Wetlands Manual

GUIDANCE MANUAL FOR THE DESIGN,
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATIONS OF

CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR RURAL
APPLICATIONS IN ONTARIO
Funded by the Canadapt Program
of the
Agricultural Adaptation Council, Ontario
By Stantec Consulting Ltd
R&TT, Alfred College (University of
Guelph
South !ation Conservation
November, 1999
GUIDANCE MANUAL FOR THE DESIGN, CONSTRUCTION AND
OPERATIONS OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS FOR RURAL
APPLICATIONS IN ONTARIO
Funded by the Canadapt Program of the Agricultural Adaptation Council, Ontario
November, 1999
Prepared in Cooperation by:
Stantec Consulting Ltd
Research and Technology Transfer Group, Alfred College (University of Guelph
South !ation Conservation
Author:
"ric Tousignant, #$"ng$
Co-Authors:
%livier &an'hauser,
Sarah (urd,
Acknowledgments:
The Authors )ish to than' the follo)ing people for the valua*le contri*ution in the
preparation of this +anual,
#hil -c!eely, #$"ng$ (Stantec Consulting,
Claude .eil, #$"ng (Alfred College, University of Guelph,
Anna Crolla, (Alfred College, University of Guelph
-anon Lalonde, -$"ng, #$"ng$ (University of Guelph,
Leslie /ancleif (South !ation Conservation and
-ichael %dgen, #$"$ (South)est .etlands Group
Cover Photo: Dignard Dairy Farm Constructed Wetland (see Appendix A).
Constructed Wetlands Guidance Manual
Ontario Rural Applications - November 1999
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TABLE ON CONTENTS
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Acknowledgments: $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ i
Table of Contents: $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ii
Author`s Preface$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$iv
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INTRODUCTION $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$1
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$0
General Classifications $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$0
&ree .ater Surface .etlands$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$0
0$0$1 "+ergent -acrophyte Based .etlands $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$0
0$0$0 &ree &loating -acrophyte Based .etlands$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$2
0$0$2 Su*+erged -acrophyte Based .etland $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$2
Su*surface &lo) .etlands $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$2
0$2$1 (ori6ontal &lo) SS& .etlands $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$2
0$2$0 /ertical &lo) SS& .etlands$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$3
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS TREATMENT PROCESS $$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$4
Suspended Solids Re+oval $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$5
Bioche+ical %7ygen 8e+and Re+oval$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$5
!itrogen Re+oval$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$5
#hosphorous Re+oval $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$9
#athogenic Bacteria Re+oval$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$9
To7in Re+oval $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$:
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS DESIGN $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$;
Types of .aste)ater $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$;
.aste)ater "valuation $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$$$;
#ollutant Loading Rate -ethod $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$1<
&irst %rder =inetic Rate ">uation -ethod $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$11
SYSTEM COMPONENTS $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$13
General$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$13
Storage Lagoon $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$13
#re?Treat+ent (&acultative #ond $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$14
.etland Cells$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$15
4$3$1 &ree .ater Surface (&.S .etland Cells$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$15
4$3$0 #ond .etland $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$15
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TABLE OF CONTENTS (Con`t)
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#ost .etland #olishing $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$1:
4$4$1 /egetated &ilter Strips $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$1:
4$4$0 @rrigation$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$01
4$4$2 %ngoing Research (/illage of Alfred #ilot #roAect$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$ $$$$$$$0:
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$20
Location $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$20
Soils $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$20
(ydrology $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$23
(ydraulics $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$25
Cell Construction$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$29
Control Structures $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$29
5$5$1 #u+ps$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$2:
5$5$0 @nlet 8istri*ution$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$2:
5$5$2 .eirs $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$3<
5$5$3 %utlet Control Structures $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$3<
Anaero*ic Lagoon and &acultative #ond 8esign$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$31
/egetated &ilter Strip 8esign$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$30
@rrigation Syste+ $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$32
Sludge (andling $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$32
5$1<$1 Settling #ond Configuration $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$32
5$1<$0 Co+posting$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$33
5$1<$2 Sludge 8rying Reed Beds$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$33
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$35
#lans and Specifications $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$35
Site #reparation $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$35
Anaero*ic Lagoon and &acultative #ond $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$39
.etland Cells$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$39
#lanting and Seeding$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$3;
9$4$1 #lanting$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$3;
9$4$0 Seeding $$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$4<
/egetated &ilter Strip$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$41
Construction Supervision$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$40
%peration$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$43
-onitoring$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$44
CASE STUDIES AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$49
REFERENCES$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$$4:
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APPENDICES:
BAC
BBC
BCC
B8C
B"C
B&C
8ignard 8airy &ar+ Constructed .etland Syste+ (Case Study
Cost Benefit Analysis of Using Constructed .etlands &or Rural Applications
/illage of Alfred 8e+onstration #roAect
8esign "7a+ple for S)ine -anure .aste
8esign "7a+ple for Septage .aste
&ood #rocessing .aste Treat+ent Using Constructed .etlands
Author`s Preface
The ollo!ing manual provides a revie! o considerations and steps re"uired or the
design# construction and operation o constructed !etlands or !aste!ater treatment in
rural applications (i.e. livestoc$ operations# ood processing# septic !aste treatment#
etc.). The inormation provided herein is to %e used %y practitioners (i.e. proessionals
!ith a !or$ing $no!ledge o geotechnical engineering# hydrology# hydrogeology and
!aste!ater treatment) to provide them !ith enough detailed inormation to determine
i this application is applica%le to their needs and i so# to help them develop#
implement and operate a constructed !etland treatment system. The guidelines
outlined herein provide a standard system approach or a simple lo! cost# lo!
maintenance solution. The constructed !etlands discussed in this manual are
thereore limited to simple systems such as those ound in nature# and do not consider
more complex designs such as su%&surace systems and complex mechanical devices.
The design examples used in this manual are thereore %ased on the simpler loading
rates methods. This manual can %e used %y technical sta in provincial agencies#
consulting irms# construction companies as !ell as potential operators and o!ners o
constructed !etland systems.
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1.0 INTRODUCTION
!on?point source (!#S pollution is one of the !orth A+ericaDs largest sources of )ater
>uality pro*le+s (Water National ualit! "nventor!# 199$%$ !on?point source pollution is
caused *y polluted surface runoff that flo)s into rivers, la'es and ground)ater$ Since the
)aste)ater source is not as o*vious as point?source pollution, it can *e +ore difficult to
treat and is often over?loo'ed$ Agriculture and faulty septic tan's are +aAor generators of
non?point source pollution$ !e) on?site treat+ent technologies such as constructed
)etlands and riparian 6one +anage+ent are *eing used for treat+ent of non?point source
pollution in +any rural environ+ents$ Constructed )etlands use vegetation in co+*ination
)ith sedi+entation, adsorption and *iological degradation to treat a variety of )aste)ater
types$ They are used for treating landfill leachate, +ine drainage, agricultural )astes,
septic tan' effluent, food processing )aste, +unicipal se)age, stor+)ater runoff and
+any other sources$ A data*ase co+piled *y the United States "nviron+ental #rotection
Agency contains an inventory of over 14< !orth A+erican )aste)ater treat+ent )etlands
(&ro'n and Reed# 199$$ Although the +aAority of these syste+s have *een installed in
the southern states, se)age treat+ent )etlands are in operation as far north as the !orth
.est Territories$
The use of constructed )etlands for )aste)ater treat+ent is not a ne) idea$ Ancient
Chinese and "gyptian cultures +ade use of their pollution a*ate+ent potential (&ri(#
199$$ @n "urope, e7peri+entation )ith a>uatic plants for re+oving organic and inorganic
conta+inants fro+ )ater *egan in the 1;4<Es and continues today$ 8en+ar', Ger+any
and the United =ingdo+ each have a*out 0<< functional se)age treat+ent )etlands (&ri(#
199$$ Constructed )etlands have *een used for se)age treat+ent in all regions of
"urope, even in countries )ith harsh )inters such as !or)ay ()enssen et al*# 199$, the
C6ech Repu*lic (+!magal# 199, and repu*lics of the for+er Soviet Union (Magmedov et
al*# 199$$ Constructed )etlands can *e found on every continent of the earth e7cept
Antarctica$
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2.0
2.1
TYPES OF CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
General Classifications
Constructed )etlands are classified as either -ree Water .ur/ace (-W.% syste+s or
.ubsur/ace -lo' (..-% syste+s$ Any )etland, in )hich the surface of the )ater flo)ing
through the syste+ is e7posed to the at+osphere, is classified as an &.S syste+$ @n SS&
syste+s )ater is designed to flo) through a granular +edia, )ithout co+ing into contact
)ith the at+osphere$
&ree )ater surface )etlands can *e su*?classified according to their do+inant type of
vegetation, 0mergent macrop1!te, -ree /loating macrop1!te, or .ubmerged macrop1!te$
Su*surface flo) )etlands ()hich *y definition +ust *e planted )ith e+ergent
+acrophytes can *est *e su*?classified according to their flo) patterns, 2ori3ontal /lo'
or +ertical /lo'$ A classification syste+ is sho)n in &igure 1$
(SS&
&ree .ater Surface (&.S Su*surface &lo)
"+ergent
-acrophyte *ased
&ree &loating
-acrophyte *ased
Su*+erged
-acrophyte *ased
(ori6ontal &lo) /ertical &lo)
Figure 1 - Wetland Design Categories$
2.2 Free Water Surface Wetlands
0$0$1 "+ergent -acrophyte Based .etlands
0mergent macrop1!te based 'etlands are the +ost co++on type of &.S$ They consist of
a series of channels andFor *asins )hich are lined )ith an i+per+ea*le +aterial (such as
clay in order to li+it infiltration$ A layer of soil is provided on top of the i+pervious
+aterial in )hich e+ergent +acrophytes (such as cattails and *ulrushes are planted$ A
slo) flo) rate is applied so that a shallo) depth is +aintained (2amilton et al*# 199,$
Settlea*le solids are re+oved *y sedi+entation, )hich lo)ers *ioche+ical o7ygen de+and
(B%8 and re+oves particulate for+s of phosphorus and nitrogen fro+ the )aste)ater$
A nutrient rich sludge is then for+ed on the )etland floor$ The +acrophytes supply
o7ygen to the sludge 6one through their roots, there*y pro+oting aero*ic digestion of the
pollutants *y +icroorganis+s$ -acrophytes also act as physical supports for
+icroorganis+s that help re+ove pollutants$
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0$0$0 &ree &loating -acrophyte Based .etlands
As the na+e i+plies, /ree /loating macrop1!te based 'etlands +a'e use of floating plants,
such as duc')eed and )ater hyacinth, to re+ove nutrients and control algae in
)aste)ater$ A floating *arrier grid is used to support the gro)th of floating +acrophytes
and to reduce )ind effects, )hich )ould other)ise cause the plants to drift$ @t has *een
clai+ed that the floating plant +at *loc's out sunlight, there*y preventing photosynthesis
and inhi*iting algae gro)th (5emna Corporation# 199$$ The plant +at and *arrier grid
reduce tur*ulence, allo)ing suspended solids to settle out +ore readily$ A pontoon *oat
for harvesting the floating plants fro+ the treat+ent syste+ is co++ercially availa*le$ @t
has *een suggested that harvesting *e done GperiodicallyG, depending on cli+ate, nutrient
loading and desired treat+ent (5emna Corporation# 199$$
0$0$2 Su*+erged -acrophyte Based .etlands
.ubmerged macrop1!te based 'etlands are still in the e7peri+ental stage$ They have
*een proposed as final polishing steps follo)ing pri+ary and secondary treat+ent (&ri(#
199$$ Little infor+ation is availa*le descri*ing these syste+s$
Figure 2 - Profile of Free Water Surface Wetland Cell with Emergent Macrophytes
$
2.3 Subsurface flow wetlands
Su*surface flo) (SS& type )etlands +a'e use of the sa+e re+oval +echanis+s as &.S
)etlands, sedi+entation, filtration and +icro*iological degradation$ (o)ever, since the
)aste)ater flo) is *elo) the surface, it is in continuous contact )ith the filter +edia,
)hich in turn provides +ore surface area for *acterial gro)th, therefore allo)ing for
higher organic loading rates$
0$2$1 (ori6ontal &lo) SS& .etland
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@n 1ori3ontal /lo' SS& )etlands, the +ediu+ is 'ept saturated under a continuous
)aste)ater flo)$ %7ygen is then transferred fro+ the at+osphere into the )etland
through the e+ergent plants$
0$2$0 /ertical &lo) SS& .etland
+ertical /lo' SS& )etlands are operated as a *atch process rather than in continuous flo)
+ode$ .aste)ater is dosed at ti+ed intervals so that the filter is allo)ed to drain$
Conse>uently, the syste+ is not al)ays saturated and o7ygen is +ore easily transferred
fro+ the at+osphere through diffusion$ @n general, vertical flo) SS& )etlands are less
co++on and not as )ell docu+ented as hori6ontal flo) syste+s$
Figure 3
Profile of Typical Sub-Surface Horizontal Flow Constructed Wetland
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3.0 CONSTRUCTED WETLAND TREATMENT PROCESS
Constructed )etlands consist of channels and *asins in )hich a>uatic plants, such as
cattails and *ulrushes are planted$ .aste)ater is discharged into the )etland syste+ *y
either pu+ping or gravity$ Several physical, che+ical and *iological processes ta'e place
in a )etland syste+$ %n average, )etlands are capa*le of providing re+oval rates ranging
any)here fro+ 5<H to over ;4H for +any pollutants$
There are si7 +aAor *iological reactions of interest in the perfor+ance of constructed
)etlands, photosynthesis, respiration, fer+entation, nitrification, denitrification and
+icro*iological phosphorous re+oval (Mitc1ell# 1996%* Che+ical reactions *et)een
certain su*stances, especially +etals, can lead to their precipitation fro+ the )ater colu+n
as insolu*le co+pounds$ "7posure to light and at+ospheric gases can *rea' do)n
organic pesticides or 'ill disease?producing organis+s (0PA# 1997%* /arious organic
co+pounds are lost to the at+osphere through volatili6ation as they enter the )etland$
The follo)ing ta*le provides an overvie) of the pollutant re+oval +echanis+s that
operate in the )etland environ+ent,
Table 1 : Overview of Pollutant Removal Processes
Pollutant
%rganic -aterial
(+easured as B%8
%rganic conta+inants
(e$g$ pesticides
Suspended solids
!itrogen
#hosphorus
#athogens
(eavy +etals
Removal Process
*iological degradation, sedi+entation,
adsorption, volatili6ation, photolysis, *ioticFa*iotic
degradation$
sedi+entation, filtration
sedi+entation, nitrificationFdenitrification, +icro*ial
upta'e, plant upta'e, volatili6ation$
sedi+entation, filtration, adsorption, plant and +icro*ial
upta'e
natural die?off, sedi+entation, filtration, predatation,
U/ degradation, adsorption
sedi+entation, adsorption, plant upta'e
(/rom 8 Constructed Wetlands Manual# +olume 1# 9epartment o/ 5and and Water Conservation# Ne' .out1 Wales%
Page7
3.1 Suspended Solids Removal
-ost suspended solids are re+oved through sedi+entation and filtration, as vegetation
o*structs the flo) and reduces velocities$ @n +ost applications, a sedi+entation pond is
added upstrea+ of the )etland cells to pro+ote the re+oval of larger suspended particles
and +ini+i6e the chance of clogging the )etland cells$ The pond can also dilute the ra)
influent if it is considered too strong$ These processes re+ove a significant portion of the
B%8, nutrients (+ostly nitrogen and phosphorus and pathogens$
3.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand Removal
The re+aining solu*le organic +aterial, left over after sedi+entation, is aero*ically
degraded *y *acterial *iofil+ that is attached to the plants$ @n the )etland cells the a>uatic
plants supply o7ygen to the )etland floor through their roots, there*y pro+oting the
aero*ic digestion of organic +aterial$ So+e anaero*ic degradation of organic +aterial
also occurs in the *otto+ sedi+ents$ .etlands provide a diversified +icro?environ+ent
)hich plays an i+portant role in pollutant processing$ /arious processes occur )ithin the
)ater colu+n, on the plants, in the )etland su*strate and in concentrated areas of
+icro*ial activity 'no)n as *iofil+s$ Biofil+s are for+ed as *acteria and +icroorganis+s
attach the+selves to the plant ste+s, the plant roots and the su*strate +atri7 to for+ a
*iological filter fro+ the )ater surface to the )etland floor$ As )ater passes through the
thic' gro)th of plants, it is e7posed to this living *iofil+, )hich provides a treat+ent
process si+ilar to that found in conventional se)age treat+ent plants$
3.3 Nitrogen Removal
.etlands pro+ote the process of nitrificationFdenitrification )hich re+oves nitrogen fro+
the )ater$ @n si+ple ter+s, *acteria in the )ater (!itroso+onas o7idi6es a++onia to
nitrite in an aero*ic reaction$ The nitrite is then o7idi6ed aero*ically *y another *acteria
(!itro*acter for+ing nitrate$ 8enitrification occurs as nitrate is reduced to gaseous
for+s under anaero*ic conditions in the litter layer of the )etland su*strate$ This reaction
is cataly6ed *y the denitrifying *acteria #seudo+onas spp$ and other *acteria$
.etland plants play an i+portant role in nitrogen re+oval *y providing *iofil+ attach+ent
points and *y supplying o7ygen for nitrification in the root 6one (&ri( 19:;%*
@nterestingly enough, plants generally ta'e up only a s+all portion of the inco+ing
nutrients (I4H$
3.4 Phosphorus Removal
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#hosphorous re+oval in )etlands is *ased +ainly on the phosphorous cycle and can
involve a nu+*er of processes such as adsorption, filtration, sedi+entation,
co+ple7ationFprecipitation and assi+ilationFupta'e$ @n %ntario, the effluent fro+
constructed )etlands )ill often fail to +eet effluent criteria )ith respect to phosphorous$
This is the case )hen the syste+ is constructed in a location )here there is no ade>uate
receiving strea+ for the )etland effluent$ @n such cases, post )etland polishing +ay *e
re>uired in the for+ of vegetated filter strips, irrigation or phosphorous adsorption +edia$
This is discussed later in the +anual$
3.5 Pathogenic Bacterial Removal
#athogen re+oval in constructed )etlands is achieved through a co+*ination of natural
die?off, te+perature, sunlight (ultraviolet light, )ater che+istry, predatation and
sedi+entation$ 8espite the presence of )ater, a )etland is a hostile place for pathogens$
Constructed )etlands have *een sho)n to reduce inco+ing pathogens nu+*ers *y up to
five orders of +agnitude (Reed et al*# 1997%* A proportion of pathogens are re+oved *y
sedi+entation, especially those attached to particles$ Biofil+ filtering re+oves so+e of
the pathogens *y direct contact$ #redatation occurs as the )etland provides a ha*itat for a
variety of +icroorganis+s, so+e of )hich are pathogen predators such as 6ooplan'ton$
The shallo) )ater colu+ns found in )etlands allo) the penetration of ultra?violet light
fro+ sunlight )hich also destroys pathogens$
#athogens of concern in a>uatic treat+ent syste+s are parasites, *acteria and viruses$
Because it is i+practical to +onitor all pathogens, indicator organis+s such as &ecal
colifor+ ("$ Coli, &ecal streptococci and coliphage -S?0 are used to +easure the
re+oval efficiency of a treat+ent syste+$ These indicators are used *ecause they are easy
to +onitor and correlate )ith populations of pathogenic organis+s$ Because of the
natural sources of pathogens in natural treat+ent syste+ ()ildlife, it is unrealistic to
e7pect co+plete re+oval )ithout disinfection$ Constructed )etlands, ho)ever, have *een
sho)n to provide pathogen re+oval rates in the order of :<H to ;<H$ %ne +ust 'eep in
+ind that a )etland )ith a high pathogen count in the influent )ill have a greater re+oval
rate than one )ith a lo) count$ !egative re+oval rates can *e encountered if the influent
count is less than the in situ production rate (due to )ildlife$
Although pathogens are often a source of concern )hen )ater recla+ation is considered,
)e +ust 'eep in +ind that nu+erous )ater and sludge recla+ation syste+s are in use in
the )orld )ithout any adverse effect on the general population$ The A+erican !ational
Research Council pu*lished a paper in 1;;5 entitled <=se o/ Reclaimed Water and
.ludge in -ood Crop Production>$ The paper reported that there has *een no reported
out*rea's of infectious diseases associated )ith a populationDs e7posure, either directly or
through food consu+ption path)ays, to ade>uately treated and properly distri*uted
reclai+ed )ater or sludge applied to agricultural land$ The paper also +entions that the
+ost e7tensive literature on hu+an e7posure to )aste)ater is concerned )ith the
infectious disease ris' to )aste)ater treat+ent plant operators and +aintenance personnel$
Page;
A revie) of the literature *y the Council concluded that clinical disease associated )ith
occupational e7posure a+ong these )or'ers is rarely reported$ @t is therefore not
unreasona*le to assu+e that using treated reclai+ed )ater on agricultural land )ould
present an even lo)er ris' to agricultural )or'ers and end users of the product$ The
report concluded *y stating that the potential added incre+ent of pathogen e7posure fro+
the proper reuse of reclai+ed )ater or sludge is +inuscule co+pared to our everyday
e7posure to pathogens fro+ other sources (i$e$ such as person to person contact and
prepared foods$
3.6 Toxin Removal
.etlands have an e7cellent *uffering capacity for to7ins as )ell as the a*ility to dilute and
*rea' do)n various to7ins (to a degree$ These processes, ho)ever, for+ part of the
co+plicated science of ecoto7icology and )ould re>uire a +anual in itself to further
e7plain the+$ .e do 'no), ho)ever, that hydrocar*on +aterials are 'no)n to degrade in
constructed )etlands )ith good re+oval efficiencies reported for phenol, *en6ene, toluene
and crude oils (W1ite et al*# 1996% $
Page:
4.0 CONSTRUCTED WETLAND DESIGN
Before any )aste)ater treat+ent design process can *egin, the )aste)ater to *e treated
+ust *e evaluated$ The follo)ing sections discuss )aste)ater evaluation and t)o
+ethods of )etland si6ing, pollutant loading rates and first order reaction 'inetics$
4.1 Types of Wastewater
Surface flo) constructed )etlands in rural settings have *een used to treat a variety of
)aste)aters ranging fro+ )ea'er +unicipal )aste)ater to +ore concentrated +anure
runoff$ Alfred College of the University of Guelph has *een involved in the construction
and +onitoring of t)o constructed )etlands for the treat+ent of dairy far+ )aste (i$e$
+anure pileF feedlot runoff and +il'house )aste$ The studies have sho)n that average
influent concentrations for +anure pile runoff are appro7i+ately 1<<< +gFL, 5<< +gFL
and 94 +gFL for B%84, T=! and T# respectively (see case study in Appendi7 A of this
+anual$ %ther rural )astes that could *e treated )ith constructed )etlands include
+unicipal )aste fro+ s+all co++unities, food processing )aste, s)ine +anure runoff,
septage and holding tan' )aste, etc$ Although )etlands are a proven technology,
additional research (in the for+ of pilot studies is still re>uired on strong )astes such as
s)ine +anure and septage )aste)ater$ &or e7a+ple, the average hog can produce B%84
loadings in the range of <$20 =gFhogFday and T=! loadings of <$<2: =gFhogFday$
Septage )aste is also a very strong )aste )ith B%84 concentrations in the order of 9,<<<
+gFL, T=! of 9<< +gFL and TSS of 14,<<< +gFL$ Although )etland plants are capa*le
of )ithstanding B%8 levels up to 3<< +gFL, if the influent concentration e7ceeds this
level pretreat+ent +ust *e conducted$ Appendices 8 and " provide +ore detail on the
treat+ent of such )astes in the for+ of theoretical design case studies$
$
.aste)aters fro+ food processing facilities are usually high in B%8FC%8 and suspended
solids due to a high concentrations of fats, oils and grease$ So+e egg processing facilities
can have C%8Ds as high as 3<,<<< +gFL (.out1 West Wetlands Group# 199;%* &or such
)aste)aters a pri+ary treat+ent syste+ such as a reed *ed is often used upstrea+ of the
constructed )etland$ The A+erican Sugar co+pany in the United States presently uses
constructed )etlands for the treat+ent of the )aste)ater produced at t)o of their sugar
*eet refineries in !orth 8a'ota$ The average influent concentrations for the various
pollutants, B%8 of 10< +gFL, a++onia ? nitrogen 24 +gFL and total phosphorus 1$04
+gFL$ These influents are )ithin accepta*le ranges and pri+ary treat+ent is not re>uired$
Appendi7 & provides +ore infor+ation on the use of natural syste+s for the treat+ent of
food processing )aste)ater$
4.2 Wastewater Evaluation
.aste)ater is evaluated on the *asis of concentration and flo)rate$ @nfluent B%84, T=!,
Suspended Solids and Total #hosphorus concentrations should *e 'no)n prior to
*eginning the design process$ %ther para+eters that could have an effect on the syste+
Page9
include +etals, phenols, oil, grease and fat$ @f these para+eters are found in high
concentrations, additional treat+ent +ay *e re>uired$
%ne of the +ost critical aspects of constructed )etland design is the proper esti+ation of
)aste)ater volu+es$ .aste)ater volu+e averages (dailyF)ee'lyF+onthly +ust *e
deter+ined for all )aste)ater sources during different periods of the year$ .et )eather
periods +ay provide the greatest volu+e of )ater, ho)ever the pollutant concentration
+ay *e significantly less than during dry su++er +onths (dilution factor$ @f an increase
in hydraulic loading does not create a corresponding increase in the daily +ass loading, the
increase in flo) can *e ignored$ The i+portant factor in designing a constructed )etland
is to deter+ine the +a7i+u+ +ass loading e7pected, regardless of )hether high volu+es
)ith lo) concentrations or lo) volu+es )ith high concentrations produce the +a7i+u+
load, and design for the +a7i+u+ +ass loading over an e7tended period$
Since the guidelines presented herein are for si+ple free surface types )etlands, si+ilar to
those found in nature, it is assu+ed that treat+ent )ill *e li+ited to su++er +onths )hen
it is +ost efficient$ &or this reason )inter storage (1:< to 004 days )ill +ost li'ely *e
re>uired (unless the )aste production is seasonal$ Storage has the advantage of
providing a +ore unifor+ )aste concentration to the )etland and +ay +a'e the design of
the )etland cells so+e)hat easier$ Section 4$0 discusses this aspect further$
.ater >uality para+eters that need to *e sa+pled and analy6ed in +ost situations consists
of B%84, TSS, *acteria, !itrogen and #hosphorous$ These are pollutants that originate
fro+ organic sources that )ill *e of +ost interest in treat+ent$ @n so+e cases other
para+eters such as +etals and phenols +ay also re>uire treat+ent, ho)ever these
para+eters are for specific applications as opposed to general organic )aste$
.aste)ater volu+es are also i+portant in deter+ining the )ater *udget for the
constructed )etland$ -ore infor+ation on this topic is presented in Section 5$2$
4.3 Pollutant Loading Rate Method
The design of a constructed )etland is dependent upon the volu+e and concentration of
the inco+ing )aste)ater$ Accurate deter+ination of the various pollutants is critical in
deter+ining the si6e and type of constructed )etland$
Constructed )etlands can *e designed on the *asis of +ass loading of a specific pollutant
on a daily loading *asis$ 8esigners +ust have accurate infor+ation on the flo) volu+e of
and the pollutant of the )aste)ater$ 8aily flo)s in cu*ic +eters (+2 ti+es the
concentration of a specific pollutant (+gFL provides an esti+ate of the +ass of pollutant
('gFday re>uiring treat+ent that can then *e used to esti+ate the effective treat+ent area
re>uired )ith the reco++ended loading rates (i$e$ 'gFha per day for B%84, TSS, !(2 or
so+e other para+eter ((a++er, 1;;3$
Page1?
&or e7a+ple ((a++er, 1;;3,
Average )aste)ater flo) rate J 2,<<< +2Fday
B%84 J 14< +gFL
8aily +ass loading J (2,<<< +2Fday K 14< +gFL F 1,<<<
J 34< 'gFday
Based on a B%84 loading rate of 1<< 'gFhaFday, the re>uired effective treat+ent area
*eco+es, 34<F1<< J 3$4 ha$
Loading rates should *e calculated for T=! and T#$ Allo)a*le daily loading rates are 2
'gFhaFday and <$0 'gFhaFday for T=! and T#, respectively$
NOTE:
A 1;;5 revie) of the !orth A+erican Treat+ent Syste+ 8ata*ase (!A8B *y @adlec
and @nig1t found that the 2 'gFhaFday T=! guideline +ay *e so+e)hat conservative$ A
figure of appro7i+ately 9$5 'gFhaFday )as the average in the data*ase$ @t is therefore
reco++ended that the designer use a figure in the range of 2?9 'gFhaFday, )ith the lesser
figure *eing +ore conservative$
4.4 First Order Kinetic Rate Equations Method
Constructed )etlands are typically +odeled as a plug flo) reactor using first?order
reaction 'inetics to descri*e the syste+$
C F Ci = e7p( Av
.here, Ci J initial pollutant concentration, +gFL
C J pollutant concentration at ti+e t, +gFL
'v J volu+etric reaction rate constant, d?1
J hydraulic residence ti+e, d
is defined *y e>uation $
= A1
L1M
L0M
.here, A J )etland surface area, +0
J porosity of the )etland ( ;4H for surface flo) )etland,
h J average )ater depth, +
N J flo)rate through the )etland, +2Fday
Page11
To account for te+perature effects, the rate constant 'v is adAusted using the Arhennius
e>uation,
A v ,B = A0< ( B 0< L2M
.here, J is the Arhennius coefficient,
T J is the te+perature, OC
'0< J is the value at 0<OC
=adlec and =night (1996% use a residence ti+e distri*ution (RT8 to descri*e the no+inal
detention ti+e )ithin the )etland$ The RT8 is the pro*a*ility density function for
residence ti+es in the )etland$ The ti+e function is defined *y (@adlec and @nig1t#
1996%8
f(t t J fraction of inco+ing )ater )hich stays in the )etland for a length
of ti+e *et)een t and t P t L3M
)here f J RT8 function, d?1
t J ti+e, day$
=adlec and =night (1996% reco++end using a tracer test to deter+ine the RT8 function
for a given )etland$ An i+pulse of dissolved inert tracer +aterial is inAected into the
)etland inlet and then the tracer concentration as a function of ti+e is +easured at the
)etland outlet$
&or so+e pollutants *ac'ground levels are incorporated into the plugflo) 'inetic
e>uation$ &or e7a+ple, the *ac'ground level for B%8 in a constructed )etland is greater
than 6ero$ Biological activities in the )etland can cause the *ac'ground level to vary fro+
0 to 2< +gFL (2iggins et al*# 1999%* This only has an effect if the inlet B%8
concentration is lo)er andFor if the target outlet concentration )ere set at 0< or 04 +gFL
(2iggins et al*# 1999%*
conta+inants,
">uation 1 is +odified to allo) for *ac'ground levels of
(C C K
(Ci CK
= e7p( A v L4M
.here, Ci J is the influent pollutant concentration, +gFL
CK J is the *ac'ground pollutant level, +gFL
The *ac'ground level +ethod is only used for certain pollutants (e$g$, for B%8,
suspended solids, organic nitrogen *ut is not used for pollutants )ere the e7pected to *e
6ero (e$g$, for a++onia nitrogen$
Page14
#ara+eterB%8%rg !!(3!%7T!T#'0<,
+Fyr23191:2400101$<<1$<<1$<41$<31$<;1$<4CK, +gFL2$4P<$<42Ci1$4<$<<<$<<1$4<<$<0
#ara+eterB%8 re+oval!(3 re+oval!%2
re+ovalCK5<$0<$0?1
'v, 0<OC (d <$59:<$01:91$<<<1$<51$<3:1$14
Rate constants and the values of CK are site specific and can *e +easured during a
treata*ility test$ These values have also *een pu*lished in the literature for actual )etland
situations$
Table 2: Temperature Coefficient and Rate Constants ('eed et al.# ())*)
=adlec and =night (1996% reco++end different values for the 'inetic rate constants and
te+perature coefficients$ These are listed in Ta*le 2$
Table 3: Kinetic Rate Constants and Temperature coefficients
=adlec and =night use areal rate constants, )hich can *e related to the volu+etric rate
constant, 'v, *y the follo)ing e>uation$
A = A v1 L5M
.here, ' J is the areal rate constant, +Fyr
h J is the )etland depth, +
NOTE:
Although the =inetic loading rate +ethod is a +ore co+ple7 and accurate +ethod, the
authorDs e7perience )ith the pollutant loading rate approach has yielded good results )ith
high re+oval rates$ &or s+all si+ple rural syste+s such as those found on agricultural
lands, the pollutant loading rate +ethod )ill provide a si+pler +ethod of si6ing the syste+
)hile still yielding high re+oval rates$ Since this manual is directed at those seeking a
simple low cost solution, the pollutant loading rate method is used from this point
on. If a larger and more complex system is considered, the Kinetic Loading rate
method may be more appropriate.
Page1,
5.0
5.1
SYSTEM COMPONENTS
General
The +ain design o*Aectives for a )aste)ater treat+ent constructed )etland is to provide a
syste+ that,
is capa*le of providing a high level of treat+ent and discharging a relatively clean
)aterQ
is ine7pensive to *uildQ
is ine7pensive and si+ple to operateQ and
is self?+aintaining$
Although )e have discussed various types of constructed )etlands in Section 0$<, the
+ost )idely used syste+ in !orth A+erica is the free surface ("+ergent +acrophyte type
syste+$ This type of syste+ is relatively si+ple, easy to construct and operate and
econo+ical$ /ariations of this type of syste+ have *een developed such as adding
aeration, artificial +edia or a greenhouse type cover$ These variations, ho)ever, only add
to the co+ple7ity and cost of the syste+, there*y co+pro+ising the o*Aectives outlined
a*ove$ %ther natural +odifications ho)ever, such as co+*ining e+ergent +acrophytes
)ith su*+ergent and free floating species, +ay *e ine7pensive and *eneficial to the
syste+$
Usually )hen one is considering a constructed )etlands as a +eans of )aste)ater
treat+ent, one is loo'ing for a si+ple and ine7pensive type of syste+$ &or this reason the
follo)ing design considerations are for a free surface type syste+, si+ilar to a natural
)etland$
5.2 Storage Lagoon
Since a free surface )etland syste+ is +ost efficient during )ar+er periods, it is *est that
the )etland cells only operate during the gro)ing season$ &or this reason, )inter storage
is re>uired$ The +ost practical +ethod of storage is to construct an earthen lagoon, )ith
an i+pervious liner, large enough to hold appro7i+ately 5 +onths (1:< to 004 days of
)aste volu+e (depending on the geographic location$ @f the storage area is not covered,
precipitation volu+es need to *e considered$ Section 5$2 provides further infor+ation on
hydrologic considerations$
The storage lagoon has the added *enefit of providing so+e pre?treat+ent and load
*alancing$ This is especially practical if the inco+ing )aste is e7cessively strong, such as
livestoc' )aste (high B%84 or septic tan' )aste (high total suspended solids$ As the
residence ti+e is long and regular, the re+oval of suspended solids can *e >uite high$ @n
Ala*a+a, a lagoon used to treat calf +anure and )ash)ater, reduced the concentrations
of T=!, TSS and B%8 *y 44H, ;:H and ;3H, respectively (Pa!ne# 19:,$ T=! is
Page1$
re+oved *y sedi+entation of solids (including *io+ass and volatili6ation of nitrogenous
gases such as a++onia (there is little conversion into nitrate *ecause of the lac' of
o7ygen$ According to Cooper et al* (1996, loadings of $<3 'g B%84F+2Fday )ith
detention ti+es of 4< days can achieve a 4<H reduction in B%84 for cli+ates of )estern
"urope$
8epending on the type of application, the follo)ing conservative re+oval rates are
anticipated fro+ an anaero*ic storage lagoon )ith appro7i+ately 5 +onths of storage,
B%84,
T=!,
T#,
TSS,
4<?5<H
0<?2<H
2<?3<H
;<?;4H
Anaero*ic lagoons used for storage of organic )aste )ill need dredging of the su*strate
appro7i+ately every 4 to 1< years$ @f the organic )aste has already *een reduced (such is
the case )ith septic tan' )aste, the su*strate sludge )ill accu+ulate at a +uch greater
rate$ The sludge )ill have a solids concentration of appro7i+ately 4H and )ill re>uire
re+oval every t)o years$ The re+oval can *e achieved )ith a sludge pu+p, )here the
effluent is discharged directly onto fields and plo)ed into the soil$ This )ill give the user
the fle7i*ility of choosing the right ti+e for disposing of the sludge and allo)ing the
disposalFplo)ing operation to proceed in one step$ Another re+oval +ethod is to allo)
the lagoon to dry and re+ove the )aste )ith a +echanical shovel or front end loader$
-ore infor+ation is provided on this topic in section 5$1<$2
5.3 Pre-Treatment (Facultative Pond)
&acultative ponds are ponds )ith a depth *et)een <$9?1$: +eters$ 8ue to their depths,
these ponds co+*ine aero*ic and anaero*ic processes to provide efficient treat+ent$
B%84 concentrations can *e reduced *y as +uch as 9<?:4H under good conditions ()ar+
te+perature$ This syste+ can reduce pathogen concentrations *y up to ;;H$ The usual
detention ti+e is 4 to 2< days$ Anaero*ic fer+entation occurs in the lo)er layer and
aero*ic sta*ili6ation occurs in the upper layer$
@n the United States, the reco++ended loading rate for cli+ates in )hich te+perature is
higher than 14<C is 1<< 'gFhaFday (Reed et al*# 19::$ Such a loading should produce an
effluent )ith a B%84 lo)er than 2< +gFL$ @n %ntario# Weil et al* (199; found that a
facultative pond designed )ith a loading of 14< 'gFhaFd produced an effluent )ith an
average concentration of 015 +gFL B%84$ "ven though the concentration is not in the
range encountered in the )ar+er cli+ate of the United States, this value is lo)er than the
3<< +gFl of B%84 necessary to enter the constructed )etland$ &acultative ponds can also
reduce T=! *y appro7i+ately ;<H (Weil et al*# 199;$
Page17
8epending on the type of application, the follo)ing conservative re+oval rates are
anticipated fro+ a facultative pond )ith a loading of 1<< ? 14< 'gFha per day,
B%84,
T=!,
4<?5<H
0<?2<H
As )ith the storage lagoon, precipitation needs to *e considered )hen si6ing the facility
(See section 5$2$
5.4 Wetland Cells
So+e of the +ost successful )etland designs include a co+*ination of free )ater surface
)etland (&.SR1 follo)ed *y a pond )etland and then *y a free )ater surface )etland
(&.SR0 se>uentially located in the syste+$ 2ammer (199;% descri*ed this se>uence of
treat+ent in the follo)ing +anner (See figure 3$<,
4$3$1 &ree .ater Surface (&.S .etland Cell
The first and third cells are shallo) *asins )ith densely gro)ing +arsh vegetation ?
typically cattail (Typha, *ulrush (Scirpus validus or cyperinus, reed (#hrag+ites or
rushes (Suncus, "leocharis, in 1< to 0< c+ of )ater$ The function of the first &.S
)etland is for the re+oval of B%84, suspended solids (TSS, +etals, pathogens and
co+ple7 organic as )ell as a++onification$ The initial operating )ater depth is
appro7i+ately : to 1< c+ a*ove the soil surface, gradually increasing to 14?0< c+ over
the ne7t 14 to 0< years as peat accu+ulates in the &.S )etland$
The second &.S )etland is physically and operationally the sa+e as the first and
pro+otes denitrification as )ell as the re+oval of B%84, suspended solids, +etals,
pathogens and co+ple7 organics$
4$3$0 #ond .etland
The second co+part+ent is a constructed pond )etland )ith <$94 to 1$4 + )ater depths$
8uc')eed (Le+na can gro) on the surface of the pond as )ell as various algae )ithin
the )ater colu+n$ Su*+erged pond)eeds )ith linear, filifor+ leaves (#ota+ogeton,
Ceratophyllu+, "lodea, /allisneria are planted in shallo) portions of the pond to increase
the surface area for +icro*ial attach+ent$ The pond )etland provides further reduction of
B%84, nitrification and phosphorous re+oval$ &urther+ore, an inter+ediate pond )etland
)ithin the &.S )etland cells )ill help prevent short?circuiting *y allo)ing the re?
distri*ution of flo)$ %perating depth is typically <$; to 1$2+ throughout the years of
operation$
Page16
Figure 4 - Typical FWS wetland - pond wetland - FWS wetland layout
(Hammer,1997)
As )ith facultative ponds, the design of &.S )etland cells is *ased on +ass loading rather
than hydraulic loading$ Reco++endations )ith respect to the re>uired loading rate
depends on the type of effluent that is re>uired$ A lo)er >uality effluent (secondary
discharge standard +ay only *e necessary if post )etland polishing is used such as spray
irrigation of grass filter strips$ The esti+ated e7pected effluent >uality )ould *e as
follo)s8 (2ammer 199$%,
B%84 & TSS I 2<+gFL,

