Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering WATER CYCLE AND WATER QUALITY Hydrology - Hydrology is the study of water

r and its movement along its various pathways within the hydrological cycle. This is applied by engineers who use hydrological principles to compute river flows from rainfall, water movement in soils form knowledge of soil characteristics, evaporation rates from water balance or energy balance techniques. The Water Cycle - The hydrological cycle is central to Hydrology. It is a continuous process showing constant state of motion of water. Water evaporates from the earths oceans and water bodies and from land surfaces. About seven times more evaporation occurs from oceans than from the earths land surfaces. The evaporated water rises into the atmosphere until the lower temperatures aloft cause it to condense and then precipitate in the form most globally as rain but sometimes as snow. Once on the earths surface waters flow into streams, lakes, and eventually discharges into surface waters. Through evaporation from surface water or transpiration plants, water molecules return to the atmosphere to repeat the cycle. The term evapotranspiration is used referring to combined evaporation and transpiration usually exhibited by living plants. In general of 100 units of rain that falls on grassland in temperature zones, 10 to 20 units will go to groundwater, 20-40 units will transpire and 40 to 70 units will become stream runoff.

Water never leaves the Earth. It is constantly being cycled through the atmosphere, ocean, and land. This process, known as the water cycle, is driven by energy from the sun. The water cycle is crucial to the existence of life on our planet. Evaporation-The sun heats up liquid water and changes it to a gas. Water that evaporates from Earths oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist soil rises up into the atmosphere. Condensation -As water (in the form of gas) rises higher in the atmosphere, it starts to cool and become a liquid again. Groundwater -water absorbed into the ground forming pockets of water. Most groundwater eventually returns to the ocean. Water runoff -Other precipitation runs directly into streams or rivers The earth has approximately 1.4 billion cubic kilometers of water either trapped underground on the surface or in the atmosphere. More than 97% of this is salt water found in the oceans and seas and more than 2% is fresh water frozen in the polar ice caps.

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering WATER QUALITY Water in nature is most nearly pure in its evaporation state. However it acquires impurities once condensed and additional impurities are added as the liquid water travels through the remainder of the hydrologic cycle and comes in contact with materials in the air and on or beneath the earths surface. In addition, human activities contribute further impurities in the form of industrial and domestic wastes, agricultural chemicals, and other less obvious contaminants. These impure water returns to the atmosphere as relatively pure molecules through evaporation. It is the water quality in the intermediate states that is of great concern because it is the quality at this stages that will affect human use of water. The impurities are accumulated in water throughout the hydrologic cycle and as a result of human activities may be both suspended (larger particles) and dissolved from (molecules, ions). Colloids are also very small particles that are suspended but often exhibit many characteristics of dissolved substances. Water supplies: 1. Ground water Supplies - Ground water is an important direct source of water supply and a significant indirect source since a large portion of the flow to stream is derived from subsurface water. Near the surface of the earth in the zone of aeration, soil pore the spaces contain both air and water. This zone may have zero thickness in the swamplands and can be several hundred feet thick in arid regions. Moisture from this zone cannot be tapped as water supply since this water is held on soil particles by capillary forces and is not readily released. Below the zone of aeration is the zone of saturation, in which the pores are filled with water. Water within this zone is referred to as Groundwater. A stratum containing a substantial amount of groundwater is called Aquifer and the surface of this saturated layer is known as the Water Table. If the aquifer is underlain by the impervious layers, it is called an unconfined aquifer. If the stratum containing water is trapped between two impervious layers, it is known as confined aquifer.

2. Surface water Supplies - Surface water supplies are not as reliable as groundwater sources because quantities often fluctuate widely during the course of a year or even a week, and the quality of surface water is easily degraded by various sources of pollution.

