7.

Poly phase synchronous machine: The synchronous machines are usually built with field winding on the rotor and armature winding on the stator. However in order to represent the two axis model of the synchronous machine, the armature is placed on rotor and field is mount on stator. 7.1. Basic parameter: synchronous machine

A three phase synchronous machine has four basic s winding; namely three identical and symmetrical armature windings and one field winding.

Fig.7.1. synchronous machine

Basic

two

pole

Fig.(7.1) shows the elementary two pole synchronous machine. With salient pole construction. The field winding axis is taken as direct axis and the inter polar axis as quadrature axis. The d- and q- axes remain fixed with the field winding on stator , but three magnetic axes of three phase armature phases rotate as the rotor revolves. In order to concentrate more on the synchronous machine basic features and to further analysis, the following assumption are made.

1.Influences of damper are neglected. 2.Hysteresis and magnetic saturation are neglected. 3.Space distribution of armature m.m.f wave and field flux wave are assumed sinusoidal. 4.The armature slots dont have any effect on synchronous machine inductances. 7.1.1. Synchronous machine resistances: The armature circuit resistances for A,B,C phases are designated by ra,rb, rc respectively. Since the phase windings are identical, the magnitudes of all the three resistances are equal, i.e. . For convenience is used to identify the winding resistance of phase A as well as armature circuit resistance for any of the three phases. The symbol is used to represent the field-circuit resistance. 7.1.2. Synchronous machine inductances:

a) Field self-inductances. The air gap length seen by the field m.m.f remains constant, whatever the rotor position w.r.t field poles may be. As a result of it, the reluctance seen by the field m.m.f is always constant and consequently field selfinductances is constant. b) Armature to field mutual inductances. The mutual inductances between armature and field windingsvary periodically with space angle . Here the mutual inductances between phase A and field winding is cosine in nature as shown in fig.(7.2) below. Therefore

c)

Armature self-inductances.

is a constant term, whereas is the amplitude of second-harmonic component. There is some flux, produced by phase A, which does not cross the air gap to link the stator. This flux is called leakage flux and can be accounted for phase leakage inductance The variation of self inductance with space angle is depicted in figure.

Fig.7.2. Variation of self inductance of phase A with space angle

d)

Armature mutual inductance

(7.3) For round rotor machine, Where are the mutual inductances between phases A, B; are the mutual

inductances between phases B, C and are the mutual inductances between phases C, A. can be found by determining the flux linkages with phase B when only phase A is excited or vice versa. The variation of or with space angle is shown in figure 7.3

Fig.7.3. Variation of armature mutual inductances with space angle 7.2 Three-phase Synchronous Machine (with no Amortisseurs) The synchronous machine voltage equations in d-q can be obtained by a simple graphical method developed in Art. () and same is done in

this article. The primitive machine model or generalized model of a polyphase machine without amortisseurs is illustrated in figure (7.3 ).

Fig. 7.3 generalized model of a polyphase synchronous machine The stator coil DS represents the field winding and the rotor coils DR, QR represent the polyphase armature winding. In the analysis to follow, the effect of ammortisseur circuits (or damper bars) is neglected, so that basic important results are obtained more clearly. The

voltage equations in matrix form for the model of fig (7.3) are written as follows: [ ] =

[ (7.4)

][

Now the field winding is designated by F in place of more general DS. Similarly the armature winding DR and QR are designated by D and Q respectively. Since the armature winding is uniformly distributed and balanced, = = (say).

With these constraints, the voltage Eq. () becomes,

(7.5) The voltage-current relations given by Eq. (7.5) are applicable both for steady state and transient analysis of synchronous macine. 7.2.1 Balanced Steady-State Analysis With d.c. field winding on the outer fixed member, the stator field does not revolve and is, therefore, stationary in space. Polyphase currents in the armature winding produce synchronously revolving field and for the relative speed between the two fields to be zero, the armature must revolve synchronous speed opposite to the direction of rotating field. Thus the speed of resultant air-gap flux is stationary in space and in view of this, the operator p must

be replaced by zero. On the steady state the armature can run at synchronous speed only, therefore, rotor angular velocity electrical radians per second. Thus the steady-state voltage equations, from Eq. (7.5) are

(7.6) The subscript zero indicates constant or d.c. values. In place of etc. should have been written, but it is not done here merely to use them at a later stage. Note that the term is associated with and with . These quantities and are known as

, direct axis synchronous reactance and = reactance. quadrature axis synchronous

In order to include these terms, Eq. (7.6) is rewritten as,

(7.7)

7.2.3 Phasor equation and Phasor diagrams In order to determine the performance character tics of the machine in actual machine in actual machine axes, i.e. a-b-c co-ordinates, the transformation from d, q, o to abc variables as given by Eq. (7.4) can be used. Considering phase a only,

 (7.8) Now And . (7.9) For phase a, let the voltage be given by ] ] =

Where Also

is the angle that

makes at

. .

