the hands of a limited number of persons such as could afford to take large comparatively in hope of realizing Had the tariffof 1828 been made risks, large profits.
"

the settled law

of the land, the Middle and Southern States would now be studded with factories and furnaces, and while the North and East would not have been less rich, of and the present inequality theywould be far richer,

condition would
The the the power of jealousy

not

now

exist.

of the the
a

establishment trade.

of

North,as comparedwith that of the South,is due to former entertained by the latter, the which has prevented, decided system,havingfor its object the destruction of
the ultimate establishment of freedom perfect of

and English monopoly,

The object of the colonial*system was that of taxing the world for the and maintenance of a greatmercantile, and landed aristocracy, manufacturing, that of securing of machinery. the mode of accomplishment was a monopoly is.to break down that monopoly, and with it the The object of protection immense Great Britain and the world those the payment, of fleets and armies ing officeredby younger sons, and kepton foot for the maintenance of the existwho and India. in Great Britain, Ireland, All,therefore", inequality that aristocracy collectsfor the be

of people

taxes,to

to appropriated

condition of the desire to see improvement in the political world should advocate the system which tends to break down freedom of trade. establish perfect
CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION AFFECTS

peopleof the monopolyand

TWENTY-FOURTH.
CREDIT INDIVIDUAL AND NATIONAL.

existence of credit is evidence of the existence of confidence that the desires to obtain for a time the use of propertyintends to return it. man the capitalist the more universal this confidence, can The more place readily the universal it is, The be the return. the will and more his funds, larger and the aids obtain the to the labourer labour, can more readily necessary The who
more

and
man.

will productive it must capital,"

be that labour. tend

to

If

be protection

"

"

war

the confidence of destroy

man

upon labour in his fellow-

to take his place the consumer of protection is that of bringing The'object ing and thus diminishlabour for labour, exchanging by the side of the producer, of exchange, for credit. Its effect is to diminish the machinery the necessity with it the and of labour, and thus to increase the productiveness

power to obtain credit. the consumer of the monopoly system is that of separating The object distant men, both to repose confidence iji and compelling from the producer, the for credit. Its effect is that of increasing the necessity thus increasing and of labour, the productiveness and diminishing of exchange, machinery credit. power to obtain In know. we is its effect in the colonies of Great Britain, rate of interest is twelve per cent. ; but the ordinary so once wealthy, India, hundred per cent. Credit seed the rate of one at borrows cultivator the poor of the countryare the whole almost and exchanges there has no existence, yet the conwhom in sumer of thousands men of miles, by made at a distance many confidence. to are and producer compelled repose In Canada, credit has almost entirely disappeared. In the West Indies, thus the diminishing such That
28

218
even

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

effect loans without a guarantyfrom parliament. the So is it throughout whole range of colonies. confidence. The is cheap, beeause of the want of general At home, capital borrow at thirty could labourer not but the cent. takes two per ; capitalist enabled dictate the terms to is that The machinery capitalist owns per cent. he Sometimes be those who work. shall used employs by many upon which it and at others Sometimes he works longtime, At others few. work-people. obtain but a small proportion of the short time. At all times his people but small obtain times labour but at many a very of they products tion, propor; the

government cannot

while at others

theyare

unable to obtain the

use

of

at machinery

any

price. the Abroad,

merchants is falling credit of English daily. But recently, half the of there were in scarcely a dozen houses that greatcity Liverpool, the effects of the system of Such cotton. trusted with are could be a cargo " the producer and the and is are in which Commerce consumer king," placed the the at exchanger. mercy of than in the in this country did confidence grow more At no period rapidly with such and did it decline 1834. At between 1830 none rapidity period
"

With the action of the tariffof 1842,it was and 1842. of 1846 it declines. There is no demand for but with that again restored, for labour, There is littledemand and it too is it and is cheap. capital,
as

between

1835

cheap.
find
so

'

since Never,probably, much

in obtaining the aid of difficulty

of free trade. Never The period of distrust has 1847. be must but the abundant, security per cent,
a

the settlement of the country,did the poor man in 1842, the period as capital, between has he found it more than 1844. and easy

month
more

him produce
"

is said to be the poor man pays two for the use of capital that the rich man cannot invest to than four per cent, per annum. There is no confidence and undoubted,

againarrived. Money

existing. the cheapness and abundance of money,"says the New Notwithstanding to touch any thingin the way of York Herald, no one seems disposed and preferloaning speculation, capitalists money at four per cent, interest, stocks at presentprices.They say that when to purchasing on goodsecurity, first-rate at a low rate of interest, are sure they theylend money on security, and small amount of the principal a of interest, when theywant it."
"

The

re-establishment

of the tariffof 1842

would

restore
"

and confidence,

for demand for labour, and wages would rise and a demand a produce in that the price of which would also rise, and thus it would appear capital, and is to be found the harmony of interest between the labourer protection the capitalist.
NATIONAL CREDIT.

1835,the national credit grew, for we paidfor what we 1835 to 1840,credit declined, for we ran largely in debt for cloth and iron, for which our exportscould not pay. In 1842,national credit for we were unable to pay even the interest on our debts. From disappeared,
From
to

1830

imported.From

1843

to 1848,national credit grew, for we paidinterest and commenced the In the last two years we have gone largely and reduction of the debt. in debt, either diminish our imports must further into debt. now or run

How

longwe

can

continue

to do

does this,

not

depend upon

ourselves.

circumstance producing a changein the rate of interest in Europe, certificates of debt to be returned upon us for payment, and would cause our what then would be the state of the national credit ? A nation that is largely

Any

in debt is always in

of losing its credit. danger

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

219

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION ASPECTS

TWENTY-FIFTH.
REVENUE AND EXPENDITURE.

The

more

men

live and work

.

in connection with each

the greater is other,

their power from each others. The

protectthemselves. The more widelythey are separated the greater is their necessity for seeking from other, protection
to

connection with each other, the larger will be the the and contribute will be their to labour, greater power towards the maintenance of peace and order. The less they live in connection with each other, the less productive will be their labour, and the less will be their power to contribute to that object. With every increase in the productiveness of labour, the power of selfmore

theylive in

product of

their

with increased power to contribute towards the government thus increases, incident the to of government ; and with every dimaintenance minution expenditures the power of self-government with diminished therein, decreases, contribute the towards for others publicrevenue required paying power for performing the duties of government.
to

If

increase the The

it must a war protection be,as is asserted, upon labour and capital," for diminish the and necessity government by others, power to
"

contribute towards its maintenance. of protection to live in conmen nection is, however,that of enabling object the consumer with each other, his place taking by the side of the each protecting, and protected by,the other. This would seem to producer, diminish the necessity for seeking from others. Another object of protection with each other, labour is that of enabling to exchange men giving protection between them. without paying so many for labour, persons for standing calculated to increase their power to pay for protection, This would seem

should it be needed.
of free trade by the name and diminishing producer, to be alwaysmade are theirpower to protecteach other. Their exchanges and men to stand between, and many wagons, ships, in distant markets, are The is that of of the monopolysystem object the consumer separating
"

now

known the

"

from

for the

care

of which

their

for necessity

of action would How side the

This would seem crease to infleetsand armies are needed. while the diminished of tion combinaprotection, power of paying for proto tend to decrease their power seem tection. side by by placing

will be answered stand the facts 1 The question different under the systems : expenditures
"

Protection.
Per
annum.

