Metallic Cable Transmission Media

Introduction Transmission media -It is included in the lowest layer of the OSI protocol hierarchy the physical layer. -Transmission medium is simply the path between a transmitter and a receiver in a communications system. Guided Transmission media -some form of conductor that provide conduit in which signals are contained -the conductor directs the signal examples copper wire! optical fiber "nguided Transmission media -wireless systems without physical conductor -signals are radiated through air or vacuum -direction depends on which direction the signal is emitted examples air! free space #able transmission media -guided transmission medium and can be any physical facility used to propagate $% signals between two locations e.g. metallic cables &open wire! twisted pair'! optical cables &plastic! glass core' Incident and (eflected wave -Incident voltage is the voltage that propagates from sources towards the load -(eflected wave is the voltage that propagates from the load towards the source.

Transmission line classifications )' *alanced Transmission line - two wire balanced line. - both conductors carry current. *ut only one conductor carries signals.

+' "nbalanced Transmission line - One wire is at ground potential and the other wire is at signal potential - advantage only one wire for each signal - disadvantage reduced immunity to noises

*aluns *alanced transmission lines connected to unbalanced transmission lines e.g. coaxial cable to be connected to antenna Metallic Transmission Line Types 1)Parallel conductors 2)Coaxial cable )'Parallel conductors consists of two or more metallic conductors&copper' separated by insulatorair!rubber etc. %ost common -- Open ,ire Twin lead Twisted -air &"T- . ST-' Open ,ire - two-wire parallel conductors -#losely spaces by air -/on conductive spaces support and constant distance between conductors &+-0 inches' -1dv simple construction -2isadv no shielding! high radiation loss! crosstal3 application standard voice grade telephone

Twin lead -spacers between the two conductor are replaced with continuous dielectric uniform spacing -application to connect T4 to rooftop antennas -material used for dielectric Teflon! polyethylene

Twisted pair--&"T- . ST-' -formed by twisting two insulated conductors around each other -/eighboring pairs is twisted each other to reduce $%I and (5I from external sources -reduce crosstal3 between cable pairs

----"nshielded Twisted -air -two copper wire encapsulated in -4# -twisted to reduce crosstal3 and interference -improve the bandwidth significantly -"sed for telephone systems and local area networ3

6evel ) &#ategory )' -- ordinary thin cables --for voice grade telephone and low speed data 6evel + &#ategory +' -- *etter than category ) --5or to3en ring 61/ at txn. rate of 7 %bps #ategory 8 -- more stringent re9uirement than level ) and + -- more immunity than crosstal3 -- for to3en ring &)0%bps'! ):*ase T $thernet &):%bps' #ategory 7 -- upgrade version of category 8 -- tighter constraints for attenuation and crosstal3 -- up to ):: %bps 8

#ategory ; -- better attenuation and crosstal3 characteristics -- used in modern 61/. 2ata up to )::%bps #ategory ;e -- enhanced category ; -- data speed up to 8;: %bps #ategory 0 -- data speed up to ;;: %bps -- fabricated with closer tolerances and use more advance connectors Shielded Twisted -air &ST-' -- wires and dielectric are enclosed in a conductive metal sleeve called foil or mesh called braid -- the sleeve connected to ground acts as shield prevent the signal radiating beyond the boundaries

ST- #ategory #ategory ;e -- 5eature individually shielded pairs of twisted wire #ategory < -- 7 pairs -- surrounded by common metallic foil shield and shielded foil twisted pair -- )Gbps 5oil twisted pair -- 5our pairs of +7-1,G copper wires encapsulated in a common metallic-foil shield with a -4# outer sheath -- to minimi=e $%I susceptibility while maximi=ing $%I immunity -- > )Gbps Shielded-foil twisted pair -- 5our pairs of +7-1,G copper wires surrounded by a common metallic-foil shield encapsulated in a braided metallic shield -- offer superior $%I protection -- > )Gbps +' Coaxial cable -- used for high data transmission -- coaxial reduce losses and isolate transmission path -- center conductor surrounded by insulation -- shielded by foil or braid

(igid air filled

solid flexible

BNC Connectors -- To connect coaxial cable to devices! it is necessary to use coaxial connectors. -- The most common type of connector is the *ayone-/eill-#oncelman! or */#! connectors. -- Types */# connector! */# barrel! */# T! Type-/! Type-/ barrel. -- 1pplications include cable T4 networ3s! and some traditional $thernet 61/s li3e ):*ase-+! or ):-*ase;.