&ecal colifor+ I 0<< C&UF1<< +l,
p( 5?;,
8issolved o7ygen T 3+gFL
&or this level of effluent >uality, the follo)ing loading rates are reco++ended, (2ammer
199$%
B%84 and TSS,
(ydraulic Loading,
Retention ti+e,
I1<< 'gFha per day
I1<<< +2Fha per day
T 4 days
@f advanced effluent >uality is re>uired, such as the follo)ing (2ammer 199$%8
B%84 & TSS

&ecal colifor+
p(
8issolved o7ygen
I 0<+gFL,
I 1<< C&UF1<< +l,
5?;,
T 3+gFL,
Page1;
#%3
!(2
I 1 +gFL,
I 3+gFL
The follo)ing loading rates are reco++ended (2ammer 199$%8
B%84 and TSS,

T=! or !(2,
T#,
(ydraulic Loading,
Retention ti+e,
I9<'gFha per day
I2 'gFha per day
I<$0 'gFha per day
I4<< +2Fha per day
T 1< days
NOTE:
The design area is *ased on the total )etland area (&.SR1 P pond P &.SR0 and is
calculated fro+ the toe of the inside *er+ and not the cro)n of the *er+$ -arsh cells
should have a length to )idth ratio of 2?4,1 )hile ponds can *e as lo) as 1,1$
5.5 Post Wetland Polishing
@n %ntario, o*taining approval fro+ the -inistry of the "nviron+ent for the discharge of
constructed )etland effluent to a receiving *ody of )ater or a dry ditch +ay *e difficult$
@t is i+portant that the designer contact the -inistry prior to design to discuss guideline
re>uire+ents )ith respect to the discharge$ %ne of the feficieencies )ith su++er
discharge to a lo) flo) receiving strea+ is the phosphorous concentration in the effluent$
&or this reason, post )etland polishing +ay *e re>uired$ The alternatives presented in this
section consist of using vegetated filter strips as a filtering +ediu+ or using the )etland
effluent for irrigation purposes$ !e) research currently under)ay in the field of
phosphorous re+oval is also discussed in this section$
4$4$1 /egetated &ilter Strips
The use of vegetated filter strips (/&S have long *een recogni6ed as an i+portant control
+easure in reducing surface runoff and re+oving so+e of its constituents$ They are no) used
for various purposes including purification of +unicipal, agricultural and food?processing
)aste)aterQ protection of )atercourses fro+ logging, construction, strip +ining, agricultural
practicesQ and )ater >uality control facility for ur*an stor+ runoff$ /egetated filter strips are
fre>uently referred to as *uffer strips or 6ones, grass strips, riparian planting, overland flo)
syste+ and co+*inations thereof$
&ilter strips i+prove runoff >uality +ainly *y changing flo) hydraulics$ The )ater flo)ing
onto vegetated strips encounters +ore resistance, )hich results in lo)er flo) velocities and
thus less erosive po)er$ This allo)s for +ore ti+ely interaction *et)een )ater and the
Page1:
vegetated F soil +edia$ &or effective pollutant re+oval, flo) through filter strips +ust *e
unsu*+erged (shallo), slo) and unifor+ (9illa1a et al*# 19::$
The t)o +ain re+oval +echanis+s at )or' in vegetated filter strips used for )aste)ater are
infiltration and deposition$ 8eposition of suspended particles and colloidal organic +aterials in
)aste)ater is greatly enhanced in vegetated filter strips *ecause the lo)er flo) velocities and
flo) rates decrease the sedi+ent transport capacity$ 8eposition is +ainly governed *y
suspended particle si6e, flo) rate, and filter strip di+ensions and slope$ "nhanced infiltration
per+its the entry into the soil profile of fine suspended particles or solu*le pollutants that are
found in runoff$ %nce in the soil +edia, physical, che+ical and *iological processes can
deco+pose and transfor+ so+e pollutants to +a'e the+ availa*le to plants$ %ther +echanis+s
such as adsorption to plant and soil surfaces and a*sorption of solu*le pollutants *y plants are
at )or'$ /egetation provides nutrient upta'e and a +ediu+ for *iological gro)th. !utrients
are ta'en a)ay )hen the vegetation is harvested$
.hen purifying )aste)ater, inflo) to the vegetated filter strips is generally continuous$ @n
such syste+s, the inflo) co+es fro+ a storage facility (in our case it is fro+ the )etland
treat+ent syste+ at a given application rate and for a given application period$ The
application period can vary fro+ a fe) days to a +onth and is generally alternated )ith rest
periods to allo) for filter +aintenance$ Since the su*soil re+ains in a >uasi?saturated state,
*iological gro)th develops )ithin the grass?soil +edia$ The e7tent of this *iological gro)th
has *een directly lin'ed to the re+oval of B%84 and phosphorous in previous studies
(Overman and Wol/e* 19:6# Pa!er et al* 19:;%
The vegetative filter strips proposed in this +anual )ould *e used for polishing )etland
effluent prior to discharge to a )atercourse$ For this reason the !etland system
upstream o the ilter strip must %e designed or the highest eluent "uality. Although
not +uch infor+ation is availa*le on phosphorous re+oval using filter strips, it is *elieved
that the si6ing e>uation presented herein can significantly reduce phosphorus
concentrations for lo) flo) syste+s$ The 8ignard constructed )etland case study
presented in Appendi7 A sho)s that phosphorous concentrations in the effluent fro+ the
)etland syste+, )hich is in the order of 4$< +gFL, is reduced to near *ac'ground levels of
<$<4 +gFL after the filter strip$ %ne +ust 'eep in +ind, ho)ever, that the si6e of the
8ignard filter strip can acco++odate the syste+ influent flo) of 11 +2Fday, )hen in fact
evapotranspiration effects reduces the outflo) to appro7i+ately 1F1<th of the inflo)$
#revious studies *y C1aube! et al* (199$% identified re+oval rates in the order of 59H to ;0H
for total phosphorus using filters of 2 to 01 +eters in length$ Total =Aeldahl !itrogen re+oval
)as si+ilarly high and varied fro+ 54H to :;H for filters of 2 to ; +eters in length$ .or'
perfor+ed in %ntario *y Mic1ael Boombs (199;% reco++ended filter strip lengths of ;< + to
05< + for *eef feedlot runoff$ Metcal/ and 0dd! (1991% give as a general guideline for
overland flo) syste+s lengths of 2< + to 34 +$ &or the >uality of effluent that is e7pected
fro+ a constructed )etland , ilter strip lengths should range %et!een +* m and ), m.
Page19
The application rate is the +ost i+portant design para+eter for an overland flo) syste+$
Metcal/ and 0dd! (1991% reco++end rates ranging fro+ <$04 to <$5< +2F+ length per hour
(+2F+$h$ Overman and Wol/e (19:6% have suggested using a lo)er application rate of <$1
+2F+$h to 'eep a++oniu+ nitrogen concentration *elo) 0$< +gFL$ Since )e are ai+ing for a
direct discharge into a )atercourse, a strict application rate o ,.,* m-.m.h is recommended
to promote ade"uate phosphorous removal.
The )etland effluent can *e applied to the filter strip over a 03 hour period, ho)ever a
rest period is re>uired to per+it the soil to dry *efore harvesting$ @t is reco++ended that
application *e continuous for a 0 )ee' period follo)ed *y a 0 )ee' rest period$ @f a
single filter strip syste+ is used, the upstrea+ )etland cells have to *e designed to account
for storage during the 0 )ee' rest period and the filter strip has to ta'e into consideration
the increased loading rate due to the )etland storage$ An easier alternative )ould *e to
design t)o filter strips operating for 0 )ee' periods on an alternating *asis$
Since the flo) entering the filter strip syste+ has *een previously treated *y a facultative
pond and )etland cells, pathogen concentrations entering the filter strip syste+ should
already *e lo)$ "ven if local )ildlife activity causes an increase in the )etlandDs colifor+
count, the filter strip should *e effective at reducing these counts to accepta*le levels
(I1<< countsF1<< +l$ Although there is not +uch docu+entation on pathogen re+oval
in filter strips, )or' done *y Coung# 2untroids and Anderson in 19:? successfully
reduced the total colifor+ count fro+ a 13 + deep *eef feedlot to 1<<< countsF1<< +l
using a 24 + long filter strip (*eef feedlots can have total colifor+ counts +uch greater
than 1<<,<<< countsF1<< +l$ Given the >uality of the effluent fro+ the )etland syste+,
further polishing fro+ the filter strip should provide a total re+oval rate fro+ the overall
syste+ ( )etland P filter strip of ;<H or greater$
A note of caution is re>uired$ Studies *y Barrington found that so+e pathogenic
+icroorganis+s found in +anure can survive in soil for lengthy periods of ti+e$
Sal+onella *acteria can live in the soil for 9 to 15: days, "rysipilothri7 *acteria for 01
days, "nterovirus for 04 days to 19< days, #olivirus for 20 days and the Ascaris
Lu+*ricoidesova for up to 0<<< days (&arrington 1991%$ These pathogens could
therefore *e released su*se>uently in flo)ing runoff over the filter strips$ -ost of the
studies done on this topic, ho)ever, have *een for filter strips used as a primary
treatment system. By using the filter strip as a polishing syste+, these concerns are
reduced significantly$
There are currently no unifor+ design criteria, and no universally accepted design +ethods
for the si6ing of vegetated filter strips$ Based on infor+ation presented in this +anual, )e
therefore reco++end the follo)ing e>uation to deter+ine the total area for a vegetated
filter strip,
Area (m2) (Q x L) / (R x C) L9M
.here, N J effluent flo) rate (+2Fh
Page4?
L
R
C
J Length of filter strip (reco++ended 34 + to ;< +
J Application rate (reco++ended at <$<4 +2F+$h
J Ratio of total period F rest period
(reco++ended at <$4
&or e7a+ple, if )e assu+e that the effluent volu+e fro+ a constructed )etland is
appro7i+ately 1<< +2Fday, and that a filter strip operating 10 hours a day is re>uired, the
area )ould *e,
N J 1<<F10 J :$2 +2Fhour
L J ;< + (assu+ed
R J <$<4 +2F+$h (reco++ended
C J <$4 (reco++ended
A J (:$2 K ;<F (<$<4 K <$4 J 0;,::< +0 J 2 ha (t)o strips of 1$4 ha each
&or a syste+ )ith a lo) effluent volu+es, filter strips can *e cost effective if pu+ping is
not re>uired$ .ith increased effluent volu+es, filter strips +ay *e less effective and less
econo+ical as large parcels of land are re>uired$ @n such cases, land irrigation should *e
loo'ed into$
4$4$0 @rrigation
A second alternative for the polishing of )etland effluent is to use the effluent for
irrigation purposes$ By irrigating the effluent it is possi*le to dispose of *oth nutrients and
e7cess )ater (*y allo)ing little or no runoff$ The goal is to *ring to the plants only the
a+ount of )ater they re>uire to prevent any percolation$ Thus the )ater needs J real
evapotranspiration ? effective precipitation ? storage of )ater in soil$
Since the )etland effluent is *eing irrigated on vegetation, nutrient levels in the effluent do
not need to *e as strict as for direct discharge into a )atercourse$ &or this reason the
)etland syste+ can *e s+aller in si6e$ The designer )ill need to evaluate the +ost
econo+ical si6es for *oth )etlands and irrigation fields$
To reduce the re>uired irrigation area, it is i+portant to use plants that re>uire a
significant a+ount of )ater$ %ne alternative to grass crops is to use deciduous trees,
such as the "uropean .illo) and the hy*rid #oplar, )hich have a )ater consu+ption rate
of 1$4 to 0$< ti+es that of grasses$
The re>uired irrigation area should *e si6ed *ased on *oth nutrient and )ater
re>uire+ents$ As a rule of thu+* the re>uire+ents for nitrogen and phosphorous are
roughly the sa+e for trees and grass forage$ The re>uired area can *e si6ed *ased on a
total nitrogen re>uire+ent of 13< =gFha per year to 24< =gFhaFyear, and a total
phosphorous re>uire+ent of appro7i+ately 3< =gFha per year$ &or e7a+ple, if the
Page41
)etland effluent has a concentration of 0<< +gFL of total nitrogen and that appro7i+ately
1<<< +2 is discharged to the irrigation lands during the gro)ing season, the total nitrogen
loading to the irrigated area )ould *e 0<< 'g$ Based on a crop re>uire+ent of 04< =gFha
(+idpoint of range, the si6e of the irrigated area )ould need to *e <$:< ha$
Note:
@n %ntario, the -inistry of the "nviron+ent does not per+it a percolate nitrogen
concentration greater than 1< +gFL !%2 as !$ The designer should re+e+*er this if an
infiltration type syste+ is *eing considered$
The re>uire+ent for phosphorous is so+e)hat +ore co+plicated since the level of
phosphorous that already e7ists in the soil +ay have to *e accounted for prior to loading
additional phosphorous onto the land$ @f the soil has a high level of phosphorous, the
application rate +ust *e lo)ered accordingly so that the total phosphorous does not
e7ceed 3< =gFha per year$ Assu+ing that the e7isting #hosphorous in the soil is not a
concern, and that the )etland effluent fro+ our previous e7a+ple has a concentration of 4
+gFL of total phosphorous, the total loading to the irrigated area is 1,<<< +2 7 4 +gFL 7
1<?2 J 4 =g$ Based on the crop re>uire+ent of 3< =gFha, the si6e of the irrigated area
)ould need to *e 4 'g 3< =gFha J <$12 ha$ The nitrogen re>uire+ent of <$: ha
(co+puted previously therefore governs$
The )ater re>uire+ent for crops is dependent on various factors such as the type of crop,
the type of soil, the cli+atic region etc$ @n %ntario, the -inistry of the "nviron+ent
(-%" has guidelines for the land application of treated se)age effluent$ Although these
guidelines have *een )ritten for the land application of treated +unicipal se)age effluent,
+any aspect of the guidelines +ay still apply to rural )aste$ As +entioned in the
introduction to section 4$4, it is i+portant that %ntario designers contact the -%" to
discuss guidelines re>uire+ents$ This +anual discusses the -%" guidelines )ith respect
to the effluent application rate since it is critical is si6ing the re>uired irrigation area$
Assu+ing that +ini+u+ infiltration and runoff is the o*Aective (i$e$ +a7i+u+
evapotranspiration, the a+ount of se)age effluent applied over a season is *ased on the
crop )ater deficit$ The -%" defines the crop )ater deficit as *eing the su+ of the
potential evapotranspiration and the soil +oisture holding capacity +inus the -ay to
Septe+*er precipitation$ The irrigation season can *e deter+ined using the frost free
period for the area (see Ta*le 3, ho)ever, the -%" does not allo) for an irrigation
season in e7cess of 1<< days for the purpose of design$ The effluent application a+ount
for perennial grasses can therefore *e deter+ined using the follo)ing +ethod
8ivide the irrigation period *y the nu+*er of rest days (Ta*le 4$< to o*tain the
nu+*er of days the land )ill *e irrigated$
Page44
LocationMean Annual
Frost-Free
PeriodMean Annual
Growing
SeasonMean Grow
Season
PrecipitationMean Annual
Potential
EvapotranspirationDatesDaysDatesDays(cm)(cm)Lea+ington-ay <1?%ct 0<190Apr <4?!ov
100012555!iagara &ruit Belt-ay <4?%ct 14152Apr 1<?!ov 1<0142553=ent and "sse7-ay <4?%ct 14152Apr <:?!ov
1101:2555La'e "rie Counties-ay 10?%ct 1<141Apr 1<?!ov <:01225?2:53La'e %ntario Shores-ay 10?%ct <:13;Apr
10?!ov <20<52551#rince "d)ard County-ay 10?%ct 1<141Apr 10?!ov <40<:2551La'e (uron, Georgian Bay-ay 14?
%ct 1<13:Apr 14?!ov <40<42:51South Slopes-ay 14?%ct <4132Apr 12?!ov <20<42:51(uron Slopes-ay 0<?Sep
2<122Apr 19?%ct 211;:2:?314:Si+coe and =a)artha-ay 1:?Sep 0:122Apr 1:?%ct 0:1;325?2:4:"astern Counties-ay
14?Sep 0:125Apr 14?%ct 0:1;92:51-anitoulin-ay 04?Sep 0:105Apr 02?%ct 0:1:;22?2545-us'o'a-ay 04?Sep
04102Apr 00?%ct 091:;2:?314:Renfre)-ay 1:?Sep 0412<Apr 1:?%ct 091;225?2:4:8undal' Upland-ay 21?Sep
0<112Apr 0<?%ct 041:;3145(ali*urton Slopes-ay 04?Sep 19114Apr 00?%ct 031:525?2:45Algon>uin #ar'-ay 21?Sep
0<112Apr 04?%ct 011:<2:42Sud*ury-ay 01?Sep 0<110Apr 04?%ct 031:22545Thunder Bay-ay 21?Sep 101<3Apr 05?
%ct 191943142Ti+is'i+ingSun 1<?Sep 12;5Apr 09?%ct 141903142SuperiorSun <4?Sep 141<2-ay <5?%ct
141523141!orthern Clay BeltSun <:?Sep <9;0-ay <9?%ct 1215<2:?3141"nglish River-ay 2<?Sep 141<:-ay <2?%ct
1215325?3142(eight of LandSun 14?Sep <0:<-ay <4?%ct 12150313:Al*anySun 10?Sep <4:5-ay 14?%ct
<:1432:35#atriciaSun 1:?Aug 2194-ay 03?%ct <11212531
-ultiply the nu+*er of days *y the application a+ount (Ta*le 4$< to o*tain the total
a+ount of +oisture needed *y the grass$
Su*tract the +ean -ay to Septe+*er precipitation (Ta*le 3$< to o*tain the seasonal
effluent application a+ount$
Use the lo)est reco++ended application rate (c+Fh to deter+ine the flo) rate$
Table 4.0 - Climatic Summary For Ontario
(/odiied Ta%le 0(.( rom Chapter 0( o /12 guidelines on the design o Water and 3e!age Treatment Plants)
Page4,
SoilApplication
Amount
(cm)Period
Between
Irrigation
Applications
(days)Recommended
Application
Rate
(cm/h).ell 8rained Soil2$24<$5?1$;Loa+y Sand3$25<$5?1$2Light
colored Loa+s
and Sandy Loa+s
and good drainage4$19<$5?1$28ar' Colored
Loa+s
and Sandy Loa+s
)ith fair to poor
drainage5$;1<<$5?1$2Clay Loa+s5$1;<$3?1$<
Table 5.0 - Moisture Requirements For Perennial Grasses
(Ta%le 0(.0 rom Chapter 0( o /12 guidelines on the design o Water Treatment Plants and
3e!age Treatment Plants)
@f )e ta'e our previous e7a+ple of 1<<< +2 of )etland effluent, and assu+e a clay
soil in "astern %ntario, the follo)ing irrigation area )ould *e re>uired,
@rrigation period J 1<< days (+a7$ design period as per -%"

