57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7

Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999

1
Chapter 7: The Energy Principle

7.1 Derivation of the Energy Equation

The First Law of Thermodynamics
The difference between the heat added to a system and the
work done by a system depends only on the initial and final
states of the system; that is, depends only on the change in
energy E: principle of conservation of energy

E = Q W

E = change in energy
Q = heat added to the system
W = work done by the system

E = E
u
+ E
k
+ E
p
= total energy of the system
potential energy
kinetic energy



The differential form of the first law of thermodynamics
expresses the rate of change of E with respect to time

W Q
dt
dE
& &

rate of work being done by system

rate of heat transfer to system


Internal energy due to molecular motion
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
2
Energy Equation for Fluid Flow
The energy equation for fluid flow is derived from
Reynolds transport theorem with

B
system
= E = total energy of the system (extensive property)

= E/mass = e = energy per unit mass (intensive property)
= u + e
k
+ e
p

CS CV
dA V e V ed
dt
d
dt
dE

+ +

+ + +
CS
p k
CV
p k
dA V ) e e u ( V d ) e e u (
dt
d
W Q
& &


This can be put in a more useable form by noting the
following:
2
V
M
2 / MV
mass
V velocity with mass of KE Total
e
2 2
k

gz
V
z V
M
E
e
p
p

(for E
p
due to gravity only)

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ +
Cs
2
CV
2
dA V u gz
2
V
V d u gz
2
V
dt
d
W Q
& &


rate of work rate of change flux of energy
done by system of energy in CV out of CV
(ie, across CS)
rate of heat
transfer to sysem
V V
2

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7

Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
3
System at time t + t
System at time t
CS
Rate of Work Components:
f s
W W W
& & &
+
For convenience of analysis, work is divided into shaft
work W
s
and flow work W
f


W
f
= net work done on the surroundings as a result of
normal and tangential stresses acting at the control
surfaces
= W
f pressure
+ W
f shear


W
s
= any other work transferred to the surroundings
usually in the form of a shaft which either takes
energy out of the system (turbine) or puts energy into
the system (pump)


Flow work due to pressure forces W
f p
(for system)









Work = force distance
at 2 W
2
= p
2
A
2
V
2
t
rate of work
2 2 2 2 2 2 2
A V p V A p W
&


at 1 W
1
= p
1
A
1
V
1
t



1 1 1 1
A V p W
&



Note: here V uniform over A
(on surroundings)
neg. sign since pressure
force on surrounding
fluid acts in a direction
opposite to the motion
of the system boundary
CV
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
4
In general,

A V p W
fp

&


for more than one control surface and V not necessarily
uniform over A:

,
_

CS CS
fp
dA V
p
dA V p W
&


fshear fp f
W W W
& & &
+

Basic form of energy equation

,
_

+ + +

,
_

+ +

,
_

CS
2
CV
2
CS
fshear s
dA V u gz
2
V
V d u gz
2
V
dt
d
dA V
p
W W Q
& & &

,
_

+ + + +

,
_

+ +
CS
2
CV
2
fshear s
dA V
p
u gz
2
V
V d u gz
2
V
dt
d
W W Q
& & &
h=enthalpy
Usually this term can be
eliminated by proper choice of
CV, i.e. CS normal to flow lines.
Also, at fixed boundaries the
velocity is zero (no slip
condition) and no shear stress
flow work is done. Not included
or discussed in text!
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
5
7.2 Simplified Forms of the Energy Equation

Energy Equation for Steady One-Dimensional Pipe Flow
Consider flow through the pipe system as shown







Energy Equation (steady flow)

,
_

+ +
CS
2
s
dA V u
p
gz
2
V
W Q
& &



+
,
_

+ +

+
,
_

+ +

+
2 2
1 1
A A
2
3
2 2
2 2 2 2 2
2
A A
1
3
1 1
1 1 1 1 1
1
s
dA
2
V
A V u gz
p
dA
2
V
A V u gz
p
W Q
& &


*Although the velocity varies across the flow sections the
streamlines are assumed to be straight and parallel;
consequently, there is no acceleration normal to the
streamlines and the pressure is hydrostatically distributed,
i.e., p/ +gz = constant.

*Furthermore, the internal energy u can be considered as
constant across the flow sections, i.e. T = constant. These
quantities can then be taken outside the integral sign to
yield
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
6

,
_

+ +

,
_

+ +

+
2 2
1 1
A
2
3
2
A
2 2 2 2
2
A
1
3
1
A
1 1 1 1
1
s
dA
2
V
dA V u gz
p
dA
2
V
dA V u gz
p
W Q
& &


Recall that A V dA V Q

So that m A V dA V &

mass flow rate

Define: m
2
V
2
A V
dA
2
V
2 3
A
3
&

K.E. flux K.E. flux for V=V=constant across pipe

i.e.,

,
_

A
3
dA
V
V
A
1
= kinetic energy correction factor

m
2
V
u gz
p
m
2
V
u gz
p
W Q
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
1
1 1 1
1
& &
& &