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering WATER QUALITY PARAMETERS I. Physical Water-Quality Parameters

1. Suspended Solids consists of inorganic and organic particles Sources: a) Inorganic Solids clay, silt, other soil constituents b) Organic Solids plant fiber and biological solids (algal cells, bacteria, etc) Impacts: Objectionable in water, aesthetically displeasing and provides adsorption sites for chemical land biological agents 2. Turbidity a measure of the extent to which light is either absorbed or scattered by suspended material in water. This is not a direct quantitative measure of suspended solids Sources: erosion of colloidal matters such as clay, silt, rock fragments and metal oxides from soil, vegetable fibers and microorganisms, soaps and detergents, emulsifying agents. Impacts: aesthetically displeasing, provides adsorption sites for biological and chemical agents, cause undesirable tastes and odor, impart color to natural water bodies, may interfere with light penetration during photosynthesis, sediments and solid deposits also adversely affect the flora and fauna of the streams 3. Color Pure water is colorless but water in nature is often colored by foreign substances a) Apparent Color color that is partly due to suspended matter b) True Color color that which is contributed by dissolved solids that remain after removal of the suspended matter Sources: contact with organic debris such as leaves, conifer needles, weeds, or wood, water pick up tannins, humic acid, and humates and takes on yellowish-brown hues. Iron oxides cause reddish water, Manganese oxides cause brown or blackish water. Industrial wastes: textile and dyeing operations, pulp and paper production, food processing, chemical production, mining, refining, and slaughterhouse operations add substantial color to water in receiving streams. Impacts: Not aesthetically acceptable to general public. Highly colored water is not suitable for laundry, dyeing, papermaking, beverage manufacturing, diary production, and other food processing, textile and plastic production 4. Taste and Odor Substances that produce an odor in water will almost invariably impart a taste as well Sources: minerals, metals and salts from soil, end products of biological reactions, and constituents of wastewater. Inorganic substances are more likely to produce taste unaccompanied by odor. Alkaline materials imparts bitter taste to water, metallic salts impart salty or bitter taste. Organic susbstances most likely produce both taste and odor. Biological decomposition of organic matter may result to taste and odor producing liquids and gases. Certain species of algae also secrete oily substances which may result to taste and odor. Impacts: aesthetically displeasing, health threat (since carcinogens may be produced when some organics react with chlorine during disinfection) 5. Temperature It is not used to evaluate directly either potable water or wastewater. However, It is one of the most important parameters in natural surface water systems Sources: ambient temperature (temperature of the surrounding atmosphere), industries discharges waste heat Impacts: 3

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering Biological activities increase when temperature increases. A 10OC increase in temperature is sufficient to double the biological activity of organisms if the essential nutrients are available. Accelerated growth of algae often occurs in warm water and can become a problem when cells cluster into algae mats. Natural secretion of oils by the algae in the mats and decay products of dead algae cells can result in taste and odor problems. The dead algae will also require oxygen in its decomposition which may result to a DO level insufficient to support higher-order species such as fishes Oxygen is more soluble in cold water than in warm water. This in turn affects the amount of DO in water. Temperature also affects other physical properties of water. The viscosity increases with decreasing temperature, the maximum density of water occurs at 4OC.

II.

Chemical Water Quality Parameters

1. Total Dissolved Solids the material remaining in the water after filtration and is left as residue upon evaporation. It constitutes a part of total solids. Dissolved solids may be organic or inorganic Sources: solvent action of water on solids, gases and liquids, decay products of vegetation or from organic chemicals and gases Impacts: produces aesthetically displeasing color, tastes and odors, some maybe toxic and carcinogen 2. Alkalinity it is a measure of the ability of water to neutralize acids Sources: Dissolution of mineral substances in soil and atmosphere, phosphates originating from detergents in wastewater, from fertilizers and insecticides from agricultural lands. Impacts: alkalinity imparts bitter taste to water, reaction between alkalinity and other ions will produce precipitates that can foul pipes and other water systems. 3. Hardness concentration of multivalent cations in solution. It is classified as carbonate and noncarbonate hardness Concentration based on Calcium Carbonate concentration: <50 ppm as CaCO3 - soft 50 - 100 ppm as CaCO3 moderately hard 150 -300 ppm as CaCO3 hard 300 ppm as CaCO3 very hard Sources: Calcium and Magnesium, Iron and Manganese, Strontium and Aluminun Impacts: soap lathering problems, scaling in pipes, faucets, and boilers 4. Metals Non-toxic metals: A Manganese, Aluminun, Copper, Zinc, Calcium, Magnesium, Sodium Toxic metals: Arsenic, Cadmium, Chromium, Lead, Mercury, Silver Sources: domestic and industrial use of water, dissolution form natural deposits Impacts: health hazards (toxic and carcinogens) 5. Fluoride Sources: household products Impacts: Fluoride is toxic to humans and other animals in large quantities Excessive dosage of fluoride can cause bone fluorosis and other skeletal abnormalities

