READING COMPREHENSION INTEGRATION WORKSHOP A

ANSWER KEY 1. C 2. D 3. E 4. B 5. B 6. C 7. E 8. B 9. A 10. D 11. E 12. D 13. E 14. D 15. B 16. B 17. D 18. D 19. A 20. D 21. D 22. E 23. C 24. D 25. C 26. D 27. C 28. A 29. D 30. D 31. C 32. E 33. A 34. B 35. C 36. D 37. C 38. A 39. E 40. E 41. C 42. A 43. C 44. E 45. A 46. B 47. C 48. A 49. B 50. D

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EXPLANATIONS 1. C The historical figures that supported the theory of spontaneous generation can be found in the first paragraph. The one person listed that did not support the theory was Redi, who was one of the first to directly attack the doctrine with experimental evidence (see paragraph 2).

2.

D The description of the earth's primitive atmosphere as theorized by Haldane and Oparin is in paragraphs 7 and 8. Both scientists suggested that the atmosphere lacked oxygen (line 1, paragraph 8). The gases that were thought to exist include water, carbon dioxide, ammonia, hydrogen, methane and others.

3.

E This question is best handled by going through each answer choice in turn. The author would not agree with choice A. The passage is a summary of scientific conclusions dating back four hundred years, and does not enter into any philosophical debates. Answer choice B can also be eliminated. Pasteur's experiments, described in paragraph 5, describes how spontaneous generation does not occur. The author would most likely agree that the experiments of Haldane and Oparin most likely describe how life originated on earth, not Pasteur's. The author would also disagree with choices C and D, considering the description of the theories of Haldane and Oparin. As discussed in question 2, the primitive atmosphere under which life began did not contain oxygen, so choice C must be incorrect. Since carbon dioxide and methane both existed in the primitive atmosphere, and are organic compounds (they contain carbon), urea could not have been the first organic compound. The author would certainly agree with choice E, as it a condition of the atmosphere theorized by Oparin (middle of paragraph 8).

4.

B As discussed in paragraph 3, Spallanzani left some flasks open to the air to serve as a control. The purpose of his experiments was to determine if life began spontaneously, or was the result of something deposited on the meat from the air. In order to confirm or deny Redi's results, Spallanzani needed to compare how the extract was affected when exposed to air and when sealed off from air.

5.

B The consequences of Pasteur's experiments are discussed at the end of paragraph 5. Pasteur demonstrated that living organisms can only come into existence as a descendant of a similar organism. This confirms I and II. Pasteur's conclusions ended further inquiry into the origins, which negates III.

6.

C The contents of Miller's ocean are described in paragraph 11. Miller identified amino acids, urea and fatty acids within the liquid water he exposed to electrical discharges. Miller did not find carbohydrates.

7.

E The purpose of using "swan-neck" flasks as described in paragraph 5 was to allow air into the vessel while preventing organisms from depositing onto the fermenting material.

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Choice A is incorrect, as Pasteur wanted to address the lack of air in Spallanzani's experiment by using open neck flasks. Choice B is incorrect because Pasteur designed the "swan-neck" flasks, so they could not have been used in previous experiments. Choice C is incorrect because the open neck would allow germs to enter the flasks, but the shape would prevent them from depositing on the fermenting material. Choice D is incorrect for the same reason as choice A--air was allowed to enter and leave the vessel. 8. B The experiments fashioned after Miller's addressed the criticism that the earth's primitive atmosphere was not as strongly reducing as the conditions in Miller's experiments. At the end of paragraph 12 the author states that, "..beginnings of life can occur in atmospheres that are only mildly reducing." This makes II a correct statement, thereby eliminating choices D and E. Statements I and IV can be confirmed midway through paragraph 12, "..a number of different kinds of gas mixtures that were heated..[or] irradiated with ultraviolet light.." Miller only used electrical discharges as an energy source. Although we have proven that only choice B can be correct, we should also eliminate statement III. None of the later experiments used oxygen since it was understood that oxygen was not part of the primitive atmosphere. Scientists realized that oxygen was released by early photosynthetic organisms, much after life had already been established.