Pree

trade.
Per
.

annum.

1834 to 1841 $31,700,000 $16,800,000 1846 to 1849 44,500,000 1843 to 1845 20,700,000 to towards the supportof governmentseems for contributing The necessity have diminished towards free trade, and to have increased with the approach we protection. as approached as follows : from customs in the several periods, was The revenue 1829
to 1834
.

"

Per

head.

Per

head.

1830
1843

to

1834

:
.

$175
136

1835

to 1841
.

0-84}
1"

to 1847

1848^9

one.

I exclude here the year a We had imported year, and

we

exceptional 1847-48, because it was an entirely of free goods specie in the preamount ceding large for dutyto exchange it againin 1847"48, exported
" "

220

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

tained so obduty received upon the goods 1846-47. of the to revenue decreased in the The power to contribute towards the revenue certainly contributions for increased. a nd the as necessity precisely years of free trade, because here than is set the The amount down, paidwas greater actually of duties between 1834 and amount 1841,a large government collected, upon

paying ones, and the whole amount should be added in exchange,

of

for certificatesof debt ; but that was a exchange merely of receiving and the consequence such payment in advance of production, bankruptin 1842,and compelledto borrow payment was, that it was nearly existence. for the continuance of its own millions to provide almost thirty of debt incurred in the We are now doingthe same thing. The amount

goodsreceived

in

this the govern:to the extent of obtained duties, in advance ofproduction, ment as before, to cease, the almost seven millions. If the power to buy on credit were now collected would fall to twenty-two millions. Were amount the debt contracted last year
was

not

less than

and twenty-two millions,

upon

be paid, it would fall to fifteen millions, and a large in 1841-42. How be made to the public as debt, it is not forbefore such will be the state of things, me longa time is to elapse to predict ; but if we make this year a further addition of twenty millions to our and close as many furnaces as we did in the last one, the debt, foreign last year now addition would have
to to

day for it cannot

The
power

be far distant. the maintenance of government depends to diminish tending The power of production

to contribute towards

and every circumstance upon the power of production, the one of the other. to the diminution tends equally Such

and must continue so to do. is now diminishing, rapidly likewise is the -case in England. From year to year the payment of and more taxes is becoming more so large a portion onerous, notwithstanding of them is thrown upon the farmers and planters of the earth, by aid of the

system under which theyare

and sugar, for less and have been expenditures and chartism in

to givemore compelled

food, tobacco, cotton,

iron ; and yet from year to year the Povertyproduced rebellion in Ireland, increasing. thus increased the for necessity soldiers and of the older

less cloth and

and England,

sailors. The exhaustion

of India led to a desire for provinces and the Punjaub ; and the failure of a market for Seinde, Afghanistan, labour in the form of cotton, drove the Hindoo to opium, which led to a war in China,and thus was for fleetsand armies. The poverty made a demand of Canada
to anxiety

led to
secure

and to the building of forts and ships.The rebellion, has m arkets led to immense ships foreign expenses for steam-

mail steamers, and thus the more the system tends to fail, the is the for its less the a nd the of maintenance, greater expenditure ability the of the farmers and and of the to contribute people England, world, planters thereto. Let lands. the value of labour, the more of it will be broughthere for higher the land will be required. The more come more here, people a nd of valuable the the less will be the cost more larger freights homeward, be the and will the commodities that more can numerous outward, freight be exported to pay for those we may choose to import. Were we now the sales of land would a million of men importing annually, sale. The reach reach ten millions of acres per annum. That point should now we in five years of perfect would and fixed protection, and but few move years be required to double both the importation of men and the sales of public
soon us now

and

look to the other

source

of

our

national

revenue

"

the

public

The

lands.

Here is a vast source of public revenue. Perfect protection diminish the would, by degrees,

of cottons, import iron,

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.

221

and other

but we should consume treble or quadruple duty-paying the goods, o f and the materials for the production of which the raw quantity coffee, tea, soil or climate of the country is not suited, and thus should we raise the value of labour employed in agriculture the world. throughout " If It is asked, converted all our cotton into cloth, we what would Europe In answer, it may be said that the object of tection proof food to take his place consumer by the side of the producer of food, not to separate them. It is to our interest that the of Englandshould supplythemselves with clothing made by men who people eat the food of England, and that such should be the case with those of Germany and Russia, and with every stepin their progress they Spainand Italy, would need more To pay for it, cotton. would employ their labour in the they of thousands of articlesof taste and luxury, of which we should production then consume immense and therewith there would be improvement quantities, of taste, refinement of feeling, elevation of character, and increase of individual and national strength, of which now form no conception. we can pay us is that of the enabling
to produce

for itV

Upon
of the
revenue

such commodities

the duties would be moderate,and, as the imports

articles diminished, the duty-paying customs'

more

bulky of

the

would

until at length the necessity fox custom-houses gradually decline,

pass away, the power to maintain government with the land revenue and thus might be realized the wonderful to take its place, idea of the government of an immense nation maintained without the necessity

would

havinggrown
for
a

man single

in employed

the collection of taxes. the interests of the treasury and the

It would

thus appear that between

and merchant, the greatand little the farmer, manufacturer, people, planter, the slave and his master,the landowners and labourers trader and the shipowner, and the world, the free trader and the advocate of of the Union and that the way to the there is perfect harmony of interests, protection, is to be found in establishment of universal peace and universal free trade, of the destruction to of measures the adoption the chinery, monopolyof matending and the location of the loom the harrow. and plough
CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

and

the anvil in the

of the vicinity

TWENTY-SIXTH.
AFFECTS
THE

GOVERNMENT.

The

man

whose labour
habits
are

is

and productive, while

whose

habits

are

economical,

the confidence of the enjoys and whose

and industrious grow rich and peaceful become wasteful poor and weak. strong. The warlike and " it must of the world," labour and capital the be If protection a war' upon the and wealth and diminution of monopoly systemof tend to cause strength, of both. Englandmust tend to the augmentation of this country grown had the wealth and strength At no anterior period 1835. The nation was at with which it grew from 1830 to with the rapidity been or so decline has employed. At no period peace and all were The nation followed. which than in the period the descent more
was

each day is marked marked by an increase of weakness. The So is it with communities.

labour is unproductive, world; with distrust. With the one, looked is wasteful, upon while with the other it is of increase strength by an ; he whose

obvious,_

of industry until in many departments for weakness of America became almost a by-word it almost ceased. The name such and want of faith. In the four succeeding years, the recovery was the nation first that the power of and then it was to be almost marvellous, as has been followed by one of war and waste, be admitted. That period
at war,

and

complete declined production

began to

222
and

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of large increased expenditure, rendering largely necessary the collection and the The is people government revenues, while production diminishing. continue to borrow borrowed money, and how longthey can on are now living from customs in the year ending in June last The revenue is uncertain.
was