; Where

(7.10)

Where, Similarly (7.11) Where,

and

and

7.2.4 Open-circuit conditions On no load, , i.e. the actual armature currents are zero. These zero values when transformed to d-q axes currents are . In view of this, Eq. (7.7) becomes

and . The no-load r.m.s. voltage of phase a, from Eq. (), is (7.12) Where

is called the excitation e.m.f. or excitation voltage. This voltage can also be expressed in terms of maximum mutual inductances (between any armature phase and the field winding). (7.13) 7.2.5 Load conditions

In this case, the voltage of phase a is obtained by the substitution of from Eq. (7.12) for . (7.14)

[ )]

( (7.15)

In Eq. (7.15); and are only magnitude and not in complex notation. In order to express them as a phasors, refer to fig. 7.4 , where d-axis is taken as the reference or real-axis.

Fig. 7.4 (a) Phase-a axis at an angle from d-axis and (b) Phasor component of Ia The phasor notation for armature current , in terms of phasors and can be written as From Eq. (7.14); (7.16) With these changes, Eq. (7.15) becomes and

or

 (7.17)

is the terminal voltage of any one phase for a salient-pole type synchronous motor. For a generator, the voltages are generated and the currents are output currents. In view of this, the generator voltage equation can be obtained from motor voltage equations by writing in place of . Therefore, the generator voltage equation is (7.18) Eq. (7.18) gives phasor diagram for a salientpole synchronous generator as shown in figure 7.5.

Fig. 7.5 Phasor diagram for synchronous generator

7.2.6 Internal Power Factor Angle For calculating and , the internal power factor angle for a generator must be known. For this purpose draw ab normal to as shown in figure 7.6 ; where for simplicity with is dropped. Since ab is 90 away from , it

must be a reactance drop, say . Draw ac perpendicular to ob as shown in figure 7.6.

Fig.7.6 Resolving of Ia into its d- and q-axes components Id and Iq for synchronous generator rom generator phasor diagram of figure 7 6 it is seen that oa and oc are right angled triangles and, therefore, . Thus,

Or (7.19)

or

This shows that in fig. (7.6), . If ob is designated as and, therefore the angular position of excitation voltage with respect to , i.e. the power angle is is known. From this, angle , therefore, and can be computed. Fig (7.6) also reveals that

(7.20) Eq. (7.18) may now be written as (7.21)

Eq. (7.21) include a term which is due to saliency, i.e. no-uniform air gap. This quantity reduces to zero for a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine in which . This saliency factor in salient-pole synchronous machine is quite appreciable, since is approximately 60 to 70% larger then . Even in turbo alternators, small salient-pole effect is present due to the effect of field-winding slots on q-axis reluctance consequently differs slightly (about 10%) from in cylindricalrotor synchronous machines. From the generator phasor diagram of Fig (7.6), it is seen that

(7.22) 7.2.7 Cylindrical-rotor machines synchronous

These machines are characterized by uniform air gap so that reluctances along d and q axes are equal. In view of this,

Where

is called the synchronous reactance.

Thus the voltage equations for a cylindricalrotor synchronous generator, from Eq. (), is (7.23)

is called the synchronous Here impedance. With the help of Eq. (7.23), the voltage phasor diagram of a cylindrical-rotor alternator is as shown in fig.7.7 (a). This Eq. (7.23) also help in representing this type of machine by the equivalent circuit of fig. 7.7 (b)

Fig. 7.7 Cylindrical rotor alternator (a) Phasor diagram and (b) Its equivalent circuit 7.2.8 Steady-state Characteristics: Power-angle

The expressions for power are derived from the torque matrix of synchronous machine. The torque matrix G is given by [ ]

Now, [ ] [ ]

Total synchronous power,

Under steady state, Since the power is invariant in the two systems of variables, power per phase is ) ( ( 7 24) )

If d.c. excitation is reduced to zero, Eq. (7.24) becomes (

and

) 7 25) This power given by Eq. 7.25 is called the reluctance power and is the basis of operation of a wide variety of reluctance motors. Many times, it is convenient to include load angle in the synchronous power expression of Eq. 7.24. This can be easily done with the help of phasor diagram