Two wire parallel transmission line electrical e!ui"alent circuit #haracteristic Impedance of a 6ine - 1 terminated transmission line that is matched in its characteristic impedance is called a matched line - The characteristic impedance depends upon the electrical properties of the line! according to the formula - The characteristic impedance can be calculated by using Ohm?s 6aw Zo = Eo / Io where $o is source voltage Io is transmission line current

The characteristic impedance for any type of transmission line can be calculated by calculating the inductance and impedance per unit length 5or a parallel line with an air the dielectric impedance is

Z : +<0 log

D r

Zo @ the characteristic impedance &ohms' D @ the distance between the centers r @ the radius of the conductor 5or a Coaxial cable with an air the dielectric impedance is Z: = )8A D log d r

= r:
c= ) o :

Z0 @ the characteristic impedance &ohms' D @ the diameter of the outer conductor d @ the diameter of the inner conductor @ the permittivity of the material r @ the relative permittivity or dielectric constant of the medium 0 @ the permeability of free space 5or extremely high fre9uencies! characteristic impedance can be given by Zo # L E C $a"e propa%ation on Metallic transmission lines 4elocity factor and 2ielectric constant --The ratio of the actual velocity of propagation of $% wave through a given medium to the velocity of propagation through vacuum

Vf =
4f @ velocity factor 4p @ actual velocity of propagation c @ velocity of propagation in vacuum rearranged e9uation

Vp c

V f c = Vp

the velocity via txn. line depends on the dielectric constant of insulating material ) r @ dielectric constant r The velocity along txn. line varies with inductance and capacitance of the cable as Vp = T = LC velocity x time @ distance Therefore! Vp = D LC ) meters LC second 4p @ velocity of propagation B6# @ seconds 6 @ inductance # @ capacitance Vp = distance D = time T

normali=ed distance to ) meter! V = p

C' 5or a coaxial cable with distributed capacitance # @ D0.0 pfEF! 2istributed inductance 6 @ +7).;0 nFEm! (elative dielectric constant. r @ +.8! determine the velocity of propagation and the velocity factor.

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Losses #onductor 6osses -- conductor heating loss - I+( power loss -- the loss varies depends on the length of the tx. 6ine 2ielectric Feating 6osses -- difference of potential between two conductors of a metallic txn line -- /egligible for air dielectric and increases with fre9uency for solid core tx line

(adiation 6osses -- the energy of electrostatic and $% field radiated from the wire and transfer to the nearby conductive material --(educed by shielding the cable #oupling 6osses -- whenever connection is made between two tx line -- discontinuities due to mechanical connection where dissimilar material meets - tend to heat up! radiate energy and dissipate power #orona -- luminous discharge that occurs between two conductors of transmission line -- when the difference of potential between lines exceeds the brea3down voltage of dielectric insulator

&ptical 'iber Communications

Optical fiber communications system is one that uses light as the carrier of information. The information carrying capacity of any electronic communications system is directly proportional to bandwidth. Optical fibers have infinite bandwidth. So they have the capacity to carry much more information than metallic cables. (d"anta%es )' ,ider bandwidth and greater information capacity --*etter than metallic cables! up to several thousand GF= --Speed up to several Gbps +'Immunity to crosstal3 --glass fiberEplastic are non-conductor to electrical current --immune to adGacent cables 8'Immunity to static interference --immune to static noise $%I! lightning etc. 7'$nvironmental Immunity --more resistant to environment! weather variations --wider temperature range operation --less affected by corrosive li9uids and gases ;'Safety and convenience --safer and easier to install and maintain --no current and voltage associated --no worry about explosion and fire caused --lighter and compact! flexible! lesser space re9uired 0'6ower transmission loss --lesser loss compared to metallic cables --:.)D d*E3m loss H );;: nm --amplifiers can be spaced more farther apart <'Security --virtually impossible to tap into a fiber cable A'2urability and reliability --last longer! higher tolerance to changes in environment and immune to corrosion D'$conomics --1pproximately the same cost as metallic cables --less loss between repeaters. 6ower installation and overall system?s cost )isad"anta%es )'Interfacing cost --Optical cable transmission medium --/eeds to be connected to standards electronics facilities often to be expensive +'Strength --lower tensile strength --can be improved with 3evlar and protective Gac3et --glass fragile less re9uired for portability 8'(emote electrical power --need to be include electrical line within fiber cable for interfacing and signal regeneration D