828,436,000
was

Of which there
of debt To meet

collected

on

with goodspurchased

cates certifi-

6,600,000
presentyear, the whole
should would
to be able cease be driven again

the same time the debts the for now payment, presentyear upon us beingcreated were sent of the troubles of 1841 and 1842. mightwitness a repetition back existence of the tariffof 1842, the government paidits way, and therefore itis strong. It is now carried on on credit, the debt the countryhas To the extent of weak. created, foreign becoming and drunk and used that for which it has yet to pay, and the governeaten ment

of the government for the the demands be required, would of $28,000,000 and,if we sum the merchandise on credit^ to purchase government of loans, and if at of money by means to the raising

Duringthe

and thereforeit was

for payment would at once has had its thirty per cent. ; but a demand the much below exceed them, now and reduce the imports as exportsas they decreased to the full extent of the the government would find its revenue

presentexcess.
review of the history of Great Britain and The contrast a on presented, the former was rich and is most instructive. Sixty this country, years since, small and widely while the latter was was populous, poor and its population the Union exceeds her competitor, scattered. In wealth, and in already it will do so at the close of the next decennial period. population The
reason

has tended to the the other has, to

of the one that the policy of this is to be found in the fact-, of the consumer from the producer, while that of Reparation
some

tended towards bringing them together. The extent,

"

and commerce,"and, in carryships, colonies, upon ing Ireland now it out,her colonies have been in succession exhausted. lies and helpless encumbrance rather than a burden upon her hands an prostrate

English system is based

"

"

and distress are cominggradually and nearer nearer advantage.Poverty no debt, home,while she is encumbered with an enormous part of which can she pay, and the interest upon which is yet paid onlyby aid of a seriesof which she is accustomed to as discreditable as those with quite repudiations Florida.* and Mississippi charge upon the work of production, The American system is based upon agriculture, has been that of producing and its object by bringing prosperous agriculture, to take his placeby the side of the producer, the consumer and thus establishing which is performed that greatcommerce without the aid of ships States have planted or thirteen By aid of that system the original wagons. all of which have grown and thriven, and receiving numerous colonies, giving while those of England, so long the subjects of immense taxation, strength, of weakness. All while desire abandon cause a to now are her, everywhere all would desire to unite with us, and were to exercise their theyat liberty
an
*

The

great

expansion of the Bank

among

of

England

in

1S39, was

followed

tion by the destrucper

cents went

of confidence up
to

individuals availed

to so

par, and the government the four and a half per cents

opportunityto compel the holders of to take in exchange new certificates, bearing three and a after the threes fell to eighty. The last expansion has brought half per cent. Shortly is destroyed, about a similar state of things. Confidence and the and trade is paralyzed, it is now threes are again almost at par ; and suggested that a new arrangement may be made by which the government may be enabled to repudiatea further portionof the interest
on

great an itself of the

extent

that the three

the debt.

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

223

the sway inclinations,

of the Queen of Great Britain would,probably, at the close of the presentyear, be limited to that island alone, with its twenty or millions of inhabitants. twenty-two The freetrade of Englandconsists in the maintenance of monopoly, and therefore is it repulsive. The down breaking of

protective system of this country looks to the establishment and the of perfect and monopoly, freetrade, therefore is it attractive. The one looks to " cheap" labour, and therefore does it expelindividuals
well as communities. therefore does it attract
as

The other looks to raising the value of both individuals and communities.

and labour,

Protection and

power. and the diminution Between

tends to the maintenance of peace, and the increase of wealth The colonial system tends to the production of causes of war,

and ultimate destruction of both wealth and power. the views of those who would desire to see their government them in the enjoymentof all their rights in relation to strongfor defending the other communities and those of others who desire to see of the world, there and economically administered, peacefully perfect harmony. the government is therefore

CHAPTER
HOW PROTECTION

TWENTY-SEVENTH.
AFFECTS THE NATION.

the power of self-government, of his the increase in productiveness every he loses more labour. With every diminution in his power of production, becomes a slave.* and ultimately and more the power of self-government, of their labour, So isitwith nations. With every increase in^he productiveness of action, themselves their enabled determine for course to own are more they The
man

whose

labour is

exercises productive,

which

increases with

nations. With every diminution therein, by that of surrounding of action by that of their course and t o shape more compelled they of the self-government. others, losing power there for combination with their neighbours, With the diminished necessity still is an increased power for voluntary tending combination, (annexation,) uninfluenced
are more

for comWith bination, increased necessity to labour. further to increase the return with diminished there is diminished power for voluntary combination,
return

to labour.

diminish the it must upon labour and capital," efforts for the our increase and uniting necessity union, voluntary power crease If the Englishmonopolysystem tend to inwith those of distant nations. the tend increase to must it and labour value of the power capital, union. for involuntary of voluntary union,and diminish the necessity at the present time,not one that there is, Of all the nations of the If be protection of
"

war

world,

than that of Great the power of self-government less degree dictated by others. been has her For the last thirty Britain. policy years, of the machinerywas a matter of of the laws prohibiting export The repeal to duties on the laws relatjve all and so have been,in succession, necessity, had obtained nations other because abolished imports. The duty on cotton was slavewhile admitted cotton was dutyfree, exercises in
a

grown
*
"

machinery. Slave-grown because to heavyduties, subjected sugar was

transition from absolute freedom
to a state

of supply

cotton

was

The

of

slaveryis now

in progress among

the Arabs those who

by

of subsistence of obtainingthe means of Mesopotamia,owing to diminished power enslaved weak are The the and by heretofore modes pursued. the poor
are

stronger and

more

March, wealthy." Spectator,

"

1840.

224
matter

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

of

The necessity.

because the abandonment been step, because it was deemed

abandoned, slave-grown sugar were laws have, The was stepby navigation necessary. laws were of necessity. The corn as matter repealed abandoned,
restrictionson

into becoming necessary to conciliate the growers of corn in her each cloth With of iron. and step progress, purchasers large of banishment for places and the necessity and crime increase, pauperism in finding and with each there is increased difficulty for criminals increases,
to willing places

Van Diemen's land,* and the for but the Norfolk Cape was purpose, will be that elsewhere resistance successful of colonists have set an example and Ireland is to be retained, neither to be set free, followed. Canada is now has The lost of nation the b ut both matters of them of choice, as necessity. the to it other dictated is Its policy being ,by power of self-government. union has ceased to exist, The tendency to voluntary nations of the world. receive them. the Island,

Havingexhausted selected recently

with it new and each day brings is at hand. empire

"

evidence that the dissolution of the British

how is it of the loom and the anvil, If such is the case with the owners ? the harrow follow and Ireland who hold the plough with their subjects machine in the hands of She is a mere has no power of self-government. the duties of government. Poor-laws are inflictedupon those who perform and to a confiscation of property, almost to amount to take possession then other laws are passedto authorize commissioners of, thus encumbered. of the propertyof the kingdom, and sell, a large portion her to such
an

extent

as

The West exhausted under the system,and their Indies were gradually who of their property by virtue of laws passed by men despoiled people of the enormous loss thus inflictedupon their fellow-subjects. paidno portion The people of Canada have had new systems inflicted upon them with a

view

to

the maintenance

but peace of pesfce,

there is

none.