Fig. 7.8 Phasor diagram From the above phasor diagram, and i.e. 7 26) and 7 27) Substitute the values of Id and Iq in Eq. (7.24) ( ) 7 28)

For a round rotor machine, , therefore, synchronous power from Eq. (7.24) is 7 29)

Substitute Iq from Eq. (7.27) in Eq. (7.29) gives

................................................ (7.30) With the help of Eq. 7.30 the variation of power P with is plotted in ig 1 a to give the powerload angle characteristics of a cylindrical rotor synchronous machine. Eq. 7.28 gives the power angle characteristics of a salient pole synchronous machine, which is illustrated in Fig. 7.9 (b)

Fig. 7.9 Power-angle characteristics for

(a) Cylindrical rotor synchronous machine. (b) Salient-pole machine. Fig. 7.9(a) reveals that maximum power in a cylindrical-rotor machine occurs when = 90 For a salient pole machine, the maximum power as seen from Fig. 7.9(b) is at load angle less than 90 This value of load angle can be obtained from Eq. 7.28 as follows: ( ) 7 31) Its solution gives the value of and su stitution of angle as calculated from Eq 7 31 in Eq (7.28) gives the maximum power which is sometimes called the pull-out power. 7.2.9 Reactive Power:

The reactive power Q is determined from phasor diagram of Fig. 1(a) by noting that reactive power is equal to the product of voltage and quadrature lagging component of armature current.

Substitution of Id and Iq , from Eq. (3) and (4) respectively, gives ( )

............................................ (7.32) For a cylindrical-rotor machine, , and reactive power for this machine, From Eq. (7.32) is given by

 7.33) Eq. (7.33) shows that When i.e. under normal excitation, and motor operates at unity p.f. When i.e. Motor is underexcited, Q is positive and, therefore, the motor draws reactive power from supply lines. When i.e. Motor is overexcited, Q is negative and, therefore, the motor delivers reactive power to the supply lines. For a salient-pole alternator, it can be shown that

And for a cylindricalrotor alternator

For both the generator and motor operations, it can be stated in general that an over-excited ( machine delivers or exports reactive power to the supply system; an underexcited ( machine absorbs, imports or draws reactive power from the supply system. 7.3 Short Circuit Ratio (SCR): SCR of a synchronous machine helps in obtaining an estimate of its operating characteristics.

Fig. 7.10 Short Circuit Ratio SCR is defined as the ratio of field current required to generate rated voltage on open circuit, to the field current required to circulate rated armature current on three phase short circuit.

As triangles oab and ode are similar, therefore

 7 34) From Eq. 7.34 7 35) It is thus seen that SCR is equal to the reciprocal of per unit value of direct axis synchronous reactance Xd. SCR effects both the physical size and operating characteristics of the synchronous machine. A significance SCR can be gained from the following considerations. a) Low SCR: Low value of SCR means greater value of Xd. An examination of Fig.[] with , shows that low SCR results in large voltage variations with load and thus a poor voltage regulation. Therefore, in order to maintain constant

terminal voltage, the field current will have to be varied over a wide range. Eq. (7.28) shows that low value of SCR means less synchronous power P and consequently a lower stability limit. A low value of SCR means more Xd (or Xs) and therefore a low value of synchronizing power Ps ( The synchronizing power is transient in nature and come into play only when there is a disturbance in the system. In other words, the function of Ps is to keep the machine in synchronism. Therefore, a machine with low value of SCR has low synchronizing power and therefore a low tendency for keeping the machine in parallel with the infinite bus. A low value of SCR results in low value of armature short-circuits current.

b) High SCR: The synchronous machine with high SCR has better voltage regulation and improved steady-state stability limit. The disadvantage of high SCR is the high values of armature short-circuit current. A synchronous generator, feeding a long transmission, or cable, line, may be capacitive loaded in which ease of armature current leads the terminal voltage. The mmf set up by a leading armature current , aids the field mmf and consequently the generated voltage increases. In order to reduce the effect of armature mmf on the field mmf and to retain the voltage under control, air gap length should be increased, which means a synchronous machine with high SCR should be used. Transient Analysis: Transient behavior analysis is important because Determine the shaft stress.

Winding and bus bar stress. Protective relay setting. Circuit breaker rupturing duties etc.