!u+*er of irrigation days J 1<< (period F ; (rest period fro+ Ta*le 4$< J
11 days
-oisture re>uire+ent of perennial grass J 5$1 c+Fday (Ta*le 4$< 7 11 days J
59$1 c+
"ffluent irrigation J 59 c+ (+oisture re>uire+ent ? 2: c+ (-ay to Sept$
precipitation fro+ Ta*le 3$< J 0; c+
Re>uired area J 1<<< +2 F <$0; + J <$23 ha$
The land area *ased on !itrogen re>uire+ent (<$: ha still governs$
NOTE:
The a*ove +ethod is a si+plified approach fro+ the -%" guidelines for the application
treated se)age effluent$ There +ay *e +ore co+ple7 +ethods )ith varying results$ The
designer +ust choose a +ethod that fits hisFher geographical location, and the type of crop
*eing considered$
Page4$
General Observation on Existing Irrigation Practices:
The -inistry of the "nviron+ent guidelines also stipulate that the treated effluent cannot
*e irrigated on crops used for direct hu+an consu+ption$ &or crops used for ani+al
consu+ption, the effluent should have a +ean *acteriological count of 1<<cnts F1<< +l for
fecal colifor+ and 1<<<cntsF1<< +l total colifor+$ @t is unli'ely, ho)ever, that
disinfection )ould *e re>uired for syste+s discussed herein since constructed )etlands
should *e a*le to reduce the *acteriological count *y up)ards of ;<H$ %ne +ust 'eep in
+ind that the irrigation )ater that )ould *e provided *y such syste+s )ould often *e of
*etter >uality than that of local )ater courses$ &or e7a+ple, sa+pling of )atercourses
)ithin agricultural areas in the South !ation River )atershed in eastern %ntario has
yielded the follo)ing results,
South Nation River at Plantagenet:
"$coli avg$
&ecal colifor+ avg$
Total colifor+ avg$
Scotch River:
"$coli avg$
&ecal colifor+ avg$
Total colifor+ avg$
Bear Brook:
&ecal colifor+ avg$
Total colifor+ avg$
&ecal Strep avg$
J 104 cntsF1<< +l (+a7 34<<
J 02 cntsF1<< +l (2:<< +a7
J 29<<< cntsF1<< +l
J ;15 cntsF1<< +l (+a7 30<<
J 213 cntsF1<< +l (+a7 14<<<
J 1,<<<,<<< cntsF1<< +l
J 15: cntsF1<< +l
J 22<<< cntsF1<< +l
J 0<4 cntsF1<< +l
(.ource8 .out1 Nation Conservation%
The a*ove results indicate that in +any instances, irrigation )ater fro+ a constructed
)etlands can *e *etter than )ater fro+ a rural )atercourse$
Should the use of constructed )etland )ater for irrigation purposes *eco+e a concern,
consideration should *e given to using trees as the irrigation crop$ The use of trees as the
irrigation crop allo)s the designer to +a'e use of the higher +oisture de+and for trees
(appro7i+ately 1$4 to 0$< ti+es greater than that of grass, the longer irrigation season and
the deeper root syste+ to +ini+i6e the irrigation area$ Such syste+s are not only effective
in reducing the irrigation area, *ut they have +uch less +aintenance since the crop is
harvested only once every 5 to 10 years$ &urther+ore, since the crop is not harvested
often or for consu+ption, the concerns regarding pathogens are virtually nil$
The +ost co++on type of trees used for irrigation are the "uropean .illo) and the
(y*rid #oplar$ The "uropean .illo) is a +oisture loving plant that is very resistant$ The
Page47
tree has sprouts during 14 to 0< years, )hich +a'es it easy to replant ne) trees to ensure
long ter+ success$ The (y*rid #oplar is also popular due to its large )ater needs and fast
gro)th$ (y*rid #oplars, ho)ever, see+ to have pro*le+s gro)ing in heavy clay soils$
The use of poplar trees for irrigation has *een studied and applied *y C(0- (ill in the
United States ( C(0- Gore&Storie in %ntario$ The co+pany has also derived an
efficient irrigation process *ased on +icro?spray technology$
The approach used to si6e the irrigation area for trees is *ased on a )ater *udget
approach$ The follo)ing steps should therefore *e follo)ed,
1$ 8eter+ine the effective precipitation for the area (assu+e 94H is effective, the
re+aining 04H is lost *y interception, percolation and runoff$ -onthly
precipitation data should *e used$
0$ 8eter+ine the real evapotranspiration for the crop used on a +onthly *asis (assu+e
94< ++ to 1<<< ++ per year for the "uropean .illo) $
2$ Co+pute the initial holding capacity of )ater in the soil assu+ing that the trees )ill
use the first <$: to 1$< + of soil (even thought the roots are +uch deeper$ &or
e7a+ple, clay soils can have a holding capacity of appro7i+ately 1< ++ per 1< c+
of soil$
3$ #repare a .ater Balance Ta*le for the irrigation period on a +onthly *asis$ The
)ater need for the trees is esti+ated as *eing the real evapotranspiration ? effective
precipitation ? soil holding capacity$
@f )e ta'e our previous e7a+ple for grass crops, the )ater *alance ta*le )ould loo' li'e
Ta*le 5 *elo) (assu+ing a real evapotranspiration of :4< ++ for the "uropean .illo)
and a soil depth of :< c+ ? clay type soil,
Page46
MonthReal
Evapotra.
(mm)Precip.
(mm)Effective
Precip.
(mm)Holding Cap.
of Soil
(mm)Water
Need
(mm)Sanuary<4431nFa<&e*ruary<4431nFa<-arch<4;33nFa<April<543;nF
a<-ay1015:414<0<Sune1:3:<5<2<;3Suly01::453<143August193:453<
11<Septe+*er1<9:<5<<39%cto*er355:41<<!ove+*er<9345<<8ece+*er
<9244<<Total:4<:39525:<304
Table 6.0 - Water Balance for European Willow - Eastern Ontario
@n the a*ove ta*le, )e can see that irrigation )ould *e re>uired fro+ -ay to Septe+*er$
The su+ of the -onthly real evapotranspiration ? "ffective #recipitation ? @nitial )ater
(olding capacity of the soil J 304 ++$ This is )hat the trees re>uire to gro) opti+ally$
The effluent volu+e (fro+ our previous e7a+ples is 1<<< +2 per year, therefore the land
re>uire+ent is 1<<< +2 F <$304 + J 0242 +0 J <$03 ha$ This value is appro7i+ately 2<H
less than that for the grass crop, ho)ever, again it is the nitrogen re>uire+ent that governs
(<$: ha$ @f the )etland, ho)ever, is si6ed to +ini+i6e the !itrogen effluent
concentration, the irrigation area )ould *e su*stantially reduced$
&ro+ the +onthly )ater *alance ta*le, a delivery syste+ can *e si6ed$ The syste+ should
*e si6ed to deliver irrigation )ater during the greatest de+and +onth (Suly in our case$
The designer )ould need to deter+ine the +a7i+u+ flo) the delivery syste+ )ill re>uire
in order to si6e the pu+ps and pipe dia+eter$ /arious types of irrigation syste+s can *e
used such as gravity sloped *eds, in )hich a perforated pipe is installed at the cro)n of a
sloped field, drip irrigation and spray irrigation, )hich are )idely used on agricultural land
and +icro?spray syste+s )hich are used for tree plantations (C(0- Gore & Storrie in
%ntario has recently applied this technology to poplar tree plantations for treating
reclai+ed )ater$ @t is the authors opinion that a gravity type syste+ used over cro)n
*eds can *e econo+ical and efficient$ &igure 4 sho)s a typical cross section of such a
*ed$
Page4;
Figure 5 , Sloped Crown Bed design
4$4$2 %ngoing Research (/illage of Alfred #ilot #roAect
%ngoing research in the field of post )etland polishing is currently ta'ing place at Alfred
College of the University of Guelph$ The College has constructed a pilot constructed
)etland proAect for the treat+ent of +unicipal )aste for a s+all rural co++unity (/illage
of Alfred$ #art of the proAect includes studying the perfor+ance of t)o types of post?
)etland polishing +ethods, na+ely phosphorus slag filters, and vegetative filter strip$
The studyDs +ain research o*Aectives are,
1 to deter+ine if slag, a *y?product of the steel +anufacturing process, can *e used as an
adsorption +ediu+ to reduce orthophosphate concentrations in the )etland effluent to
*elo) <$2 +gFl in a sustaina*le +anner$ Slag is availa*le in large >uantities in %ntario
and the steel industry is loo'ing for +ar'ets for this product$
0 to +onitor the )etland syste+ for 2 years to esta*lish the re+oval algorith+s for each
)etland cell for B%84, !itrate and !itrite, A++oniu+ and A++onia, TSS, T=!, T#,
%?#%3 and pathogens$
Proposed .olution /or t1e Permanent Removal o/ P1osp1orus
#hosphorus re+oval +ay *e achieved in a per+anent and predicta*le +anner using a
constructed filter co+posed of an adsor*ing +edia (i$e$ clay pellets, peat, *last furnace
slag, steel furnace slag, sand$ &or e7a+ple, *last furnace slag can re+ove up to 33g of
phosphorus per 'g of +edia (.aAadevan D &avor# 199:%* This capacity to re+ove
phosphorus is essentially due to its content of alu+inu+, iron and calciu+ o7ides$
The final design of an adsorption filter is dependent on the characteristics of the chosen
+edia (hydraulic conductivity, re>uired contact ti+e and porosity$ Three loading +odes
could *e used, hori6ontal flo), vertical upflo) and vertical do)nflo)$ &ilter volu+es for
a given contact ti+e are si+ilar for *oth hori6ontal flo) and vertical do)nflo) filters$
The choice *et)een vertical and hori6ontal flo) filters )ill therefore depend on operating
and capital costs$ &or e7a+ple, it is easier to re+ove the +edia in hori6ontal flo) filters,
*ut easier to unclog vertical flo) filters$ (ori6ontal flo) filters can *e vegetated$ This
allo)s for the transport of o7ygen to the +edia and thus favours phosphorus adsorption$
Page4:
/ertical flo) filters can *e o7ygenated *y either *ringing the )ater in pulses or *y
installing an aeration syste+ in the filter$ &inally, hori6ontal flo) filters have fe)er
+echanical co+ponents$ Andersson et al$ (1;;0 +ention that there is very li+ited
e7perience in using vertical upflo) filters in large?scale operations$ They indicate that
)aste)ater treat+ent )ith upflo) filters does not see+ to yield *etter perfor+ance than
do)nflo) filters$ "nergy re>uire+ents and capital costs are +uch higher for upflo) filters$
The a*ove infor+ation )ill have to *e ta'en into consideration to decide if vertical or
hori6ontal flo) filters should *e used, yet it see+s that slo)?rate do)nflo) filters )ould
*e +ore appropriate to re+ove phosphorus fro+ +unicipal )aste)ater$
&last -urnace .lag
%ne type of adsorption +ediu+ readily availa*le in "astern %ntario is steel furnace slag
(S&S$ A preferred choice )ould *e *last furnace slag (B&S, a coarse sand?li'e +aterial
produced )hen li+estone, co'e and iron ore are fused to produce iron (Mann and &avor#
199,%* Gehlenite (0Ca<$ Al0<2$Si<0 is its +aAor co+ponent, )hich could e7plain its high
Lang+uir adsorption +a7i+a (33$0 g #F'g of +edia, as +easured *y Sa'adevan and
Bavor (199:%*
@n 1;:: Sa'adevan and Bavor perfor+ed a phosphorus adsorption study that included 0
steel industry slags, 6eolite, and si7 soil types fro+ different constructed )etland syste+s
in Australia$ Blast furnace slag sho)ed to have the highest capacity of those tested )ith a
value of 33$0 g #F'g slag$
.hile the study perfor+ed *y Sa'adevan and Bavor (199:% e7a+ined the # re+oval
efficiency of *last furnace slag it did not e7a+ine the # transport in saturated slag
colu+ns$ Tests perfor+ed in colu+ns can provide *asic infor+ation for the design of
efficient land treat+ent facilities$ These tests can also *e used to study the adsorption
isother+s and the effects of # influent concentration on # adsorption, and to deter+ine
*rea'through curves and the +o*ility of # in the slag +edia (5ee et al*# 1996%*
The follo)ing &igure and Ta*le depict the properties of the slag that )as tested as part of
the /illage of Alfred #ilot #roAect
Page49
IVACO (1)IVACO (2)#140&e%
H:$<;;$00<$:2Al0%2H0$150$<;5$:Ca%
H25$524$:0:$2As+gFL::!8Se+gFL114(g+gFL!
8!8!8Cd+gFL!8!8!8Cr+gFL3:<43:22Co+g
FL!8!8!8Cu+gFL:3:422#*+gFL202;5-o+gFL
1501!8!i+gFL3032!8Un+gFL33;4;9:
P
e
r
c
e
n
t

P
a
s
s
i
n
g

b
y

W
e
i
g
h
t
Figure 6 , Size and Gradation of Slag Samples
100
10
1
0.01 0.1 1 10
ieve i!e "mm#
Ivaco 1 Ivaco 2 #140
Table 7, Chemical Properties of Slag Samples
Calciu+, iron and alu+inu+ o7ides for the t)o types of @/AC% slag are very si+ilar$
This indicates that *oth slags should have adsor*ed appro7i+ately the sa+e a+ount of
phosphorus$ .hen co+paring the +etals content of the @/AC% slag to the !ational Slag
Li+ited R13< type, the +etals concentration are higher for the @/AC% slag
(appro7i+ately 1< ti+es higher$ @t is i+portant to deter+ine the effect of the higher
+etal concentration$ 8uring future colu+n tests, the +etal concentration in the leachate
)ill *e +easured$
Page,?
&atc1 Adsorption tests
#hosphorus lagoon effluent concentrations for the Alfred +unicipal lagoons )ere
consistently *elo) 3 +gFL fro+ 1;;4 to 1;;: (OCWA# 199:%$ "ight set of e7peri+ents
)ere conducted$ Adsorption isother+s only hold for the range of test conditions in )hich
the e7peri+ents )ere conducted$ "ven though the influent phosphorus concentration is
e7pected to *e *elo) 3 +gFL, the initial e7peri+ents, in 1;;:, )ere done at phosphorus
concentrations *et)een 4<< and 1<<< +gFL$ The *atch tests )ere conducted at
concentrations *et)een <$1 +gFL and :<<< +gFL$ The +ass of slag used in the
e7peri+ents )ere in the range of 4 to 2< g$
&or feed concentrations *elo) 1<< +gFL and a +ass of slag greater than 4 g, the levels of
phosphate left in the supernatant )ere undetecta*le$ The slag re+oved too +uch
phosphate and adsorption isother+s could not *e calculated$ @t )as suspected that slag
type R13< had too s+all a dia+eter and if used in a filter it )ould clogQ it )as therefore,
re+oved fro+ the re+ainder of the study$ @nfluent phosphate concentrations )ere
increased to :<<< +gFL for the final tests )ith the t)o slag types fro+ @/AC%$
#reli+inary results suggest that the @/AC% 0 type of slag has a greater potential for
phosphorous adsorption than the @/AC% 1 type slag (@/AC% 0 type slag had a potential
adsorption capacity of appro7i+ately 00 g of # F=g of slag$ The slag types fro+ @/AC%
slag are steel furnace slag, )hereas, the slag fro+ !ational Slag Li+ited is Blast &urnace
Slag, )hich has a greater potential for phosphorous adsorption (appro7i+ately 33 g of #
F=g slag$
&uture field )or' for the proAect )ill consist of constructing three in situ filters that )ill *e
filled )ith the selected slag +aterial and operated over several years (+ini+u+ 2 years$
@nlet and outlet phosphorus concentrations )ill *e +onitored ; ti+es per year to
deter+ine the re+oval efficiency of each filter$
+egetated -ilter .trips
%ne s+all co+ponent of the Alfred #ilot #roAect Study includes the construction of
vegetated filter strips to deter+ine their filtering and adsorption capacity$ Re+oval rates
for various pollutants, including phosphorous, )ill *e deter+ined for various loading rates$
The infor+ation o*tained )ith the field )or' portion of the study )ill help deter+ine the
opti+u+ loading rate for filter strips and reasona*le re+oval rates that can *e achieved$
NOTE:
&urther @nfor+ation on the /illage of Alfred #ilot #roAect can *e found in Appendi7 C$
-ore infor+ation )ill *e provided +in the future, in the for+ of an addendu+ to this
+anual, as research progresses on the /illage of Alfred #roAect$
Page,1
6.0
6.1
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Location
At the site selection stage, the engineer should revie) all geological +aps, topographical
+aps and if possi*le aerial photographs (to help identify o*stacles such as pipelines,
trenches, roads, etc$$ %nce a preferred site has *een selected on paper, in?situ tests should
*e perfor+ed to deter+ine site stratigraphy, physical soil properties, saturated
per+ea*ility etc$ Such tests )ill help confir+ the ade>uacy of the site and )ill help in
designing the )etland foundation$ Although investigative guidelines are given in A.BM 9
$4?-9, < .ite C1aracteri3ation o/ 0ngineering #9esign and Constructions purposes># +ol
?$*?:# .oil and RocA# Annual &ooA o/ .tandards, it is highly reco++end that the use of a
geotechnical e7pert *e used for this part of the )or's (see section 5$0
Sites overlying perched )ater ta*les, ground)ater recharge 6ones, or fissured roc' +ust
*e avoided if the )aste)ater contains deleterious conta+inants$ "ven if a liner is used,
these sites should *e avoided to li+it the ris' to the local )ater supply$ @deally a
constructed )etland should *e located in a ground)ater discharge 6one to +ini+i6e
ground)ater pollution potential Areas that are prone to flooding, such as floodplains,
should also *e avoided since they +ay cause a flooding ha6ard and +ay *e su*Aect to
erosion, scouring, sedi+entation and high ground)ater ta*les$ Geologic ha6ards such as
+ine shafts, faults and a*andoned )ells, that provide a path)ay to the ground)ater,
should also *e avoided$
#rior to construction, the advice of an e7pert )ith respect to hydrogeological conditions is
reco++ended (see section 5$0$ The e7pert )ill deter+ine the need for +onitoring )ells
at the edge of the property to +easure the potential +igration of conta+inants and to
o*tain *aseline data for future co+parison$ As a minimum, nearby springs and wells
should be analyzed to obtain baseline data.
Since the +aAority of the construction consists of earth )or's, proper site topography is
crucial$ Consideration should *e given choosing a site that is flat or gently sloping (less
than 4 H$ Such a site )ill +a'e it easier to achieve a proper cut and fill *alance$ The
a+ount or earth e7cavated should *e enough to construct the cell *er+s )ithout
significant e7cess$ Steep slopes )ould re>uire significant earth +oving activity (including
i+porting earth and possi*ly terracing$ This )ould significantly increase the cost of the
proAect$
6.2 Soils
#roper characteri6ation of the soils at the site is critical to the success of a constructed
)etland$ Soil characteri6ation includes a detailed soil profile, defining the *edroc' depth
and the ground)ater regi+e$ @n?situ soils should not *e conta+inated, should *e a*le to
provide a suita*le environ+ent for plant gro)th and should *e a suita*le construction
Page,4
+aterial$ !eglecting this phase of the )or' )ould result in increased construction and
+aintenance cost, poor perfor+ance and possi*le conta+ination pro*le+s$
NOTE:
@t is highly reco++ended that a geotechnical e7pert *e consulted for this phase of the
)or'$ The geotechnical e7pert )ill *e a*le to deter+ine the per+ea*ility of the soil, the
depth of *edroc', the ground)ater regi+e and )ill assess the potential ris' for
ground)ater conta+ination$ &urther+ore, the geotechnical e7pert is fa+iliar )ith local,
provincial and federal regulations and can infor+ the designer of specific re>uire+ents$
The results of the geotechnical study )ill deter+ine the level of co+paction and soil
thic'ness needed to prevent infiltration of ground)ater and e7filtration of se)age or
)hether an i+pervious liner is re>uired$ #hysical and che+ical tests that are often
re>uired prior to design are the follo)ing,
Table 8 - Recommended Physical and Chemical Tests
Physical tests (Construction)
soil profile definitionQ
United Soil Classification Syste+ (USCSQ
particle si6e analysisQ
dispersion percentage andFor "+erson Aggregate Tests ("AT
Shrin'FS)ell (Linear Shrin'age or volu+e e7pansionQ and
hydraulic conductivity
Chemical Tests (plant growth)
p(Q
electrical conductivityQ
organic +atterQ
cation e7change capacity
trace +etalsQ and
phosphorous sorption or phosphorous fi7ing capacity$
(source 8 Constructed Wetlands Manual# +olume 1# 9epartment o/ 5and and Water Conservation# Ne' .out1 Wales%
As a rule of thu+*, a natural soil )ith a saturated per+ea*ility greater than 1<?9 c+Fsec, a
clay content of at least 0<H and a plasticity inde7 of at least 14H is considered the
+ini+u+ re>uire+ent for a co+pacted clay liner re>uired to prevent infiltration and
e7filtration$ The +ini+u+ clay liner thic'ness should *e at least 2<< ++$ @f drying out
of the clay is li'ely during construction, consideration should *e given to having a thic'er
depth of clay (at least 1$< +$ Chapter 9 of the !ational "ngineering (and*oo', part 541
Page,,
Agricultural .aste -anage+ent &ield hand*oo' (U$S$ Soil Conservation Services,
.ashington 8C provides further infor+ation on ho) to deter+ine the re>uired liner
thic'ness *ased on the clayDs saturated per+ea*ility$ As +entioned earlier, ho)ever, it is
highly reco++ended that the services of a geotechnical e7pert *e used for this part of the
)or's$
@f the soil is inade>uate, clay can *e i+ported or a synthetic liner can *e considered$ The
cost of the proAect, ho)ever, )ill increase$ Synthetic liners include, ru**er +e+*ranes,
plastic +e+*ranes, *entonite clay e+*edded in a geote7tile fa*ric to na+e a fe)$ The
liner +ust *e strong enough to prevent root penetration and attach+ent$ &or e7a+ple,
polyethylene liners )ith a thic'ness of <$4 to 1$< ++ are ade>uate to protect against root
penetration$ A geotechnical e7pert can assist the designer in choosing an ade>uate liner$
Shallo) *edroc' at a site )ill eli+inate that particular site fro+ consideration$ The
*edroc' not only provides a path)ay for conta+ination to reach the ground)ater, *ut
significantly increases the cost of the proAect$
8uring clearing and gru**ing )or', care should *e ta'en as to properly stoc'pile the
topsoil and protect it fro+ conta+ination$ This soil )ill *e used for top dressing of the
cell *er+s and to create the cell su*strate$ A +ini+u+ of appro7i+ately 2< c+ of topsoil
)ill *e re>uired for the cell floor since the roots and rhi6o+es of e+ergent +acrophytes
usually occupy the top 2< c+ of the soil colu+n$ The designer +ust therefore ta'e this
topsoil volu+e into consideration during the cut and fill *alance e7ercise$
6.3 Hydrology
(ydrologic and hydrogeologic considerations include the characteri6ation of surface )ater
and ground)ater$ .ater +ay enter into a constructed )etland fro+ various path)ays
such as precipitation, surface flo), ground)ater flo) and )aste)ater influent$ @+proper
consideration of these factors +ay i+pact the operation and treat+ent a*ility of the
constructed )etland$ &or e7a+ple, if a )ater *alance is not properly co+puted, the
syste+ +ay dry out during hot dry periods, or +ay *e flooded during )et periods$
.hen designing a )etland syste+, a proper )ater *udget is essential$ Consideration
should *e given to rainfall, evaporation and evapotranspiration (generally )etland
evapotranspiration and la'e evaporation are roughly e>ual$ @f the )etland captures
surface runoff (such as runoff fro+ a feedlot, it +ust also *e included in the )ater *udget
e>uation$ @nfiltration ho)ever, can *e neglected in +ost cases since i+per+ea*le soil (or
a liner )ould presu+a*ly *e present$
Choosing average and e7tre+e years are essential in co+puting a proper )ater *udget$
Typically, ten year e7tre+es provide an ade>uate safety factor (i$e$ it )ould *e accepta*le
for the )etland to dry out or to *e flooded once every ten years$ The designer ho)ever,
+ust choose a design period that )ill +eet hisFher re>uire+ents or local guidelines$
Page,$
B#recipitation less evapotranspirationC data is then analy6ed using statistical approaches to
deter+ine e7tre+e figures$ @n general, total precipitation is a direct +easure+ent ta'en *y
the )eather station, )hereas potential evapotranspiration is the a+ount of )ater that
evaporates and transpires fro+ a vegetated surface$ &or the purpose of design, a figure of
appro7i+ately <$: ti+es class A pan evaporation is used to esti+ate the evapotranspiration
of constructed )etlands$ %nce the return period data is deter+ined for dry conditions and
)et conditions, a )ater *alance can *e perfor+ed$ @f statistical data does not include
return period data for your design, the follo)ing +ethod can *e used,
1$ %*tain +onthly statistical data that includes precipitation and evapotranspiration (at
least 1< years of data should *e analy6ed for the 1< year return period (the greater the
years of data, the +ore accurate the analysis$
0$ 8eter+ine the yearly precipitation?evapotranspiration for each year$ @f the )etland
only operates in the su++er, April to !ove+*er data should only *e used$ @t can *e
assu+ed that the syste+ is full after the spring freshet
2$ The data can then *e plotted using the .ei*ull plotting position for+ula,
# J 1<< K +F(nP1$ L:M
)here # J plotting position (in H,
+ J ran' (1 *eing the greatest precipitation?evapotranspiration, and
n J nu+*er of years$
&or the ten year e7tre+es, the 1<H position represents the )et year and the ;<H
position represents the dry year$
%nce the )et e7tre+e and the dry e7tre+e years are found, +onthly data (April to
!ove+*er for those years can *e used for the )ater *udget analysis$ The )ater *udget
should loo' at the +onth *y +onth volu+e of )ater that is entering the syste+
(precipitation, runoff, influent and leaving the syste+ (evapotranspiration, effluent$ @t
can *e assu+ed that the syste+ is full after the spring freshet (for seasonal syste+s only$
@f runoff is included in the e>uation (such as feedlot runoff, the follo)ing for+ula can *e
used,
Runoff volu+e J precipitation K C K A L;M
)here C is a runoff coefficient and A is the Area$
Runoff coefficients for undeveloped lands (pasture, crops, etc$ can range fro+ <$14 for
sandy soils to <$3 for clay soils$
The )ater *udget analysis is very i+portant since it )ill deter+ine if the storage andFor
facultative ponds are properly si6ed, the re>uired free*oard and if the )etland )ill use up
Page,7
all of the availa*le )ater pre+aturely, thus causing the syste+ to dry out$ @f additional
)ater is re>uired, the designer can try to capture +ore of the spring freshet, or a )ell can
supply additional )ater to the syste+$
6.4 Hydraulics
.etland hydraulics are an i+portant factor to consider )hen designing a constructed
)etland$ They play a role in deter+ining factors such as the retention ti+e and control
structure re>uire+ents, )hich are critical factors for a successful )etland design$
(ydraulic residence ti+e is the ti+e that it ta'es for the )aste )ater to pass through the
syste+$ A hydraulic residence ti+e greater than 1< days is considered opti+u+ to ensure
that pathogens are reduced *y sunlight e7posure or natural die off$ (ydraulic residence
ti+e is defined as,
t (days J L.nd
N
L1<M
)here L J
.J
n J
dJ
NJ
Length of syste+ ?parallel to flo) direction (+
.idth of syste+ (+
porosity of the *ed$
depth of su*+ergence (+
average flo) through the syste+ (+2Fday
The porosity of the *ed is defined as,
n J /vF/ L11M
.here /v and / are the volu+es of voids and the total volu+e, respectively$
@n a free?surface syste+ the volu+es of voids are +ore or less the volu+es unoccupied *y
vegetation$ Typical porosity values range fro+ <$:5 (for *ulrushes to <$;: (for reeds$
%ther vegetation values are <$; (cattails, <$;3 ()oolgrass and <$;4 (rushes$
As noted in section 4$3, the length to )idth ratio for +arshes should *e in the range of 2?
4,1 to ensure plug flo) conditions and +ini+i6e short?circuiting$ The pond portion of the
syste+ +ay have ratios as lo) as 1,1$ The )etland shape +ay *e rectangular provided the
flo) is properly distri*uted at the inlet$
The depth of su*+ergence for free surface )etland (+arsh cell varies fro+ 1< c+ to 5<
c+, depending on the type of )aste treated and the ti+e of year$ 8uring su++er +onths,
it is reco++ended that the operating depth fluctuate *et)een 14 c+ and 2< c+ )ith an
average of 0< c+$ @f an aero*ic pond is used in a +arsh?pond?+arsh layout, it should have
Page,6
a +ini+al depth of appro7i+ately 5< c+$ Botto+ slopes for +arshes and ponds should *e
essentially flat (not greater than <$<0H$ .idths +ust *e flat to ensure e>ual flo)
distri*ution $
6.5 Cell Construction
Co+ponents of the )etland and pre?treat+ent syste+ are either a shallo) pond or a deep
pond$ 8esign and construction techni>ues used for general far+ ponds or s+all treat+ent
lagoons are appropriate for these types of syste+s$ The designer +ust allo) for free*oard
in the design to allo) for the accu+ulation of organic +atter (peat at the rate of 0?2
c+Fyear$ &urther+ore a 2< c+ additional free *oard should *e allo)ed for in *er+
construction to acco++odate the 1< year )et period$ Ber+s should have outside slopes
of 2,1 and inside slopes no steeper than 0,1$ The top of the *er+s should have a )idth of
appro7i+ately 0 + to allo) for easy +aintenance and to help discourage a>uatic +a++als
fro+ *urro)ing through the+$ The designer +ay consider ho)ever, incorporating )elded
)ire vertically in the *er+ during construction to prevent +a++als fro+ *urro)ing
through the+ and causing failure ()ire in the *er+s is aesthetically +ore pleasing than
placing rip rap on the slopes and also does not inhi*it vegetation$ The *er+s should *e
rolledFco+pacted and the sides should *e +ulched and seeded as soon as possi*le to
reduce erosion$
6.6 Control Structures
Control structures are an i+portant part of constructed )etland designs$ The *asic
+anage+ent of a )etland syste+ consists of +anipulating the flo) and )ater level in the
syste+ to opti+i6e storage and treat+ent$ Si+ple +ethods used for controlling flo)s and
)ater levels include pu+ps (for flat sites, flo) splitter structures, )eirs, inlet
tructures and outlet structures$
Page,;
5$1$1 #u+ps
&or s+all syste+s located on a flat site, the use of pu+ps is *eneficial$ !ot only )ill the
pu+ps provide a *etter flo) control, *ut they
can reduce the a+ount of earth )or's
re>uired to elevate the )etland for gravity
flo)$ &or s+all syste+s the solution is as
si+ple as using a su*+ersi*le pu+p )ith a
ti+er (to control the flo) auto+atically$ A
s+all pu+ping cha+*er can *e constructed
fro+ a polyethylene +anhole or if it is
dra)ing )ater fro+ either the anaero*ic
lagoon or facultative pond, it can *e
attached to a floating raft (inner tu*e to
reduce costs even further$ The advantage of
these si+ple pu+ping stations is that the
pu+ps are ine7pensive, can *e replaced easily
and can *e re+oved prior to free6ing$
Figure 7 : Submersible Pump with Timer
5$5$0 @nlet 8istri*ution
At the inlet of a )etland cell, a distri*ution syste+ is re>uired to evenly distri*ute the flo)
along the )idth of the cell to pro+ote plug flo) and +ini+i6e short circuiting$ @f pu+ps
are used to control the flo), the si+plest inlet distri*ution structure is a perforated #/C
pipe along the )idth of the inlet (elevated on concrete *loc's? see &igures : and ; $ This
structure is easy to install and +aintain and can *e re+oved prior to )inter $
Figure 8 - Perforated Pipe Inlet
Page,:
Figure 9 : Perforated Pipe Inlet Distribution
@f the influent is supplied *y gravity rather than pu+ps, a flo) control +echanis+ is
re>uired$ The si+plest +ethod for a gravity feed syste+ is to install #/C piping along
the inlet )ith s)iveling BTC sections to allo) for adAust+ent of each BTC throughout the
length of pipe (see &igure 1<$ The BTCs are rotated up or do)n to increase or decrease
flo)s fro+ respective BTCs $
Figure10: Swiveling Tee Inlet Distribution
Page,9
5$5$2 .eirs
.eirs are si+ple lo) cost control
structures )hich control )ater
levels and the flo) fro+ one
)etland cell to another$ &or s+all
free surface syste+s ()ith flo)s less
than 04 +2Fday, the )eir can *e
constructed of a plastic sheet and
e+*edded directly into the )etland
*er+ at the cell outlet$ Although
this 'ind of design does not
distri*ute the flo) along the )etland
)idth at the outlet, it should not
cause significant short?circuiting
pro*le+s due to the lo) flo)s$ 8ye
tests on the 8ignard syste+
Figure 11: Simple V-notch Weir
in 1;;4 (Weil et al# 1997
sho)ed that )ith a )eir type outlet at one end of the cell, short circuiting )as not
significant (flo)s )ere appro7i+ately 1< +2Fday$ The 8ignard syste+ did have an inlet
pipe that distri*uted the flo) along the entire )idth of the inlet$
As an alternative to a )eir, so+e lo) flo) syste+s +ay *e constructed )ith the use of an
overflo) spill)ay, )hich consists of a lo) portion in the *er+, covered )ith an erosion
protection +at (either )ater tolerant vegetation, rip rap or a synthetic cover$
5$5$3 %utlet Control Structures
%utlet control structures are critical in controlling the )ater level in the )etland cells$ &or
free surface syste+s, a typical control structure )ould consist of a cha+*er )ith a rotating
standpipe (see &igure 10$ The )etland )ould have a perforated or slotted #/C pipe
placed in a gravel +edia along the entire )idth of the cell to enhance sheet flo) in the cell$
The pipe )ould connect to a control *o7 in )hich the rotating stand pipe )ould *e
located$ @f flo)s are great, the rotating standpipe can *e replaced )ith a stop log
structure$
Page$?
Figure 12 - Outlet Swiveling Standpipe System
6.7 Anaerobic Lagoon and Facultative Pond Design
Sections 4$0 and 4$2 descri*ed the re>uire+ents for si6ing aero*ic lagoons and facultative
ponds$ .hen designing these t)o types of ponds, it is i+portant to re+e+*er the
follo)ing points,
The anaero*ic lagoon should *e designed to store the )aste)ater for a +ini+u+
of si7 (5 +onths$
They +ust *e i+per+ea*le$
The outside *er+s should *e no steeper than 2,1 and the inside *er+s should *e no
steeper than 0,1 (to +ini+i6e )ave action erosion$
A free*oard of at least 2< c+ should *e provided for *oth the anaero*ic lagoon
and facultative pond$ This )ill provide a factor of safety for e7tre+e events$
Accu+ulation of sedi+ent at the *otto+ of the ponds should *e accounted for in
the design$ &or e7a+ple, if it is anticipated that 0 c+ of +atter )ill accu+ulate per
year and that the pond )ill *e cleaned every 1< years, an additional 0< c+ should
*e allo)ed for in the pond depth$ Consideration should also *e given as to ho)
solids )ill *e re+oved fro+ the pond (see section 5$;
Page$1
6.8
Anaero*ic lagoons should have a depth of 0$4?4 +eters and a )idth?to?length ratio
of 1,2$
&acultative ponds should have a depth ranging *et)een <$9?1$: +eters$
The anaero*ic lagoon inlet should *e placed at the *otto+ of the lagoon and the
outlet designed as overflo)$ The inlet and outlet should *e positioned as far apart
as possi*le$
The outlet pipe should have a do)npipe of appro7i+ately <$2 + to prevent
discharges of surface +aterials$
Access to the anaero*ic lagoon +ust *e provided to allo) periodic dredging of
accu+ulated solids$
Vegetated Filter Strip Design
Sections 4$4$1 descri*ed the re>uire+ents for si6ing a vegetated filter strip$ .hen
designing this 'ind of polishing syste+, it is i+portant to re+e+*er the follo)ing points,
The filter strip is to *e used for the polishing of advanced >uality )etland effluent
(See section 4$3$
As a conservative esti+ate, the application rate should *e no greater than <$<4
+2Fhour per + length of filter$
The length of the filter should range *et)een 34 and ;< +$
The filter )idth should *e no less than ; + to allo) for the use of harvesting
e>uip+ent$
The filter should operate for a t)o (0 )ee' period follo)ed *y a t)o (0 )ee'
rest period (to allo) for harvesting$ The effluent can *e applied continuously
over the t)o )ee' period$
The filter should only operate )hen that average daily te+perature is a*ove <OC$
The filter can operate during periods of rainfall$
The crop should *e harvested every three to four )ee's$
(arvesting e>uip+ent should have flotation tires to li+it rutting$
The filter site should *e at least one +eter a*ove the ground)ater$
Page$4
The filter slope should range *et)een 1H and 3H$