All desire to

the firststep in which will be resistance of self-government, right to the monopoly system. is this the onlyone that has prospered Of all the colonies of England, exercised the Union,and it has so done,because it has,in a certain degree, the loom manifested by a determination to bring power of self-government, and the anvil to take their natural places and the by the side of the plough Hence harrow. Ireland included, of Great Britain, it is that every colony desires annexation to us and separation from her. The tendency to voluntary union exists in a degreeexceeding any thingthat the world has yet seen. than a colony. Our people have no are we Nevertheless, yet but littlemore their own actions. They are almost as dependent control over upon the will of those who now to guide the movements of England, desire, thoughvainly, obtain the
as are

those of Canada. of people

we

If the and price, iron and

that country determine to make railroads, iron rises in build furnaces and open coal mines, to make and import people mine coal. If theycease to make shut up our furnaces we roads,

* "Thither nearlythe whole convict populationof Great Britain and Ireland, about 3500 * * for several years sent The, consequence annually in number, were was, that ere * * of the inhabitants of the colony were The morals of the convicts. long three-fifths terable thus having a majority of convicts, were injured. Crimes unutsettlement, essentially committed its usual and induced were inequalityof the sexes ; the hideous and vigilant how severe disorders ; the police, unable to coerce frightful soever, became the rapidlyincreasing multitude of criminals ; the most daring fled to the woods, where and life became they became insecure, bush-rangers; property sank to half its former

value."

"

Blackwood's

18 November, Magazine,

19.

"

At present, there are,

or
"

at

least should

from the British Islands." be, above 5000 criminals annually transported

Ibid.

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.

225

and then the iron men and the coal men have to endeavour to raise mines, If they ask a highprice for cloth, build mills. If employment come "bewe with them,and their people scarce close to consume cease w e our cloth, and our operatives condemned are mills, to idleness. If the Bank of England make money we cheap, buy iron and cloth on credit ; if it make it dear, we called upon for payment, and then we break. If employment are for capital be denied at home, our houses and lands rise in price become ; if capital houses and our fall in lands value. If mills and build we scarce, furnaces, our people stay at home ; if we close them,theyscatter abroad. If money be cheapin England, from duties on our revenue government obtains a large the goods that are boughton credit ; if it be dear, the revenue falls off, and the government begs for loans in Europe. The value of and every thing, the movement of every thing, in this country,are settled by the .movement of the Bank of England, of all the large institutions of the world the one in the government of which there is manifested the least capacity; and the that in the smallest the one, consequently, possesses degree power of selfFour been times in has it ruptcy, the on government. thirty years verge of bankand yet to its car and that of the government of England, now in of is this attached of the aid Union a sea floundering troubles, by system known by the name of free trade. now For thus relinquishing the power of self-government, there should be a all that from c onsideration receive in we Europe return for all we large ; yet send her is fifty cents' worth of iron, half a pound of wool, an as much flax, and twisting of a pound ounce or two of silk, a cup and saucer, and the weaving and a half of cotton, or performed per head,all of which could be produced here in a single have made than have come when here by fewer people we year, treble the Half million of would market for their labour. a a people produce treble and the the and and the the weave iron, china-ware, spin flax, wool, silk, and that receive from the quantity of silk, turn we Europein reflax, cotton, wool, in producing the cotton, for all the land and labour employed tobacco, rice, and other commodities that we send to that quarpork, butter, cheese, ter grain, almost as much cotton of the world;and that half million would consume besides all the of tomers cusconsumed is as now being by people Ireland, and millions of dollars' worth of food, to the farmer for fifty timber, of selfthus the the soil. We of other of the products relinquish power but we an not onlywithout receiving equivalent, giveour property government, the that and planters and therefore it farmers is without an equivalent, of the Union remain poor when theymightbecome rich. thus imported would require a vast Rich theywould grow, for the people a nd tobacco would and cotton, of shipping, abroad, amount rice, go cheaply and both farmer at home would maintain the price, while a vast consumption of coffee, would be enabled to consume more and planter tea,silks, largely not or and all other articlesof necessity luxury gold, silver, books, pictures, would consume of those commodities at home,and the producers produced that so cloth and iron, both of which we should then produce cheaply more and wealth and thus would come could send them abroad, prosperity, we and independence. happiness food. the monopoly for protection To the consciousness of the necessity against Resistance that led to the Revolution. of feeling the due state was system and to non*importation various occasions, resolutions, on to

and

led, oppression urged to endeavour to clothe themselves. The were everywhere people and its importance for Congresses, was by the early necessity protection recognised administration. them by every urgedupon hands ; but with the accession of Mr. Fifty power changed years since,
the
29

226

THE

HARMONY

OP

INTERESTS.

" the He thought Jefferson came of policy. manufacturer should no change take his place Prom for a period the side of the that time, agriculturist." by of thirty-six chief the elected from the was by people magistrate, years, every f them elected S tates the and all of -the of same Union, planting by party

that elected Mr. Jefferson, and each and every one of them was an advocate of the system which tended to bringthe loom to the neighbourhood of the the land thus make market for the the to o f a nd a land. on plough, products

By the last of letterthat has

extract
"

his these,

views

been frequently

were subject from and published, on

this

in forcibly expressed

which the

is an following

I will
a

ask,what
market market

is the real situation of the

farmer
nor or

for his Does

surplusproduce 1
not

Except

? Where' has the American agriculturist he has neither a foreign for cotton,

there is no market either at home clearly prove, when and that the channels labour employed in agriculture; Common out ? the remedy ;,draw from at once sense points for labour should be multiplied and agriculturethis superabundant labour, employ it in mechanism manufacture?, and distributing market for your breadstuff's, labour to the most a home thereby creating in the profitable account, and benefits to the country will result. Take from agriculture United States six hundred and you will at once give thousand men, women, and children, In short, breadstuff'sthan all Europe now furnishes us. a home market for more we sir, It is true that we to the policyof British merchants. have been too long subject should become more Americanized, and, instead of feeding the paupers and labourers a little do by sending there for her manufactures,] feed pur own.; or else, of England,[as we shall all be rendered in a short time,by continuing our we policy, present [free trade]

home

this

abroad,that there is too much

paupers

ourselves."

"

President Jackson.