For transient analysis two assumption, usually made during transient analysis, are as follows. The machine is running initially on no load and under steady-state condition. Speed before and after the short circuit remains unchanged from its synchronous speed Voltage equations for a synchronous generator are ( )

) 7 36)

For transient analysis above equation have lengthy manipulations. In order to avoid this

some term in equation may be omitted to obtain an easier solution of the transient problem. A. All resistances neglected. With the neglect the resistances of both the field ( ) and armature windings and with alternator speed

7 37) Before short circuit i.e. at The armature currents 7 38) The field current before short circuit is ) (

Now from Eq. (7.37) and Eq. (7.38) Before the short circuit

After the short circuit

Thus the effect of short circuit is to reduce to zero suddenly and this can be taken as equivalent to the sudden application of a unit step-function voltage to the q-axis terminal. Both before and after the short circuit, the voltage applied to the field winding is therefore superimposed voltage for field winding is zero.

Now from above discussion the voltage equation after balanced short circuit, in terms of superimposed quantities, are 7 39 7 40 7 41 From eq. (7.39) 7 42 Now put in eq. (7.40) then 7 43 Where, 7 44 axis transient inductance.

Now put

in eq. (7.41) and then 7 45

From eq. (7.43) 7.46)

Now put the value of from eq. (7.43) in eq. (7.45) and in complex frequency domain is ( ) 7 47

After taking partial fraction eq. (7.46) becomes [ ]

Take Laplace inverse of above equation we get a result

 7 48

Fig.7.11 Variation of Id (t) for a sudden 3phase short circuit Note:- transient d-axis current A D.C. component . . frequency consist of

Fundamental component Put

in Eq. (7.46)and we get 7 49

Fig.7.12 Variation of Iq (t) for a sudden 3phase short circuit Note:-transient q-axis current contain only fundamental component of current. The actual phase current when angle between daxis and axis of phase a is after short circuit, at any time t second is

Fig. 7.13 Phase-a axis displaced from d-axis by an angle

(a)

at the instant of short circuit and (b) at any time t

[ ] 7 50 From equation (7.48),(7.49) and (7.50) we get [ ) ] 7 51 Where =An angle made by phase-a with d-axis when short circuit occurs. Before the short circuit, i.e. at , and with this equation Eq. (7.51) becomes ( ) (

 . /

7 52 Similarly current for Phase-b, Phase-c, From Eq. 7.52 we seen that phase current ( ) consist of First term as fundamental frequency component Second term as the D.C. component. Third term as the second harmonic component.

Note: The neglect of field and armature resistance imply that none of the term in Eq. (7.52) decay with time. Magnitude of, fundamental, D.C. and second harmonic component depends upon the Pre-fault excitation . Magnitude of fundamental component depends upon the d-axis transient reactance . Magnitude of D.C. component depends upon . The magnitude of second harmonic component depends on the term ( ), which is called the transient saliency. If short circuit occurs at then D.C. component of current is zero. D.C. component of becomes fundamental frequency component of phase current

Fundamental frequency component of and get transformed to D.C. and second harmonic component of Transient field current can be obtain by substituting from eq.(7.48) in eq.(7.42)

Total field current is

..(7.53) Now put we finally [ ) ( in Eq. (7.53) then

] 7 54

Fig.7.14 Variation of If (t) for a sudden 3phase short circuit

B. In this, the term containing are the transformer voltages of armature voltage and neglect this term from armature voltage equation also neglect the resistances of both the field( ) and armature windings . So in this case after balance 3- short circuit Eq. (7.39), (7.40) and (7.41) becomes 7 55 7 56

 7 57 From Eq. (7.55)

From Eq. (7.56)

From Eq. (7.57)

Field current,

Total field current

7 58 Current in phase-a is [ Put the value of and

] in above equation

7 59 Note: If transformer voltages are neglected from the armature voltage equation, the phase currents consist only fundamental terms(D.C. and second harmonic terms are absent).

 Current and purely in D.C. in nature i.e. it is constant. Dynamic analysis of synchronous machine is usually carried out by neglecting the armature transformer voltages. C. Armature transformer voltages and its resistances neglected ( ) Under this condition, 7 60 7 61 7 62 From Eq. (7.60) 7 63 From Eq. (7.62)

0 Ratio

field time constant.

d-axis open circuit transient time constant Thus * + 7 64 is called the d-axis short circuit transient time constant From Eq. (7.64)

Now convert above equation in s-domain and finally in time domain so

) (

) Now

7 65

( )

7 66

So total field current is [ ]

7 67 is given by

The phase current

) Note:-

7 68

The effect of including the field resistance is to make the amplitude of short circuit current equal to after the transient have decay and its R.M.S value is . The equation of envelope of the short circuit current, from eq.(32) is . /

The R.M.S value of short circuit current as function of time is

( )

7 69

Now from above equation Just after the short circuit i.e. at the and its , which armature phase current is depends on transient reactance final steady state current is , which is

depend on d-axis synchronous reactance. The decay from to is an exponential and is determine by time constant .