7'6oss due to bending --bending causes irregularities in cable dimension the light escapes from fiber core loss of signal power prone to manufacturing defect ;'Speciali=ed tools! e9uipment and training --tools to splice! repair cable --test e9uipment for measurements --s3illed technicians *lectroma%netic spectrum

$lectromagnetic wavelength spectrum

$lectromagnetic fre9uency spectrum

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1)Infrared+ The band of light fre9uencies that is too high to be seen by the human eye with wavelengths ranging from <<: nm to ):0 nm. Optical fiber systems generally operate in infrared band. 2),isible+ The band of light fre9uencies to which the human eye will respond with wavelengths ranging from 8D: nm to <<: nm. -).ltra"iolet+ The band of light fre9uencies that are too low to be seen by the human eye with wavelengths ranging from ): nm to 8D: nm. c Wavelength, = f

@ wavelength &meters' c @ velocity of light &8::.:::.::: meters per second' f @ fre9uency &hert='

&ptical Communication systems

Optical fiber communications lin3 In transmitter/ the light source can be modulated by a digital or analog signal. The voltage-to-current converter serves as an electrical interface between the input circuitry and the light source.

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The light source is 6$2 or I62. The amount of light emitted is proportional to amount of drive current. The source-to-fiber coupler is a mechanical interface. In recei"er/ fiber-to-light detector coupling device is used to couple as much light 6ight detector is generally a -I/ &p-type intrinsic n-type' diode! an 1-2 &avalanche photodiode'. 2etectors convert light energy to current. 1 current-to-voltage converter is re9uired to produce an output voltage proportional to the original source information. &ptical fiber construction

Optical fiber cable construction ---rotective coating--special lac9uer! silicone! or acrylate coating outside of cladding to seal and preserve the fiber?s strength! protects from moisture -- *uffer Gac3et additional cable strength against shoc3s --Strength members increase a tensile strength --Outer polyurethane Gac3et 'iber cables either glass! plastic or both )' -lastic core and cladding &-#-' +' Glass core plastic cladding &-#S' 8' Glass core glass cladding &S#S' ---lastic core more flexible - easier to install but higher attenuation than glass fiber not as good as glass --Glass core lesser attenuation best propagation characteristics but least rugged Selection of fiber depends on its application trade off between economics and logistics of particular application. T0e P0ysics of li%0t $instein and -lanc3 light behaves li3e $% wave and particles photon posses energy proportional to its fre9uency. Planc12s law+ ,hen visible light or high-fre9uency electromagnetic radiation illuminates a metallic surface! electrons are emitted. The emitted electrons produce an electric current. -lanc3?s law is expressed mathematically as )+

E p = hf
E p = energy of the photons h = -lanc3 constant f = light fre9uency

E p = hf Ep = hc

--the lowest energy state grounds state --energy level above ground state excited state --if energy level decays to a lower level loss of energy is emitted as a photons of light --The process of decaying from one level to another spontaneous decay or spontaneous emission --1toms can absorbs light energy and change its level to higher level absorption

E p = E+ E)
&ptical power --flow of light energy past a given point in a specified time --also called radiant flux e9ual to Goules per second

$p is the energy of photon measured in Goules

= d &energy' t &time' = d! dt
@ optical power d! @ instanteneous charge dt @ instanteneous change in time

generally stated in decibel to define power level &d*m' d"m = ): log )mW Cuestion ): m, in d*mI ,elocity of Propa%ation --in vacuum 8 x ):A mEs --but slower in a more dense material than free space --when it passes through different medium such from one medium to another denser material the ray change its direction due to the change of speed --from less dense to more denser material the ray refracted closer to the normal --from more denser material to less denser material the ray refracted away from the normal

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3efraction --Occurs when the light travels between two different material density and changes its speed based on the light fre9uency 3efracti"e Index -- the ratio of the velocity of propagation of a light ray in free space to the velocity of propagation of a light ray in a given material

n=c v
n @ refractive index c @ speed of light v @ speed of light in a given material