,
_

+ + +

,
_

+ + +

+
( )
2
V
u gz
p
2
V
u gz
p
W Q
m
1
2
2
2 2 2
2
2
1
1 1 1
1
+ + +

+ + +

+
& &
&


note that: = 1 if V is constant across the flow section
> 1 if V is nonuniform




laminar flow = 2 turbulent flow = 1.05 1 may
be used
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
7
Shaft Work
Shaft work is usually the result of a turbine or a pump in
the flow system. When a fluid passes through a turbine, the
fluid is doing shaft work on the surroundings; on the other
hand, a pump does work on the fluid

p t s
W W W
& & &
where
t
W
&
and
p
W
&
are
magnitudes of power

,
_

time
work


Using this result in the energy equation and deviding by g
results in

g m
Q
g
u u
2
V
z
p
g m
W
2
V
z
p
g m
W
1 2
2
2
2 2
2 t
2
1
1 1
1
p
&
&
&
&
&
&

+ + +

+ + +

+

mechanical part thermal part

Note: each term has dimensions of length
Define the following:

Q
W
Qg
W
g m
W
h
p p p
p

& &
&
&


g m
W
h
t
t
&
&


loss head
g m
Q
g
u u
h
1 2
L

&
&

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
8
Head Loss
In a general fluid system a certain amount of mechanical
energy is converted to thermal energy due to viscous
action. This effect results in an increase in the fluid
internal energy. Also, some heat will be generated through
energy dissipation and be lost (i.e. -Q
&
). Therefore the term
from 2
nd
law

0
m g
Q
g
u u
h
1 2
L
>

&
&


Note that adding Q
&
to system will not make h
L
= 0 since
this also increases u. It can be shown from 2
nd
law of
thermodynamics that h
L
> 0.

Drop over V and understand that V in energy equation
refers to average velocity.

Using the above definitions in the energy equation results
in (steady 1-D incompressible flow)

L t 2
2
2
2
2
p 1
2
1
1
1
h h z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ + + +

+ + +

form of energy equation used for this course!
represents a loss in
mechanical energy due
to viscous stresses
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
9
Comparison of Energy Equation and Bernoulli Equation:

Apply energy equation to a stream tube without any shaft
work








Energy eq :
L 2
2
2 2
1
2
1 1
h z
g 2
V p
z
g 2
V p
+ + +

+ +

If h
L
= 0 (i.e., = 0) we get Bernoulli equation and
conservation of mechanical energy along a streamline

Therefore, energy equation for steady 1-D pipe flow can
be interpreted as a modified Bernoulli equation to include
viscous effects (h
L
) and shaft work (h
p
or h
t
)









Infinitesimal stream tube
1
=
2
=1
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
10
7.3 Application of the Energy, Momentum, and Continuity
Equations in Combination

In general, when solving fluid mechanics problems, one
should use all available equations in order to derive as
much information as possible about the flow. For example,
consistent with the approximation of the energy equation
we can also apply the momentum and continuity equations

Energy:
L t 2
2
2
2
2
p 1
2
1
1
1
h h z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ + + +

+ + +

Momentum:
( )

1 2 1
2
1 2
2
2 s
V V Q A V A V F

Continuity:
A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2
= Q = constant
one inlet and
one outlet
= constant
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
11
Abrupt Expansion
Consider the flow from a small pipe to a larger pipe.
Would like to know h
L
= h
L
(V
1
,V
2
). Analytic solution to
exact problem is
extremely difficult
due to the
occurrence of flow
separations and
turbulence.
However, if the
assumption is
made that the
pressure in the
separation region remains approximately constant and at
the value at the point of separation, i.e, p
1
, an approximate
solution for h
L
is possible:

Apply Energy Eq from 1-2 (
1
=
2
= 1)
L
2
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
h
g 2
V
z
p
g 2
V
z
p
+ + +

+ +

Momentum eq. For CV shown (shear stress neglected)


A V u sin W A p A p F
2 2 2 1 s

= ) A V ( V ) A V ( V
2 2 2 1 1 1
+
=
1
2
1 2
2
2
A V A V

W sin
next divide momentum equation by A
2

L
z
L A
2


57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
12
+A
2

( )

,
_

1
A
A
A
A
g
V
A
A
g
V
g
V
z z
p p
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
2
2 1
2 1


from energy equation using continuity


2
1
2
1
2
2
L
2
1
2
2
A
A
g
V
g
V
h
g 2
V
g 2
V
+

,
_

+
2
1
2
1
2
2
L
A
A 2
1
g 2
V
g 2
V
h


1
]
1

+
2
1 2
1
2
1
2
2 L
A
A
V 2 V V
g 2
1
h

2V
1
V
2


[ ]
2
1 2 L
V V
g 2
1
h
continutity eq.
V
1
A
1
= V
2
A
2


1
2
2
1
V
V
A
A

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
13
Forces on Transitions

Example 7-6
Q = .707 m
3
/s
head loss =
g 2
V
1 .
2
2

(empirical equation)


Fluid = water
p
1
= 250 kPa
D
1
= 30 cm
D
2
= 20 cm
F
x
= ?