Fig. 7.15 Variation of rms short-circuit armature current during transient D. Armature transformer voltages and its resistances neglected ( ) but amortisseur circuits included. The synchronous machines fitted with damper bars, or amortisseurs, are studied with one coil KD in d-axis and another coil KQ in q-axis Due to damper winding effect ( ( )

7 70

Where ( )

=Sub

transient

component of current due to damper winding. This component of current decay with a time constant ,which is called the d-axis short circuit sub-transient time constant. In case the effect of transformer voltage consider armature

Then examine the Eq. (7.48) reveals that ,with damper bar present must include a fundamental frequency component 7 71 In case armature resistance also considered Then fundamental frequency component of would decay with the armature time constant .Thus complete expression of current

( (

) )

7 72

Similarly

7 73

Now (

0 )

/ /

1 7 74

In above equation second harmonic component is usually small. In modern synchronous generator therefore eq. (39) becomes ( Note:In case the fault occurs at and at time )

[ ]

7 75

7 76 From eq. (7.76) we note that first term is A.C. component of and second term is D.C. component of .

. Maximum possible value of armature

phase current is

after one half of

cycle i.e. and i.e. if axis of phase-a along d-axis at the instant of fault and attenuation does not take place. R.M.S. value of symmetrical armature short-circuit current is given by

[ ( )

] 7 77

Fig. 7.16 Variation of rms short-circuit armature current during sub-transient In the above graph at Just after the short circuit, current is . equal to

Current change exponentially and .

to to

with a time constant

with time constant

The asymmetrical or D.C. component of total short circuit armature current

The R.M.S or effective value of the total short circuit armature current 78) 7

The effective value of greatest armature current including A.C. and D.C. component is

7.5 Transient Torque: The object of this article is to calculate the maximum value of torque at the instant of short circuit. In order to do this the following assumptions are made: Field current remains constant at Maximum value of ; reached after sudden 3-phase short circuit dont decay. The torque in a cylindrical-rotor synchronous machine is given by 7.79) Therefore the short-circuit torque is ( where )

( after short circuit) And Therefore, ( =

.(7.79)

If the synchronous machine has as its rated phase values of voltage and current respectively, then rated torque is given by .(7.80) From Eqs. (7.79) and (7.80) .(7.81) If With this,

(7.82) In Eq. (5), ratio of short-circuit torque to rated torque is maximum, when sint=1, i.et=90o Therefore If ,then

It is seen from above that maximum value of torque, after sudden 3-phase short circuit, is several times greater than its rated torque. 7.6 Sudden reactive loading and unloading: In this case, variation of currents and voltages is investigated when sudden reactive loading or

unloading of synchronous generators carried out. 7.6.1 Sudden reactive loading: It is assumed that the synchronous generator is initially unloaded and is developing a nominal terminal voltage at synchronous speed. The nature of balanced reactive loading may be inductive or capacitive. (a)Sudden inductive loading: For a sudden inductive loading, the load reactance XL is taken to be lumped with the alternator internal reactances and then sudden short circuit is assumed to occur at its terminals. Thus the r.m.s value of armature phase current at any time t is

= ].(7.83) Where load time constant TL , is

..(7.84) The voltage across the load reactance XL at any time t is given by Therefore, 1..(7.85) 0

The variation of field current after sudden inductive loading XL, is given by

0 1..(7.86) The variation of excitation voltage with time is given by = 1

= 1(7.87)

Starting of large induction motors is a fairly good example of sudden inductive loading of synchronous generators.

Examination of Eq. (8) shows that just after sudden inductive loading , the terminal voltage at once drops from Efo to OA= decreases finally to constant of . This value

with a load time

, as depicted in fig. (7.17)

Fig. 7.17 Variation of alternator terminal voltage with sudden inductive loading (b)Sudden capacitive loading: The behavior of an alternator for sudden capacitive loading can be obtained simply by replacing XL with (-XC). From Eq. (7.83) the r.m.s value of armature current is

[ ](7.88) Where

(7.89) From Eq. (7.85) , the voltage across the load reactance Xc is given by [ ].(7.90) From Eq.(7.86) the field current is given by 0 1..(7.91)