At the close of that

same

there period

Mr. Van party that had elected his predecessor,

which tends to the policy the impoverishment of the land and its owner, and the maintenance of the the control of the movements monopolysystem by which Englandhad acquired of the world. The effectswere be all as who seen disastrous, by may the diagrams in the third chapter, and the consequence was a postudy given litical revolution. For the firsttime in forty elected was years, a president of the party generally not being known as that of the Democrats. by the people and the people did not go with it. Democracyhad changedsides, The consequence of this was, nearly return two years later, to the policy a of protection and a restoration of prosperity, and with prosperity the party that had so longcontrolled the movements of the country restored was again to power. that the revolution of 1840 had to acknowledge however, Unwilling, been the consequence of an error of policy, theyascribed it to various minor and insignificant to the enaction of the tariffof 1846, causes, and proceeded and the consequence was another revolution by which the party of protection restored to power. Like the former, that revolution is now was again ascribed to minor causes the diagrams to which ; but those who will study I have above referred can fail to see that it was due to the fact scarcely that the party styled Democratic had espoused of policy that a course tended to diminish the value of labour, to degradethe labourer, press to dethe democracy at home, and to maintain the aristocracy abroad J fail to arrive at the belief that no party adverse nor can as I think, they, to protection can againhold power in this country. Such being the if actuated solely selfish consicase, the interest of both parties, by purely would lead to the advocacy of the same of policy the one course derations, in power desiring that it might not be adopted, and that thus theymight of the the for themselves in authority, profit by agitation question maintaining and the one out of power, that it mightbe settled, and the agitation of the question close. t o a brought
"

of policy. Elected by the change Buren the adopted of the consumer from the producer, to separation
was
a

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

227

CONCLUSION.

Much
most

men greatly by millions upon a war or with a weak neighbour, havingexpended sixty eighty and having thus acquired the power to purchase, at a highprice, a vast body of wild land that would, in the natural course of events, have been brought within the Union, in reasonable time, without the cost of a dollar or a life. for the purpose of producing civil out of expeditions By such men, the fitting war of Cuba,is held to be another evidence Of granour neighbours among deur.

is said of " the mission" of the people of these United States, and of it is said by persons who tion appear to limit themselves to the consideraof the powers of the nation,' and rarely to think of its duties. By such the grandeur of the national position is held to be increased

of

have us to mix ourselves up with all the revolutionists fourth and last set sigh at the reflection that our fleets and armies are too small for the magnificence of our position. the By some it is supposedthat our " mission" is that of monopolizing

Others would
while
a

Europe;

of the world, and the time is anxiously looked for when we shall relations" with of the East," vast regions diplomatic Corea, Persia, Burmah and Japan,with whom but the steam-ship Cochin-China, nothing introduce our commerce." and successful can successfully By persevering itis thought the of we secure commerce efforts/' Japan." That done, may
commerce

have

"

"

"

"

"

" New " would become the depfit and storehouse and entrepots of the York," itis thought, house of international trade and world, the centre of business and exchanges,the clearing the place where assorted cargoes of our own business, as well products and manufactures, those of all foreigncountries, would as be sold and reshipped,and the point to which specie and bullion would flow, as the great creditor cityof the world for the adjustment this speciewould flow into of balances, the factor of all nations and' the point whence as the interior of our country through all the great channels of international trade and intercourse. With these great events housing accomplished,and with abundant facilitiesfor the wareof foreignand domestic goods at New York,it must eventually surpass in wealth, in commerce, and population, as a emporium, whilst, European any necessary consequence, all our other cities and every portionof the Union and all our great interests, would rive de1848. Report, December, correspondingadvantages." Treasury
"

The cost of would add more

mission to

Japan

would

build half

dozen

furnaces

that

to the wealth of the nation in five years than the commerce have expended of that country would do in half a century. The amount we in search of a market for tobacco, would bring the mission to Austria, on

here is now

as

Germans many consumed in the

as

would

consume

almost

as

much

of

our

tobacco do
more

as

and empire,
"

those tobacco

consumers

would

growthof New York than either Japan or Austria. and commerce" is thus reproduced doctrine of colonies, ships, English lowed and its adoption this side of the Atlantic, on by the nation would be foldescribed ing existhave been those as which similar effects to already by it gave the power to tax the world for the for a time, in England. There, and had before been done by Athens of fleetsand armies, maintenance as have that elsewhere results the there it is and same now producing by Rome, and weakness. resulted from the same exhaustion, depopulation, poverty, system,
for the The that the the inquirer is required of our history to satisfy littlestudy the nations of the its and the of magnificent position Union, among power abstained from have extent the fact that to an due so to we are great earth, armies. The of fleets the and maintenance measures requiring consequenoe has accumulated rapidly, labour has been that taxes have been light, capital But

228

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

and the labourer has received wages that have enabled has been productive, and the nation has thus perand educate his children, him to feed, formed clothe, If we desire " of man. condition the mission" in its true elevating in which the policy must look to those periods to this, we to find exceptions and was of Washington, departed from, Jackson, Madison,Monroe, Jefferson, to the measures and when tending the maintenance adopted

government

and there we shall find taxes more Englishmonopolyof machinery, and the labour more more unproductive, slowly, accumulating heavy, capital difficult it finds to feed labourer that the much depressed wages of labour so them. difficult educate to and still clothe his children, more or the proporTwo systems are before the world ; the one looks to increasing tion and therefore and trade and of in of persons transportation, capital engaged commodities with which to in producing the proportion to diminishing engaged the labour of allAwhilethe other looks diminished return to with trade, necessarily and diminishing work of in the the to increasing proportion production, engaged with increased return to all, to that engaged in trade and transportation, giving One looks of capital the labourer good wages, and to the owner goodprofits. and diminishing materials to be exported, the quantity of raw to increasing both farmer and of men, thus impoverishing the inducements to the import the other looks to while the burden of them on freight; by throwing planter of the and raw the of materials, diminishing export increasing import men, them from the payboth planter and farmer by relieving ment thereby enriching of of millions of acres of freight. One looks to giving the products of the for the services of hundreds of of the labour of millions of men the distant men the other to consume thousands of distant men to bringing ; for bour. lalabour the land the of the on day's exchanging day's land, products of the Union to One looks to compelling the farmers and planters the continue their contributions for the supportof the fleetsand the armies, land and paupers, the and the sovereigns of Europe ourselves nobles, ; the other to enabling intellectual the the moral and to apply to same means improvement of the sovereigns of America.* One looks to the continuance of that of protection, bastard freedom of trade which denies the principle yet doles of legitimate duties ; the other to extending the area it out as revenue followed by the free trade by the establishment of perfect protection, lition of individuals and communities, and ultimately annexation by the abodesert One looks to exporting of custom-houses. to occupy men of which is obtained by aid of diplomacy the sovereignty or tracts, war; the other to increasing the value of an immense extent of vacant land by zation One looks to the centralimen by millions for their occupation. importing the rival and commercial that shall of wealth city power in a great citiesof modern times, which have been and are being by aid supported great them to of contributions which have exhausted every nation subjected ; the made other to concentration, by aid of which a market shall be upon the land for the products of the land, be enriched. and the farmer and planter the necessity for commerce One looks to increasing ; the other to increasing ing the Hindoo,and sinkthe power to maintain it. One looks to underworking the other to raising the standard of man the rest of the world to his level; population, dethe world to our level. One looks to pauperism, ignorance, throughout and barbarism ; the other to increasing intelligence, wealth, comfort, and combination of action, civilization. One looks towards the other towards universal peace.
*

One is the

English system; the

universal war; other we

Russia is
war

of the

in

now raising by Hungary. The

loan five millions farmers and

to pay the expenses of pounds sterling butors of the Onion are the chief contriplanters

to

this loan

THE

HARMONY

OF

INTERESTS.