First apply momentum theorem


A V u F
x


F
x
+ p
1
A
1
p
2
A
2
= V
1
(V
1
A
1
) + V
2
(V
2
A
2
)

F
x
= Q(V
2
V
1
) p
1
A
1
+ p
2
A
2

force required to hold transition in place


57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
14
The only unknown in this equation is p
2
, which can be
obtained from the energy equation.


L
2
2 2
2
1 1
h
g 2
V p
g 2
V p
+ +

note: z
1
= z
2
and = 1


1
]
1

+
L
2
1
2
2
1 2
h
g 2
V
g 2
V
p p drop in pressure

( )
1 1 L
2
1
2
2
1 2 1 2 x
A p h
g 2
V
g 2
V
p A V V Q F
1
]
1

,
_

+ +

p
2


In this equation,

V
1
= Q/A
1
= 10 m/s
V
2
= Q/A
2
= 22.5 m/s
m 58 . 2
g 2
V
1 . h
2
2
L


F
x
= 8.15 kN is negative x direction to hold
transition in place





(note: if p
2
= 0 same as nozzle)
continuity A
1
V
1
= A
2
V
2


1
2
1
2
V
A
A
V
i.e. V
2
> V
1

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
15
abrupt
change due
to h
p
or h
t

g 2
V
D
L
f
2
7.4 Concept of Hydraulic and Energy Grade Lines

L t 2
2
2
2
2
p 1
2
1
1
1
h h z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ + + +

+ + +

Define HGL = z
p
+

EGL =
g 2
V
z
p
2
+ +

HGL corresponds to pressure tap measurement + z
EGL corresponds to stagnation tube measurement + z









pressure tap: h
p
2

stagnation tube: h
g 2
V p
2
2 2
+

EGL
1
+ h
p
= EGL
2
+ h
t
+ h
L

EGL
2
= EGL
1
+ h
p
h
t
h
L
point-by-point
application is
graphically
displayed
h = height of fluid in
tap/tube
EGL = HGL if V = 0
h
L
=
g 2
2
V
D
L
f
i.e., linear variation in L for D,
V, and f constant
EGL
1
= EGL
2
+ h
L

for h
p
= h
t
= 0
f = friction factor
f = f(Re)
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
16
Helpful hints for drawing HGL and EGL

1. EGL = HGL + V
2
/2g = HGL for V = 0

2.&3.
g 2
V
D
L
f h
2
L
in pipe means EGL and HGL will slope
downward, except for abrupt changes due to h
t
or h
p



L
h
g 2
2
2
V
2
z
2
p
g 2
2
1
V
1
z
1
p
+ + +

+ +

HGL
2
= EGL
1
- h
L

g 2
2
V
L
h for abrupt expansion
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
17

4. p = 0 HGL = z

5. for
g 2
V
D
L
f h
2
L
= constant L

EGL/HGL slope downward

6. for change in D change in V

i.e. V
1
A
1
= V
2
A
2


4
D
V
4
D
V
2
2
2
2
1
1

2
2 1
2
1 1
D V D V


i.e., linearly increased
for increasing L with
slope
g 2
V
D
f
2

change in distance between
HGL & EGL and slope
change due to change in h
L

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
18
7. If HGL < z then p/ < 0 i.e., cavitation possible




condition for cavitation:


2
va
m
N
2000 p p

gage pressure
2
atm atm A g , va
m
N
000 , 100 p p p p

m 10
p
g , va

9810 N/m
3

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
19
heat
add
Neglected in text presentation
Summary of the Energy Equation

The energy equation is derived from Reynolds Transport
Theorem with

B = E = total energy of the system

= e = E/M = energy per unit mass

= u +
2
V
2
1
+gz

internal KE PE

W Q dA V e V ed
dt
d
dt
dE
CS CV
& &

v p s
W W W W
& & & &
+ +






( )

CS CV
p
dA V p dA V p W
&


p t s
W W W
& & &

work
done
from 1
st
Law of
Thermodynamics
shaft work
done on or
by system
(pump or
turbine)
pressure
work done
on CS
Viscous stress
work on CS
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
20
mechanical energy
Thermal
energy
Note: each term has
units of length

V is average velocity
(vector dropped) and
corrected by
( )

+ +

+
CS CV
p t
dA V e p e V ed
dt
d
W W Q
& & &

gz V
2
1
u e
2
+ +

For steady 1-D pipe flow (one inlet and one outlet):
1) Streamlines are straight and parallel
p/ +gz = constant across CS

2) T = constant u = constant across CS

3) define

,
_

CS
3
dA
V
V
A
1
= KE correction factor

m
2
V
A
2
V
dA V
2
2 3
3
&


L t 2
2
2
2
2
p 1
2
1
1
1
h h z
g 2
V p
h z
g 2
V p
+ + + +

+ + +

g m W h
p p
&
&


g m W h
t t
&
&

g m
Q
g
u u
h
1 2
L
&
&
head loss
> 0 represents loss in mechanical energy due to viscosity
57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
21

57:020 Mechanics of Fluids and Transport Processes Chapter 7
Professor Fred Stern Typed by Stephanie Schrader Fall 1999
22