From Eq. (7.87) 0 1..(7.92) Sudden switching of a long transmission line is a common example of sudden capacitive loading of synchronous generators. Equation (7.90) reveals that just after the sudden capacitive loading ,i.e at t=0+ the voltage at once varies from Efo to value changes from .This

to its final value .

with a load time constant of

7.6.2 Sudden reactive unloading:

The synchronous generator ,running at synchronous speed is initially connected to a reactive load.Here the behavior of alternator is investigated first with sudden removal of inductive load and then with the sudden removal of capacitive load. (a)Sudden inductive unloading: In this case since the armature current ,after the load has been disconnected, is zero,its expression is not of much importance.For the field current, the voltage expression is given by ( ) .(7.93)

We know from generalized theory of dc machine

And Here and , before the inductive load is

removed, are and . After the load is removed and are and Zero respectively. Due to this the superimposed field voltage . Therefore the total field current = ..(7.94) After the load is disconnected, excitation voltage and terminal voltage are equal.

Therefore

0 1 .(7

.95) If is the load terminal voltage before the load is disconnected,then

Or +(7.96)

Substituting in Eq. (7.95) , the value of Eq. (7.96), we get

from

+0 1

.(7.97) An examination of Eq. (7.97) shows that just after the inductive load is disconnected, terminal voltage at once rises to OB. The increase from value * + * * +=

+ to its final

with a time constant

as shown in fig 7.18.

Fig. 7.18 Variation of alternator terminal voltage with sudden inductive unloading

(b)Sudden capacitive unloading: The behavior of an alternator for sudden capacitive unloading can again be obtained simply by replacing XL with (-XC) as before. In view of this ,field current from Eq. (7.94) is

(7.98) from Eq. (7.96) is, [ ]

The terminal voltage from eq. (7.97), is * +0 1.(7.99)

7.7 Transient approach

Analysis:

qualitative

In this article e, a simple qualitative treatment of the transient behavior of the alternator, after a sudden three-phase short circuit is presented. For simplicity, the synchronous machine resistances are neglected. With this assumption, the total flux linkages with any close circuit cant change suddenly at the time of any disturbance. In other words, the flux linkages after sudden disturbance in any close circuit remain constant at their predisturbance valuethis fact has come to be known as constant flux linkage theorem.

Fig. 7.19 The Symmetrical waveforms for armature short-circuit current for a 3-phase synchronous generator With zero armature resistance, the steady-state armature short circuit current lags the excitation voltage by 90 as shown in fig(). This figure shows that short circuit armature m.m.f. is in the d-axis of the machine, consequently d-axis parameter are mainly involved during the short circuit analysis. This conclusion is revealed by Eq. (), which shows that the armature shortcircuit is affected by d-axis parameter and . The Symmetrical waveforms for armature shortcircuit current for a 3-phase synchronous generator is shown in fig. 7.19. 7.7.1 Reactances and Time-constants from Equivalent circuits

Expressions

the reactances and time constants can be derived from the transformer-type equivalent circuits of a synchronous machine. 7.7.2 Reactances from equivalent-circuits d-axis synchronous reactance of a synchronous machine is given by ; magnetizing reactance. is the d-axis

for

d-axis transient reactance of a synchronous machine is given by

Fig.7.20 d-axis equivalent circuit for a synchronous machine without damper bars d-axis sub-transient reactance of a synchronous machine is given by

Fig 7.21 (a) d-axis equivalent circuit with damper bars but field winding assumed absent (b) d-axis equivalent circuit for a synchronous machine

7.7.3 Time constants from equivalent-circuits (a) Direct-axis open circuit transient time constant,

(b) Direct-axis short circuit transient time constant, [ ]

Fig 7.22 Determination of time constant (c) Direct-axis open-circuit sub-transient time constant, 0 1

(d) Direct-axis open-circuit sub-transient time constant,

7.7.4 Transient power angle characteristics: In this article, it is assumed that a sudden 3 phase short circuit occur at terminals of alternator which is initially working under loaded conditions. After the disturbance, according to constant flux linkage theorem in a closed circuit, here the flux remain constant at its pre-disturbance value. Alternatively, it may be assumed that the voltage regulator action takes place so as to keep the field flux linkages constant at their pre-disturbance value.

Minus sign before is due to the fact that short-circuit armature m.m.f opposes the field flux. The -axis armature flux linkage

From Eq.(7.101) Substitution of this value in Eq. (1) gives

Here

Is the -axis transient inductance. Multiplication of Eq. (7.102) by gives

or or

The generalized form of voltage equation of alternator is ( )

From the above equation of resistance and transformer neglected, then ( After putting the value of become ( ) )

, if armature voltage are

Eq.(70.104) will

Dividing every term of the above equation by we get its rms value. ( )

Now this equation is suitable to draw the phasor diagram of synchronous machine which is shown in below.