The vegetation *est suited for a filter strip are grasses )ith a long gro)ing season,
high +oisture tolerance, e7tensive root for+ation, high stal' density and high
tolerance to variation in nutrient levels$ Reed canary grass is often chosen for this
application (can *e +i7ed )ith *ro+egrass to increase palata*ility$ %ther
reco++ended grasses are ryegrass and tall fescue$
.aste)ater delivery syste+s include gated pipe, fan sprays, sprin'lers and overflo)
structures$
6.9 Irrigation System
As +entioned earlier, +uch literature e7ists on agricultural irrigation delivery syste+s$
Should the practitioner )ish to use irrigation for post )etland polishing, it is strongly
reco++ended that such literature *e referenced to +a'e the *est use of the technology$
/arious +ethods include using spray, gravity (flooding and drip irrigation$
6.10 Sludge Handling
%ne aspect of constructed )etland design that is often overloo'ed is that of sludge
handling$ @n +ost cases, sludge handling is not a serious concern since it is assu+ed that
sludge )ill accu+ulate in an upstrea+ syste+ (settling pond prior to entering the
constructed )etland$ Accu+ulation in the )etland cells )ill therefore *e negligi*le and
re+oval )ill ta'e place only once every 1< to 0< years$ .hen designing the upstrea+
settling pond, ho)ever, consideration +ust *e given to cleaning out the pond +ore
regularly (4 to 1< years depending on the accu+ulation$ @f the )etland syste+ is to *e
used to treat septage )aste for e7a+ple, the solids accu+ulation )ill *e su*stantial and
fre>uent re+oval )ill *e re>uired (every 0 years$ @f, on the other hand, the syste+ is
*eing used for the treat+ent of holding tan' )aste, accu+ulation )ill ta'e place at a
+uch slo)er rate *ecause degradation of the solids )ill still occur in the settling pond
(solids fro+ septage )aste is already digested, therefore further degradation )ill *e
+ini+al$ -any +unicipal )aste sta*ili6ation lagoons are dredged infre>uently (14 to 0<
years$ The follo)ing is a discussion on sludge handling the designer should ta'e into
consideration$
5$1<$1 Settling #ond Configuration
The designer +ust consider that sludge )ill eventually need to re+oved$ @f the operator
of the syste+ can afford to shut do)n the syste+ once every ten years on average, a one
cell settling pond +ay *e ade>uate$ @f the syste+, ho)ever, +ust re+ain in operation, the
designer +ay )ant to consider dividing the settling pond into t)o cells so that one could
Page$,
re+ain in operation )hile the other is allo)ed to dry for cleaning$ &urther+ore, the
designer should consider ho) the cell )ill *e cleaned$ @f the cell is s+all enough, the
designer +ay )ant to +a'e sure that its di+ensions allo) for +echanical sludge re+oval
fro+ the *er+s (using a shovel, drag line etc$ The sludge could then *e deposited on the
*er+s to dry for future handling$ @f the pond is too large for sludge re+oval fro+ the
*er+s, a ra+ped access into the pond )ill *e re>uired$ .hen designing the pond *otto+,
the designer )ill have to consider that +achinery )ill *e +oving on the floor of the pond$
5$1<$0 Co+posting
%nce the sludge has *een re+oved fro+ the settling pond, it can *e hauled to a
co+posting site for future spreading on agricultural lands$ Co+posting is the sta*ili6ation
of organic +aterial through the process of aero*ic, ther+ophilic deco+position$ The
sludge found at the *otto+ of settling ponds )ill only have a solids content of
appro7i+ately 4H on average$ @f the pond is allo)ed to dry enough to allo) for the
sludge to *eco+e a paste type of +aterial (solids content of appro7i+ately 0<H, re+oval
can *e done )ith +echanical e>uip+ent (shovels, loaders, etc$$ @f the sludge is pu+ped
out of the *otto+, the addition of *ul'ing agents )ill *e re>uired$ Such agents include
)oodchips, sa)dust, stra) etc$ The purpose of the *ul'ing agent is to decrease the
+oisture content, increase the porosity and ensure aero*ic conditions during co+posting$
%n average, the co+post pile +ust *e allo)ed to sta*ili6e for a period of appro7i+ately
;< days *efore it can *e used as a soil additive on agricultural land$ %ne +ust 'eep in
+ind, ho)ever, that not all types of co+post )ill *e allo)ed to *e disposed of on
agricultural lands, and so+e +ay need to *e directed to landfill sites$ The designer should
revie) the proposed design )ith the -inistry of the "nviron+ent$
5$1<$2 Sludge 8rying Reed Beds
/ertical?flo) reed *eds consist of a flat *ed of gravel topped )ith sand )ith reeds
gro)ing over it (Cooper et al*# 1996%* They are >uite si+ilar to sand drying *eds in
)hich a pipe net)or' distri*utes effluent over the *ed and another net)or' of pipes at the
*otto+ of the *ed is used for drainage$ The reeds develop an intense net)or' of roots in
the sand, as )ell as in the sludge layer that accu+ulates over the *ed (Mellstrom D )ager#
199$%* The roots of the reeds have t)o effects, 1 they create channels in the sludge that
i+prove de)ateringQ 0 they *ring o7ygen to the sludge layer creating aero*ic conditions
that )ill help sta*ili6e and +inerali6e the sludge$ The reeds also eli+inate so+e )ater *y
evapotranspiration$ 8epending on the depth of the sludge layer, the dry solids content can
vary fro+ 14?4<H (@im# 199$%$
The design of sludge drying reed *eds is *ased on the loading of dry solids$ Usual
reco++ended values range fro+ 2< to 5< 'g dry solidsF+0Fyr, *ut the loading should not
*e higher than 0< 'g dry solidsF+0Fyr during the first year$ The depth of the *ed is usually
:<< ++, )ith 9<< ++ of 4?1< + si6e gravel and 1<< ++ of sharp sand$ Sludge can *e
applied at any ti+e during the year, *ut lesser fre>uencies should *e chosen during )inter
Page$$
+onths$ &ree6ing and tha)ing +ay help to de)ater the sludge$ Sludge drying reed *eds
are used in !e) "ngland (USA, 8en+ar', the U= and Ger+any$
The use of reed *eds to de)ater septage is >uite ne)$ According to -ichael %gden
(.out1'est Wetlands Group "nc*# .anta -e# Ne' Me(ico# =.A# Personal communication%,
high solids content )aste such as septage )aste can *e used on reed *eds$ The septage
should first *e screened, stored in an e>uali6ation pond and the grease should *e re+oved$
@t see+s that the reed *ed has a lo) efficiency to reduce the nitrogen and solu*le B%8
concentrations$ A do)nstrea+ )etland that )ould handle the li>uid )aste, ho)ever,
)ould solve this pro*le+$ This techni>ue is an interesting alternative to +echanical
de)atering, as it not only de)aters the sludge *ut also sta*ili6es it$ @t is also +uch less
e7pensive$
Page$7
7.0
7.1
CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATION
Plans and Specifications
The preparation of proper plans and specifications is critical so that the final product )ill
rese+*le the design$ &urther+ore, if the plans and specification provide sufficient detail,
the o)ner )ill have a sound *asis for legal recourse should the final product not +eet
contract specifications$ As a +ini+u+, the plans and specifications should outline the
follo)ing,
clearing and gru**ing li+its,

location of *ench+ar',
final grades,
e7isting and proposed utilities,
*orro) areas,
types of structures,
type of e>uip+ent (i$e$ pu+ps, irrigation etc$
di+ensions,
*er+ and structure +aterial,
*otto+ per+ea*ility,
control structures,
undistur*ed areas,
erosion control plan,
seeding, sodding and planting re>uire+ents$
The specifications should also clearly outline the construction and planting period and any
restrictions on either site access, co+pletion date (and penalty if any, *onding
re>uire+ents, testing +ethods (per+ea*ility, plant survival deter+ination (to deter+ine if
replanting is necessary, pay+ent +ethod, start?up and acceptance procedures$ The
designer and the o)ner should, ho)ever, 'eep in +ind that not all +inute details can *e
included in the plans and specifications and that good faith and understanding )ith the
contractor is necessary$
8uring the tendering process, the *idders should *e invited to a site +eeting and
conference to discuss all aspect of the proAect$ This )ill help reduce the contractorDs
+isperceptions, specifically since )e are dealing )ith earth )or's$ A detailed site )al'?
around should *e held )ith all *idders$
7.2 Site Preparation
The *est ti+e of the year to underta'e construction is during the dry season$ This )ill
facilitate the earth )or's aspect of the Ao*, therefore +ini+i6ing the construction ti+e$
#rior to constructing the individual co+ponents of the )etland syste+, so+e site
preparation )or' is re>uired$ The follo)ing steps should *e follo)ed,
Page$6
7.3
identify the survey *ench+ar',
esta*lish site *oundaries and identify areas to *e protected,
clear and gru* )or's area,
re+ove and stoc'pile topsoil for later use$ Avoid +i7ing topsoil )ith underlying
+aterial$ #rotect topsoil fro+ conta+ination,
if e7isting )etlands soil is re+oved for later use, it should *e stored under)ater to
avoid o7idi6ing and releasing *ound +etals or other su*stancesQ
all per+ea*le soil +aterials, organic +atter, roc's, trash or de*ris should *e re+ovedQ
peg out the e7cavation and fill areas and locate the position of structures$ This )or'
should *e done )ith precision and it is therefore reco++ended that survey e>uip+ent
*e used$
Anaerobic Lagoon and Facultative Pond
Although lagoons and ponds are relatively si+ple to *uild, specific steps +ust *e follo)ed
to ensure proper construction$ The follo)ing *asic construction steps should *e
follo)ed,
7.4
e7cavate ponds and *uild *er+s$
stoc'pile e7cess +aterial if it is needed in the )etland construction (to elevate )etland
cell for gravity flo), other)ise, spread e7cess +aterial adAacent to site$
if necessary, de)ater ponds to construct *otto+ liner or co+pact in situ +aterial$
grading +ust *e carefully chec'ed$ #oor grading +ay lead to poor )ater level control
and plant +anage+entQ
chec' pond *otto+ and *er+ per+ea*ility (conductivity of I171<?5 c+Fsec, is clay
liner or co+paction necessaryV Consult with Geotechnical Engineer$
co+pacting in situ (or fill +aterial should *e done )ith proper e>uip+ent at opti+u+
+oisture conditionsQ
+anufacturerDs instructions should *e clearly follo)ed if synthetic liners are used$
Caution should *e ta'en not to puncture the liner$
construct )ater control structures$
finish all distur*ed areas )ith 1<< ++ of topsoil fro+ stoc'pile area, then seed and
+ulch$
Wetland Cells
As +entioned earlier, the dry season is the *est ti+e to construct the )etland cells$ &or
this reason, planting +ay need to *e delayed until the ne7t )et season$ The follo)ing
reco++ended construction se>uences are +odified fro+ 2ammerEs 199$ guidelines
Page$;
e7cavate cells and *uild *er+s (de)ater cells if necessary$

chec' grading carefully$ #oor grading +ay lead to poor )ater level control and plant
+anage+entQ
chec' cell *otto+ and *er+ per+ea*ility (conductivity of I171<?5 c+Fsec$ @s clay liner
or co+paction necessaryV Consult with Geotechnical Engineer$
co+pact in situ (or fill +aterial )ith proper e>uip+ent at opti+u+ +oisture
conditionsQ
follo) +anufacturerDs instructions if synthetic liners are used$ Caution should *e
ta'en not to puncture the liner$
construct )ater control structures and inlet distri*utionFoutlet collection piping$
flood cells to Aust a*ove top surface of the ne) floor$
chec' gradingQ chec' elevations and operation of inletFoutlet piping$
drain and re?grade or reset pipes and controls as necessary$
place and level 2< c+ of topsoil on floor of the cells$
chec' gradingQ chec' elevations and operation of inletFoutlet piping and )ater
controls$
drain and regrade or reset pipes as necessary$
plant the deeper )ater pond section ? lilies, pond)eeds$
plant the shallo)er +arshes ? cattail, *ulrush, rush, etc$
flood cells )ith clean )ater or lo) strength )aste)ater to Aust a*ove top surface of
su*strate or topsoil$
finish all distur*ed areas )ith 1<< ++ of topsoil fro+ stoc'pile area, then seed and
+ulch
three )ee's after start up, (o*vious gro)th on ne) plants, raise )ater level to 4 ?1<
c+ *ut do not overtop plants$
si7 )ee's after startup, initiate operation )ith lo) strength )aste)ater or one?half of
the design flo)s$
three +onths after startup, *egin operation )ith nor+al strength )aste)ater or 1<<H
of the design flo)$
NOTE:
%nce the cells are constructed, preli+inary flooding of the cells is necessary$ &looding )ill
not only *e useful in chec'ing grades, elevations and control structures, *ut it is critical to
prevent crac's and lea's in the clay liner and *er+s$$ The cells should *e 'ept flooded
until planting$
Page$:
7.5 Planting and Seeding
The t)o +ost popular +ethods of vegetating )etland cells are planting and seeding$ Both
+ethods can *e successful depending on the procedure underta'en$ #rior to introducing
vegetation to the )etland cells, the follo)ing preli+inary steps should *e ta'en,
ensure that at least 2< c+ of topsoil (or )etland su*strate is placed, unco+pacted, on
the cell floor$
ensure that the )etland su*strate is level$
the su*strate can *e left prepared for so+e ti+e prior to planting andFor seeding,
ho)ever it should *e protected fro+ erosion and treated for )eeds$
+a'e sure that the )etland su*strate is +oist (not flooded Aust prior to planting (or
seeding$
9$4$1 #lanting
opti+al planting conditions for cut +aterials are created *y shallo) flooding follo)ed
*y de)atering *ut not co+plete drying to leave soft, +oist soil conditions$
plants should *e properly stored prior to planting (proper +oisture and te+perature
conditions, proper handling and +ini+al delay ti+e$
planting stoc' should not *e dug +ore than t)o days *efore planting and should *e
stored and transported in a cool, dar', hu+id environ+ent$
planting +ust *e done in ro)s and +ust run perpendicular to the direction of the flo)
to i+prove coverage and reduce channeling, even though it +ay *e easier to operate
e>uip+ent up and do)n the long a7is of a cell$
after planting, the cells should *e flooded )ith 1 ? 0$4 c+ of )ater ( insure that )ater
depths do not overtop cut stal's or the ne) plantings +ay die$
as ne) gro)th *egins, )ater levels +ay *e slo)ly raised *ut should not overtop the
ne) gro)th$
planting +aterials +ay also *e o*tained locally (cattail, reed, *ulrush +ay *e found in
roadside ditches$
if roadside ditch or other natural depression +aterial is used, there is a ris' of
incorporating un)anted vegetation such as #urple Loose Strife into the cells$
transplanted +aterials +ust have at least an 0<?2< c+ stal' to insure that the ste+s
protrude a*ove the )ater surface$ @f +ature e+ergent (cattail, rush, etc$ plants are
dug for planting, the stal's should *e cut off to si+ilar lengths since tall plants are
Page$9
suscepti*le to )ind?thro) until the roots have re?developed secure attach+ent in the
su*strate$
sago or other pond)eeds and other su*+ergents are usually planted as tu*ers, si+ply
)eighted )ith nails and dropped into the )ater or placed on soft, )et +uds at the
desired locations$
planting of e+ergents (cattail, *ulrush and arro)head should *e done se>uentially )ith
the lo)est elevations planted first and higher elevations later$ "+ergent species should
*e planted in saturated *ut not flooded soils and allo)ed to gro) ste+s )ith leaves that
proAect a*ove planned flooding levels the first season$ After ste+s reach 1<?0< c+,
)ater levels can *e raised 3?5 c+ a*ove the su*strate and proportionately increased as
plant height increases until desired elevations are reached$
planting of su*+ergents in the ponds +ay *e acco+plished *est in standing )ater
after all planting is finished, the )ater level should *e gradually raised to nor+al
operating elevations as the plantings gro) higher *ut )ater levels +ust not overtop
ne) gro)th during the first gro)ing season$ "+ergent plants are not as suscepti*le to
dro)ning after first gro)ing season or in )aters )ith relatively high dissolved o7ygen
content$
)ater levels should *e slo)ly and gradually increased to support erect, upright gro)th
of su*+ergent and floating leaf plants$
su*+ergent plants should not *e allo)ed to dry out (+aintain shallo) overtopping$
flooding the ne) su*+ergent plantings )ith tur*id )aters or )aters )ith lo) dissolved
o7ygen )ill stress and perhaps cause +ortality of these plants$
inappropriate )ater levels can inhi*it esta*lish+ent and gro)th of desira*le )etlands
plants, ho)ever unsuita*le levels can *e used to control prolific gro)th and spread of
)eedy, terrestrial species$ &looding +ay retard invasion *y terrestrial opportunists and
deeper flooding +ay retard undesired coloni6ation of additional areas *y planted
)etland species$
9$4$0 Seeding
hand or natural seeding is less e7pensive *ut +ay *e less relia*le for starting the ne)
plant co++unity since the ger+ination rates of +any )etlands plant seeds are often
I4H per year$
large >uantities +ust *e collected and distri*uted due to poor ger+ination rates$
Page7?
)hether hand or natural seeding is used, the pond should *e shallo) flooded in late
)inter and early spring and de)atered at the onset of )ar+ )eather to esta*lish )ar+
+oist +ud conditions$
careful +onitoring and regulation of )ater levels at or Aust *elo) the pond *otto+ is
i+portant to +aintain the proper soil +oisture conditions for ger+ination and
sprouting$
after the ne) gro)th has reached 1<?10 c+, )ater levels should *e raised to 1?3 c+
a*ove the su*strate to inhi*it or 'ill terrestrial species *ut should not overtop )etlands
plants$
NOTE:
%nce the vegetation has started gro)ing, care +ust *e ta'en to ensure that )eeds are
controlled$ 8ue to the lac' of dense vegetation at the start of a )etland cell, )eeds +ay
invade the cell and *eco+e a +aAor pro*le+, specifically #urple Loose Strife in %ntario$
%)ners and %perators can use the follo)ing +ethods to control )eeds,
*uying seed that is certified as *eing free of )eed seeds,