9.

A In paragraph 8, the author addresses Oparin's proposal that organic compounds formed under the influence of sunlight, lightning, and the intense heat of volcanoes. Later in paragraph 10, we are informed that the electrical discharge represented lightning. We can surmise from these points that the spark was used as a source of energy. Choice A misrepresents the experiment. Water was boiled to produce steam, and the steam (along with the reducing compounds) was past through a spark and then collected in the "ocean." Choice D is incorrect because the gases used in the apparatus are reducing compounds, the spark was not used to reduce them.

10.

D Paragraph three states, "[He] then placed the sealed flasks in boiling water ..to ensure that all germs in the flasks were destroyed." We can eliminate choice B by reviewing Redi's experiment in the previous paragraph. Redi found maggots only in open jars, and since Spallanzani sealed the flasks he used, maggots would not be a concern.

11.

E The definition of ozone is provided in paragraph 7. Ozone is a 3-atom oxygen molecule that protects the earth's surface from intense UV radiation.

12.

D See previous explanation.

13.

E The different energy sources used to simulate the environmental conditions on primitive earth in the experiments of Miller and his predecessors are listed in paragraphs 10 and 12. All the sources provided in the answer choices were used.

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14.

D The first sentence of the last paragraph states that the geochemists believed that the atmosphere was quite different from the strongly reducing conditions used in Miller's experiments.

15.

B The author informs us in the first two paragraphs that the belief in spontaneous generation existed from the time of ancient Greece to the first direct attack by Redi in 1668.

16.

B At the end of the last paragraph the author states that the experiments after Miller support the idea that the chemical beginnings of life can occur in atmospheres that are only mildly reducing. Thus the purpose of including the description was to respond to criticisms of Miller's experiments and support Miller's claims.

17.

D The Oparin-Haldane hypothesis centers on the assumption that earth's primitive atmosphere lacked oxygen. If it was proven that oxygen existed, the theory would be weakened. Choices A and B are incorrect because Pasteur's experiments did not involve theorized visions of earth's primitive atmosphere. Choice C is incorrect because Miller's experiments assumed the same conditions as did Oparin and Haldane.

18.

D The second sentence of the second paragraph states that grapes are a complex mixture of water, simple sugars, starches, organic acids, amino acids, aromatic alcohols and others. From this we know that I and III are the only correct substances. Bentonite is a finishing agent that is added to purify the alcohol (paragraph 9), so III is incorrect. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) is added to kill any bacteria (paragraph 4).

19.

A The correct sequence for wine production is formation of must (paragraph 3), pressing (paragraph 4) and then fining (paragraph 5). Choice D is incorrect because the steps are not done at the same time.

20.

D The chemical equilibrium that determines the color of red wines is described in paragraphs 7 and 8. As the pH decreases, the wine becomes more highly colored, so I is incorrect and II is correct. As sulfur dioxide is lost from the wine, the red color is formed, so III is incorrect and IV is correct.

21.

D Paragraph 2 describes what factors affect wine production. The growing conditions, such as soil and climate, affect the chemical composition of the grapes. Fertilizers affect the amino acid content of the grapes. At the end of paragraph 3, the passage states that sugar content determine the sweetness of the wine. Carbon dioxide content is not characterized as having an influence over the wine product.

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22.

E The relationship between sugar content and wine flavor is discussed in paragraph 4. The passage states, "[I]f the sugar has been virtually consumed, the resulting wine will be very dry."

23.

C The definition of pressing is provided midway through paragraph 4.

24.

D The question stem, and correct answer, is lifted directed from the first line of the sixth paragraph. Tartaric acid and malic acid are the most important organic acids present in wine.

25.