229

may

vised proudto call the American system,for it is the onlyone ever deof which that of was the while equalizing tendency elevating condition of man the world. throughout Such is the true mission of the people of these United States. To them has been granted before a privilege to man, that of the exernever cise granted of the right of perfect and duties are as self-government rights ; but, with the grant of the former came the obligation the to perform inseparable, latter. Happily their performance is pleasant and profitable, and involves sacrifice. To raise the value of labour throughout no need the world, we raise the value of to To raise the value of land throughout our own. only the world, it is needed only that we adopt that shall raise the value measures of our own. To diffuse intelligence and to promote the cause of morality the we are throughout world, required onlyto pursue the course that shall diffuse education throughout and shall enable every man our own more land, and with it respectfor the rights to acquire of property. readily property, To improve the political condition of man the world, it is needed throughout the that of
we

be

of fleetsand
woman course

ourselves should remain and become armies, that enables

men

peace, avoid taxation for the maintenance rich and prosperous. To raise the condition the world, it is required of us onlythat we throughout pursue
at

at home and marry, that theymay children and grand-children. To substitute with happy for the detestable systemknown as the Malthusian, itisneeded true Christianity that we prove to the world that it is population that makes the food come

that

to remain

surround

themselves

from the rich thus

and that food tends to increase more than population, soils, rapidly the the policy of G-od to man. vindicating Doing these things, and addition to our population will speedily rise to millions, by immigration freedom of trade which with each and every year the desire for that perfect within the Union, will be seen and to to spread results from incorporation the increase in its intensity, to the establishment of an empire leading gradually the world has yet seen, based upon the prinmost extensive and magnificent ciples and strongenoughto insistupon the maintenance of maintaining peace itself, of peace by others, or armies, yet carried on without the aid of fleets, alone the of lands to the sales or sufficing public taxes, pay expenses of

government.
an empire to prove that among the peopleof the there is perfect or merchants, agriculturists, manufacturers, the that the of and of as well as individuals, happiness interests, harmony of obedience that is be to to of promoted by perfect greatest grandeur nations, all commands, Do unto others as ye would that others should do unto you," of that mission Whether that result shall isthe obj ect and will be the result it shall be to a distant period, whether be speedily or postponed attained, of the performance with the who men are will dependgreatly charged upon be governed the duties of government. If their movements by that enlightened in the promotion to seek his happiness self-interestwhich induces man the it will come on of that of his fellow-man, soon. theybo contrary, If, that duals, indivithe belief that selfishness which leads to by ignorant governed national be to are measures or tending promotedby interests, party, it will be late. of the condition of others, to the deterioration

To

establish such

"

whether world,

"

"

.".i'ii;'ii"s,"H S^i

I'stW'

J -jjv

""m!t

"Y}i

'

INDEX.

Advantage African

of

bringing machinery
145.

to the cotton,

Coffee, consumption of, 28, 38.

abolition of duties on, 30. Colonial system presents combination 95. the price of cotton,99. system depresses of
tion, ac-

page

174. cotton,attempts to raise,

labour in England, 155. Agricultural Americans for the wars of Engresponsible land, 197.

manufactures, object of prohibiting,

131.

24. Baltimore and Ohio railroad tolls, Colonies of England, their consumptionof cotton, 110. and Ohio railroad tolls, diagram of, 35. British system of,64. Colonization, Combination 94. diminished by emigration, Brazil, supply of cotton from, 170. dia, 87. in a state of poverty, British commerce ruinous to Ireland and Inimpossible 88. 71. increases population, all other nations, increases value of labour, 86. effortsto underwork needed in this country, 52. 54. 56. 161. of labour, etc., imports and exports, strikes, review of our, 10. policy, legislation upon importsand exports, Commercial 73. Commerce decreases under free trade, 53. 169. definition of,67. slave historydisgraceful, 72. 72. increases under protection, contrasted, system and protection 101. 23. causes internal, poverty in the producer, 39. to maintain endeavours monopoly of power to maintain external, 39. to maintain internal, machinery, 101. power tends to produceequality riff of condition, Bullion and specie should be included in Ta153. 7. tables, Communism nations produced by policy among of England, 154. tion, to their annexaand Cuba, objections Canada 62. form

Compromise Act, 3.

5. of its commerce, its operation, 99. labour producConcentration needed to make tive, ruined by free trade, 99. 89. desire for annexation,62. Canadian 154. Condition of English people, desire for annexation, its cause, 99. of'man improved by increase of productive exports, 91. 78. power, independence would stop immigration the farmer,96. Consumer should live near 73. in the United States, 45. Consumption equalsproduction, produce sent to England, 22. 23. grows with power of production, Capitaland labour wasted in transportation, under of foreign products decreases 146.
" free trade, 42. who suffers by its waste, 192. 116. not arrested by high prices, 141. how affected by protection, Capitalist, the decreases as producers occasioned fluctuations of, ruined by power small, distant from market, and more more are by the British system,199. 87. 130. labour, Cheap 46. Conversion and exchange, doctrine of, China, manufacture of,26. maintained in England, 63.' how 134. Chinese system of trade, and diminishes man's increases necessities, to obtain,in exchange for Clothing,power his powers, 183. 40. labour,16, capital, tends to destroylabour and increases under protection, power to obtain,

16.

150.

under proconsumptionof, comparative tection Cotton, very high, 111. priceof,is really and free trade, 110, 114. consumption of,13, 33. Coal,, comparativepricesof crop and cotton rate of itsconsumption under the Tariff from 1843 to goods in Liverpool, of 1828, 85. 1847, 137. duction, priceof,reduced with increased pro103. decrease in its cultivation, 14. 114. crease decrease in its prioe, productionand consumption of, in36. diagram of imports of foreign, 14. and diminish together,
"

831

232

INDEX.

does not increase in supplyfor want of Cotton, a market, 121. 116. fluctuations in priceof, of the world, 59. production Prussian imports of,before the Zollve10?. rein, in England, 58. return for,consumed of crop and consumptionof statement American, 106. 111. in India a failure, speculation to Britain falling 179. supplyof, off,
trade

Englishfree trade disastrous to other nations,

132. cotton does not grow market for our 180. with its production, 29. its doctrines, school, of its opponents, 30. teaching 198. Exchanges, how affected by protection, Exchangers,influence on pauperism,81. make sacrificesto the,101. producers Expenditure, public, 30, 38.
of food, 81, 92. Exportation value of, 36. Exports,
can

between

the United

States and
Great

England, 114. weekly consumptionof,in

where 175. the best is

tain, Farmer Bri-

get most

when

the power of

for his produce clothing producingcloth is

105. raised, goods,110. to India from goods and yarn exported England, 103. and twist, pricesfrom 1844 to 1848, 117.