)7

4nell2s Law --how a light ray reacts when it meets the interface of two transmissive materials that have different indexes of refraction

(efractive model for Snell?s law (n%le of incidence is the angle at which the propagating ray stri3e the interface with respect to the normal (n%le of refraction is the angle formed between the propagating ray and the normal after the ray has entered the +nd medium

n) sin) = n+ sin+
n) @ refractive index material ) n + @ refractive index material +

Cuestion medium ) glass @ ).;! medium + ethyl alcohol @ ).80! angle of incidence 8:o determine the angle of refractionI Critical (n%le --the angle of incident ray in which the refracted ray is D:o and refracted along the interface --the minimum angle of incidence at which the refracted angle is D:o or greater --the light must travel from higher refractive index to a lesser refractive index material sin ) = n+ sin + n) n+ &)' n) n+ n) );

) @ angle of incidence + @ angle of refraction

+ = D:
sin c =

c = sin )

(cceptance (n%le --the maximum angle in which external light rays may stri3e the airEglass interface and still propagate down the fiber

in&max'

= sin )

n+ n+ ) + n :

in &max' @ acceptance angle

n: @ refractive index of air n) @ refractive index of fiber core n+ @ refractive index of fiber cladding

= sin ) n+ n+ ) + in&max'
Numerical (perture 5 N(+ --to measure the magnitude of the acceptance angle --describe the light gathering or light-collecting ability of an optical fiber --the larger the magnitude of /1! the greater the amount of external light the fiber will accept

)0

#$ = sin in
+ #$ = n)+ n+

in = sin ) #$
J in @ acceptance angle /1 @ numerical aperture n) @ refractive index fiber core n) @ refractive index fiber cladding

Propa%ation of li%0t t0rou%0 an optical fiber cable Modes of propa%ation )' Single mode --only one path for light rays down the fiber +' %ultimode --many higher order path rays down the fiber

Index Profile --graphical presentation of the magnitude of the refractive index across the fiber --refractive index hori=ontal axis --radial distance from core vertical axis )'step index single mode +'step index multimode 8'graded index - multimode

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4in%le Mode 4tep Index --dominant widely used in telecommunication system and networ3 --the core is significantly smaller in diameter than multimode fiber Multimode Mode 4tep Index --similar to single mode step index fiber --but the core diameter is much larger --light enters the fiber follows many paths as it propagate down the fiber --results in different time arrival for each of the path Multimode Mode 6raded Index --non-uniform refractive index decreases toward the outer edge --the light is guided bac3 gradually to the center of the fiber

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Comparison 4in%le mode step index &K' minimum dispersion same path propagation same time of arrival &K' wider bandwidth and higher information tx rate &-' small core hard to couple light into the fiber &-' small line width of laser re9uired &-' expensive difficult to manufacture Multimode step index &K' relatively inexpensive! simple to manufacture &K' easier to couple light into the fiber &-' different path of rays different time arrival &-' less bandwidth and transfer rate Multimode %raded index -- intermediate characteristic between step index single and multimode Losses in optical fiber (ttenuation --power loss reduction in the power of light wave as it travels down the cable --depends on signal?s wavelength --generally expressed as decibel loss per 3m! d*E3m --effect on system?s performance by reducing )'system?s bandwidth +'information transmission rate 8'efficiency 7'overall system capacity 1ttenuation!

$ = ):log out &d"' in

1 &d*' @ total reduction in power level - out @ cable output power -in @ cable input power

Optical power in watts measured at a given distance from a power source can be determined mathematically as

= t ): $l E):
- @ measured power level -t @ transmitted power level 1 @ cable power loss l @ cable length

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5iber cable attenuation Cuestion Single-mode optical cable with input power :.) m, light source :.+; d*E3m cable loss! determine optical power ):: 3m from the transmitter side 1)(bsorption Loss --absorption due to impurities absorb lights and convert it into heat --contributors )'"ltraviolet ioni=ed valence electron in the silica material. +'Infrared photons of light absorbed by glass?s atom converted into random mechanical vibrations - heating 8'Ion resonance caused by OF- ion in the material. OF- trapped in the glass during manufacturing process

2)Material 5 3aylei%0/ 4catterin% Losses --permanent submicroscopic irregularities during fiber drawing process