ti+ing activities to +ini+i6e )eed ger+ination,
light cultivation (scarification or surface disruption prior to planting,
+anual re+oval (often the +ost effective +ethod if action is ta'en *efore the pro*le+
gets out of hand,
co+petition (planting a dense crop of )etland vegetation )ill inhi*it )eed gro)th
#re and post e+ergent her*icides are availa*le for )eed control, *ut their use is
discouraged *ecause they are to7ic and they can have a negative effect on the local
)ildlife$
7.6 Vegetated Filter Strip
/egetated filter strips are )ell graded fields planted )ith a specific type of vegetation$
.hen constructing the strip, consideration should *e given to the follo)ing points,
slopes should *e )ithin a range of 1H to 3H$
the strips cross?section should *e flat to prevent the for+ation of concentrated flo)
paths, )hich )ould lo)er the re+oval efficiency$
Page71
the )idth of the filter strip should *e sufficient to per+it the use of harvesting
e>uip+ent (+ini+u+ )idth of appro7i+ately ; +$
crops *est suited for vegetated filter strips are grasses )ith a long gro)ing season, high
+oisture tolerance, e7tensive root for+ation, high stal' density and high tolerance to
variation in nutrients levels$ &urther+ore, palata*ility should also *e considered )hen
harvesting for forage is planned$ Reed canary grass has a very high nutrient upta'e capacity
and yields a good >uality hay$ -i7ing reed canary grass )ith *ro+egrass +ay increase
palata*ility$ %ther suita*le grasses include ryegrass and tall fescue$ Grasses that *unch,
such as ti+othy and orchard grass, are not reco++ended for filter strips unless used in a
+i7 )ith grasses that for+s a dense sod$
up to t)o years could *e re>uired in to esta*lish vegetation )ith ade>uate density$ 8uring
that esta*lish+ent period, care should *e ta'en to properly fertili6e the seeded vegetation
and to control )eeds proliferation$
preconditioning can enhance nitrogen re+oval during start?up conditions in cool
te+peratures$ #reconditioning consists of applying )aste)ater to the vegetated filters for
appro7i+ately 3 hours the day *efore start?up, )hich results in pre?activation of a *iological
gro)th on the grassFsoil +edia$
7.7 Construction Supervision
Construction supervision of the )or's is critical to the success of the proAect$ @nspection of the
)or's should *e done regularly to ensure that tas's are e7ecuted according to the plans and
specifications$ Ti+ing of inspections is critical during construction$ The follo)ing inspection
schedule is reco++ended (see ta*le ; ne7t page,
Page74
Table 9 - Recommended Site Inspections
When to Inspect
Site esta*lish+ent
Set %ut
After rainfall events
"7cavations
"+*an'+ents and cell floor
Geosynthetic (if re>uired
#rior to placing su*strate
Structures
#ipe)or'
#lanting, seeding
Co+pletion
.arranty #eriod
What to Check
Site Security, confor+ to site *oundaries, co+pound,
stoc'pile areas, access, *ench+ar'$
Confor+s to plan
"rosion, need for repairs, de)atering during
construction
Levels, safety of open e7cavation, stoc'pile of
surplus +aterial, >uality of +aterial (clay, topsoil,etc$
#roper +aterial, co+paction, proper side slopes$
@nstalled according to +anual, s+ooth profile free of
roots and vegetation, pegging and anchor trenches$
@s cell floor level and sealedV
&oundation preparation, location, +aterials, levels,
align+ent, fully functioning$
Levels, *edding, align+ent and grade
depth and +oisture of su*strate, )eeds, vegetation
density$
Nuality of finish
8efects such as erosion, settling, plant die off, *urro)
holes in *er+s$
Modi/ied /rom Constructed Wetlands Manual# +olume 1# 9epartment o/ 5and and Water Conservation# Ne' .out1
Wales%
Page7,
7.8 Operation
!atural treat+ent syste+s are relatively si+ple to operate especially )hen gravity flo) is
incorporated in all aspects of the design$ The si+plest gravity flo) control syste+ in the
)etland cell is either a si+ple )eir or el*o) pipe structure$ &airly precise )ater level
control in the )etland cells is i+portant in enhancing gro)ing conditions for desira*le
plant species and controlling )eeds if necessary$
%n average the nor+al operating depth for a )etland cell should *e 1<?0< c+ in each
&.S )etland and <$9 ?1$< + in the pond )etland$ #roper )ater depth and careful
regulation is a critical factor for plant survival during the first year after planting$
&looding often causes +ore pro*le+s for )etland plants during the first gro)ing
season than too little )ater if the )ater has lo) dissolved o7ygen content$ Su*+ergent
and floating leaf species (in the pond area re>uire actual flooding soon after
ger+ination or planting *ecause +ost depend on *uoyant structures and )ater pressure
for physical support to achieve an upright gro)th for+$ The o*Aective of )ater level
+anage+ent is to create unfavora*le conditions for terrestrial species *y shallo)
flooding or saturating the soil *ut not to stress )etlands species *y deep prolonged
inundation$
Shallo) flooding (0?4 c+ can li+it invasion of )eedy or terrestrial species once the
)etlands plants have ste+s higher than :?10 c+ (it is a*solutely essential that ste+s and
leaves of desira*le species proAect )ell a*ove the )aterEs surface to avoid dro)ning
ne) or even older esta*lished plants$
Gravity flo) is often preferred over +echanical devices$ @n s+all syste+s ho)ever, the
use of s+all su*+ersi*le pu+ps +ay *e econo+ical and +ay provide a precise +ethod
of flo) control$ The control can consist si+ply of a su*+ersi*le pu+p attached to a
floating device (i$e$ innertu*e on the facultative pond$ The pu+p )ould direct flo) to
the )etland inlet, and then gravity flo) )ould ta'e over$ #u+ps can also *e used to
convey flo) fro+ the anaero*ic storage lagoon to the facultative pond using the sa+e
principle of a floating pu+p$ The pu+ps should dra) )ater fro+ the upper <$5 + of
the lagoon or pond in order to +ini+i6e the discharge of suspended solids$
After the first year of operation, the operation and +aintenance typically consists of
)al'ing around the *er+s at least once a )ee' to chec' for any erosion, seepage or
ani+al da+age$ The *er+s should also *e +o)ed )ee'ly and )ater >uality sa+ples
collected as needed
Routine )ee'ly inspections are necessary to ensure appropriate flo)s through the inlet
distri*utor and outlet collector piping as )ell as lea's in the piping itself$
Page7$
&lo) distri*ution )ithin cells should *e occasionally inspected to detect channel
for+ation and short?circuiting and *e corrected *y planting vegetation or filling soil in
any channels$
Grass and )etlands vegetation should *e chec'ed at least once a )ee' to identify any
visi*le signs of stress or disease such as grass yello)ing, chlorosis, leaf da+age, etc$
Should stress or disease *e noticed, a specialist should *e consulted$
#u+ps, valves, GTG fittings, etc$ should *e chec'ed at least once each )ee' to ensure
that pu+ps and all piping are operating properly (i$e$, chec' for clogging and +a'e sure
that the flo) co+ing out of each GTG fitting is the sa+e$
The )etland should *e operated )ith clean )ater or very lo)?strength )aste)ater for
the first +onth after planting$ 8uring the fifth )ee', initiate operation )ith one?half
strength )aste)ater or )ith one?half the design flo)s and continue for three +onths$
After the end of the fourth +onth, *egin operation )ith full?strength )aste)ater or
)ith full design flo)s$ Chec' proper operation of all piping, pu+ps and )ater control
structures and +onitor vegetation$
@f a vegetated filter strip is used, it should operate for a t)o (0 )ee' period follo)ed
*y a t)o (0 )ee' rest period (to allo) for harvesting$ The effluent can *e applied
continuously over the t)o )ee' period$
A vegetated filter strip should *e cut and harvested on a regular *asis$ Care should *e ta'en
to li+it rutting fro+ the harvesting e>uip+ent$ @t is reco++ended that speciali6ed flotation
tires *e used on the harvesting e>uip+ent$ -o)ing every 2 to 3 )ee's in the gro)ing
season is re>uired for proper field +aintenance.
7.9 Monitoring
To deter+ine the effectiveness of a natural syste+, careful +onitoring is re>uired$
Accurate +easure+ent of the )aste)ater volu+e is crucial for proper co+putation of
pollutant re+oval$ &urther+ore, )ater >uality sa+ples should *e ta'en on a regular *asis
at various points along the syste+$ This )ill help +onitor the effectiveness of individual
co+ponents$
Since the syste+ perfor+ance is evaluated on the *asis of re+ovalFtransfor+ation of
pollutants, influent and effluent +onitoring provides the *asic data for co+parison$ The
user should therefore +easure the inflo) fro+ the storage lagoon, the runoff due to
precipitation and the outflo) fro+ the syste+$ &lo) +easure+ents can *e done *y using
si+ple /?notch )eirs or if pu+ps are used, *y 'no)ing their ti+e of operation$
#recipitation runoff can *e esti+ated *y using a rain gauge and the follo)ing e>uation,
Runoff (+2 J Rain gauge reading (+ 7 Area (+07 Runoff coefficient$
Page77
Sa+pling fre>uency +ay vary for different types of )aste)ater, ho)ever, the +ini+al
re>uire+ent should *e at least once a +onth over a 0 to 2 year period$ .ee'ly sa+pling
is reco++ended since it )ill provide +ore relia*le data$ (a++er reco++ends in his 1;;3
guidelines that as a +ini+u+, a co+posite 03?hour sa+ple *e ta'en on a )ee' day once
per +onth and one gra* sa+ple once a +onth$
.ith respect to the filter strip, routine +onitoring should include the )aste)ater application
rate, runoff rate, runoff >uality (including *iological and che+ical o7ygen de+and, suspended
solids, total dissolved solids, total nitrogen and total phosphorus, p( and sodiu+ adsorption
ratio$ .hen pathogens in the effluent are a concern, faecal colifor+s should also *e +onitored$
Bac'ground )eather conditions including te+perature, hu+idity, and rainfall should *e
collected since these data )ould *e useful to assess the i+pact of +eteorological factors on the
syste+ perfor+ance$
Page76
8.0 CASE STUDIES AND ADDITIONAL INFORMATION:
&urther infor+ation and case studies on natural syste+s for rural applications can *e found
in the follo)ing appendices,
Appendi7 A
Appendi7 B
Appendi7 C
Appendi7 8
Appendi7 "
Appendi7 &
8ignard 8airy &ar+ Constructed .etland Syste+ (Case Study
Cost *enefit analysis of using constructed )etlands for rural
applications$
/illage of Alfred 8e+onstration #roAect (Case Study$
S)ine -anure Treat+ent Strategies to Reduce (auling and
8isposall Costs
8esign e7a+ple for septage )aste$
&ood #rocessing .aste Treat+ent using Constructed .etlands
Page7;
REFERENCES
Andersson, C$, -$ TendaA and -$ Roth+an$ 1;;0$ &iltration at Bro++a .e'age
Breatment Plant* .ater Science and Technology 04, 4;?55$
Barrington, S$ 1;;1$ C1aracteristics o/ 5ivestocA Manures* #roceedings,
Canadian Agricultural Research Council, !ational .or'shop on Land Application
of Ani+al -anure$ Sune 11?10, 1;;1$ %tta)a$
Bri7, (, 1;:9, Breatment o/ 'aste'ater in t1e r1i3osp1ere o/ 'etland plants - t1e
root 3one met1od, @n )ater Science Techonology, 1;$1<9?11:
Bri7, ($ 1;;3$ =se o/ Wetlands in Water Pollution Control8 2istorical
9evelopment# Present .tatus# and -uture Perspectives$ Sournal of .ater Science
and Technology 2<(:,0<;?002$
Bro)n, 8$S$ and S$C$ Reed 1;;3* "nventor! o/ Constructed Wetlands in B1e
=nited .tates$ Sournal of .ater Science and Technology 0;(3,2<;?21:$
C(0- Gore & Storrie Ltd, 1;;:# Breatment Wetland and Poplar Bree
Bec1nolog!# Short Course -anual , Septe+*er 15?1:, 1;;:, Toronto, %ntario,
Canada
Chau*ey, @$, 8$R$ "d)ard, T$C$ 8aniel, #$A$ -oore Sr$ and 8$S$ !ichols$ 1;;3$
0//ectiveness o/ +egetative -ilter .trips in Retaining .ur/ace-Applied .'ine
Manure Constituents* Transactions of the ASA"$ /ol 29(2, :34?:4<$
Cooper, #$&$ et al$ 1;;5* Reed &eds and Constructed Wetlands /or Waste'ater
Breatment* .Rc S)indon, U=
8epart+ent of Land and .ater Conservation, !e) South .ales, 1;;:,
Constructed Wetlands Manual# +olumes 1 and 4# !ational Li*rary of Australia
8illaha, T$A$, R$B$ Reneau, S$ -ostaghi+i, and .$L$ -agette$ 1;:9$ 0valuating
Nutrient and .ediment 5osses /rom Agricultural 5ands8 +egetative -ilter .trips*
United States "nviron+ental #rotection Agency, CB#FTRS 3F:9$
(a+ilton, ($, #$G$ !i7 and A$ So*ole)s'i$ 1;;2$ An Overvie' o/ Constructed
Wetlands as Alternatives to Conventional Waste Breatment .!stems$ .ater
#ollution Research Sournal of Canada 0:(2,40;?43:$
(a++er, 8$A$ 1;;3$ Guidelines /or 9esign# Construction and Operation o/
Constructed Wetlands /or 5ivestocA Waste'ater Breatment, #roceedings fro+
BConstructed .etlands for Ani+al .aste -anage+entQ Lafayette, @!, 1;;3C$
Page7:
(a++er, 8$A$ 1;;4$ Water Fualit! improvement /unctions o/ 'etlands* "n
0nc!clopedia o/ 0nvironmental &iolog!$ Acade+ic #ress, @nc$ San 8iego, CA$ 3,
3:4?415$
(a++er, 8$A$ 1;;9$ Creating -res1'ater Wetlands# 4nd 0dition$ CRC #ress
@nc$ Boca Raton, &la$
(iggins, S$, (urd, S$ and C$ .eil$ 1;;;$ B1e =se o/ 0ngineered Wetlands to
Breat Recalcitrant Waste'aters* 3th @nternational Conference on "cological
"ngineering$
=adlec R$(, =night, R$L, 1;;5, Breatment Wetlands, Le)is #u*lishers, !e) Wor'
Senssen, #$8$, T$ -Xhlu+ and T$ =rogstad$ 1;;3$ Potential o/ Constructed
Wetlands /or Waste'ater treatment in Nort1ern 0nvironments$ Sournal of .ater
Science and Technology 0:(1<,13;?149$
Lee, S$ ($, /ignes)aran, S$, and =$ BaAracharya$ 1;;5$ P1osp1orus Bransport in
.atruated .lag Columns8 0(periments and Mat1ematical Models$ .ater Science
and Technology 23,142?15<$
Le+na Corporation 1;;3$ "nnovations in 5agoon-&ased Breatment$ Retention
Ti+es, SpringFSu++er, 1;;3$ (#ro+otional literature$
-ag+edov, /$G$ and L$@$ Wa'ovleva$ 1;;3$ B1e 0(perience o/ t1e C". on =sing
Constructed Wetlands /or Waste Water Breatment$ "uropean .ater #ollution
Control 3(0,00?04$
-ann, R$A$ and ($S$ Bavor$ 1;;2$ P1osp1orus Removal in Constructed Wetlands
using Gravel and "ndustrial Waste .ubstrata* .ater Science and Technology 09,
1<9?112$
-etcalf & "ddy, @nc$ 1;;1$ Waste'ater 0ngineering# Breatment# 9isposal# and
Reuse$ Third "dition$, ;:0?;;0$
-itchell, C$ 1;;5, Pollutant Removal Mec1anisms in Arti/icial 'etlands, Course
notes for the @."S ;5 @nternational .inter "nviron+ental School, Gold Coast,
Suly
%ntario Clean .ater Agency, 1;;:, Annual Operating report# +illage o/ Al/red
Breatment 5agoon, unpu*lished
%ntario -inistry of the "nviron+ent, Guidelines on the 8esign of .ater and
Se)age Trea+ent #lants, Chapter 01,1;;1
Page79
%ver+an, A$ R$, and 8$.$ .olfe$ 1;:5$ Overland -lo' Breatment o/
Waste'ater at -lorida .tate Prison* Sournal of .ater #ollution Control
&ederation$ /ol$ 4:, no$;, ;<2?;1<$
#ayer, &$S$, and R$R$ .eil$ 1;:9$ P1osp1orus Renovation o/ Waste'ater b!
Overland -lo' 5and Application* S$ "nviron$ Nual$, /ol$ 15, no$ 3, 2;1?2;9$
#ayne, /$.$"$, 1;:2$ 5agoon-Pond-Grassed -ilter /or Breating Waste'aters$
ASA" su++er +eeting presentation, paper no$ :2?3<59$
Reed$ S$C$ et al$ 1;::$ Natural .!stems /or Waste'ater Management and
Breatment* -cGra)?(ill Boo' Co+pany, !e) Wor', 420 pp$
Reed, S$C$, R$.$ Crites and "$S$ -iddle*roo's, 1;;4, Natural .!stems /or Waste
Management and Breatment, 0nd "d, !e) Wor', -cGra)?(ill$
Sa'adevan, =$ and ($S$ Bavor$ 1;;:$ P1osp1ate adsorption c1aracteristics o/
soils# slags and 3eolite to be used as substrates in constructed 'etland s!stems$
.ater Resources 20,2;2?2;;$
South .est .etlands Group, -ood Processing 'aste treatment using constructed
'etlands# 1;;9, unpu*lished$
Too+*s, -$ R$ 1;;9$ 0valuation o/ +egetative -ilter .trips (+-.% to Breat &ee/
-eedlot and 9air! Card Runo// in Ontario* #aper presented to the CSA"FSCGR
at the Aoint conference )ith the Canadian Society for Civil "ngineering, -ay 0: ?
2< at Sher*roo'e, Nue*ec
U$S$ "$#$A, 1;;3, Guide to .eptage Breatment and 9isposal, %ffice of Research
and 8evelop+ent, .ashington 8$C$
U$S$ "$#$A, 1;;4, %ffice of Research and 8evelop+ent, .ashington 8$C$
U$S$ !ational Research Council, 1;;5, =se o/ Reclaimed Water and .ludge in
-ood Crop Production, !ational Acade+y #ress, .ashington 8$C$
/y+a6al, S$ 1;;2$ Constructed Wetlands /or Waste'ater Breatment in
C3ec1oslovaAia8 .tate o/ t1e Art* "n Constructed Wetlands /or Water ualit!
"mprovement# ed$ G$A$ -oshiri, 044?05<$ #ensacola, &L.
.eil, C$ et al$ 1;;4$ 9ignard arti/icial 'etland8 interim report, R&TT, CollYge
dEAlfred, Alfred, %ntario$
Page6?
.eil, C$ et al$ 1;;9$ 9ignard arti/icial 'etland8 interim report, 1;;5$ R&TT,
CollYge dEAlfred, Alfred, %ntario$
.hite, G$, =uginis, L$, Beharrell, -$ & Woung, C$, 1;;5, Ur*an stor+)ater
+anage+ent, in )ater, pp$3:?40, SulyFAugust
Woung, R$ A$, T$ (untrods, and .$ Anderson$ 1;:<$ 0//ectiveness o/ +egetated
&u//er .trips in Controlling Pollution /rom -eedlot Runo//$ S$ "nviron$ Nual$,
/ol$ ;, no$2,3:2?3:9$
Page61
APPENDIX A
DIGNARD DAIRY FARM WETLAND SYSTEM
CASE STUDY
DIGNARD DAIRY FARM WETLAND
CASE STUDY
(By: Claude Weil, P.Eng, Alfred College)
INTRODUCTION
#oint source and diffused pollutants of agricultural origin are a gro)ing concern$ Treating the+
)hile 'eeping healthy +argins in this industry is a challenge$ Constructed )etlands are *eing
+ore and +ore carefully engineered using validated +odels as opposed to the e+pirical design
relationships )hich )ere availa*le earlier$ The 8ignard dairy far+ is located outside the to)n of
"+*run, near %tta)a (%ntario, Canada$ Because of its location near a cree', the far+ is su*Aect
to the scrutiny of local residents concerned over its i+pact on the environ+ent$
The 8ignard herd is co+posed of appro7i+ately 1;< ani+al units (1<< co)s, 5< heifers aged <?3
+onths, 2< heifers aged 3?9 +onths and 94 heifers aged : +onths and over$ The operation
produces )aste)ater fro+ three sources, runoff fro+ a solid +anure pile, stor+)ater runoff fro+
a <$94 ha e7ercise yard (used *y 5< heifers, and +il'house )aste)ater (the )ash)ater used to
clean and saniti6e the +il' pipeline and *ul' storage tan'$ Solid +anure, +i7ed )ith +il'house
)aste)ater, is stac'ed *y an air piston onto a concrete pad$ #rior to construction of the )etland
syste+ in 1;;3, runoff fro+ the solid +anure pile )as stored in an anaero*ic lagoon and
periodically spread on cropland$ The runoff fro+ the feedlot )as not collected$ The o)ners
re>uired a syste+ that )ould treat the li>uid runoff fro+ *oth sources )ithout the need for
spreading$ %ther)ise, separate syste+s )ould have *een re>uired for handling li>uid and solid
+anureQ increasing e>uip+ent and la*our costs$ An engineered free )ater surface (&.S )etland
syste+ )as constructed in 1;;3 to treat runoff fro+ the +anure stac' and the <$94 ha$ cattle yard
for the 8ignard dairy far+$
WETLAND DESIGN
The old anaero*ic lagoon continues to *e used to collect +anure and +il'house )ater fro+ the
*arns$ "ffluent fro+ this lagoon is pu+ped into a facultative pond )here it Aoins runoff fro+ the
e7ercise lot, )hich has flo)ed over an overland flo) field$
Because large volu+es of runoff )ere to *e treated, a natural syste+ incorporating t)o &.S
)etland cells )as chosen$ @n 1;;3, the )etlandFpondF)etland syste+ )as designed and
constructed, according to the guidelines advocated *y 8onald (a++er of #urdue University
((a++er, 1;;3 to treat the effluent fro+ the +anure runoff lagoon and the cattle yard during
su++er +onths$ The layout of the 8ignard .etland is sho)n in &igure 1$
Constructed .etlands Guidance -anual
%ntario Rural Applications ? !ove+*er 1;;;
Appendi7 A
1$ Anaero*ic Lagoon
0$ 8airy cattle e7ercise yard
;
4
5
2$ %verland flo) syste+ (1<+ )ide
3$ &acultative #ond (227 4:+ 71$0+
4$ &.S .etland cell 1 (22+ 7 31+ 7 <$14+
5$ #ond .etland (22+ 7 55+ 7 <$9+
3
9
:
9$ &.S .etland cell 0 (22+ 7 22+ 7 <$14+
:$ %verland flo) syste+ (14+ 7 1:<+
;$ #u+ping station +anhole
1<$ -anure stac'
;
1
2
1<
0
Figure 1: 8ignard "ngineered .etland Syste+
(a++er (1;;3 found that *ioche+ical o7ygen de+and (B%8 levels a*ove 2<<?4<< +gFL
)ould stress )etland cells Bperhaps even to the point of failureC$ %n the "+*run site, B%8 in the
anaero*ic lagoon )as +easured as ranging fro+ 42; to 190< +gFL prior to construction of the
)etland syste+$ Therefore, pretreat+ent )as re>uired *et)een the anaero*ic lagoon and the
)etland syste+$ A facultative pond )as selected for this purpose$ &acultative ponds not only
provide high B%8 re+oval (+ore than ::H according to Gloyna & Tischler (1;:1, they can
accept shoc' loads and efficiently +i7 )astes of different che+ical and physical properties so as
to feed a unifor+ effluent to su*se>uent )etland cells$ The facultative pond also provides flo)
e>uali6ation to acco++odate cli+atic fluctuations$ @t acts as a GdroughtG )ater reserve in Suly
and August to prevent e7cessively dry andFor sluggish flo) conditions and provides storage of
yard runoff fro+ %cto*er 1st to April 2<th$
Appendi7 A
"ffluent fro+ the facultative pond flo)s into &.S )etland cell R1$ This is follo)ed *y a pond
)etland, and finally *y &.S )etland cell R0$
The )etland cells )ere planted )ith cattails in the fall of 1;;3 and in the spring of 1;;4$ The
syste+ )as put into operation the su++er of 1;;4$ @n esta*lishing the plants, it )as deter+ined
that the *est results )ere achieved in the fall *y *rea'ing the heads of cattails and disse+inating
the seeds over the )et )etland topsoil$
An overland flo) grass filter strip polishes effluent fro+ the second &.S )etland cell$ This
grassed filter has a <$2H slope$ @t is co+posed of topsoil underlaid *y native clay$ @t also *ehaves
as a slo) rate infiltration syste+ to opti+i6e phosphorus re+oval *y adsorption on the clay *ase$
A stringent re>uire+ent for a total =Aeldahl nitrogen (T=! +ass loading not to e7ceed 2
'gFhaFday, used to deter+ine the re>uired area of the syste+, governs the design in order to
produce an effluent of such a >uality that direct discharge in a near*y cree' could *e possi*le$
The average detention ti+es are 199 days in the facultative pond, 11 and 1; days in &.SR1 and
&.SR0 )etland cells respectively, and :: days in the pond )etland$
Design of natural system in Embrun
D.2.1 Design of stabilization pond
Design function:
&acultative pond design is *ased on the re+oval of B%84$ .ith detention ti+es in the order of
)ee's, +ost suspended solids )ill also *e re+oved$ The pond depth ranges fro+ 1$0 to 0$4+$
&acultative pond operation is *ased on the production of o7ygen *y photosynthetic algae and
surface reaeration$ The o7ygen is used in the aero*ic digestion process of the upper layer$
Anaero*ic digestion occurs in the *otto+ layer$ The C%0 produced in the *otto+ layer serves as
a car*on source for the algae$ The pond serves the follo)ing functions,
To intercept feedlot runoff and collect lagoon effluent