21. greatest,

consumptionof,15,33. and consumption of,under free trade, 16. under protection, dearest when cotton is lowest, 117. importof,15. imported into Canada from England,
99.

Credit, public, 31, 39. with the Cultivator,his gradual operations land,123. how affected by protection, 185. Currency,
Debt 26. by importations, 37. foreign, 31, 38. public, Dependence on England a cause of
of

exhausted by free trade, 73. how he may get the highestprices in markets, 98. foreign profit by emigrationonly under protection, 98. sellsin the cheapest market,and buys in the dearest, 81. suffers by non-production of iron, 80. 26, 37. Flax,manufacture of, in Englishcotton factories,lll. Flour consumed 21. Food, product, export,and import of, to obtain in exchange for labour, power 40. why supply of, increases faster than the demand, 97. why scarce in England, 57. Freedom of man increases with wealth and
162. population,

created

Free trade among

sumption non-con-

3. states,

iron, 83. Depopulation, present tendency to, 20.

diagram of,34.
Disasters of 1836
to 1842, how produced,188. present tendency to, 189.

approach to, creates debt,23. is progress downward, 160. approachto, based on cheap labour, 130. doctrines about rights of man, 128. the masses, 74. impoverishes
135. real,beneficial to all, if introduced in the results,

United

Duties of the United Duty affects amount 26.

132. 227. States, States, of importationslightly, Freightsshould be included in valuation of

exports,8.
French

to be fashioned to man's machine purposes, 123. 124. the only producer, Earthenware manufacture, 26. East Indies,British supplyof cotton from,176. in opeEffects of putting a factory or furnace ration,

Earth,

consumption of cotton,122. 139. productions, productions imported into the United States, 27, 37. in trade, 205. Friendshipunknown Fuel necessary to obtain iron, 78.
Gibraltar, its use, 112.
God silver contribute little cessities, to man's ne190. 221. Government, how affected by protection, Grain dearer in coal regionsthan in Philadelphia,
and 98.

43.

manufactures in the establishing "0. South, Egypt, British supplyof cotton from, 170. Emigrationfrom cotton states,121.
"

of

Eastern states, 87. 121. should be stopped, westward, 20, 87.

from

priceof,would increase under protection,

98. of the

disproportion production of, 21, 35. 65. to producers, of consumers Harmony of interests, 41. condition of inhabitants of,109,154. mer, the whole union, 117. fixes the priceof products of the farperfect throughout 141. between planter,manufacturer,and 119. real wealth of,63. ship-owner, between land-owners and labourers of result of dependence on, 60. want annexation, the world,131. English colonies continually Home markets make highest 16. 113. prices, and producers, 95. consumers riff, Immigration affected slowly by change in Taconsumption of cotton,107. 117. 19. consumption of cotton cloth, England
in distress

by

reason

,..,

INDEX.
decreases under free trade, Immigration 38. diagram of,34. 20. at present, diminishing

233

220. Land, public, 20. quantityof,sold, value of, depends on cost of transportation,

effect on consumption, 130. 127. effect on priceof wheat, 96. Land-owners in England, 129. should be encouraged,121. in India,Ireland, Ac, 129. stops with decreased combination of in Parliament, 132. 94. action, 130. remedy for their grievances, results of, had itcontinued at the same Lead, consumption of,31. i rate as in 1834,115. productionof,18. f table of,17. 27. Linens,importation of, would raise price of man trade on, 35. abroad,116. Louisville and Portland canal, Importationdiminishes under free trade, 28. means of procuring, of,90. Machinbry, increased facility and merchandise,90. of men increased production causes of food, of men reduces shipping 93. 21. prioes, of labour and iron, 81. must be brought to the cotton,144. under different tariffs, 9. object of,78. of three kinds, Independence of England, advantagesof,97. 151. India,commerce 40. of,103. power to obtain in aid of labour, attempts to raise cotton in. 103,117, requiredto render labour productive, 151. 133. Man the most valuable commodity, 94. commerce of,103. of small articles in the West, 51. cotton exportedfrom,to England, 104. Manufacture ruined by dependence on England, 61, Manufacturer's true interest, 136. 103. Markets,the best for productsare those made Individual credit, how affected by protection, at home, 45, 139. wanted for producers, 122. 213. Intellectual condition of man, how affected by Marriage regardedas a luxuryin Europe,128. Merchants 80. are 209. agents of the producers, protection, Internal commerce, 23. toil, get the benefit of the producer's 81. Ireland, exports of,91. 227. of cotton into, 109. Mission, true,of the United States, importation of the planter's ruined by dependence on England, 61, Monopoly of machinery cause 103. poverty, 76. of machinery,effectsof abolishing the, Iron,abounding in America, 78. 136. associated with production, 125. 202. how affected by protection, chief constituent of machinery, 78. Morality,
"

consumption of,12,32, 79. 223. Nation, how affected by protection, of,in labour,12. National credit, how affected by protection, domestic productionof,11. 218. fluctuation in priceof,82. for producers and consumers to live 78. Necessity foundation of civilization, 96. each other, near the producer non-production injures of, New England, wages in, will rise when they of food,80. increase in the South and West, 153. of importing, greatest under power 25. New trade of, Orleans, 13. protection, diagram of produce received at,36. by protecproductionof, quadrupled tion, New York canal tolls, 24, 35. 83. diagram of houses built in,36. quantityof, importedsince 1821, 10, growth of,25. 11. the producerof of iron injures Non-production wasted in transportation, food,80. Labour and capital
cost

149. Ore and fuel in Ohio and the West, 78. 28. best rewarded under protection, general pretext for the evils 124. Over-population, value to land, gives of a vicious system, 65. has smallest return where machinery wrongly complained of in Europe, 129. is most needed,153. of transportation 103. and under-consumption, a nd Over-production obtain to food,clothing, power of, the aid of machinery, 40. increases in free-trade countries, Pauperism saved in New England, 48. 128. of condition, tends to produce equality results from the English colonial system, 155. 195. 49. wasted in the Southern states, 24, 35. 151. Pennsylvania canal tolls, Labourer,how affected by protection, 130. growthof,25. Philadelphia, interest, Labourers' common to the popuratio of growth of, lation Philadelphia, Lake tonnage, 24, 36. of the Union, 36. value acquiring fund, saving a Land, great their own if possessing Planters' advantages, from labour,122. 20. machinery, 143. effect of sales of,on immigration, nexation advantage to, arising from the anvaluable in the United States more of Canada, 99. 129. in Canada, than

234
Planters benefited by borne, 1-16.

IttDEX. consumptionof
cotton at

his systemof accumulating Rothschild, wealth, 75. Russia wastes food for want Russian exports,91. system of commerce, Saving-funds of
a

of impoverishedby the speculations 76. exchangers, need machinery to convert their own crops, 138. 169. interests, oppose their own tobacco and cotton, relative returns for their products, 119. to break true policy down Englishmonopoly

market,131.