+:

--when the light propagates and stri3e one of the impurities! they are diffracted causes the light to disperse and spread out-some continues down the fiber! some escapes via cladding power loss

-)C0romatic 5 $a"elen%t0/ )ispersion Loss --many wavelengths being txn. from 6$2 --each wavelength travels at different velocity --arrives at end of fiber at different time --resulting in chromatic distortion --solution using monochromatic light source 7)3adiation Losses --loss due to small bends and 3in3s in the fiber --two types of bend )'microbend difference in the thermal contraction rates between core and cladding. Geometric imperfection along the axis. +'constant radius bend excessive pressure and tension during handling and installation 8)Modal )ispersion Losses -- pulse spreading --difference in the propagation times of light rays that ta3e different path -- occur only in multimode fiber -- solution use graded index fiber or single mode step index fiber 9)Couplin% Losses --imperfect physical connection --three types of optical Gunctions 6ight source to fiber connection 5iber to fiber connection 5iber to photo-detector connection --#aused by )' 6ateral displacement +' Gap displacement 8' 1ngular displacement 7' Imperfect surface finish 6ateral 2isplacement --axis displacement between + pieces of adGoining fiber cable --amount of loss couple tenth to several decibels +)

Gap displacements miss alignment --end separation --the farther apart! the greater the light loss --if the two fiber is spliced! no gap between fiber --if the two fiber is Goined with a connector! the ends should not touch each other 1ngular displacement --less than +o! the loss will typically less than :.; d* Imperfect surface finish --end fiber should be polished and fit together s9uarely

4ources+ 6ight source for optical communication system -- efficiently propagated by optical fiber -- sufficient power to allow light to propagate -- constructed so that their output can be efficiently coupled into and out of optical fiber

Tungsten lamp radiation and human eye response ++

&ptical sources 1)L*) --p-n Gunction diode --made from a semiconductor &1lGa1s' --emits light by spontaneous emission- light is emitted as a result of the recombination of electrons and holes.

Typical L*) c0aracteristics+

Output power versus forward current

Output power versus temperature

Output power versus output wavelength

+8

2)IL) :InGection 6aser 2iode' --1bove the threshold current! an I62 oscillates and lasing occurs --1s current passes through a forward biased p-n Gunction diode! light is emitted by spontaneous emission at a fre9uency determined by the energy gap of the semiconductor material. 1dvantages I62?s emit coherent light! used at higher bit rates than 6$2?s. 2isadvantages ): times more expensive than 6$2?s shorter life time! more temperature dependent. )etectors PIN diodes -- light doped material between two heavily doped n and p type semiconductor -- most common as light detector (P) -- avalanche photo diode -- more sensitive than -I/ diode -- re9uire less additional amplification C0aracteristic of Li%0t detectors responsi"ity -- a measure of conversion efficiency of photo-detector -- ratio of output current to the input optical power dar1 current --the lea3age current that flows through photodiode when there is no light input transit time -- time of light induced carrier to travel across the depletion region of semiconductor spectral response -- the range of wavelength values that a given photodiode will respond li%0t sensiti"ity -- the minimum optical power a light detector can receive and still produce a usable electrical output signal Lasers+ 61S$(-6ight amplification stimulated by the emission of radiation --laser technology deals with the concentration of light into a very small! powerful beam --there are 7 types of lasers 1)6as lasers+ Felium and /eon enclosed in a glass tube laser! #O+ lasers --Output is continuous mono chromatic &one colour' 2)Li!uid lasers+ organic dye enclosed in a glass tube for an active medium --1 powerful pulse of light excites the organic dye -)4olid lasers+ solid! cylindrical crystal such as ruby! for the active medium. (uby is excited by a tungsten lamp tied to an alternating-current power supply. --Output is continuous 7)4emiconductor lasers+ %ade from semiconductor p-n Gunctions and are commonly called InGection laser diodes &I62?s'. - a direct-current power supply controls the amount of current to the active medium

+7

Laser c0aracteristics+ 1ll lasers use )' an active material to convert energy into laser light +' a pumping source to provide power or energy 8' optics to direct the beam through the active material to be amplified 7' optics to direct the beam into a narrow powerful cone of divergence ;' a feedbac3 mechanism to provide continuous operation 0' an output coupler to transmit power out of the laser

+;