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering Prevents dental cavities in children if the concentration is 1.0 ppm ( in drinking water) Cause discoloration of teeth (mottling) if the concentration is > 2 ppm Mottling is rare if the concentration is < 1.5 ppm Can cause bone fluosis if the concentration is 5 ppm Recommended limit in drinking water = 1.5 ppm 6. Organics Biodegradable Organics: dissolved from domestic or industrial wastewater discharges (starches, fats, proteins, alcohols, acids, aldehydes, and esters) Non-Biodegradable Organics/ Refractory organics: organics that are resistant to biological degradation Examples: Tannic and lignic acids, cellulose and phenols degrade very slowly Ring structured materials: benzene, detergent compounds ABS, pesticides, herbicides Impacts: Health hazards (toxic and carcinogen), some cause frothing and foaming, increase turbidity 7. Nutrients: (Nitrogen and Phosphorus) Sources: Nitrogen containing compounds (proteins, animal wastes, fertilizers, wastewater discharges) Phosphates in Municipal Waste water may come from detergents Impacts: - NO3 form of nitrogen may cause nitrate poisoning in babies (blue baby syndrome or methemoglobinemia) - Phosphates interfere with wastewater treatment - Nutrients in excessive amounts can cause Eutrophication of rivers. Standards for Drinking Water Quality Parameter Color Ph TDS Chlorides Foaming agents Sulfates Zinc Manganese Iron Copper

Concentration 15 color unit 6.5 -8.5 500 ppm 250 ppm 0.5 ppm 250 ppm 5 ppm 0.05 ppm 0.3 ppm 1 ppb

III.

Biological Water Quality Parameters

1. Waterborne diseases are those acquired by ingestion of pathogens not only in drinking water but also from water that makes into a persons mouth from washing food, utensils, and hands - Example: Giardia lamblia( a protozoa), Vibro Comma (bacteria) - Classification of Pathogens (causing water-borne diseases) a) Bacteria: classified as cocci, bacilli, spirilla b) Protozoa: an order of magnitude larger than bacteria c) Viruses d) Helminths parasitic worms and other parasites 5

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering Pathogens Bacteria 1. Escherichia coli (enteropathogenic) 2. Leptospira 3. Salmonella typhi or Salmonella Typhosa 4. Salmonella 5. Vibrio Cholerae or Vibrio Comma 6. Shigella 7. Legionella pneumophila Protozoa 1. Giardia lamblia 2. Entamoeba histolytica 3. Cryptosporidium parvum 4. Balantidium coli Viruses 1. Adenovirus (31 types) 2. Endoteroviruses (67 types, e.g. polio, Coxsackie viruses) 3. Hepatitis A 4. Norwalk agent 5. Reovirus 6. Rotavirus Helminths 1. Ascaris lumbricoides 2. Enterobius vericularis 3. Taenia saginata 4. Taenia solium 5. Trichuris trichiura Disease Gastroenteritis Leptospirosis Typhoid fever Salmonellosis Cholera Shigellosis Legionellosis Giardiasis Amebiasis Cryptosporidiosis Balantidiasis Respiratory disease Gastroenteritis, heart anomalies, meningitis Infectious hepatitis Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis Gastroenteritis Ascariasis Enterobiasis Taeniasis Taeniasis Trichuriasis Roundworm infestation Pinworm Beef tapeworm Pork tapeworm Whipworm Remarks Diarrhea Jaundice, fever(Weils disease) High fever, diarrhea, ulceration of the intestine Food poisoning Extremely heavy diarrhea, dehydration Bacillary dysentery Acute respiratory illness Mild to severe diarrhea, nausea, indigestion Prolonged diarrhea with bleeding Diarrhea Diarrhea, dysentery

