nition: Definition For some materials, the resistivity vanishes at some low temperature; they become Superconductive.

Superconductors have the ability to conduct electrical current with no resistance (!!!), thus no loss of energy. Discovery of Superconductivity: Discovery of Superconductivity Superconductivity was first discovered in ! by the Dutch physicist,"ei#e $ammerlingh %nnes . %nnes, felt that a cold wire&s resistance would dissipate. 'his suggested that there would be a steady decrease in electrical resistance, allowing for better conduction of electricity. (t some very low temperature point, scientists felt that there would be a leveling off as the resistance reached some ill)defined minimum value allowing the current to flow with little or no resistance. %nnes passed a current through a very pure mercury wire and measured its resistance as he steadily lowered the temperature. *uch to his surprise there was no resistance at +.,$. The Discovery: 'he Discovery (t +.,$, the -lectrical .esistance (opposition of a material to the flow of electrical current through it) /anished, *eaning -0tremely 1ood 2onduction of -lectricity)Superconductivity Science of Superconductivity: Science of Superconductivity 'he behavior of electrons inside a superconductor is vastly different. 'he impurities and lattice framewor# are still there, but the movement of the superconducting electrons through the obstacle course is 3uite different. (s the superconducting electrons travel through the conductor they pass unobstructed through the comple0 lattice. 4ecause they bump into nothing and create no friction they can transmit electricity with no appreciable loss in the current and no loss of energy. The Science: 'he Science .egular materials5 Superconductors5 6 dimensional structure layered structure The Science: 'he Science7 ( metal can be imagined as a lattice of positive ions. -lectrons moving through the lattice constitute an electric current. 8ormally, the electrons repel each other and are scattered by the lattice, creating resistance. 9n superconductors, the flow of electrons is also different. 9t was first e0plained by 42S theory. 'he 42S theory reali:ed that atomic lattice vibrations forced the electrons to pair up into teams ( 2%%;-. ;(9.S ) that could pass all of the obstacles which caused resistance in the conductor. Cooper Pair :: 2ooper ;air < 'wo electrons that appear to =team up= in accordance with theory ) 42S or other ) despite the fact that they both have a negative charge and normally repel each other. 4elow the superconducting transition temperature, paired electrons form a condensate ) a macroscopically occupied single 3uantum state ) which flows without resistance. 'his pairing is caused by an attractive force between electrons from the e0change of phonons. Animation of Cooper pairs: (nimation of 2ooper pairs The Science.: 'he Science7. 'he superconducting state is defined by three very important factors< critical temperature ('), critical field ( ") , and critical current density (>). -ach of these parameters is very dependant on the other two properties present critical temperature (') 'he highest temperature at which superconductivity occurs in a material. 4elow this transition temperature ' the resistivity of the material is e3ual to :ero. critical magnetic field (") (bove this value of an e0ternally applied magnetic field a superconductor becomes nonsuperconducting. critical current density (>) 'he ma0imum value of electrical current per unit of cross)sectional area that a superconductor can carry without resistance. Meissner Effect: *eissner -ffect ' ? ' c Superconductors have negative susceptibility. 9f a superconductor is cooled below its critical temperature while in a magnetic field, the magnetic field surrounds but does not penetrate the superconductor. 'he magnet induces current in the superconductor which creates a counter)magnetic force that causes the two materials to repel. ' @ ' c PowerPoint Presentation: Aevitation of a magnet above a cooled superconductor Types of Superconductors:: 'ypes of Superconductors< 'he *eissner state brea#s down when the applied magnetic field is too large. Superconductors can be divided into two classes according to how this brea#down occurs. 'ype 9 Superconductors< superconductivity is abruptly destroyed when the strength of the applied field rises above a critical value ". *ost pure elemental superconductors, e0cept niobium, technetium, vanadium and carbon nanotubes, are 'ype 9 . 'ype 99

Superconductors< 9n 'ype 99 superconductors, raising the applied field past a critical value "c leads to a mi0ed state (also #nown as the vorte0 state) in which an increasing amount of magnetic flu0 penetrates the material, but there remains no resistance to the flow of electric current as long as the current is not too large. (t a second critical field strength "c,, superconductivity is destroyed. almost all impure and compound superconductors are 'ype 99. Critical Temperature of some Superconductors: 2ritical 'emperature of some Superconductors *aterial 2ritical 'emp. ($) B C.C (l .,C "g +. D ;b E.,C 8b6Sn F.CC Aa4a2u% +C.CC B42u% !,.CC 4iSr,2a,2u6%0 6.CC "g4a2a2u% 6+.CC osephson Effect: >osephson -ffect 'he >osephson effect is the phenomenon of supercurrent to flow across the insulators(!!). 9f an insulator is sandwitched between one superconductor G one normal conductor (or two superconductors), at some voltage,current flows due to tunneling of cooper pair. Applications: (pplications 'oday superconductivity is being applied to many diverse areas such as< medicine, theoretical and e0perimental science, the military, transportation, power production, electronics as well as many other areas. Ma!netically "evitated Trains #Ma!"ev$: *agnetically Aevitated 'rains (*agAev) >apanese levitating train has superconducting magnets onboard. 'he trac# are walls with a continuous series of vertical coils of wire mounted inside. 'he wire in these coils is not a superconductor. (s the train passes each coil, the motion of the superconducting magnet on the train induces a current in these coils, ma#ing them electromagnets.'he electromagnets on the train and outside produce forces that levitate the train and #eep it centered above the trac#. PowerPoint Presentation: *agAev uses -lectromagnetic ;ropulsion. 'rains are thrust forward by positively and negatively charged magnets. 'he train floats on a cushion of air eliminating friction. Application in Medical: (pplication in *edical *.9 (*agnetic .esonance 9maging) scans produce detailed images of soft tissues. 'he superconducting magnet coils produce a large and uniform magnetic field inside the patient&s body. Application in Power: (pplication in ;ower 'he cable configuration features a conductor made from "'S wires wound around a fle0ible hollow core. Ai3uid nitrogen flows through the core, cooling the "'S wire to the :ero resistance state. 'he conductor is surrounded by conventional dielectric insulation. 'he efficiency of this design reduces losses. Economic %mpact of Superconductin! E&uipment: -conomic 9mpact of Superconducting -3uipment Htilities "igher density transmission uses G higher economic productivity .educed environmental impact 9ndustrial *ore cost effective industrial processes< *anufacturing G energy production -lectrical storage, transmission and e0pansion 'ransportation *ore cost effective electrical transportation< "igh Speed .ail G *(1A-/ technologies -lectric car I bus Ship 'orldwide Mar(et for Superconductivity: Jorldwide *ar#et for Superconductivity The dream ) *Tomorrow+s Superconductin! 'orld, : 'he dream ) K'omorrow5s Superconducting JorldL M-nergy saving< ;ower cable, motor, generator M2omputing< CCC times faster supercomputers M9nformation 'echnology< much faster, wider band communication M6DCmph levitated trains M*agnetically launched space shuttle G moreover. -efferences: .efferences 9nspired from an essay K-$ (D"%.( SJ(;8%L in bengali maga:ine KD-S"L written by *r. ;athi# 1uha, writer G Nournalist of (4; group. K9ntegrated -lectronicsL) >acob *illman, 2hristos 2. "al#ias KSuperconductivity -lementaryL) $eshav 8 Shrivastava KSuperconductivity Fundamentals G (pplicationsL) ;rof. Dr. Jerner 4uc#el, ;rof. Dr. .einhold $leiner J-4S9'-S< wi#ipedia osun.org.com teachers.web.cern.com hyperphysics.edu ne0tbigfuture.co