C The answer to this question is attained by combining two pieces of information. In paragraph 5 the author states that wine is monitored during the aging process to ensure that oxidation does not occur. Later, at the end of paragraph 9, the author describes the refining process, emphasizing that the operations have to be carried out in the absence of oxygen, since oxygen can react with many of the components to produce unwanted products. From this we can conclude that oxygen can oxidize the wine components. Oxygen is not mentioned with respect to anything else, so all the other answer choices can be eliminated.

26.

D "[A]ctivated carbon also has a very high surface area and is often used as an absorbent to clarify wine." (paragraph 9)

27.

C As the fermentation process proceeds, the alcohol content increases to the point where the yeast can no longer survive (paragraph 4).

28.

A Paragraph 10 describes the modern chemical advances in winemaking. The determination of alcohol content is the most common analysis performed on wine.

29.

D Bentonite and carbon are used in the refining process as discussed in paragraph 9. Both are efficient because they have very high surface areas.

30.

D In order for a wine to be sweet, there must be sugar remaining after the yeast has died. If all the sugar is fermented, the resulting wine will be dry.

31.

C This question is taken from the first paragraph. Enology dates back to 1810 when Gay-Lussac first described fermentation.

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32.

E The compounds that cause wine to appear hazy are listed at the end of paragraph 5. Of the possible choices, only pectin is mentioned.

33.

A The answer to this question is derived from paragraph 3, "[A]fter the grapes are crushed, the must is analyzed for total acid and sugar content" and paragraph 5, "[D]uring the aging process..acid levels are monitored."

34.

B Must is formed by crushing harvested grapes, and does not require any modern chemistry techniques. All the other choices are described in paragraph 10.

35.

C The last sentence of paragraph 4 states that the [m]ajor toxicities of aminoglycosides include kidney and inner ear damage.

36.

D It is stated in paragraph 7 that macrolide antibiotics contain a macrocyclic lactone ring, making choice D the correct response. Choice A is incorrect because Lyme disease is susceptible to tetracycline derivatives, according to paragraph 8. Choice B is incorrect because folate synthesis is inhibited by sulfonamides (paragraph 5). Choice C is incorrect because lung damage is not mentioned as a possible side effect of macrolides.

37.

C Paragraph 2 describes how -lactam antibiotics attack bacteria by disrupting the bacterial peptidoglycan cell wall. Paragraph 3 then gives cephalosporins, choice C, as an example of -lactam antibiotics. None of the other choices attacks bacteria this way. Macrolides and tetracyclines, choices A and B, inhibit protein synthesis (paragraphs 7 and 8). Fluoroquinolones, choice D, inhibit DNA synthesis (paragraph 6).

38.

A As discussed above (and indicated in paragraph 6), fluoroquinolones inhibit DNA synthesis. They do so by blocking the activity of the enzyme DNA gyrase. Choices B and C are incorrect because they are the approaches of other antibiotics (see question above). Choice D is incorrect because the action of -lactamase actually destroys antibiotics. Choice E is incorrect as prevention of differentiation is not mentioned in the description of fluoroquinolones.

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39.

E The mechanisms through which bacteria acquire resistance are discussed in paragraph 9. First, they may produce enzymes (e.g. -lactamase) that render the drug inactive. This is Roman numeral I. Second, the site targeted by the antibiotic may be modified by methylation, etc. This is Roman numeral II. Third, the permeability of the bacteria to the drug may be changed. Lastly, the drug may be actively excreted from the cell. This is Roman numeral IV.

40.

E The ability of certain antibiotics (namely sulfonamides) to inhibit folate synthesis is in fact what makes them desirable as antibacterial drugs, as indicated in paragraph 5. This aspect is therefore NOT a potential drawback. All the other choices are mentioned at some point in the passage as undesirable attributes. Choice A, a short therapeutic window, is mentioned in paragraph 4 as a disadvantage of aminoglycosides. Gastrointestinal disturbances (choice B) are given in paragraph 7 as a negative side effect of macrolides. Based on information given in paragraphs 8-10, we also deduce that inducing resistance in the bacteria is an undesirable consequence, rendering the drug ineffective. Finally, allergic reactions, which can be caused by -lactams, are a disadvantage.