6. Water-contact diseases do not require that individuals ingest the water - Schistosomiasis (bilharzias) It is a common water-contact disease in the world, affecting approximately 200 million people. It is spread by free-swimming larva in the water called Cercaria which are transported by snails. 7. Water Hygiene - Water also plays an indirect role in other diseases common in developing countries. Insects that breed in water, or bite near water are responsible for the spread of malaria, affecting some 160 million people and killing 1 million each year. Yellow fever, sleeping sickness and river blindness spread in the same way. Inadequate supplies of water for personal hygiene results in skin

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering diseases such as scabies, leprosy, and yaws as well as eye diseases such as trachoma and conjunctivitis. - River Blindness tiny intestinal worms that appears in a persons eye that in most cases would cause blindness. These tiny intestinal worms are transported by flies. This disease was dominant in Uganda Africa Bacterial measures: 1. Counting Colonies/ ml sample is placed in an agar sterile and incubated for 24-48 hours, after which darkspots are counted (indicating pathogen that have lysed) 2. MPN The sample is placed in a lactose broth and allowed to ferment. The coliform produces gas and make the broth cloudy. The Bingham tube with was space is counted as positive. MPN stands for Most Probable Number. Additional Terms: 1. Endemic refers to a disease prevalent in and confined to a particular population 2. Epidemic is an outbreak of an infectious disease spreading widely in a particular area 3. Epidemiology is the study of the causes of a disease spreading in a community 4. Microbiology is the study of microorganisms and their activities IV. Radiological Water Quality Parameters - Excessive exposure to radioactive materials is harmful and unnecessary exposure should be avoided (including drinking water). Radioactivity in public drinking water supplies is the 3rd category of contaminants regulated by the Safe Drinking water Act. Naturally occurring Radioactive compounds include radon and radium 226 found in ground water. Strontium 90 and tritium are also found in surface water resulting from atmospheric nuclear weapon testing fallout. Maximum Contaminant Level (MCL) for radium 226 + radium 228 = 5pci/L MCL (for alpha particle activity) including radium 226 but excluding radon and uranium = 15 pci/L MCL (for beta particles and photon activity) 4 mrem/yr (annual dose to the whole body or any particular organ) The most significant radionuclides associated with drinking water is dissolved radon gas. Radon gas is colorless, odorless and tasteless gas occurring naturally in ground water.

Categories of Drinking Water Standards 1. Primary standards 2. Secondary standards 3. Radioactivity 4. Microbial contaminants

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering WATER PURIFICATION PROCESSES IN NATURAL SYSTEMS Natural forms of pollutants have always been present in surface waters. Long before the dawn of civilization, many impurities were washed from air, eroded from land surfaces, or leached from the soil and ultimately found their way into the surface waters. With few exceptions, natural purification processes were able to remove or otherwise render these materials harmless. Indeed, without these self-cleaning processes, the water-dependent life on earth could not have developed as it did. The self-purification mechanisms of natural water systems include physical, chemical and biological processes. The speed and completeness with which these processes occur depend on hydraulic characteristics (volume, rate, turbulence of flow), physical characteristics of bottom and bank material, variations in sunlight and temperature, as well as the chemical nature of natural water. These are set by nature and can seldom be altered. I. Physical Processes 1. Dilution Wastewater disposal practices were based on the premise that the solution to pollution is dilution. Dilution was considered the most economical means of wastewater disposal and was considered good engineering practice. Although dilution is powerful adjunct to self-cleaning mechanisms of surface waters, its success depends upon discharging relatively small quantities of waste into large bodies of water. The dilution capacity of a stream can be calculated using the principles of mass balance. Concentration after mixing is calculated from: 2. Sedimentation and Resuspension Suspended solids is one of the most common water pollutants and in suspension, solids increase turbidity and reduce light penetration may restrict the photosynthetic activity of plants, inhibits vision of aquatic animals, interfere with feeding of aquatic animals that obtain food from filtration and be abrasive to respiratory structures such as gills of fish. Sedimentation is natures method of removing suspended particles from a watercourse and most large solids will settle out readily in quiescent water. Particles in the colloidal size range can stay in suspension for long periods of time though eventually most of these will also settle out. This natural sedimentation is not without drawbacks. Drawbacks of sedimentation: - Anaerobic conditions are likely to develop in sediments and any organics trapped in them will decompose, releasing soluble compounds into the stream above. - Sediments deposit can also alter streambed by filling up the pore space and creating unsuitable conditions for the reproduction of many aquatic organisms. - It can also alter its course or hamper navigation activities and reduce reservoir storage capabilities and silt in harbors and increase flooding due to channel fill-in. Resuspension of solids is common in times of flooding or heavy runoff. Increased turbulence ay resuspend solids formerly deposited along normally quiescent areas of stream and carry them for considerable distances downstream and eventually they will settle again.