91.

and found in mills furnaces, mines,46. Settlers'life and experience, 126. Silver and gold contribute little to man's necessities,
coal

of machinery, and bringEng191. lish true interest, 136. machinery to the cotton field,Ship-owner's 185. Shipping affected slowlyby changes in tariff, 19. why theyreceive small returns for their 143. built to replace vessels sent to California, capital, 19. 33. Population, diagram of, of Philadelphia, tables of,19, 34. 36i built, increases with protection, of its poverty, 112. 90. causes Portugal, Powers of man how best ended, 165. increase as his necessities Slaveryagitation, 192. would be abolished by making a market diminish, Prices highestwhen the land in the South,164. on a nation buys and sells at home, 14. to that of England disgraceful Slave-history Producer's returns in cotton cloth, 169. 112. nation, Production of food and iron unequal,70. Slaves have been well kept in the United to commerce, relation of, 68. 169. States, Productive power, diminution afford to raise, Northern men cannot cord of,brings disand 55. of producers to Proportion 194. internal disorder, in consumers 163.

land, Smuggling Eng-

as

regardedby British authorities,

112. 29. Soils, poorest,first cultivated, South

her inability to produce cotton Carolina, in competition with her neighbours, 166.

how it affeetsmorals, 202. Protection, 217. publiocredit, and expenditure, revenue 42,219. the capitalist, 141. consumption of cotton,108.
currency, 185.

exchanges,198.
friends of peace, 193.

riff Specieand bullion should be included in Ta7. tables, 1829 to 1849, imported and exported,
9.

government, 221. 88. growth of new states,

209. intellectual condition,

Steamboat

nation, 223.
power 213. political condition, to import, 42.

tonnage,24, 34. and tion Sugar,production, importation, consumpof,23, 35, 120. returns 120. for, Swords and muskets hinder returns to labour,
193.

price of cotton,114. slave and his master, 161.

value of
woman, 66. labour,

3. Tariffs, outlinehistory of, merits of,require time for development,

6.

200..

features of that'of 1816;5. principal of consumers, 98. 1824, 5. raises the value of man, 130. 1828, 5. raises the value of land,133. 1832, 5. reduces prices, and increases the power 1833,5. of consumption, 41. 1842, 5. cost of transportation, 141. saves 1846,5. 51. of 1846, effectsof maintainingit, 67. why required, Public credit, 31,38. 1828,effects that would have resulted from its continuance, 115. debt,31, 38. Taxation of the sugar planter, 76. expenditure, 30, 38. increased by pauperism,76. Railroads do not lessen the number of horses, Tea, abolition of duty on, 30. 127. consumptionof,28, 37. increase production, 127. Tendency to produce only the finest cotton Return freights, 93. fabrics in England, 179. Returns for products, 43. Tolls on internal commerce, 24, 35. Revenue from customs, diagram, 38. Tonnage, increase and diminution of,19. from imports, 28. lake, 24, 36. ..'; 28. decreases under free trade, steamboat 24, 36. bow affected by different tariffs, 29. 119. Tobacco,consumptionof, how affected by protection, 219. Tobacco trade, 118. Road from the Mississippi to the Pacific, 90. Trade of New 24. Orleans, to be productive, must go through rich New York, 25. 89. 25. countries, Philadelphia,
........i

increases

immigrationand the number

INDEX.

235
Variations in caused by dependence on prices England, 83.

Trading with
our

wages

poor to

people tends
a

to reduce

costs Transportation,

level with theirs, 77. of,reduce the value of

28. Wages, fallunder free trade, of labourers in England, 93. 94. of labourers in Ireland, United 75. States, British supply of cotton from process of reducing, the, 171. of recent,193. War, causes of the world the labour and capital on exports of cotton from, to England, 106. prepared in England, 95. the power to make it depends, on what exports of grain from, to England,

land, 12?.

capital employed in,143.

"

95.

194.

Union

Value

for of men into the,92. Wars of England, Americans responsible importation present policyof the,134. the,197. of cloth and iron from Engreceipts land, Western steamboat tonnage, 36. 200. 113. affects, Woman, how protection Wool trade, 102. true mission of the,227. wealth of,in land, coal, and metals, Woollens,consumption of,33. 128. importations of,16, 37. between producers and consumers most under its when made at home, 51. Zollvebein, cotton trade flourishing profitable 107. auspices, of exports,25. imports into Prussia before and after 107. its formation, 10. of imports,

THE

END.

"
Is

TI MOM, Ai TBI ANVIL, PLOUGH,

in Philadelphia, and never contains less than 64 published monthly, Edited J. 8. Skinner. by pages. To the Farmer it is an invaluable companion, 'withoutregard bringing out, that is new, interesting, the attention of the to expense, every thing or worthy it with many costly of Cattle, practical ments, Impleillustrating engravings man;

"c. "c.
to be shown the harmony that exists every number, it is endeavoured it between all the great industrial classesof our country, and how much and thereby the Farmer to encourage manufactures in his own land, interests of bringconsumers, and create a home and reliable market for the products the plough. Any person wishing sent to see the work,can have a specimen

In

them,by addressing me, postpaid. where fiveunite in a club and send The Terms $2 each, are in advance for two years ; and $3 for a where two unite, ten dollars ; $5 for both, or J. S. Address subscriber. SKINNER, single 79 Walnut street, Publisher and Editor, Philadelphia.
"

of eminent citizensin the Northern, few of the many opinions the favourable to " The Plough, and in the Southern States, in the Middle, Loom, and the Anvil." Below
are a

Extract from Doctor

Wood.

May 13, 1850. Va., Hblkham, Albemarle,

Agriculture, Virginia in the work enlightened your will induce me to act its value, able to appreciate hands of every agriculturist without as your agent, making any charge.
Gratitude for your
and
an

effortsin longand peculiar desire to

see

behalf of

earnest

useful and

Extract

of

letter from

Washington

Hunt, Governor

Elect of New

York.

Nov. 14, 1850. Albany, sensible of the greatservice you have rendered to the and interests of the country, by the dissemination of intelligence productive have and in your continued efforts, of sound principles; the advocacy you will to become a subscriber It gives me best wishes for success. pleasure
Dear

Sir

"

am

my

your

to your

valuable

publication.
from Joseph
Pa. Dtsabt, Hollidaysburg,

Extract

March

9, 1850:

read by every farmer in our was I wish your "Plough, Loom, and Anvil," of the evilswith which we for be would a perfect many panacea country ; it sensation as firein a barn among a It would produce as great are oppressed. and then, a star there time is, But there is a good coming; every now rats.
in appearing
From
"

the horizon that did not

of Boston,

exist. previously
the National

S. Lawrence,

in published

Intelligencer.

The

the Loom, and the Plough, man,

from

is a work which Anvil,"

oughtto

be read

by every
Extract

woman,
a

and child in America.

the Hon.
Abbott

letter from

Lawrence,

Minister of the IT. S.

1850. London,Dec. 31*tf, that has national ever " I deem it the best periodical economy upon our be man It should by every encouraged in the United States. been published to our prosperity, who desires to diffuse information upon a vital question the throughout whole

country."

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