41.

C Paragraphs 3 and 4 give a brief description of how -lactams attack bacteria. In particular, we are told that peptidoglycan, which makes up the bacterial cell wall, is unique to bacteria. The disruption of this peptidoglycan cell wall caused by the activity of the -lactams is therefore not expected to harm human beings. Choice A is incorrect because we do not know how easy it is to synthesize peptidoglycans in the laboratory; furthermore, whether something is costly to make need not have anything to do with how costly it is to make agents that target it. Choice B is incorrect because we are not told if the cell wall is indeed fragile. Choice D is incorrect because human cell membranes do not contain peptidoglycans. Choice E is incorrect because as the rest of the passage demonstrates, bacteria can be attacked via several different approaches.

42.

A The first sentence of paragraph 4 states that -lactam antibiotics are made up of the penicillins, cephalosporins, and other molecules bearing the -lactam ring structure, as well as the carbapenems and monobactams. Roman numeral I and Roman numeral II therefore both belong to the class of -lactam antibiotics. Aminoglycosides and tetracyclines both constitute their own families of antibiotics.

43.

C Sulfonamides are described in paragraph 5. They act against bacteria by inhibiting folate synthesis, which unfortunately is not one of the answer choices. However, since we are told that dihydrofolate is used in the formation of nucleotides and amino acids, we can infer that nucleotide synthesis and amino acid synthesis are inhibited by the drug.

44.

E The therapeutic window is defined towards the end of paragraph 4 as the range of blood drug levels in which the risk of toxicity is low and beneficial effects are high.

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45.

A It is stated in paragraph 4 that aminoglycoside antibiotics are bactericidal because of their ... property of distorting the translation of RNA. Note that among the incorrect choices, choice B, the blocking of protein synthesis, IS a characteristic of aminoglycosides, but this attribute by itself would not let them be characterized as bactericidal. In fact, it can be inferred that agents that block protein synthesis are typically considered bacteriostatic.

46.

B High frequency of allergic reactions is given in paragraph 3 as a disadvantage of -lactams, a class of antibiotics to which penicillins belong.

47.

C Bacteriostatic antibiotics do not all have benign side effect profiles: Macrolides, for example, produce gastrointestinal disturbances (paragraph 7). All of the other answer choices are accurate characterizations of these drugs. They certainly may bind to ribosomal subunits of the bacteria (paragraphs 7 and 8), and they certainly may lead to the eventual death of the bacteria, even if they do not kill them outright. (Note that may is an important word in both these choices! We are allowing for exceptions this way.) Choice D is certainly a true statement (and hence not the correct response) as macrolides and tetracyclines are both bacteriostatic. Finally, choice E is essentially the definition of bacteriostatic antibiotics.

48.

A Paragraph 4 states that aminoglycosides are bactericidal because they interfere with RNA translation. (See also the explanation to #45.)

49.

B The advantages of fluoroquinolones are listed in paragraph 6: they are well tolerated, have a benign side effect profile, are unlikely to induce resistance, and have good oral absorption. From the rest of the passage, we can see that these properties are not often found in other antibiotics, hence making fluoroquinolones often the drug of choice. Choice B is the correct response. Choice A is incorrect because fluoroquinolones do not kill the bacteria directly, but merely halt their replication. Choice C is incorrect because as the paragraph tells us, it is administered orally. Choice D is incorrect because fluoroquinolones interfere with DNA synthesis; they do not act against RNA. Choice E is incorrect because the costliness of making the drug is never mentioned.

50.

D Paragraph 4 tells us that aminoglycosides bind to the 30S ribosomal subunit, and that gentamicin is an example of an aminoglycoside antibiotic. Roman numeral II therefore shows the correct pairing. Similarly, paragraph 8 also indicates that Roman numeral III is correct. Erythromycin, however, is a macrolide and binds to the 23S ribosomal subunit of the 50S ribosome.

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