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering 3. Filtration Large bits of debris lodge on reeds or stones as they move along streambeds and they remain caught until high waters wash them into mainstream again. Small bits of organic matters and inorganic clays and other sediments may be filtered out by pebbles or rocks along the streambed. As water percolates from the surface downward into groundwater aquifers, filtration of a much more sophisticated type occurs. If the soil layers are deep and fine enough, removal of suspended material is essentially complete by the time water enters the aquifer. 4. Gas Transfer The transfer of gases into and out of water is an important part of the natural purification process. The replenishment of oxygen lost to bacterial degradation of organic waste is accomplished by the transfer of oxygen from the air into the water. Conversely, gases evolved in the water by chemical and biological processes may be transferred for the water to the atmosphere. Gas transfer is affected by solubility (extent to which gas is soluble in the water) and transfer rate ( rate at which dissolution or release occurs). 5. Heat Transfer Bodies of water lose and gain heat much more slowly than do land or air masses and under most circumstances, water temperature is fairly constant and changes gradually with the seasons. Meteorological variables and other factors such as channel characteristics (depth, width, surface area), channel volume, etc. affect the rate of heat transfer in bodies of water. For streams heated by solar radiation over several miles of heat-load area, cooling begins only in shaded areas or at night and may proceed much more slowly than cooling in streams which receive their heat load in one discharge II. Chemical Processes 6. Chemical Conversions: Oxidation-reduction, dissolution-precipitation and other chemical conversions may alternately aid or obstruct natural purification processes of natural water system. Strictly speaking, Oxidation-reduction conversions that play a part in self-purification of watercourses are biochemically mediated. Certain minerals pass into and out of solution and natural chemical conversions that may take place in water can change theses materials into a form that is soluble and useable by various aquatic organisms. Examples are Iron, Manganese, copper, zinc, molybdenum and cobalt which are micronutrients needed by microorganisms for biochemical processes. Nutrients (Nitrogen and Phosphorous) are present in watercourses and when ferric ion is also present the following reaction will occur:

The precipitate is insoluble ferric phosphate and settles to the bottom. Chemical conversions that take place in streams and lakes can help to stabilize the pH of those bodies of water. Limestone and other forms of CaCO3 dissolve readily in water containing CO2. Carbonic acid may for and dissociates thereby producing hydrogen ions. The hydrogen ions thus formed react with slightly soluble calcium carbonate to yield

Engg 500: Introduction to Environmental Engineering highly soluble calcium and more bicarbonate ions. The bicarbonate ions act as buffer to protect a stream fro pH fluctuations that can be harmful to aquatic systems.

III.

Biological Process 7. Metabolic Processes (Biochemical processes) Many chemical reactions involved in the self-purification process are biologically mediated. In case of biodegradable organics and other nutrients, the activation energy can be supplied by microorganisms that utilize these materials for food and energy. The process by which living organisms assimilate and use food for subsistence, growth, and reproduction is called metabolism. The metabolic processes and the organisms involved are a vital part of the self-purification process of natural water systems. Catabolism provides the energy for synthesis of new cells as well as for maintenance for other cell functions. Anabolism provides the material necessary for cell growth Microorganisms that play an important role in natural water-system 1. Bacteria - Primary decomposers of organic material. Autotrophs derive both energy and material from inorganic sources while heterotrophs obtain both energy and material from organic compounds. Phototrophs are those bacteria which utilize sunlight for an energy source and inorganic substances for material source. 2. Protozoa - Protozoa are single-cell organisms that reproduce by binary fission. Protozoa re voracious consumers of organic material and are important members of the aquatic community 3. Algae - These are autotrophic, photosynthetic organisms which metabolize the waste product of heterotrophic bacteria while obtaining energy for sunlight 4. Other organisms rotifers and Crustacea, Sludge worms

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