To +i7 lagoon and feedlot effluents into a ho+ogeneous li>uid )aste )hich is sta*ili6ed
To reduce suspended solids, B%84, *acteria, total nitrogen and total phosphorus$ The B%84
is to *e reduced to less than 3<< +gFl$ @n the process faecal colifor+ contents )ill *e reduced
*y at least ;<H *ecause of the e7tended detention ti+e$
To provide a reserve of effluent to 'eep the )etland operating during a dry year )ith a 1<
year return period$ This +ini+u+ reserve (drought reserve is 'ept fro+ -ay 14th until
Septe+*er 14th$
To ensure even discharge into the )etland syste+ so as to opti+i6e its perfor+ance *y
+ini+i6ing disruption to che+ical, *iological and physical conditions$
Appendi7 A
J 1:;0 +
Facultative pond surface area based on influent BOD5 quality, Ce 1720 mg/l
Schedule of Operation
The anaero*ic lagoon contains up to 044 days of storageQ this provides fle7i*ility for the starting
date of treat+ent into the )etland syste+$ The period of treat+ent of anaero*ic lagoonEs contents
transferred daily into the facultative sta*ili6ation pond is 120 days, fro+ -ay to Septe+*er$
8aily flo) J 11 +2
B%84 +ass loading into sta*ili6ation pond, 1:$; 'gFday (as per highest +easured concentration,
190< +gFL
T=! +ass loading into sta*ili6ation pond, 0$3 'gFday (as per highest +easured concentration,
01; +gFL
#ast Septe+*er 2<th, any runoff and sno)+elt fro+ the feedlot )ill *e stored in the sta*ili6ation
pond )hich *y then )ould contain <$5+ of )aste (pu+p level$
-ethod *ased on natural reaeration of the pond,
-ethod 1$ ? Using a 1<< 'gFdayFha$ allo)a*le loading rate (Reed et al$, 1;:: for su++er usage,
pond area A is,
0
A =
190< mg F 5 11$< m 2 F da! 1< 5 Ag F mg 1< 2 5 F m 2 1< 3 m0 F 1a
1<<Ag F da! F 1a
Such a pond should produce an effluent )ith a B%84 less than 2< +gFl (Reed et al$, 1;::$ This
is *etter than the 3<<+gFl target effluent >uality$
-ethod 0$ ? Using the plug flo) +odel,
C e
Co
= e7p[ A ptd ]
)here Ce J effluent B%84 concentration, +gFL
Co J influent B%84 concentration, +gFL
'p J plug flo) first?order reaction rate for a given T, days?1
td J hydraulic residence ti+e, days
&or a depth of 1$0 +, a side slope of 1,1, / 0<<< +2
Appendi7 A
td J 0<<<F11 J 1:0 days
'0< J <$10; d?1 (Reed et al$, 1;::
'12 J <$10; 7 1$<; (12?0< J <$<91 d?1
Ce J 190< +gFl 7 e?<$<9 7 12<
< +gFl
@n reality, short circuiting and li+ited surface aeration )ill yield an effluent of lesser >uality$ As
+entioned earlier, a B%84 effluent of 3<< +gFl rather than 2< +gFl )ill *e assu+ed as a safety
+easure$ The facultative sta*ili6ation pond +ust have a surface area of 1:;0 +0 or +ore for a 1$0
+ depth of flo)$ Use of surface aerators +ay significantly reduce the pond si6e as sho)n *elo)$
Surface area provided for facultative pond for a 1$0 + operating depth,
55 + Z 22 + J 019: +0
Conservative esti+ates of effluent >uality entering )etland,
B%84 3<< +gFL
T=! 01; +gFL Z <$:< J 194 +gFL
-ethod using aerators *ased on -etcalf and "ddy (1;;1
The pond could *e significantly reduced in si6e )ith the use of surface aerators$ Assu+ing no lac'
of dissolved o7ygen, a pond less than half this si6e could yield an effluent )ith a B%84 less than
3<< +gFl$ A sa+ple calculation follo)s, *ased on an assu+ed decay coefficient, '12$
'12 J <$<91d?1 (assu+ed
8ispersion coefficient, 8 J <$4
B%84 re+oval J :<H (Co J 190< +gFl, Ce J3<< +gFl
'12t J 0$3 (fro+ .ehner and .ilhel+ e>uation
<$<91d?1 t J 0$3
t J 23 days
8epth of flo) J 1$0 +
-ini+u+ pond volu+e J 23 d 7 11 +2Fd J 293 +2
-ass loading J 190< +gFL Z 11 +2Fday Z 1<?2 J 1:$;0 'gFday
Appro7i+ate surface area J 293 +2 J 211$5+0
1$0 +
Surface loading J 1:$;0 'gFday Z 1< <<< +0Fha J 5<9$0 'gFha$Fday
Appendi7 A
211$5 +0
%7ygen +ass transfer - re>uired fro+ an aerator (design of aero*ic ? anaero*ic sta*ili6ation
ponds, -etcalf & "ddy, 1;;1,
- J 0 'g %0F'g B%84 Z 1:$;0 'g B%84Fday
J 29$:3 'gFday
Transfer rate J 00 'g %0F'.Fday (typical aerator ? -etcalf and "ddy, 1;;1
#o)er Re>uire+ents J 29$:3 'gFday J 1$90 '.
00 'g %0F'.Fday
A 0 '. aerator )ould ensure ade>uate surface reaeration$
The +echanically aerated pond is su*stantially s+aller$ .ind aerators +ay *e used in )hich case,
o7ygen transfer rate could *e lo)er$ Should the facultative sta*ili6ation pond not perfor+ as
e7pected, surface aeration could *e incorporated into the daily operation$
D.2.2 Design of wetland/pond/wetland/overland flow system
&or design purposes, it is assu+ed that 11 +2 of effluent fro+ the sta*ili6ation pond is pu+ped
daily into the )etlandFaero*ic pondF)etland syste+$ The actual flo) through the )etland syste+
)ill *e adAusted to the )eather pattern and the strenght of the sta*ili6ation pond effluent$
Section 8$1$0 indicated that the T=! surface area loading in )etlandFaero*ic pondF)etland
syste+s +ay *e 2 'gFhaFday$ The allo)a*le T=! surface area loading for overland flo) syste+s
is 2<?3< 'gFhaFday$
An allo)a*le T=! loading of 2 'gFhaFday is selected for the )etlandFaero*ic
pondF)etlandFoverland flo) syste+$ @t provides for a rather conservative design$ (o)ever
incorporating the overland flo) syste+ into the treat+ent process has the effect to reduce the si6e
of the )etlandFaero*ic pondF)etland syste+, the e7pensive co+ponent of the syste+$ Basically,
not enough infor+ation is reported in the literature to allo) for higher T=! loadings$
8aily T=! loading, 194 +gFL Z 11 +2Fd Z 1<?2 J 1$;0 'gFd
Total surface area J 1$;0 'gFd Z 1< <<< +0Fha J 5315 +0
2 'gFhaFd
a$ .etlandFpondF)etland syste+
Appendi7 A
Area supplied *y )etlandFpondF)etland J 55H of 5315 +0
5315 +0 Z <$55 J 3023 +0
.etland area J 4< H of 3023 +0 J 0119 +0
Area of each )etland cell J 0119 +0F0 J 1<4; +0
8i+ension of each )etland cell, 22 + Z 22 +
Aero*ic pond area J 4<H of 3023 +0 J 0119 +0 at a <$9 + operating depth
8i+ension of aero*ic pond cell, 55 + Z 22 +
%verall si6e of )etlandFpondF)etland,
length, 120 +
)idth,
aspect ratio,
22 +
3,1
*$ %verland flo) syste+
Surface area of filter J 23H of 5315 +0 J 01:1 +0
8i+ensions, 14 + 7 134 +
!ote that 11 +2Fd is loaded on the overland flo) syste+ over one hour$ The syste+ is
allo)ed to rest until the ne7t day$
D.2.3 Design of overland flow system for feedlot runoff
This filter is located along the filter$ Treat+ent is *ased on the filter )idth$
/olu+e to *e treated in 1 day, $5+2F1+ )ide strip (1< year stor+, duration 5 hours
Application rate per unit )idth, > J $1+2F1+ hour
hydraulic loading rate,
5' =
FPa (1<< cm F m
G
)here L) J hydraulic loading rate, c+Fday
> J application rate per unit )idth of the slope, +2F(h $ + J $1
#a J application period, hFday J 5
U J slope length, +
Appendi7 A
= A e7p( aG b
&or U J 1<+ (1<+ )ide strip
L) J $1 7 5 7 1<< c+F+ J 5c+
1<
">uation 8$: allo)s the prediction of the effluent >uality for B%84,
C 3 C
Co
F
)here C6 J C1< J effluent B%8 concentration at point U J )idth of filter J 1< +
c
Co
U
>
a,*
J residual B%8 at end of slope
J 4 +gFL
J B%8 of applied )aste)ater, 4<< +gFL
J slope length, +
J application rate, +2F(h$+ J $1
J e+pirical constants
Using a graphical solution (Reed et al$ 1;:: of e>uation (8$:,
C1< ? 4 F Co J <$0<
Co J 4<< +gFl
C1< J :4 +gFl at 1< + along the lateral slope (e>uivalent to )idth of filter
&urther treat+ent is provided in the )etland syste+ ta'ing into consideration that runoff events
fro+ the feedlot )ill only *e significant in the spring and fall, *efore and after )hich the natural
syste+ is used for treating the lagoon contents$ Thus, the natural syste+ is used se>uentially for
the treat+ent of the feedlot runoff and the contents of the lagoon$
&ilter strip treat+ent )idth,
lateral slope,
longitudinal slope,
1<+
0H
<$0H
D.2.4 Estimated effluent quality from proposed system
The literature ((a++er, 1;;0Q Reed et al$, 1;:: as discussed in section 8$1 indicates that the
follo)ing effluent >uality at the overland flo) syste+ outlet is achieva*le,
B%84 I 0< +gFL
T! I 0< +gFL
Appendi7 A
T# I 04 +gFL
&C I 1<< organis+sF1<<+L
D.2.5 Summary of Dimensions
1$ &acultative sta*ili6ation pond,
Length,
.idth,
55 +
22 +
%perating depth, 1$0 +
0$ .etlandFaero*ic pondF)etlandFoverland flo) syste+,
1st )etland,
Length,
.idth, 22 +
22 +
%perating depth,
Aero*ic pond,
<$1 +
Length,
.idth, 22 +
55 +
%perating depth,
0nd )etland,
<$9 +
Length,
.idth, 22 +
22 +
%perating depth,
%verland flo) syste+,
<$1 +
Length,
.idth, 14 +
134 + (actual J 1:< +
Longitudinal slope, <$2 H
2$ %verland flo) syste+ treating feedlot runoff,
.idth,
Lateral slope,
1< +
0H
Longitudinal slope, <$0 H
POLLUTANT REMOVAL MECHANISMS IN WETLAND CELLS
Appendi7 A
The t)o &.S )etland cells consist of <$14 + deep *asins and are lined )ith clay to li+it
e7filtration$ A layer of soil )as placed on top of the clay, and in this cattails )ere planted$ A lo)
flo) rate is applied so that a shallo) depth is +aintained$
Settlea*le solids are re+oved *y sedi+entation$ Sedi+entation lo)ers B%8 and re+oves
particulate for+s of phosphorus and nitrogen fro+ the )aste)ater$ A nutrient rich sludge is
for+ed on the )etland floor$ The +acrophytes supply o7ygen to the sludge 6one through their
roots, there*y pro+oting aero*ic digestion of the pollutants *y +icroorganis+s$ -acrophytes
also act as physical supports for +icroorganis+s$ Bacteria and other +icroorganis+s attach
the+selves to the plants, for+ing a G*iofil+G surrounding the plant fro+ the )ater surface to the
)etland floor$ As )ater passes through the thic' gro)th of +acrophytes, it is e7posed to the
living *iofil+, )hich filters pollutants and degrades the+$
8issolved nutrients are also re+oved in the )etland cells$ The +ain re+oval +echanis+ for
dissolved nitrogen is +icro*ially +ediated nitrificationFdenitrification$ &irstly, a++onification
ta'es placeQ in this process organic nitrogen is converted into a++oniu+$ !itrification (o7idation
of a++onia nitrogen occurs under aero*ic conditions, *acteria convert a++oniu+ (!(3P into
nitrite (!%0? and nitrite into nitrate (!%2?$ Significant nitrification occurs a*ove 4 to 9OC$
8enitrification occurs under anaero*ic conditions, nitrate is converted into nitrogen gas (!0
)hich is released into the at+osphere$
8issolved phosphorus is re+oved *y adsorption, co+ple7ation and precipitation )ith dissolved
+inerals and *y peat accretion (accu+ulation of organic +atter$ @ts ulti+ate re+oval +echanis+
is *urial$
WETLAND OPERATION
The 8ignard engineered )etland syste+ treats a total of appro7i+ately 14<< +2 of )aste)ater
over 14< spring and su++er days, a period during )hich *iological reactions are accelerated *y
)ar+ te+peratures$ @nfluent )aste)ater is stored in fall and )inter$ The treat+ent syste+ is
designed to operate as follo)s,
a$
*$
c$
d$
&eedlot runoff is intercepted and treated in an overland flo) syste+ or grassed s)ale (G2G
in &igure 1, )hich is designed to reduce B%8 to *elo) :4 +gFL$
Runoff fro+ the +anure pile is collected in the e7isting anaero*ic lagoon (G1G in &igure 1,
)here it is stored fro+ %cto*er 1st to April 2<th$
The overland flo) syste+ and the anaero*ic lagoon *oth feed the facultative pond (G3G in
&igure 1 in )hich B%8 is reduced to *elo) 3<< +gFL$ Anaero*ic lagoon effluent is
pu+ped daily (at an average rate of 11 +2Fday into the facultative pond *et)een -ay 1st
and Septe+*er 2<th$ #u+ping continues until the anaero*ic lagoon is e+pty$
Bet)een -ay 1st and Septe+*er 2<th, effluent fro+ the facultative pond is pu+ped into the
&.S )etlandFpond )etlandF&.S )etland train (G4G, G5G and G9G in &igure 1 at a rate
Appendi7 A
adAusted as a function of evapotranspiration fro+ 1<$4 +2Fday to 0;$0 +2Fday$ These rates
are adAusted on a +onthly *asis the first of each +onth *ased on the )ater level in the
facultative pond$ 8esign effluent B%8 concentration out of the second )etland cell is less
than 1<< +gFL$
e$ The overland flo) syste+ (G:G in &igure 1 co+pletes the treat+ent train$ This overland
flo) syste+ is an efficient nitrogen and phosphorous re+over )hen the forage crop
planted on it is harvested$ Target effluent >uality is, B%8 I 0< +gFL, T=! I 0< +gFL,
total suspended solids (TSS I 04 +gFL and total phosphorus (T# I 1 +gFL$
(ydrological considerations )ere not neglected$ Using 40 years of rainfall and evaporation data,
e7tre+e dry and )et seasons )ere selected for )ater *udget calculations *ased on a nor+al
distri*ution$
A B)etC season is a season (-ay 1st to Septe+*er 2<th during )hich the cu+ulative precipitation
+inus evaporation is closest to a >uantity that )ill *e e7ceeded only once during a 1< year return
period$ A BdryC season is one )here this )ill *e e7ceeded all *ut once during the sa+e return
period$ This analysis )as perfor+ed to ensure that during a dry season the influent )aste flo)
)ill *e great enough to counter losses due to evaporation$ This )ill prevent die off of so+e of
the a>uatic plants, )hich )ould occur during a prolonged period )ithout +oisture$ 8uring a
rainfall event, B%8 and T=! loadings increase due to increased flo) rates fro+ the e7ercise area$
.aste)ater inflo) rates are set to ensure that loadings do not e7ceed design criteria$
Su*+ersi*le pu+ps connected to ti+ers are located *et)een the anaero*ic lagoon and the
facultative pond as )ell as *et)een it and the )etland cells (G;G in &igure 1$ &lo) proceeds
through the re+ainder of the syste+ *y gravity$
PERFORMANCE OF THE SYSTEM
The 8ignard engineered )etland syste+ has perfor+ed *eyond e7pectations over the first three
years of operation$ Ta*le 1 presents average pollutant concentrations at the outlet of each
co+ponent of the )etland syste+ during the 1;;5 and 1;;9 seasons$ 8uring the 1;;9
+onitoring season, little )ater accu+ulated on the filter strip$ &or this reason, only a
ground)ater tu*e )as sa+pled only once, and no sa+ple )as ta'en on the filter strip$ %verall
perfor+ance of the syste+ )as si+ilar to 1;;5 for B%8, *ut slightly lo)er re+ovals )ere
o*tained for T=! and T#$
Appendi7 A
Table 1
Average pollutant concentrations at the outlet of the wetlan d system components (mg/L)
B%8 T=! !?!%2 !?!%0 T#
1;;5 1;;9 1;;5 1;;9 1;;5 1;;9 1;;5 1;;9 1;;5 1;;9
Anaero*ic Lagoon
&eedlot runoff
&acultative pond
&.S Cell R1
#ond .etland
&.S Cell R0
-id?#oint &ilter?
0459
;9$3
014$4
15:$1
33$0
22$2
3$3<
1142
03$;
100$5
91$2
30$;
20$:
!A
::2$4
159$9
1<1$:
;1$2
2:$9
1;$9
0$02
301$2
13$2
9;$1
55$:
20$5
05$4
!A
<$09
<$<3
<$11
<$<:
<$4<
<$<;
<$11
<$<9
<$15
<$10
<$11
<$11
<$1<
!A
<$41
<$19
<$13
<$1<
<$29
<$15
<$<4
<$3<
<$<;
<$<:
<$11
<$<:
<$01
!A
;<$3
39$9
19$<
12$:
9$15
3$09
<$<3
55$5
:$9
1;$5
0<$<
10$31
;$<9
!A
strip
"nd of &ilter?strip 2$1< !A 0$:2 !A 1$2: !A <$12 !A <$<9 !A
Ta*le 0 sho)s the average cu+ulative reductions in pollutant concentrations for the three
operating years$ &or the 1;;: operating season no sa+ples )ere ta'en at the outlet of &.S Cell
R0 or at the filter strip$ Re+oval rates decreased slightly fro+ 1;;5 to 1;;9, *ut increased again
in 1;;:$
Table 2
Average Cummulative Reduction in Pollutant Concentrations
B%8 (H T=! (H T# (H
1;;5 1;;9 1;;: 1;;5 1;;9 1;;: 1;;5 1;;9 1;;:
&acultative #ond
&.S Cell R1
#ond.etland
&.S Cell R0
"nd of &ilter?
;1$5
;2$4
;:$2
;:$9
;;$;
:;$3
;2$:
;5$2
;9$0
!A
:9$0
;5$<
;5$;
!A
!A
::$4
:;$9
;4$5
;9$:
;;$9
:1$0
:3$1
;0$2
;2$9
!A
::$0
;0$5
;4$:
!A
!A
:1$0
:3$9
;0$1
;4$2
;;$;
9<$5
9<$<
:1$3
:5$3
!A
94$1
9;$0
:5$0
!A
!A
strip
#hosphorus re+oval rates decreased the +ost over the three year period (;0$1H to :5$0H$
According to =adlec & =night (1;;5, the startup period for a )etland can e7tend over varying
periods of ti+e, ranging fro+ 1 to 4 years* 8uring this period, perfor+ance for phosphorus
re+oval can *e e7pected to decrease until it reaches a steady state$ Adsorption produces the
highest a+ount of phosphorus re+oval in the initial years of operation$ %nce the adsorption sites
have *een e7hausted, phosphorus re+oval rates start to decrease$
A *etter +ethod of evaluating the true perfor+ance of the treat+ent )etland syste+ is to
deter+ine the pollutant 'inetic re+oval rate constants$ This involves 'eeping trac' of the inlet
and outlet concentrations of each pollutant passing through the syste+ per day$ By developing a
Appendi7 A
data*an' of 'inetic rate constants it not only allo)s for a *etter assess+ent of the syste+Es
perfor+ance, it also facilitates co+parison a+ong syste+s and +ay *e used to deter+ine
para+eters for future designs$
KINETIC RATE CALCULATIONS - METHODOLOGY
The data collected included )ee'ly B%8, T=! and T# concentrations at the outlet of each
lagoon, pond and )etland cell$ &or the purpose of the 'inetic rate constant calculations, the
concentrations of these para+eters )ere assu+ed to vary linearly *et)een sa+ple ti+es$
Concentration values for days )hen sa+ples )ere not ta'en )ere esti+ated (e$g$, the T=!
concentration on -ay 15 )as +easured as 52 +gFL and on -ay 02 )as +easured as 9< +gFLQ
the concentration )as assu+ed to increase *y 1 +gFL each day$
#ollutant concentrations )ere also +easured after rain events in runoff fro+ the cattle e7ercise
yard and at the outlet of the filter strip$ Since there )as li+ited data for these locations, averages
)ere used for the purpose of the calculations$ Using a Ca+p*ell Scientific data logger e>uipped
)ith several gauges, hourly data )as ta*ulated for precipitation, air te+perature, )ater
te+perature and depth of each treat+ent cell$
@nitially, flo) rates *et)een the first &.S )etland cell and the pond )etland, and also *et)een
the second &.S )etland cell and the grass filter )ere +easured using )eirs$ @n 1;;4, it )as
found that de*ris collecting across the / notch could alter the readings$
To perfor+ a )ater *alance on the facultative pond, all inputs and outputs )ere >uantified$
@nputs included pu+ped flo) fro+ the anaero*ic lagoon, runoff fro+ the e7ercise yard and
precipitation$ %utputs included evaporation, e7filtration and pu+ped outflo) to &.S CellR 1$
8ue to lining of the cells )ith re)or'ed clay )ith e7tre+ely lo) per+ea*ility, infiltration )as
assu+ed to *e 6ero for all cells$ Runoff fro+ the feedlot )as esti+ated using the S..-3 runoff
+odule, )hich utili6es the (orton +odel to esti+ate infiltration ((u*er & 8ic'inson, 1;::$
The follo)ing site infor+ation, +easured prior to construction in 1;;2, )as used for the
S.--3 si+ulation, hourly precipitationQ feedlot area (<$94 haQ saturated hydraulic conductivity
(<$02 ++FhrQ asy+ptotic infiltration rate (1< ++FhrQ infiltration decay rate (<$<<114 sec?1Q
average depression storage (5$: ++Q -anningDs roughness coefficient (<$<0Q and average
feedlot slope (<$<1$ %nce the S.-- calculation )as conducted and hourly e7ercise yard runoff
volu+es )ere esti+ated, evapotranspiration )as the only re+aining un'no)n and )as calculated
hourly *y,
"T J # P N#1 ? N#0 P R ? (Sn ? Sn?1 (1
)here, "T
#
N#1
N#0
J evapotranspiration (+2Q
J direct precipitation (+2Q
J #u+ped flo) fro+ anaero*ic lagoon (+2Q
J #u+ped flo) into +arsh R 1 (+2Q
Appendi7 A
= e7p( A
(C CK
R
Sn
Sn?1
J Runoff fro+ cattle e7ercise yard (+2Q
J Storage volu+e in pond at end of hour (+2Q and
J Storage volu+e in pond at end of previous hour (+2$
This value of "T )as then converted into ++Fhr and used for all other treat+ent cells$ &or +arsh
1, the volu+e at each ti+e step )as calculated in the follo)ing +anner,
/1 J /< P # P N#0 ? "T ? N%UT (0
)here, /1
/<
N%UT
(
J the volu+e at the end of the ti+e stepQ
J the volu+e at the *eginning of the ti+e stepQ
J cell outflo), calculated using a /?notch )eir e>uation, N%UT J 3;5:(4F0Q and
J height a*ove )eir (+
The inputs and outputs fro+ the pond )etland and the &.S cellR0 )ere calculated in a si+ilar
fashion$
Linear plug flo) reactor of first order reaction 'inetics )ere used to deter+ine the 'inetic rate
constants for B%8, T=! and T#$ The follo)ing e>uation )as used to deter+ine the first order
volu+etric rate constant for the degradation of the various pollutants,
(C C K
i
v
(2
)here, C
Ci
CK
'v
J concentration of the pollutant, +gFL
J concentration of the pollutant at the inlet, +gFL
J *ac'ground concentration of the pollutant, +gFL
J residence ti+e of a volu+e of )aste)ater in the )etland, days
J the first order volu+etric rate constant for its degradation, days?1
The follo)ing *ac'ground concentrations )ere used in the 'inetic rate constant calculations,
CKB%8 of : +gFL, CKT# of 0 +gFL and CKT! of 1< +gFL )as used for the T=! calculations$ The
values are *ased on reco++ended values *y #ayne "ngineering and C(0- (ill (1;;9 for si6ing
ani+al )aste treat+ent )etlands$ T=! reco++endations )ere not given *y #ayne "ngineering
and C(0- (ill (1;;9 so the total nitrogen (T! values )ere used$
and the hydraulic residence ti+e is given *y,
J AhFN
Appendi7 A
(3
)here,
A
h
N
J )etland porosity (<$;4 for a &.S )etland
J )etland surface area, +0
J average )ater depth, +
J the flo) rate through the )etland, +2Fday
The constant 'v, used in such +odels, can *e related to te+perature using the Arhennius e>uation
as follo)s,
'TJ'0< (T?0< (4
.here, '0<
T
'T
J 'inetic rate constant at 0<<C,
J Arhennius coefficient,
J )ater te+perature, C
J 'inetic rate constant at )ater te+perature T, C
@n this paper, the Arhennius coefficients used )ere 1$<5 for B%8 (Reed et al$ 1;;4, 1$<4 for T!
(=adlec and =night, 1;;5, and 1$<< for T# (=adlec and =night, 1;;5$
KINETIC RATE RESULTS
Ta*le 2 includes, for the period of -ay 02rd to August 09th, 1;;5, the follo)ing infor+ation for
each co+ponent, +ean daily inflo) and outflo) rates, +ean daily te+perature and the 'inetic
re+oval rates for B%8, T=! and T#$
Appendi7 A
Table 3: Su++ary of B%8, T=! and T# +ass *alance (-ay 02, 1;;5 to August 09, 1;;5*
&acultative &.S cell #ond &.S cell %verland
#ond R1 .etland R0 &lo)
-ean daily inflo) rate (+[Fday
-ean daily outflo) rate (+[Fday
-ean daily )ater te+perature (<C
14$4<
01$3;
13$;<
01$3;
14$:2
14$5:
14$:2
3$34
15$9:
3$34
<$<;
15$59
<$<;
<$29
!FA
B%8
-ean daily influent loading ('gFday
-ean daily effluent loading ('gFday
-ean daily re+oval ('gFday
-ean 'inetic rate constant, '0< (yr?1
Load reduction )ithin cell (H
Cu+ulative load reduction (H
0:$;:
3$49
2;$54
3$5
:3$0
:3$0
3$49
0$45
0$03
11$5
32$;
;1$0
0$45
<$1;
0$23
9$4
;0$9
;;$3
<$1:9
<$<<0
<$15<
:$:
;:$9
;;$;
<$<<03
<$<<11
<$<<12
!FA
42
;;$;
T=!
1<$43
0$0<
1<$5;
3$<
9;$0
9;$0
0$0<
1$39
<$4<
4$3
22$0
:5$1
1$39
<$15
1$<:
4$1
::$;
;:$4
<$152
<$<<0
<$122
04$3
;:$9
1<<$<
<$<<01
<$<<1<
<$<<11
!FA
4<$5
1<<$<
T#
1$00
<$2:
<$4;
2$1
5;$0
5;$0
<$2:
<$02
<$1<
:$3
2:$3
:1$<
<$020
<$<0;
<$110
2$4
:9$4
;9$5
<$<0;
<$<<0
<$<1:
15$3
;0$9
;;$:
<$<<<5
<$<<<<
<$<<<5
!FA
;3$<
1<<$<
#ayne "ngineering and C(0- (ill (1;;9 reco++end certain para+eter values for the si6ing of
ani+al )aste treat+ent )etlands$ These reco++ended para+eters are for &.S )etlands and can
only *e co+pared )ith the calculated &.S )etland values for the 8ignard treat+ent syste+$
Based on an operating depth of <$2 + and a porosity of <$;4, #ayne "ngineering and C(0- (ill
(1;;9 reco++end using 99$0, 3;$1, and 0:$1 yr?1 for B%8, T!, and T#, respectively$ The
'inetic rates constants calculated for the 8ignard )etland are lo)er than the values reco++ended
*y #ayne "ngineering and C(0- (ill (1;;9$ The 8ignard values range fro+ 1< to 4:H of the
reco++ended values for si6ing ani+al )aste)ater treat+ent )etlands$ The lo)er values could *e
a result of the longer detention ti+es in the 8ignard syste+ (i$e$, detention ti+e in the facultative
pond is 199 days and :: days in the pond )etland$ Although the 'inetic rate constants )ere
lo)er than anticipated, the )etland syste+ perfor+ed )ell )ith overall re+oval efficiencies
consistently greater than :5H$
Appendi7 A
CONCLUSIONS
The treat+ent perfor+ance of the 8ignard constructed )etland )as high for the 1;;5, 1;;9,
and1;;: seasons$ @n 1;;5, the average B%8, T=!, and T# at the syste+ outlet )ere 2$1 +gFL,
0$:2 +gFL and <$<9 +gFL respectively, )ell *elo) the target levels set at 0< +gFL, 0< +gFL, and
1+gFL$ This represents overall concentration reductions of +ore than ;;$9H for these pollutants
across the treat+ent syste+$ The re+oval rates achieved *y the facultative pond alone )ere
;1$5H, ::$4H, and :1$0H respectively for B%8, T=!, and T#$ (o)ever, it is the )etland cells
and the su*se>uent verland flo) filter )hich allo)ed target levels to *e +et$ @n contrast to B%8
and T=! pollutant reductions, phosphorus reductions percentages decreased over the three years
(;0$1H to :5$0H$ The 8ignard )etland has proven to *e an effective +ethod for treating the
dairy far+ )aste)aters$ &urther studies )ill *e conducted at the )etland to o*serve changes in
phosphorus re+oval efficiencies$
Appendi7 A
R"&"R"!C"S
Gloyna, "$&$ and L$&$ Tischler$ 1;:1$ Reco++endations for regulatory +odifications,
the use of )aste)ater sta*ili6ation pond syste+s$ Sournal .#C& /ol$ 42(11,144;?1452$
(a++er, 8$A$ 1;;3$ Guidelines for design, construction and operation of constructed
)etlands for livestoc' )aste)ater treat+ent$ #roceedings of a )or'shop on constructed
)etlands for ani+al )aste +anage+ent$ #urdue University, Lafayette, @ndiana$
(u*er, .$C$ & R$"$ 8ic'inson$ 1;::$ Stor+ )ater +anage+ent +odel, version 3, userDs
+anual$
=adlec, R$($ & R$L$ =night$ 1;;5$ Treat+ent )etlands$ CRC #ress, Boca Raton,
&lorida$
#ayne "ngineering and C(0- (ill$ 1;;9$ Constructed .etlands for Ani+al .aste
Treat+ent$ A +anual on perfor+ance, 8esign, and %peration )ith Case (istories$
Reed,S$, Crites, R$, and S$ -iddle*roo's, 1;;4$ !atural Syste+s for .aste -anage+ent
and Treat+ent$ 0nd "dition$ -cGra)?(ill, !W$
Appendi7 A
APPENDIX B
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A CONSTRUCTED
WETLAND IN EASTERN ONTARIO
COST-BENEFIT ANALYSIS FOR A CONSTRUCTED WETLAND
IN EASTERN ONTARIO, CANADA
( by: Pierre-Alain Blais and Claude Weil, P.Eng., Alfred College)
Keywords, -anure +anage+ent, 8airy, -anure runoff, Artificial )etland, Constructed )etland,
CostF*enefit analysis, %ntario, Canada$
Summary
%n?far+ constructed )etlands are currently *eing developed as environ+entally sound solutions
to deconta+inate runoff )ater e+anating fro+ +anure storage and feedlot yards$ Although the
efficacy of the )ater treat+ent technology is i+portant, it is also i+portant to evaluate the cost of
i+ple+enting the technology$ This paper presents an analysis of the costs and *enefits associated
)ith the choice of the )etland technology co+pared to using the alternative of spreading the
runoff onto cropland$ This study is *ased on a functional )etland operating since 1;;4 on a dairy
far+ in "astern %ntario$ All the costs of financing, operating and +aintaining the )etland,
including depreciation, have *een ta'en into account to esti+ate the annual cost, )hich is adAusted
to 1;;9 Canadian dollars$
The total annual cost of this structure is esti+ated at \4,00<, )hile the alternative of spreading the
sa+e runoff volu+e on land )ould cost \0,0:5 +ore per year$ Annual depreciation on the
invest+ent represents \0,<14, the interest service is \1,;51, the operation and +aintenance \929
and the loss of crop land is evaluated at \4<9$ A realistic econo+ic lifespan of 2< years has *een
attri*uted to the )etland *ased on co+para*le structures$ %ther co+ponents have *een attri*uted
appropriate econo+ic lifespans$ @n ter+s of pay*ac' period, the initial invest+ent of \43,<;< for
the )etland )ould *e paid in slightly +ore than 9 years$ @t appears that the )etland technology
+ay *e one of the *est lo)?cost choice in %ntario to de?pollute conta+inated far+ runoff )aters
*efore they are allo)ed to re?enter the natural syste+$ A si+ulation of the costs of updating the
e7isting )etland syste+s )ith a nutrient irrigation pad is presented$
Appendi7 B
Introduction
A fe) constructed )etlands have *een put into operation on far+s in recent years in %ntario and
Nu]*ec$ -any +ore are appearing on the dra)ing *oard$ These structures are currently *eing
developed as )ater?treat+ent solutions to either deconta+inate runoff )ater, or to process e7cess
li>uid +anure fro+ large ani+al operations on the far+$ Although the efficacy of the )ater
treat+ent technology is i+portant, it is also i+portant to evaluate the cost of i+ple+enting the
technology$ This paper presents an econo+ic analysis of the costs and *enefits associated )ith
the choice of the )etland technology co+pared to using the typical alternative of spreading the
runoff on cropland$
A surface?flo) )etland syste+ )as constructed in 1;;3 on the 8ignard 8airy &ar+ in "+*run
(%ntario, Canada$ The syste+ )as gradually *rought to full operation during the su++er of
1;;4, after the esta*lish+ent of the e+ergent vegetation$ This type of constructed )etland )as a
first in "astern %ntario, and one of the very fe) )etlands in operation on %ntario far+s$ After
three years of operation, perfor+ance of the )etland have +et all e7pectations$ Clean )aters
fro+ the finishing strip and +eado) are allo)ed to renter the environ+ent into the near*y strea+
at the end of the treat+ent process$
The purpose of the 8ignard )etland syste+ is to treat runoff )aters fro+ three distinct sources
on the far+$ &ar+stead runoff is no) +ore often recognised as an environ+ental concern,
especially )ith the increase in the si6e of ani+al operations$ Although the runoff )aters are only
slightly conta+inated, the sheer volu+e that is produced annually poses a potential ha6ard to
a>uatic syste+s, especially since average rainfall in the region reach al+ost ;<< ++ per year$
The alternative for the o)ners, that )ould also *e accepta*le to the conservation of the
environ+ent, )ould have *een to spread very large volu+es of diluted )aste)aters onto the land$
This paper analyses the costs and *enefits associated )ith the choice of )etland technology,
co+pared )ith the alternative of spreading runoff )aters onto the land$
THE DIGNARD CONSTRUCTED WETLAND
The 8ignard )etland essentially acts as a natural )ater treat+ent process that re+oves pollutants
fro+ the runoff )aters e+anating fro+ three distinct sources on the far+, all related to ani+al
production$ The conta+inated )aste)aters co+e fro+,
(i runoff fro+ a solid +anure pileQ
(ii +il'house )ash)atersQ and
(iii stor+)ater runoff fro+ a <$94 ha feedlot yard$
Appendi7 B
Before the )etland syste+ )as put into service in 1;;4, runoff fro+ the solid +anure pile )as
stored in a earthen lagoon and periodically spread on cropland$ The runoff fro+ the feedlot )as
si+ply not collected$
The o)ners )anted a syste+ that )ould efficiently treat all the runoff )aters, saving the costs
associated )ith their handling and spreading on land, )hile creating a naturally appealing
environ+ent close to the far+stead$ The syste+ has *een designed for a dairy operation
co+posed of appro7i+ately 1;< ani+al units$ The feedlot yard is used *y only 5< heifers$
The 8ignard average herd is co+posed of 1<< co)s, and 154 heifers of )hich
? 5< are of age <?3 +onths,
? 2< are of age 3?9 +onths, and
? 94 have : +onths and +ore$
Description of the Dignard Constructed Wetland
The )etland syste+ is designed to operate during the gro)ing season of the a>uatic plants,
usually fro+ early -ay to the end of Septe+*er$ 8uring the rest of the year, the runoff is stored
in an earthen storage lagoon$ The lagoon is si6ed such as to store all the runoff and precipitation
)aters over the )inter period$ As )ell as providing so+e pri+ary treat+ent, it acts as a *uffer,
regulating the flo) during the su++er +onths, especially )hen dry )eather could co+pro+ise
the level of )ater in the shallo) )etland cells, )ith adverse effects on the e+ergent vegetation$ A
facultative pond follo)s in line, fed *y a transfer pu+p fro+ the lagoon$ This pond plays a vital
role in decreasing the high *iological o7ygen de+and (B%8 and total nutrients (T! of the
lagoon )ater that could other)ise har+ the )etland plants$
Then, during the gro)ing season, )aste )ater fro+ the facultative pond are fed to a first shallo)
emergent mars1 (1<?14 c+ deep densely filled )ith cattails$ &ro+ that point in the syste+, all
flo)s proceed *y gravity$ .aste)aters are allo)ed to enter an aerobic pond (9< c+ deep at the
end of the first +arsh, )hich is follo)ed *y a second emergent mars1 also densely covered )ith
cattails$ An overland /lo' s!stem (a filter strip polishes the effluent fro+ the second )etland
cell$ Runoff )aters, no) essentially pure, are then free to flo) to)ard the near*y cree' via a
ditch$
Transfer fro+ the lagoon to the facultative pond, and fro+ the facultative pond to the first +arsh
is done *y t)o electric pu+ps installed in covered +anholes, and auto+atically activated *y
electric ti+ers$ A distri*ution line, +ade of plastic plu+*ing parts, spread the inco+ing flo)
evenly to the front of the first e+ergent +arsh$ The )etland syste+ in itself, along )ith its *er+s,
occupies slightly +ore than one hectare$
Appendi7 B
8@R"CT C%!STRUCT@%! C%STS (.eil, 1;;5Re+oval of topsoilAug$
;2\0,325Re+oval of topsoilSuly ;3\0,2;9"7cavation of facultative pondSuly
;3\3,:14(auling of soil fro+ facultative pondSuly ;3\3,094Shaping the cells,
*er+s and replacing topsoilSuly to Sept$ ;3\13,1:<Cost of nursery stoc' plants to
vegetate the cellsSune ;4\0,4<<T%TAL \2<,5<2
CONSTRUCTION COSTS OF THE DIGNARD WETLAND
The largest costs )ere incurred )ith e7cavation, hauling of soil and shaping of the )etland cells$
Topsoil had first to *e re+oved and piled to the side of the construction site$ "7cavation of the
facultative pond *egan in the fall of 1;;2, and )as finished in the su++er of 1;;3$ The su*soil
fro+ the e7cavation )as hauled *y truc's in position to raise the future cells, and to erect the
*er+s$ Shaping of the )etland cells, and replace+ent of the topsoil follo)ed in late su++er
1;;3$ A>uatic plants fro+ nursery stoc's )ere planted the follo)ing spring, to vegetate the cells
*efore the syste+ )as allo)ed to slo)ly *egin treat+ent for the re+ainder of su++er 1;;4$
Repair )or' )as also done on the structure in 1;;4, prior to the launch$ The )etland syste+ has
no) *een functioning fla)lessly since 1;;4$ The professional costs to research, design,
coordination, and supervision of this construction proAect, as )ell as to plant the cells, are not
included in this schedule, as they )ere offered in 'ind *y the +any partners$ (o)ever, typical
engineering fees and supervision charges +ust *e included to the construction costs, for a realistic
analysis$
Repairs made in 1995
So+e repairs )ere re>uired after the first )inter$ The facultative pond needed an e7tra *er+, and
so+e reshaping )as done *et)een the cells (\1544$ The vegetation on the finishing filter strip
had to *e re?esta*lished t)iceQ uneven settling and too shallo) a slope causing severe ponding$
The reshaping of this area cost \1490$ Total repairs in 1;;4 a+ounted to \2009 (.eil, 1;;5$
Appendi7 B
Flow control systems
T)o pu+ping stations are located )ithin the )etland syste+$ These stations are +anholes +ade
of ;<< ++ polyethylene tu*es laid on concrete *ases, covered )ith loc'ed steel covers$ "ach
+anhole har*ours an electric pu+p, controlled *y 03?hr ti+er, and connected to a #/C pipe$ A
separate electrical service fro+ the far+ (1<< a+ps had to *e provided, raising the costs
su*stantially$ .eirs are /?notched panels placed at the end of each cell to regulate the flo)
through the syste+$
The t)o su*+ersi*le effluent pu+ps are (# (ydro+atic +odel %S#22 that have *een rated at
a*out ; +2Fhr$ Although actual retail price to far+ers is \324 each (#ers$ Co++, !ov$ 1;;9,
they )ere *ought at a*out \2<< each in 1;;4$
&L%. C%!TR%L SWST"- C%STS ? 1;;4 (.eil, 1;;5
-anholes, geote7tile, riprap, and *ac'hoe
#ipe )or' and )eirs
"lectrical contract
T)o (# electrical pu+ps
T%TALS
\0,493
\0,035
\0,449
\5<<
\9,;99
Typical engineering charges
Since the 8ignard .etland *uilt as a prototype artificial )etland, special technical and scientific
studies had to *e perfor+ed *y the professional staff at CollYge dEAlfred and the South !ation
River Conservation Authority$ These professional charges are not nor+ally incurred$
!evertheless, every constructed )etland +ust *e custo+ designed, the soil evaluated and proper
plans and per+its ac>uired$ !or+al engineering fees and *uilding site supervision +ust *e
esti+ated and *uilt into the construction costs$ Based on a si+ilar )etland constructed in the
-ontr]al (Nc area, professional fees, including design and supervision, )ere esti+ated at 04H of
the construction *udget$
SU--ARW %& C%!STRUCT@%! C%STS
Appendi7 B
8irect construction costs
Repairs +ade in 1;;4
&lo) control syste+s
Actual construction costs
P 8esign & supervision (04H
T%TAL construction costs
\2<,5<2
\2,009
\9,;99
\31,:<9
\1<,340
\40,04;
Actualisation of the construction costs
To esta*lish the proper *asis for co+parison, all costs incurred in previous years have to *e
adAusted to 1;;9 dollars$ Since agricultural services and goods do not generally follo) very
closely the co+posite price inde7 (valid for consu+ers goods, the *est approach is to deter+ine
)hat )ould have *een the cost of construction of the sa+e syste+ in 1;;9, in "astern %ntario$
Updated +achinery costs )ere o*tained fro+ the sa+e contractor$ The )eighed increase of costs
fro+ 1;;2?3 is only 0$;H$ All construction costs )ere updated using this increase (ne7t Ta*le,
e7cept for so+e specific costs (li'e the pu+ps, and designFsupervision charge for )hich specific
values are 'no)n$
A8SUST-"!T %& C%!STRUCT@%! C%STS &%R 1;;9
%riginal costs AdAust+ent
factor
Costs
1;;9
8irect construction costs
Repairs +ade in 1;;4
\2<,5<2
\2,009
0$;H
0$;H
\21,3;<
\2,201
&lo) control syste+s,
Construction +aterials
#lu+*ing, piping, )eirs
"lectrical
#u+ps
Actual construction costs
P 8esign & supervision (04H
Total costs,
\0,493
\0,035
\0,449
\5<<
\31,:<9
\1<,340
\40,04;
0$;H
0$;H
0$;H
1;;9 price
\0,53;
\0,211
\0,521
\:9<
\32,090
\1<,:1:
\43,<;<
ANNUAL COST OF THE WETLAND SYSTEM OPERATION
Appendi7 B
The annual cost of financing, operating and +aintaining the )etland syste+ )as calculated as
follo)s$ The initial capital invest+ent )as *ro'en do)n into co+ponents, each assigned a
realistic depreciation schedule$ @nterests on the capital invest+ent have also *een calculated *ased
on current %ntario far+ lending interest rate in late 1;;9$ Annual operating costs )ere esti+ated
for the +aintenance of pu+ps and *er+s$ %nce every 1< years, each of the t)o shallo) +arsh
cells )ould also have to *e cleaned up, hi'ing the annual costs further$
Depreciation of system components
@n order to calculate the annual capital cost to o)ning the )etland syste+, its initial construction
costs, adAusted to 1;;9, +ust *e *ro'en do)n into si+ilar co+ponents, )hich are assigned an
esti+ated econo+ic lifespan (useful life$ Since constructed )etlands are still a novelty in Canada,
no genuine e7perience is availa*le on their actual rate of degradation )ith the passing years$
Although it +ay possi*ly *e 4< years *efore the present )etland e7ceeds its useful life, especially
if routine +aintenance are duly perfor+ed, a realistic and conservative econo+ic lifespan +ust *e
assigned$ An esti+ated lifespan for the )etland syste+ has therefore *een derived fro+
co+para*le structures such as earth lagoons and *er+s$ -anure platfor+s, runoff storage
lagoons and silos all have *een traditionally assigned an econo+ic life of 2< years (CRÂN,
1;;1$ Therefore, a conservative useful life for the )etland has *een set to 2< years$
So+e concerns +ay arise as to the accu+ulation of phosphorus co+pounds at the *otto+ of the
)etland cells, )hich +ay ha+per the #?re+oval effectiveness after a period of operation$ @t is
*elieved that the periodic dredging of the first shallo) cell )ill replenish the adsorption capacity
of the syste+, and e7tend the useful life of the syste+$