Fig.7.23 Synchronous generator phasor diagram under transient condition

Eq.(7.106) shows that when field flux linkage are considered constant ,the voltage remains constant during the transient state. In order to analyse sudden disturbance or sudden load application a power angle expression is useful. The power for synchronous machine is given by

But And ( )

. / The power angle expression of Eq.(7.107) is applicable for a period of time short as compared with the transient time constant .This period of time less than , is sufficient to cover the critical period in many transient and dynamic analysis. If the field flux linkages are maintained constant, then Eq.(7.107) is applicable till the period of time is maintained substantially constant by the voltage regulator action.

Fig. 7.24 The steady-state and transient power angle characteristics of synchronous machine In Fig.(7.24) the steady-state and transient power angle characteristics of a typical synchronous machine, from which it is seen that the general shape of the two curves is almost similar. Since is greater than , the

fundamental term of power has larger magnitude during transient state. The physical reason of the transient amplitude being greater than the steady state amplitude is that, just after the short-circuit, there is a suddenly induced component of field current which results in

greater excitation of the machine. Transient power angle curve of figure.(7.24) shows that a synchronous machine in a practical system can withstand a large suddenly applied power overload, provided its duration is relatively short as compared with . The transient power angle expression of Eq.(7.107) is usually simplified by neglecting the second harmonic term. The Fig.(7.23) shows is almost equal to in magnitude. Though is less than , yet it is almost

equal to the power given by Eq.(7.107). This is due to the fact that numerical value of second harmonic term in Eq.(7.107) is negative and the total transient power is equal to the difference of first term and the second harmonic term. In view of this the transient the transient power is given by

is more accurate than the use of Eq.(7.107)with transient saliency ignored ( ) .The voltage equation equivalent circuit of Fig. (7.25), leads to the

Fig.7.25. Approximate transient equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine. which is commonly employed when transients and dynamics of a complex multi machine system are to be investigated even with the help of computers. The voltage is called the voltage behind transient reactance.

Note that the use of the equivalent circuit is based on two assumptions as under: (i) The voltage behind transient reactance during the transient state is assumed constant. This means that the field flux constants are maintained constant during the transient time much less as compared to . (ii) The reactance and under transient conditions equal. This assumption only permits the neglect of transient saliency and enable to model the synchronous machine under transient condition by a single transient reactance of Fig.(7.25)

7.7.5 Phasor diagram under transient and sub transient condition: Under transient conditions, the direct axis transient reactance is and q-axis transient

reactance is . Fig.(7.23) reveals that under transient conditions, Here is the q-axis component of terminal voltage .If is the d-axis component of ,so that ,then under transient conditions, In magnitude, , therefore . It is seen from Fig.(7.23) that is almost equal to , where

Here voltage is called the voltage behind transient reactance .

Fig 7.26 Synchronous generator (a) Phasor diagram (b) Equivalent circuit diagram under sub-transient condition Under sub transient conditions, the d-axis and q-axis sub transient reactances are and respectively. The phasor sum of

And

is shown in the Fig.(7.26.a). The resultant of and is equal to .It is seen from the figure that where is almost equal to ,

The voltage is called the voltage behind subtransient reactance .Eq.(7.109) results in subtransient equivalent circuit of a synchronous machine. With the help of Figs.(7.23) and (7.26.a), one phasor diagram showing is illustrated in Fig.(7.27).The voltage , is called vopltage behind d-axis synchronous reactance ,is given by .

Note that and are almost are equal in magnitude. This simplified phasor diagram of Fig.(7.27) is often for doing the analysis of a synchronous machine connected to a power system network. Note that in fig.(7.27)

Fig. 7.27 Phasor diagram for the initial current and voltages under overloaded alternator

for , saliency is ignored, for , saliency is ignored, and for , saliency is ignored.

, , ,

i.e. Sub-transient i.e. transient i.e. Steady-state

If the effect of damper bar is included then the rms value of symmetrical, or a.c. component of short-circuit armature current is

. . /

In in a power system network, asynchronous machine is represented by Fig.(7.26.b) under transient conditions. 7.8 Synchronous machine dynamics (electromechanical transients): Under normal running condition, the relative velocity between stator and rotor fields is zero. Whenever this relative position is disturbed, synchronizing restoring torques tending to maintain this equality come into play. This tendency of rotor to attain synchronous speed after a slight disturbance, is the basic reason for the analysis of synchronous- machine dynamics. The phenomena involving rotor oscillations about its final equilibrium position is called hunting. The nature of synchronous machine oscillations or hunting can be known only if its electro-mechanical transients are investigated.