The pu+ps, plu+*ing net)or' and )eirs )ere assigned an econo+ic lifespan of 1< years, *ased
on co+para*le far+ing e>uip+ent$ Air pistons used to stac' +anure onto platfor+s and ro)crop
sprayers have econo+ic life esti+ated at 1< years (CRÂN, 1;;1$ "lectrical syste+ )as given
the sa+e lifespan as in far+ *uildings serviced *y electricity, 2< years (CRÂN, 1;;1$
The depreciation +ethod used is the straight?line +ethod, )hich is +ost co++only used for far+
+anage+ent purposes$ The capital invest+ent is divided into e>ual annual depreciation a+ounts$
Salvage or residual values are not considered, since these )ere esti+ated to *e less than 1<H of
the *ase costs ((er*st, 1;:<$
Appendi7 B
8"#R"C@AT@%! SC("8UL" &%R CA#@TAL C%ST
AdAusted
Cost 1;;9
Useful life
(years
Annual
depreciation
Construction costs \3:,09: 2< \1,5<;
incl$ design & supervision
"lectrical syste+
#iping, )eirs, and pu+ps
Totals,
\0,521
\2,1:1
\43,<;<
2<
1<
\::
\21:
\0,<14
Interests on the capital investment
The costs of financing the structure, the annual interest cost, have *een *ased on the current
(!ov$ 1;;9 lending rates for +id?ter+ agricultural loans$ Such loans )ere negotiating at 9$04H
for a 4?year ter+, and :$04H for 1< years in !ove+*er 1;;9$ The 4?year ter+ rate (9$04H )as
selected *ecause this is considered a short to +id?ter+ invest+ent$
@nterests on invest+ent J 1F0 capital cost _ interest rate
AdAusted construction costs (1;;9 to finance, \43,<;<
Annual interest, \43,<;<F0 _ 9$04H J \1,;51
Annual operating costs
Annual operating costs co+prise the electric consu+ption of the t)o pu+ps, a reasona*le annual
+aintenance of the *er+s and grass cutting, the dredging of the first )etland +arsh every decade
and a +aAor overhaul of the runoff distri*ution pipe )or' also every decade$
The total nu+*er of )or'ing hours for the t)o (# pu+ps has *een esti+ated fro+ the operation
schedule (.eil, 1;;5,
#u+p R1, 1:0 hFyear _ 12 A+ps _ 114 /oltsF1<<< J 090 '.h
#u+p R0, 535 hFyear _ 12 A+ps _ 114 /oltsF1<<< J ;55 '.h
T)o pu+ps per year J 102: '.h ` <$<5 \F'.h J 93 \Fyear
"very year, the s+all +aintenance of the *er+s involving one far+ average tractor and one
operator de+ands 2 hours plus \1<< supplies$ "very year, t)o grass cuttings on the *er+s, on
the filter strip and on the *uffer 6one de+and 2 hours$ Tractor costs set at 54\Fhr$
5 hrsFyear _ 54 \Fhr J \2;<Fyear P 1<<\ supplies
Appendi7 B
A!!UAL %#"RAT@%! A!8
-A@!T"!A!C"%perationsAnnual
costs#u+ps\93Routine +aintenance and grass
cutting\3;<8redging first shallo)
cell\;:-aAor +aintenance every
decade\94Wearly total\929
Total for routine yearly +aintenance J 3;< \Fyear
"very 1< years, the design para+eters call for the dredging of the first shallo) )etland cell to
+aintain its original grade$ This can *e done )ithout stopping the syste+, *y dredging one?half
of the surface, in strips across the flo) direction, one year, doing the other half the ne7t year$
This )ay the )ell esta*lished cattails can easily recoloni6e the stripped area, )ithout +uch loss in
efficiency$ A high hoe )ith long a reach can *e positioned on the side *er+s and drag a*out 1<
c+ thic' of sedi+ents (along )ith cattails ste+s fro+ e>ually spaced strips$ The dredged
+aterial could then *e piled and left to dry up and co+post for a )hile, a)aiting to *e spread onto
land )ith the +anure at a later ti+e$ (ourly rate for long reach high hoe for the )or' are
esti+ated at \14<Fhr$ %ne du+p truc' at \34Fhr is also re>uired for the sa+e ti+e$ Ti+e to
perfor+ the dredging (1242 +0 is esti+ated at a*out 4 hours total for the )hole cell$
(igh hoe, 4 hrs _ 14< \Fhr J \94<
8u+p truc', 4 hrs _ 34 \Fhr J \004
Total to dredge the shallo) cell J \;94 every 1< years or ;: \Fyear
Also every 1< years, a*out 1< hours )or' )ith a 5< ($#$ far+ tractor (plus one operator to do
s+all repairs on the *er+s$ This includes ti+e to replace the plastic distri*ution pipe for a*out
\1<< of +aterials$
1< hrs _ 54 \Fhr J \54< P \1<< +aterials
Total for +aAor +aintenance J \94< per 1< years or 94 \Fyear
Loss of land base
8ignard C$.$ occupies 1$104 hectare (0$: ac, including the *er+s, *ut e7cluding the )ider than
necessary central alley *et)een the cells, that )as custo+ised to the producerDs needs$ %n that
area of pri+e cropping land, the o)ner cannot gro) profita*le crops$ An average crop loss *ased
on typical crops for dairy operations in the region )as used to esti+ated the loss revenues on the
Appendi7 B
L%SS R"/"!U" %! T(" CR%#LA!8 %CCU#@"8 BW T(" ."TLA!8Crop1
Wield 1;;51
Unit value1
Unit revenue
per acre%perating
0
e7pensesGross +argin
per acregrain corn11: *uFac2$;< \F*u35< \Fac\031\01;soy*eans30 *uFac1<$<0 \F*u301
\Fac\101\2<<*arley43$: *uFac2$30 \F*u1:9 \Fac\11;\5:alfalfa hay0$2 tonsFac:4$1<
\Fton1;5 \Fac\4:\12:1 0
Sources, %-A&RA 1;;9?1Q %-A&RA 1;;9?0 Average gross +argin, \1:1Fac
)etland area$ The average gross +argin per acre is evaluated at \1:1 per acre in 1;;9$ &or 0$:
ac, this represents \4<9 for loss revenues$
Total annual costs of the wetland system
All reasona*le costs associated )ith o)ning, depreciating, financing have *een converted on a
yearly *asis$ The total annual costs is esti+ated at \4,00<$
T%TAL A!!UAL C%STS
of the 8ignard .etland
Annual depreciation
@nterest on capital invest+ent
%peration and +aintenance
Loss of crop land
Total annual costs ? in 1;;9 \
\0,<14
\1,;51
\929
\4<9
\4,00<
Appendi7 B
ALTERNATIVE FOR COST-BENEFIT COMPARISON
.ithout the present )etland syste+, the o)ner )ould have to resort to another solution
accepta*le to the environ+ental regulations$ Currently, spreading the nutrient?laden runoff on
crop land is the only other legal )ay of disposal$ @n the a*sence of the )etland to treat all the
effluents, these )ould have to *e stored in storage structures for a certain ti+e, and periodically
spread *y a contractor$ The o)ner )ould have to ac>uire e7pensive e>uip+ent and spend
e7tended ti+e )hich he does not have, if he )ere to do it *y hi+self$
Runoff fro+ the solid +anure platfor+ to )hich is added the +il'house )aste)aters, )ould *e
stored in the e7isting lagoon for a reasona*le storage ti+e$ The runoff fro+ the feedlot yard
)ould have to *e stored in a separate ne) lagoon to *e properly si6ed, financed and constructed$
Therefore, the )etland syste+ actually includes the facultative pond (and its associated feed
pu+p, )here significant pri+ary treat+ent is perfor+ed on the runoff )aters$ The spreading
alternative )ould include the ne) lagoon and any i+prove+ents re>uired on the e7isting one to
+a'e it confor+ to the +ini+u+ storage period$
Estimated volumes of runoff generated annually
The volu+e of )aste)ater has *een esti+ated fro+ the design para+eters (.eil et al, 1;;3$
"ST@-AT"8 A!!UAL RU!%&& /%LU-"S T% B" S#R"A8
-anure runoff (fro+ 1<9: +0 storage areaFyear
-il'house )ash )ater (tie stall, pipelineF year
Runoff fro+ <$94 ha e7ercise yard
!et precipitation volu+e on e7isting lagoon
!et precipitation volu+e on e7ercise lagoon
T%TAL,
223 +2Fyear
419 +2Fyear
0205
+2Fyear
09< +2Fyear
1;: +2Fyear
2534
+2Fyear
Cost of spreading the annual runoff volumes
The total volu+e of runoff to *e spread is 2534 +2Fyear (:<0,<<< galsFyear$ Typical rates
charged *y li>uid +anure haulers in "astern %ntario in 1;;9 are \9 per 1<<< gals for fields less
than 0 '+ fro+ lagoon$ The rate cli+*s to \1< per 1<<< gals for fields fro+ 0 to 5 '+ (#ers$
Appendi7 B
Co++, !ov$ 1;;9$ Supposing that half the volu+e )ould *e spread )ithin 0 '+ of the lagoons,
the annual costs of spreading the runoff is esti+ated as follo)s,
:<0,<<< gals F 0 K \9F1<<< gals J 0:<9 \Fyear
:<0,<<< gals F 0 K \1<F1<<< gals J 3<1< \Fyear
Total annual spreading costs, \0,:<9 P \3,<1< J 5:19 \Fyear
Cost of expanding/excavating lagoons
The e7isting earthen storage lagoon ne7t to the +anure platfor+ has *een e7panded *y 154 +2$ A
ne) earthen storage lagoon (1223 +2 )ill also have to *e dug close to the feedlot yard to collect
the runoff$ "7cavating costs for the earthen storage lagoons )ere esti+ated using the sa+e rates
as used during the construction of the )etland$ A >uotation )as o*tained fro+ an e7perienced
contractor$ The e7pansion )ould de+and no +ore than 4 hours of +achinery ti+e )ith a high
hoe, )hile the ne) lagoon )ould re>uire an esti+ated 4< hours of high hoe and a *ulldo6er (at
\1<<Fhr to finish shaping the *er+s$ The e7cavated +aterials )ould *e spread around the ne)
lagoon to *er+ it$ @t is custo+ary for si6ing calculations fees to *e included in the +achinery
ti+e$ A 4E high chain lin' safety fence that include gates )ith latches is re>uired around the
lagoon ((il*orn, 1;;4, and current costs esti+ation have *een o*tained fro+ a custo+ installer
in %tta)a$
-achinery ti+e, 44 hrs _ 1<< \Fhr J \44<<
&ence, \33<<
Total, \;;<<
The annual depreciation )ould *e *ased on 2< years li'e the )etland,
Annual depreciation, \;;<< F 2< years J 22< \Fyear
The interest on capital costs is calculated using the sa+e rate as for the )etland,
@nterests on invest+ent J 1F0 capital cost _ interest rate
Lagoons construction costs to finance, \;;<<
Annual interest, \;;<< F 0 _ 9$04H J \24;
Appendi7 B
"ST@-AT"8 A!!UAL C%ST %& ST%R@!G
A!8 S#R"A8@!G T(" RU!%&&
Annual spreading costs
Annual depreciation on lagoon
storage
Average interests on capital
invest+ent
T%TAL
\5,:19
\22<
\24;
\9,4<5
PARTIAL BUDGET
Results for this cost?*enefits analysis can *e su++arised using a partial *udget for+at, )hich is
co++only used in far+ +anage+ent, to evaluate the financial i+plications of a proposed change
on the profita*ility of the *usiness$ This particular for+at is adapted fro+ (er*st (1;:<$
Proposed change, The situation is a dairy producer that has to spread large volu+es of runoff
)aters *y a custo+ operator$ The alternative is to add a )etland to treat the conta+inated runoff
)aters, saving on spreading costs$ The runoff )ere stored in lagoons$
Modifications in manpower needs, !o changes, since the )or' is perfor+ed *y a contractor$
Modifications in the investments, The construction of the )etland is the +aAor invest+ent$
Appendi7 B
#ART@AL BU8G"T
Add an artificial )etland instead of custo+ spreading (on an annual *asisAdditional costs ,
.etland
a$ 8epreciated construction costs, \0<14
*$ @nterests on invest+ent, \1;51
c$ %peration and +aintenance costs, \929
Total, \3912Additional returns,Reduced returns,
e$ Land area unusa*le for crops, \4<9Reduced costs, !o +ore custo+ spreading
a$ Spreading *y tan'ers \5:19
*$ Construction of lagoons \22<
c$ @nterests on invest+ent, \24;
Total, \94<5(A Total annual additional costs and reduced
returns,
\3912 P \4<9 J \400<(B Total annual additional returns and
reduced costs,
\94<5!et change in inco+e (B +inus A,\00:5Notes: There is an i+prove+ent in inco+e fro+
the adoption of the )etland technology that is
to replace the custo+ spreading of large volu+es of runoff )aters$
DISCUSSION
The total annual cost of o)ning, depreciating and operating the )etland syste+ in 1;;9 Canadian
dollars has *een esti+ated at \400<, )hile the alternative of spreading the sa+e runoff volu+e on
land using a contractor )ould costs \94<5$ Thus, the alternative situation )ould *e 33H +ore
e7pensive$ @n other )ords, the construction of this )etland saves the far+er \00:5 every year, or
al+ost \9<<<< after 2< years of the useful life of the )etland$
The )etland pays for itself >uite rapidly considering the costs of spreading and can *e evaluated
*y the pay*ac' period for the invest+ent in the )etland,
#ay*ac' period J total costs F annual cost of spreading
J \43,<;< F \9,4<5Fyear J 9$0 years
Thus, the +aAor invest+ent re>uired *y constructing the )etland )ill *e paid *ac' shortly after
the first 9 years of operation$
Appendi7 B
Ratios analysis
The costs of the )etland can *e e7pressed as a function of chosen para+eters li'e the si6e of the
)etland, the si6e of the herd, or the volu+e of runoff )ater to *e annually treated$
%n a per?hectare *asis, Total )etland invest+ent F area of )etland (ha
J \43,<;< F 1$104 ha J \3:,1<< per hectare (\Cdn ? 1;;9
%n a per?acre *asis, Total )etland invest+ent F area of )etland (ac
J \43,<;< F 0$9: ac J \1;,4<< per acre (\Cdn ? 1;;9
%n a per?1<<< gallons *asis, Total )etland invest+ent F total annual volu+e of runoff
J \43,<;< F :<0,<<< gals J \59 per 1<<< gals (\Cdn ? 1;;9
%n a per?ani+al *asis, Total )etland invest+ent F nu+*er of ani+al units
J \43,<;< F 1;< a$u$ J \0:4 per ani+al unit (\Cdn ? 1;;9
Non-financial returns
The e7istence of the )etland also *rings *enefits that are difficult to esta*lish in financial ter+s,
*ut are nonetheless i+portant hu+an aspects$ @ndeed, the o)ners enAoy an a>uatic setting a+idst
their far+stead that dra)s +any species of )ildflo)ers and ani+als, including )aterfo)ls$ @t also
is *eing used as a rela7ation place, )here one can forget for a privileged +o+ent the stressful
necessities of +anaging a +odern far+ operation$ %ne also does not have to coordinate the
custo+ )or' operations into his crop +anage+ent$
CONCLUSIONS
The choice of the )etland technology has *een the *est econo+ical choice, *ecause it allo)s the
far+er to save a su*stantial a+ount of +oney over the alternative of spreading$ And this is
evident )ithout considering other factors such as the >uality of life *rought *y the aesthetic value
of the )etland and the reduced stress of having to negotiate )ith +anure haulers for ti+ing of
their operations and pricing$
Appendi7 B
SIMULATION OF COSTS FOR A MODIFIED WETLAND WITH WEEPING BEDS
-ore recent )etland syste+s are no) *uilt )ith shorter treat+ent cells, that allo) a part of the
nutrients to leave the )etland and *e spread onto crop land$ A design li'e this, )ith finishing
irrigation pads, ensures the reduction of *acteria and allo)s the recycling of part of the nutrients
that other)ise )ould *e i++o*ilised in the )etland cells$ These finishing *eds are usually planted
to non?food crops or trees$ They also act as *uffers, preventing the accidental overflo) of the
)etland syste+ during rainstor+ events that +ay allo) e7cessive nutrients and *acteria release
into the environ+ent$
%ne )ould re>uire a co+plete design to esti+ate precisely their costs$ (o)ever, it has *een
esti+ated that the +odified )etland design )ould save a*out \4<<< on the original construction
costs of the 8ignard )etland$ The irrigation pipe )or' )ould re>uire an additional invest+ent,
pro*a*ly including a third pu+ping station, )hich +ay roughly costs a further \1<<<$
Construction costs for the )etland )ould have *een \3<<< less, +a'ing it a s+aller invest+ent *y
9H$
A s+aller )etland syste+ )ould have occupied a s+aller land *ase$ Supposing that the )etland is
0<H s+aller, it )ould allo) a s+aller loss in crop revenues of \1<< per year (0<H _ \4<9$ @n
addition, a part of the nutritional value of the runoff )ould *e i++ediately returned to crop land,
further i+proving the profita*ility of the )etland syste+$
@t is apparent fro+ the discussion, that the profita*ility of the )etland syste+s can *e further
i+proved *y designing the+ s+aller, allo)ing the final treat+ent of the runoff )ater *y land
irrigation$
Appendi7 B
REFERENCES
CollYge dDAlfred$ 1;;9$ 9ignard Arti/icial Wetland$ @nteri+ Report 1;;5, Wear 0 of %peration,
8raft$ South !ation River Conservation Authority$ CollYge dDAlfred de lDUniversit] de Guelph$
CRÂN$ 1;;1$ Hvaluation* Mac1inerie# bItisses et JFuipement$ Le Co+it] de r]f]rences
]cono+i>ues en agriculture du Nu]*ec$ Agde7 :03F:04$ -ars 1;;1$
(er*st, S$($ 1;:< $ -arm Management8 Principles# &udgets and Plans$ 4th Revised "dition$
Stipes #u*lishing Co$ Cha+paign, @ll$ 0:: pp$
(il*orn, 8onald$ 1;;4$ .torage o/ 5iFuid Manure$ %-A&RA &actsheet no$ ;3?<;9, Agde7
901$
%-A&RA (1$ 1;;9$ Ontario Principal -ield Crop .tatisticsK Area# Production and -arm
+alue# Ontario b! Count!# 1996$ @nternet docu+ent
Lurl, http,FF)))$gov$on$caF%-A&RAFenglishFstatsFcropsM
%-A&RA (0$ 1;;9$ Crop &udgets$ #u*lication 5<$
%-A&RA$ 1;;3$ Agricultural Pollution Control Manual$ Chap$ Si6ing Storages$ %ntario
-inistry of Agriculture, &ood and Rural Affairs
.eil, Claude, .illia+ =ollaard, @an -alco+ and %livier &an'hauser$ 1;;9$ Constructed
Wetlands /or t1e Breatment o/ -armstead Runo// in 0astern Ontario# Canada$ #aper presenter
to the &ourth @nternational 8airy (ousing Conference, St$ Louis, -o$ Sanuary 0:?2<, 1;;:$
.eil, Claude, .illia+ =ollaard, @an -alco+ and Leslie /anclief$ 1;;5$ 9ignard Arti/icial
Wetland8 1997 Cear-end Report* A report on t1e construction and monitoring program 199$-
1997* South !ation River Conservation Authority, CollYge dEAlfred, %ntario -inistry of
Agriculture, &ood and Rural Affairs$
.eil, Claude, .illia+ =ollaard and ^ric Tousignant$ 1;;3$ 9esign Report* Arti/icial Wetland -
9ignard -arm# 0mbrun (On%$ %ntario -inistry of the "nviron+ent and "nergy, CollYge
dEAlfred, %ntario -inistry of Agriculture, &ood and Rural Affairs$
Appendi7 B
APPENDIX C
VILLAGE OF ALFRED DEMONSTRATION PRO1ECT
(CASE STUDY)
VILLAGE OF ALFRED DEMONSTRATION PRO1ECT
(by: Claude Weil, P.Eng, Olivier Fankhauser and Sarah Hurd, Alfred College)
Introduction
The /illage of Alfred is located so+e 04 '+ )est of the To)n of (a)'es*ury in "astern %ntario$
The /illage is ho+e to Alfred College of the University of Guelph and has a total population of
appro7i+ately 14<< people$ The /illageDs sanitary se)age is currently treated *y a 0 cell se)age
lagoon that discharge to the A6itica *roo' in the spring$ The lagoon cells )ere constructed in the
early 9<Ds and have surpassed their design capacity$ &urther+ore the A6itica *roo' no longer has
the assi+ilative capacity for the e7isting flo)s, yet alone any proposed increase$ 8ue to these
reasons, the /illage engaged the Services of Stantec Consulting and Alfred College to underta'e
an environ+ental assess+ent study to loo' at alternative treat+ent syste+s$ #art of the study
includes loo'ing at constructed )etland technology, co+*ined )ith post )etland phosphorous
treat+ent to allo) for continuous su++er discharge to the *roo'$ The follo)ing is therefore a
*rief description of the pilot proAect that is currently under)ay to study the )etland and post
)etland polishing alternative$ The )etland syste+ *egan operating in the su++er of 1;;; and
)ill *e +onitored over the ne7t fe) years$
Alfred Wetland
The pilot constructed )etland syste+ has *een designed to handle at least 4H of the flo) entering
the Alfred +unicipal lagoons, thus appro7i+ately 01,<<< +2 per year$ The purpose of the proAect
is to i+prove and test the design of a constructed )etland and to co+pare t)o +ethods of post?
)etland polishing, vegetative filter strip and phosphorus adsorption filters$
The design of the constructed )etland is si+ilar to the one Alfred College and -c!eely
"ngineering (no) Stantec Consulting *uilt in "+*run, %ntario in 1;;3$ The Alfred -unicipal
)etland is a free?)ater surface three cell )etland syste+, co+posed of a )etlandFpondF)etland$
The )etlands are shallo) *asins (1<?0< c+ operating )ater depth )ith densely gro)ing
vegetation$ The pond is a <$5 ? <$94 + deep pond )etland, )ithout any vegetation$
Appendi7 C
Figure 1: Co+ponents of the researchFde+onstration proAect
The )etland *egan operating during the su++er of 1;;;$
Option 1
Overland Filter
Wetland
Option 2
Filter
Return
To
Lagoon
Lagoon
Option 3
Filter
Three scenarios as depicted in &igure 0 are currently *eing studied
%ption 1 .etland P%verland &lo) P Adsorption &ilters
%ption 0 .etland PAdsorption &ilters
%ption 2 Adsorption &ilters
All the treated wastewater is returned to the lagoons during the research work. There is no
direct discharge to a stream.
The design of the Alfred )etland is *ased on the follo)ing assu+ptions,
1$ the constructed )etland treats the lagoon effluent fro+ -ay 14th to Septe+*er 0:th (125 days
0$ the )etland is designed to treat 4H of the lagoon effluent, thus appro7i+ately 01,333 +2Fyr$
Appendi7 C
2$ design criteria are the follo)ing, B%84 loading rate of 1<< 'gFhaFday, nitrogen loading rate of
2 'gFhaFday and a retention ti+e of appro7i+ately 14 days$ This gave the follo)ing results$
01,333 +2 treated fro+ -ay 14th to Septe+*er 0:th
treat+ent flo)
re>uired area )ith a B%84 influent of 14+gFL
re>uired area )ith a nitrogen influent of 0< +gFL
re>uired area for a retention ti+e of 14 days
J 125 days
J 14: +2Fday
J 029 +0 (<$<0 ha
J 1<,410 +0 (1$<4 ha
J 9,::3 +0 (<$9; ha
The a*ove loading rates )ere used to deter+ine a preli+inary si6e for the constructed )etland$ A
+ore precise re>uired area )as deter+ined using plug?flo) 'inetics$
=adlec and =night (1;;5 analy6ed the data fro+ the !orth A+erican Treat+ent Syste+
8ata*ase (!A8B, a syste+ developed to provide a >uantitative *asis for the planning and
designing ne) syste+s$ Based on this analysis, para+eter values )ere developed for the plug
flo) +odel (B%84, TSS, !?!(3, T!, T# and &aecal Colifor+s$ The +odel )as cali*rated for
the influent and effluent concentrations indicated in Ta*le 1 and the areal rate constants )ere
co+puted for an average su++er te+perature of 19$5 OC$ Total nitrogen )as esti+ated to *e
roughly e>ual to T=! (there are li+ited a+ounts of nitrates and nitrites co+pared to T=!$ The
resulting area is <$94 ha and is *ased on the area re>uire+ent to satisfy total nitrogen criteria$
Bable 18 Area calculations based on t1e plug-/lo' model and NA9& data
TSS BOD TP TN Norg N-NH4 FC
Influent (mg/l)
Target effluent (mg/l)
Wetland background (mg/l)
Areal rate constant (m/yr)
Required area (ha)
:<
1:
19$9
1<<<
<
14
4
3$2
23
<$34
1
<$4
<
10
<$23
0<
5
1$4
11
0.75
14
2$4
1$4
14
<$90
4
1$4
<
15
<$30
1<<<<<
24<
2<<
94
<$49
!ote, &CJ&ecal Colifor+s (concentration in 1<< per +l$
(a++erDs criteria of 2'g T=!FhaFday is too restrictive and )as *ased on conservative
assu+ptions due to a lac' of data at the ti+e$ &or e7a+ple, the +arshFpondF+arsh co+ponent of
the "+*run treat+ent syste+ had a load of appro7i+ately 3$:'gFhaFday and reduced T=!
concentration *y an average 93H during its t)o years of operation$ Also, the average constructed
)etland in the !A8B has a loading of 9$5 'gFhaFday$ Based on this infor+ation, a conservative
)etland area of <$9:ha is chosen$
8uring the 1;;5 and 1;;9 +onitoring seasons of the "+*run )etland, the average pollutant
concentration reduction in the +arshFpondF+arsh co+ponents of the )etland )ere 9;H for
B%84, 93H for T=! and 54H for T# )ith loadings of appro7i+ately ;$;, 3$: and <$:'gFhaFday,
respectively$ The proposed Alfred constructed )etland loads )ould *e 0$;, 2$; and <$0,
respectively$ Based on the perfor+ance of the constructed )etland in "+*run and considering the
fact that the loads are lo)er in Alfred, the effluent should have concentrations lo)er than
<$24+gFl for phosphorus, 4$0+gFl for T=! and 2$0+gFl for B%84 prior to any polishing step$
Appendi7 C
(o)ever, the concentrations of pollutants that )ere encountered in "+*run )ere higher, and it is
'no)n that the perfor+ance of constructed )etlands is di+inished )ith lo)er pollutant
concentrations$ Therefore, it is i+portant to loo' at the literature to *etter assess the perfor+ance
that should *e e7pected$
#ollutants re+oval of constructed )etlands is *etter understood for high pollutant concentrations$
@n particular, the effluent co+ing out of a )etland cannot have lo)er concentrations than natural
*ac'ground levels$ &or e7a+ple, natural )etlands have B%84 and total nitrogen concentrations
of 1?5+gFl and 1?0+gFl, respectively$ =adlec & =night (1;;5 have developed inlet?outlet
concentration regression e>uations and para+eter values for the plug flo) +odel *ased on data of
appro7i+ately 4< surface flo) constructed )etland$ The resulting concentrations for a <$9;ha
constructed )etland under our cli+atic conditions are indicated in Ta*le 0$
Bable 48 0(pected per/ormance o/ a ?*;91a 'etland according to @adlec D @nig1t
TSS BOD TP TN Norg N-NH4 FC
Influent (mg/l)
Plug-flow model (mg/l)
Regression equations (mg/l)
:<
19$9
19$9
14
3$3
9$2
1
<$00
<$0;
0<
5
:$3
14
2$2
!FA
4
<$5
1$4
1<<<<<
2<4
4<<
The e7pected perfor+ance *ased on the data fro+ the "+*run constructed )etland is in the sa+e
range as the one predicted fro+ the regression e>uations and the plug flo) +odel$ Co+*ining the
infor+ation, the e7pected perfor+ance is presented in Ta*le 2$ #erfor+ance +ight *e higher than
e7pected for T=! and B%84 and, as a result, loads +ight *e increased during the e7peri+ent$
#hosphorus re+oval *y natural syste+s can fluctuate su*stantially over the short (i$e$ release of
adsor*ed phosphorus and long?ter+ (i$e$ all adsorption sites are full$ &or this reason, it has to *e
considered that the constructed )etland +ight have little or no effect on phosphorus
concentration after a fe) years$ &or this reason, other co+ponents have *een added to the
treat+ent syste+ to re+ove phosphorus$
Bable ,8 0(pected per/ormance o/ t1e constructed 'etland
Total nitrogen Phosphorus BOD5
Lagoon effluent
Constructed
0<+gFl
4?:+gFl
1+gFl
<$0?<$3+gFl
14+gFl
2?9+gFl
Wetland
Compartmentali3ation
The configuration of the pilot constructed )etland is si+ilar to the "+*run constructed )etland
)ith so+e i+prove+ents$ &or this reason, it is co+posed of a +arsh, follo)ed *y an aero*ic
pond and a final +arsh$ (o)ever, the si6e of the first cell has *een increased *ecause the load on
this co+ponent )as too high in "+*run co+pared to the other parts of the syste+$ To have a
loading of appro7i+ately 1<'g T=!FhaFday on the first cell, the distri*ution of the areas of the
+arshFpondF+arsh have *een set at 0,0,1$ This results in areas for the three co+ponents of
appro7i+ately <$21, <$21 and <$15ha, respectively$ To respect a length to )idth ratio of 1,1?4,1,
the )idth has *een set to 3<+ at operating depth for all co+ponents$ The di+ensions of the
co+ponents are su++ari6ed in Ta*le 3$
Appendi7 C
Bable $8 9imensions o/ t1e constructed 'etland components at operating dept1
Marsh 1 Aerobic pond Marsh 2
Area (ha)
Width (m)
Length (m)
Operating depth (m)
<$21
9:
3<
<$14
<$21
9:
3<
<$5
<$15
3<
2;
<$14
&erms
All the precipitation during the non?operating period (%cto*er 1?-ay 14 )ill *e stored in the
syste+$ To allo) for a contingency and fle7i*ility, this storage period is e7tended *y 14 days at
the *eginning and the end of the operating season$ The net precipitation fro+ Septe+*er 15 to
-ay 21 )as co+puted for the constructed )etland in "+*run *ased on an analysis of the cli+atic
data of the %tta)a @nternational Airport$ @ts value )as 29;++ for an average year and 402++
for a 1<?yr )et )inter$ The net precipitations for a 1<?yr )et su++er (-ay 14?Septe+*er 2<,
1<?yr )et su++er +onth (Septe+*er and for a 03h stor+ )ith a 04 years return period are +uch
lo)er (;$:4++, 4;++ and :3$4++, respectively$ &or this reason the value of 402++ a*ove
operating depth is retained for design purpose$
According to =adlec & =night (1;;5, appro7i+ately 1<++Fyr should *e ta'en into account for
the lifeti+e loss of free*oard due to sedi+ent and plant accu+ulation$ As this pilot constructed
)etland +ight *e 'ept for de+onstration purposes, the lifeti+e )as set at 0< years$ Thus, the
spill)ay is located :9c+ a*ove the *otto+ level of the )etland cells (operating depth P sedi+ent
accu+ulation P )inter storage J 14c+ P 0<c+ P 40c+$ The top of the *er+ is set at an
additional 12c+ a*ove the spill)ay, thus at a height of 1 +etre a*ove the *otto+ of the )etland
cells$
The *er+s are designed to allo) for easy +aintenance of the syste+ (i$e$ cutting the grass$ The
side slope is 2,1$ The )idth of the *er+s at operational depth is larger than 4 +etres to avoid
penetration *y +us'rats$ The core of the *er+ is co+posed of re)or'ed co+pacted clay$
Additional in/ormation
The constructed )etland inlet is designed to increase aeration of the lagoon effluent$ @t is
co+posed of a 1<<++ #/C gated pipe at the top of the *er+$ The )aste)ater is aerated as
it cascades do)n a rip?rap slope$
&inal grading tolerance is set at a 2c+ to +aintain sheet flo) conditions in the )etland cells$
@nterior *er+s (24c+ high, 4<c+ )idth co+posed of topsoil are constructed in the )etland
cells to i+prove )ater distri*ution and prevent channelisation$ A deeper area at the outlet of
the second )etland is also *e *uilt for this purpose$
Appendi7 C
.ater levels are controlled )ith a stop?log )eir (adAusta*le andFor a pivoting outlet pipe$ A
large screen +ust *e placed in front of the outlet structure to prevent clogging$
Overland -lo' -ilter
#art of the effluent (2;+2Fday of the constructed )etland is treated )ith an overland flo)
syste+$ @ts design is *ased on para+eters found in -etcalf & "ddy (1;;1,
Application rate J 3?1< lF+inF+ slope )idth
Slope length J 2<?34 +etres
Application periodF8ry period J <$4?1
Slope J 1?:H
Appendi7 C
@n order to re+ove up to ;<H of B%84, 9<H of nitrogen and 4<H of phosphorus, the
design is *ased on the follo)ing,
Application rate J 3 lF+inF+ slope )idth
Slope length J 2< +etres
Application periodF8ry period J <$4 (: hours per day
This results in a flo) of 3$: +2Fh and an area re>uire+ent of 5<<+0 (0<+ )idth$ .ith
the area re>uired for the *er+s and a collection storage, the total area is ;<<+0$ The
overland flo) syste+ is co+posed of co+pacted clay overlaid )ith at least 2<c+ of
topsoil$ The )aste)ater is distri*uted using a 1<<++ #/C gated pipe$ %verland flo)
increases the aeration of the effluent, )hich is *eneficial for phosphorus re+oval in the last
stage of treat+ent$ This process is also e7pected to 'ill pathogens (effect of sunlight$ A
storage collects the effluent *efore further treat+ent and act as a *uffer against stor+s$
The syste+ perfor+ance )ill *e +onitored over the ne7t fe) years (Ta*le 4 and )ill have
to *e verified )ith the researchFde+onstration unit, as it is difficult to predict perfor+ance
at such lo) concentrations$ (arvesting the hay )ill aid in the re+oval of phosphorus at a
rate of 4<?;< 'g #0%4FhaFyear$ Assu+ing that the average influent has a concentration of
<$34+gFl, this )ould +ean that the #0%4 load )ould *e ;< 'gFhaFyear$ Therefore, al+ost
all of the phosphorus applied could *e re+oved *y vegetal upta'e and hay harvesting$
Loading )ill *e increased or lo)ered *ased on the perfor+ance )ith the design loading of
3 lF+inF+ of slope )idth$
Bable 78 0(pected per/ormance o/ t1e constructed 'etlandLoverland /lo' s!stem
Total nitrogen Phosphorus BOD5
Lagoon effluent
Constructed
0<+gFl
4?9+gFl
1+gFl
<$3?<$4+gFl
14+gFl
4?:+gFl
Wetland
Overland flow I2+gFl I<$2+gFl I2+gFl
P1osp1orus removal stage
@t +ay *e necessary to have a last stage of treat+ent for phosphorus re+oval to achieve
lo) constant concentrations in the syste+ effluent$ This could allo) for future su++er
long direct discharge into a ditch if effluent concentrations of less than <$1 +gFl are
sustained$ #hosphorus re+oval *y natural syste+s can fluctuate su*stantially over the
short and long?ter+$ #hosphorus re+oval can *e achieved using a filter co+posed of
adsor*ing +edia (i$e$ clay pellets, peat, *last furnaces slag, steel furnace slag, sand$ &or
e7a+ple, *last furnace slag can re+ove up to 33g of phosphorus per 'g of +edia
(Sa'adevan & Bavor, 1;;:$ This capacity to re+ove phosphorus is essentially due to its
content in alu+inu+, iron and calciu+$ Testing of different types of +aterials )ill *e
carried out in the la*oratory and the +ost pro+ising +edia )ill *e selected for field
e7peri+ent$
Appendi7 C
The final design of the filter and the set?up of the de+onstration site are dependent on the
characteristics of the selected +edia (hydraulic conductivity, contact ti+e and porosity$
Three filters have *een installed on site to treat the effluents fro+ the lagoon, the
constructed )etland and the overland flo)$ Three loading +odes +ay *e used, hori6ontal
flo), vertical upflo) and vertical do)nflo)$ A pre?treat+ent )ith a roughing filter
(coarser +aterial +ight *e necessary to reduce clogging$
&ilter volu+es for a given contact ti+e are si+ilar for *oth hori6ontal flo) and vertical
do)nflo) filters$ The choice *et)een vertical and hori6ontal flo) filters )ill therefore *e
dependent on the operational and capital costs$ &or e7a+ple, it is easier to re+ove the
+edia in hori6ontal flo) filters, *ut easier to unclog vertical flo) filters$ (ori6ontal flo)
filters can *e vegetated$ This allo)s the transport of o7ygen to the +edia and thus favours
phosphorus adsorption$ /ertical flo) filters can *e o7ygenated *y either *ringing the
)ater in pulses or *y installing an aeration syste+ in the filter$ &inally, hori6ontal flo)
filters have less +echanical co+ponents$ Andersson et al$ (1;;0 +ention that there is very
li+ited e7perience in using vertical upflo) filters in large?scale operations$ According to
these authors, )aste)ater treat+ent )ith upflo) filters does not see+ to yield *etter
perfor+ance than do)nflo) filters$ &inally, energy re>uire+ents and capital costs are
+uch higher for upflo) filters$
The a*ove infor+ation has *een ta'en into consideration in deciding if vertical or
hori6ontal flo) filters should *e used, yet it see+s that slo)?rate do)nflo) filters )ould
*e +ore appropriate to re+ove phosphorus fro+ +unicipal )aste)ater$ The flo) could *e
applied inter+ittently to allo) for decay of organic +atter and in order to increase
phosphorus re+oval (aeration, as it is the case for the !e) (a+*urg process ("vans et
al$, 1;;3Q -elcer et al$, 1;;4$ The possi*ility to directly treat the lagoon effluent )ith the
filter and its perfor+ance in re+oving phosphorus, B%84 and nitrogen )ill *e evaluated in
this de+onstration proAect$ &inally, the possi*le conta+ination of the effluent )ith heavy
+etals )ill *e assessed$
Blast &urnace Slag (B&S, )hich )as +entioned a*ove for its high adsorption capacity,
has the appearance of coarse sand (Sa'adevan & Bavor, 1;;:$ This +eans that its
hydraulic conductivity is appro7i+ately 1<?0 B 1<?2 +Fs and its porosity is *et)een 0<?4<H
((olt6 et al$, 1;;1$ The calculations for the vertical do)nflo) filter are *ased on
reco++endations for slo) sand filters$ These filters do not only retain suspended solids,
*ut also have a long enough contact ti+e to allo) for *iological reactions and adsorption
processes$ Based on a design flo) of 0$3+2Fh and according to the reco++endation of a
daily loading of <$1?<$0+2F+0Fhour for slo)?rate sand filters (/ignes)aran & /isvanathan,
1;;4Q (endric's, 1;;1Q Collins & Graha+, 1;;3Q -aystre & =rayen*uhl, 1;;3, the
re>uired area is *et)een 10 and 03 +0$
This loading rate is si+ilar to the instant loading rate used in the !e) (a+*urg process
(<$12+2F+0Fh, an inter+ittent sand filter used to treat +unicipal lagoon effluent ("vans et
al$, 1;;3Q -elcer et al$, 1;;4$ Therefore, the effluent could *e applied during the night to
Appendi7 C
prevent algae gro)th and dry during the day$ Continuous and inter+ittent loading )ill *e
tested )ith the pilot syste+ in the field$ Based on this loading, the contact ti+e for a filter
)ith a depth of <$9+ )ould *e al+ost t)o hours, )hich is accepta*le$ This provides a
theoretical lifeti+e of :< years assu+ing an adsorption capacity of 49'g # per +2 for B&S
and a continuous loading$ @t +ight *e possi*le to further reduce the area if shorter contact
ti+es provide an accepta*le effluent$
Conclusion
This pilot proAect )ill esta*lish if a full?scale treat+ent syste+ co+posed of a constructed
)etland to treat the +unicipal lagoon effluent of the +unicipality of Alfred is feasi*le as
the +ost econo+ical option$ The i+pact of the pilot syste+ on the environ+ent should *e
+ini+al, as all the treated )aste)ater is returned to the lagoons$
References
Andersson, C$, -$ TendaA and -$ Roth+an$ 1;;0$ &iltration at Bro++a se)age treat+ent
plant$ Water .cience and Bec1nolog! 04, 4;?55$
Collins, -$R$ and -$S$8$ Graha+$ 1;;3$ Slo) sand filtration, an international co+pilation
of recent scientific and operational develop+ents$ A+erican .ater .or's Association,
8enver, Colorado$
"vans, B$, S$ !utt, T$(o and ($ -elcer$ 1;;3$ Alternative approaches for upgrading
effluent >uality for lagoon *ased syste+s$ Water .cience and Bec1nolog! 1<, 0<1?0<4$
(endric's, 8$ 1;;1$ -anual of design of slo) sand filtration$ A..A Research
&oundation, 8enver, Colorado$
=adlec, R$($ and R$L$ =night$ 1;;5$ Treat+ent )etlands$ CRC #ress LLC, Boca Raton,
&lorida$
-aystre, L$W$ and L$ =rayen*uhl$ 1;;3$ Approvisionne+ent en eau pota*le$ 8GR?@G",
^cole #olytechni>ue &]d]rale de Lausanne, Lausanne, S)it6erland$
-elcer, ($, B$ "vans, S$G$ !utt and A$(o$ 1;;4$ Upgrading effluent >uality for lagoon?
*ased syste+s$ Water .cience and Bec1nolog! 10,29;?2:9$
!utt, S$G$ 1;;1$ A revie) of approaches to achieve lo) effluent phosphorus
concentrations$ Water Pollution Researc1 )ournal o/ Canada 05,3;4?439$
Sa'adevan, =$ and ($S$ Bavor$ 1;;:$ #hosphate adsorption characteristics of soils, slags
and 6eolite to *e used as su*strates in constructed )etland syste+s$ Water Resources
20,2;2?2;;$
Appendi7 C
A##"!8@_ 8
S)ine -anure Treat+ent
Strategies to Reduce (auling and 8isposal Costs
Swine Manure Treatment - Strategies to Reduce Hauling and Disposal Costs
(by: Olivier Fanhauser, Alfred College)
INTRODUCTION
"7panding Asian and do+estic +ar'ets have created opportunities for Canadian por'
producers to e7pand their operations and have allo)ed ne) producers to enter the +ar'et$
By e7tension, ne) opportunities have opened up for +anufacturers, contractors and
consultants )ho can facilitate e7pansion or the esta*lish+ent of s)ine operations$ The
availa*ility of land for spreading +anure often li+its e7pansion in areas of intensive
livestoc' production of !orth A+erica and "urope$ 8espite the fact that a nu+*er of
+anure Btreat+entC technologies have *een tested and have sho)n great potential, there is
no technology co++ercially availa*le to +ost producers that )ould li+it their land *ase
re>uire+ents for spreading +anure$ Reasons for this lac' of technology transfer +ay
include high capital costs of installing )aste)ater treat+ent e>uip+ent and lac' of trained
personnel for operating the syste+$
Three potential strategies for overco+ing these o*stacles are discussed in this report,
1 hauling e7cess li>uid s)ine +anure to a central )aste)ater treat+ent plantQ
0 constructing lo) +aintenance, afforda*le on?far+ treat+ent syste+sQ and
2 treating s)ine +anure in +o*ile treat+ent units operated in *atches *y a trained
custo+ operator$
The section on central treat+ent plants is a *rief su++ary of the "uropean e7perience, as
covered in +ore detail in the pu*lication BSituation du Traite+ent du Lisier dans le
-ondeC$ @n the ne7t t)o sections, candidate technologies for on?far+ and +o*ile
treat+ent syste+s are identified$
The report also includes the results of preli+inary la*oratory )or' on che+ical pre?
treat+ent$ The goal of pretreat+ent is to lo)er the suspended solids andFor nutrient
loading into the ne7t Bdo)nstrea+C co+ponent of the treat+ent syste+$ Since che+ical
precipitation generally re>uires relatively short reaction ti+es (co+pared to *iological
processes and can *e achieved as a *atch process, it )as identified as a good candidate
technology for pre?treat+ent in either a porta*le reactor or in an e7isting +anure tan'$
CENTRAL TREATMENT PLANTS
Central treat+ent plants have *een considered as an alternative to construction separate
plants on each s)ine operation$ Central plants offer the advantage of spreading capital
and operating costs a+ong several users$ &urther+ore, the plants can *e operated *y
trained )aste)ater treat+ent technicians and can therefore +a'e use of +ore co+ple7
technologies$ (o)ever, a central treat+ent plant presents several 'ey disadvantages,
often re>uires high capital costs and high financial ris'Q