The cause of disturbances in synchronous machines may be any one of the following: (i) A sudden change of load. (ii) A fault in the supply system. (iii) A sudden change in the field current, (iv) Load torque containing harmonic torques in case of motors, or prime-mover torque containing harmonic torques in case of synchronous generators. The effect of rotor oscillations on the performance of the synchronous machines is given below: (i) It increases the mechanical stresses and fatigue of the shaft. (ii) When working as a generator, the output voltage fluctuates which is an undesirable phenomenon (iii) It increase the machine losses and, therefore, increases its operating temperature.

(iv) The rotor oscillations may cause the machine to fall out of step. 7.8.1Electro-mechanical equation: In a synchronous machine the general torque balance equation is Where = electromagnetic torque

=mechanical torque = torque due to inertia of rotor =damping torque Neglect of the mechanical damping torque gives

7.8.2 Generator operation:

In generator, electric power flows out of it. Likewise electric torque , corresponding to electric power, flows out of the generator, should, therefore, be treated as negative. In view of this, Eq.(7.111) becomes;

Here , is the mechanical torque input to the generator. Also

Where

power due to inertia of rotor =

In above equation it is given that component.

has two

One component is synchronous power, is due to the presence of load angle between and . That is given by

Where And

Where

damping constant in

watts per radian per second. and = Power input to the shaft of alternator required electromechanical

Therefore the equation is

7.8.3 Linearized Analysis: Under steady state Eq.(7.112) reduces to

where is the load angle at which the synchronous machine is operating under steady state conditions. Let the shaft power (shaft power input in case of alternator) be increased from steady value of to , where is small incremental power on the shaft. Then, for maintaining the power balance, steady load angle must increase to . Substituting these changes in Eq.(7.113), we get

Subtraction of Eq.(7.113) from Eq.(7.114) gives

After some mathematical manipulation the Eq.(7.115) can be reduced to

Though

Where radian.

synchronizing power per electrical

Therefore Eq.(7.116), can be re-written as,

Eq.(7.117) is a second order linear differential equation and may be written as, . /

where

It is usually convenient to write Eq.(7.118) as

A comparison of Eqs.(7.118) and (7.119)gives,

and

The solution of Eq.(7.119) consists of two parts, complementary function(C.F) and the particular integral(P.I). Complementary function:
C.F.

Particular integral:

P.I

The complete solution of Eq.(7.118) is

C.F

P.I

The solution of Eq.(7.119) depends upon the value of damping factor or damping ratio which may be less than, equal to, or greater than unity. For different value of , the solution of Eq.(7.119) is as under:

0 (

)1

For

For

With initial conditions,

and

For

With initial conditions, and Therefore [ Where ))-] natural frequency of oscillation natural damped angular

, , (

frequency and damping ratio

The plot of Eqs.(7.122),(7.123),(7.124) and (7.125) are given for different values of damping ratio and it is seen that the magnitude of oscillations can be controlled by varying .

The value of (or ); as stated before, can be increased by using large cross-sectional damper bars. This will decrease the magnitude of rotor oscillations. 7.9 Cyclic variation of shaft torque (or Forced Oscillations)

An alternator driven by an internal combustion engine or a synchronous motor driving a reciprocating compressor is subjected to variable shaft torques. The variable torque is equivalent to an average torque plus a large variety of harmonic torques. If any one of the harmonic torque component has a frequency approaching , the amplitude of oscillations increases and the machine may fall out of step. Such a state of affairs must be carefully investigated. If the frequency differs by more than 25% from the frequency of forced oscillations, it is then assumed that stable operation remains unaffected. Let the harmonic-torque component variable shaft torque be represented by ; where is the maximum amplitude of harmonic torque and its angular frequency is

. Also, machine) (

(synchronous )

speed

of

the

The differential equation of motion governing the performance of synchronous machine under forced oscillation is d or d or d

where, as before,

and

Since the harmonic torque persists for a long time, only steady state solution is important, which in phasor form, can be obtained by putting circuits. The maximum amplitude of oscillation, in phasor form, from Eq. (7.126), is , as it is done in case of a.c.

The amplitude of oscillation is | |

If , the amplitude os swing becomes maximum and the machine may loose synchronism. Under this condition, the amplitude of swing is

For a given value of , the corresponding change in synchronous power is | | watts