re>uires transport of +anure to treat+ent plantQ
Appendi7 8
creates a potential siting pro*le+ (Bnot in +y *ac'yardC and target for protest
groupsQ
as in the case of other large proAects, such as incinerators, +ay re>uire
transport of +anure fro+ distant regions to *e via*leQ
potential to *eco+e B)hite elephantC if surrounding far+s change production
in the future$
A nu+*er of central treat+ent plants have *een proposed in "urope$ These )ere recently
revie)ed $ A *rief account of so+e of these syste+s is presented *elo)$
@n the late 1;:<Ds, a central treat+ent plant called #R%-"ST, )ith a capacity of 4<< <<<
tonnes per year, )as constructed in the !etherlands$ The syste+ involved anaero*ic
digestion, aero*ic digestion and solid?li>uid separation )ith su*se>uent evaporation of the
li>uid phase and drying of sludge$ The plant could not co+pete )ith long distance hauling
and spreading of +anure and )as a*andoned *ecause it )as not econo+ically via*le$ The
8utch also developed a process 'no)n as /A! AS#"RT, )hich involves filtration,
acidification then evaporation, su*se>uent condensation of the vapour and finally reverse
os+osis of the condensate$ The process did not see+ financially via*le and )as not
pursued co++ercially$
@n 8en+ar', eighteen collective *iogas plants )ere constructed to treat a +i7ture of s)ine
+anure, cattle +anure and organic food industry *yproducts$ Biogas is used to heat
houses and to produce electricity$ A concentrated, lo)?odour, pathogen?free fertili6er is
also produced *y the process$
@n &rance, +uch of the research and develop+ent )or' has *een focussed on nitrification?
denitrification syste+s (a+ong these are AGR%CLAR, 8"!@TRAL, /AL?"#UR",
T"C(!%LWS" and T"R!%@S$ The goal of these syste+s is to convert organic
nitrogen and a++onia?nitrogen into har+less nitrogen gas, !0, the +aAor co+ponent of
our at+osphere$ @t +ay *e argued that this strategy is )asteful ? a useful BnaturalC
nutrient source is volatili6ed )hile co++ercial inorganic sources of nitrogen continue to
*e spread as fertili6ers$ Although so+e acade+ics +ay present a +oral argu+ent against
such practices, it is li'ely that +any producers )ould happily B)asteC +anure nitrogen in
favour of *uying a consistent nitrogen?phosphorus?potassiu+ +i7ture ()hich is +ore
easily spread, has a less offensive odour and provides a +ore consistent fertili6ing value
since there is no >uestion over the availa*ility of the nitrogen to the crop$
%ther &rench technologies (S@R/"!, A-%L@S #(WS@C% and S-"L%_?@&# strip
a++onia?nitrogen (i$e$ convert dissolved a++oniu+, !(3P, into gaseous a++onia, !(2
and either recapture the volatili6ed a++onia in an acidic solution or *urn it at high
te+peratures$ A third strategy tested *y the &rench is che+ical precipitation of
a++oniu+$ A process called BA/8AC has *een proposed, in )hich phosphoric acid and
+agnesiu+ o7ide are used to precipitate a++onia?nitrogen$ The recovered sludge +ay *e
a valua*le fertili6er$
Appendi7 8
#recipitation of +agnesiu+ a++oniu+ phosphate )as also considered for central
treat+ent in Ger+any ()here it )as called the -A# process and tested at the pilot plant
level$ This type of treat+ent +ay also *e applica*le to either individual on?far+
treat+ent syste+s or to a +o*ile *atch treat+ent syste+$ (@t )as therefore decided to
carry out preli+inary la*oratory tests on +agnesiu+ a++oniu+ phosphate precipitation?
the results at the end of this report$
Another +ore co+ple7 Ger+an central treat+ent plant, na+ed SULU"R, )as installed in
a region dee+ed to *e environ+entally sensitive$ The SULU"R syste+ involved physical
solidFli>uid separation, anaero*ic digestion )ith *iogas production, precipitation )ith
li+e, a++onia stripping, a++onia recovery in an acid solution and aero*ic treat+ent$
8espite the co+ple7ity of the treat+ent syste+, the final effluent did not +eet effluent
discharge criteria and had to *e spread on agricultural land$
&our other pilot central treat+ent plants have *een installed in Ger+any since 1;;< for
treating s)ine +anure +i7ed )ith cattle +anure or food processing )astes$ The
&@!ST"R.AL8" syste+ in an anaero*ic digester )ith *iogas production to generate
heat and electricity$ &ollo)ing digestion, solids are +echanically separated fro+ the
li>uids$ The solids are co+posted and the li>uid fraction is stripped of a++onia$ The
a++onia is then crystalli6ed as !(3(C%2$
@n the L@!G"! syste+, the solid and li>uid fractions are separated +echanically$ The
li>uid fraction is then evaporated to produce a concentrate and the solids are co+posted$
A++onia gas is trapped in an acid solution, )hich is treated anaero*ically and aero*ically
prior to discharge to a surface )ater$ The L@!G"! syste+ )as over?si6ed and operates
only at a*out 12H of capacity$
The #&A&&"!8%R& syste+ involves, +echanical separation of li>uids and solidsQ
anaero*ic treat+ent of li>uidsQ co+posting of solidsQ a++onia strippingQ nitrification?
denitrificationQ and li+e addition$ The #&A&&"!8%R& syste+ )as also over?si6ed and
operates at a*out 50H of its capacity$
@n the SUR.%L8 syste+, the +anure is treated anaero*ically, separated +echanically,
acidified and run through a reverse os+osis unit$
The co+ple7ity of the "uropean central treat+ent plants illustrates the technical
challenges associated )ith s)ine +anure treat+ent as )ell as the severity of the pro*le+
of e7cessive +anure production in certain regions of the continent$ Considering the
pro*le+s associated )ith a nu+*er of these syste+s using different technologies, the
overall strategy of shipping +anure to a central treat+ent plant is >uestiona*le$ -ost of
the technologies considered )ould li'ely *e too e7pensive and too co+plicated to *e
incorporated into on?far+ treat+ent syste+s$
ON-FARM TREATMENT SYSTEMS
Appendi7 8
%n?far+ +anure treat+ent eli+inates the need to transport large volu+es off?site$
(o)ever, on?far+ syste+s re>uire an original capital invest+ent, so+e operator attention
and the use of so+e land$
4 Composting
-anure co+posting syste+s usually concentrate on +a7i+i6ing the value of the co+post,
so that a +ore valua*le end product is produced$ (o)ever, Agriculture Canada
researchers have introduced an intelligent ne) strategy for co+posting, separate the solid
and li>uid fractions *y gravity, co+post the solids )ith the stra) *edding +aterial as a
*ul'ing agent, use the heat of the co+post pile to evaporate the li>uid fraction$ %nce the
co+posting process is )ell esta*lished, +i7ed li>uid +anure can *e continuously fed into
the pile$ This strategy reduces the volu+e of li>uid )hich +ust *e transported off?site$
Trials have *een successfully co+pleted in %tta)a, %ntario *y 8r$ !aveen #atni and in
Agassi6, B$C$ *y 8r$ Sohn #aul, the latter using *roiler litter as a *ul'ing agent to start up
the co+posting process (personal co++unications, Sune 1;;9$ Co+posting re>uires a
certain degree of operator attention *ut little technical e7pertise (if proper operating
guidelines are esta*lished$
Co+post has a high adsorption capacity and is therefore effective in reducing odours and
trapping a++onia$ 8r$ #atni conducted co+posting trials using passive aeration in 1;;5,
and prepared a final report at the end of 1;;9$
The approach of using the heat of the co+post to evaporate the li>uid fraction of s)ine
+anure )ill *e follo)ed *y 8r$ Sa+es -orris and Ronald &le+ing of Ridgeto)n
Agricultural College, University of Guelph$ @n the Ridgeto)n co+post trials, forced
aeration )ill *e e+ployed so that a higher rate of evaporation is e7pected$ The cost of the
e7peri+ental co+posting structure is appro7i+ately \9< <<<$ (o)ever, the cost of an on?
far+ syste+ is e7pected to *e +uch lo)er$
The idea see+s to have great potential as a si+ple +ethod of reducing transportation
costs, and retaining +uch of the nutrient value of the +anure$
44 Wetlands
Although )etlands can *e used as stand alone treat+ent syste+s for )ea'er agricultural
)aste)aters such as runoff, it is generally accepted that pre?treat+ent is re>uired if
)etlands are to *e used for li>uid livestoc' +anure$ Anaero*ic lagoons and facultative
sta*ili6ation ponds are often used to re+ove the *ul' of the organic +atter and nutrients,
)ith )etlands provided for final polishing$ &inal disposal of +anure treated *y a
lagoonF)etland co+*ination is nor+ally achieved via land spreading$
Appendi7 8
The design si6e of constructed )etlands for livestoc' +anure treat+ent is usually *ased on
allo)a*le surface loading rates of either nitrogen (T=! or !(2 P !(3?! or *ioche+ical
o7ygen de+and (B%84$
0stimated Mass Pollutant 5oads in .torage =nits
The B%84 production fro+ +anure fro+ hogs *et)een 34 'g and 125 'g (1<< to 2<< l*s
has *een esti+ated as <$20 'gFhogFday$ Using the %ntario -inistry of Agriculture and
&oodDs esti+ate of 1<$0 L of li>uid +anure produced per hog per day, B%84
concentration can *e esti+ated to *e 21 <<< +gFL for s)ine e7creta )ith +easure+ents
ta'en in %ntario (according to 8r$ !aveen #atni and -r$ Ronald &le+ing, personal
co++unications Sune 1;;9$ @t is esti+ated that a 4<< ani+al farro)ing and finishing
operation )ould produce only ;< 'g B%84Fday, )hich is e>uivalent to <$1: 'g B%84Fday$
This esti+ate is e>uivalent to the B%84 production of hogs *et)een ; and 31 'g$
The %ntario -inistry of Agriculture, &ood and Rural AffairsD (%-A&RA nutrient
+anage+ent planning soft)are assu+es a T=! concentration of 29<< +gFL (02<< +gFL
!(2?! and 13<< +gFL organic?! in li>uid s)ine +anure tan's or lagoons$ This value is
*ased on e7tensive testing of slurry in +anure tan's in %ntario and is consistent )ith the
concentration of 2<<< +gFL reported$ Using the %-A&RADs esti+ated +anure
production of 1<$0 LFhogFday (<$25 ft2FhogFday for pigs *et)een 12< and 19< l*s,
including )ash )ater and spillage, the +ass load of T=! can *e esti+ated to *e 29$9 7
1<?2 'g T=!FhogFday$
Estimated mass load/hog (produced year round in manure tank or storage lagoon):
BOD5: 0.32 kg/hog/day
TKN: 0.038 kg/hog/day
!ote, Since the B%84 and T=! loads of <$20 'gB%84FhogFday and <$<2: 'g
T=!FhogFday )ere calculated *ased on concentrations recorded for slurry sa+ples ta'en
)ithin +anure tan's, they +ay *e assu+ed for losses$ Therefore, no additional reduction
in concentrations )ere assu+ed in the storage units$ As discussed *elo), it is possi*le
that B%8 levels in the supernatant of the storage unit +ay *e lo)er than esti+ated, if the
tan' is not agitated and the li>uid fraction is decanted$
Pre-treatment in Anaerobic 5agoons
An anaero*ic lagoon can *e e7pected to lo)er the B%84 loading of livestoc' +anure *y
3< to 5<H at te+peratures *et)een 0< and 04oC ()hich )ould *e representative of
su++er conditions in %ntario over a retention ti+e of only 4 days )ith a loading rate of
<$2 'g B%84F+2Fday$ Tt)o s)ine +anure lagoons, connected in series, )ith a co+*ined
re+oval of 5<H B%84 in design calculations for si6ing a )etland for final polishing of the
effluent$
Appendi7 8
T=! is re+oved *y sedi+entation of solids (including *io+ass and volatili6ation of
nitrogenous gases such as a++onia (there is little conversion into nitrate *ecause of the
lac' of o7ygen$ @o)a State University esti+ates nitrogen losses in anaero*ic lagoons
treating livestoc' +anure to *e *et)een 5< and 9<H ( at @o)a State University in 1;;4$
@f an additional anaero*ic lagoon, follo)ing the storage unit, )ere to *e put into operation
for appro7i+ately 3 +onths a year as a pre?treat+ent step for a constructed )etland, its
influent loading rates )ould *e three ti+es discharged *y the +anure tan', <$;5 'g
B%84FhogFday and <$11 'g T=!FhogFday$ Using a volu+etric loading rate of <$2 'g
B%84F+2Fday, the design volu+e of an anaero*ic lagoon )ould *e 2$0 +2Fhog$ Assu+ing
4<H B%84 re+oval and 5<H T=! re+oval, the +ass pollutant load discharged *y the
lagoon )ould *e <$3: 'g B%84FhogFday and <$<33 'g T=!FhogFday$
Size of anaerobic lagoon
3.2 m3/hog or 3200 m3 per 1000 grower/finishing hogs
Expected load discharged by lagoon (operated 4 months)
0.48 kg BOD5/hog/day
0.044 kg TKN/hog/day
@t should *e noted that there e7ist a great discrepancy in the re+oval rates reported a*ove
and concentrations reported for s)ine +anure lagoons in other references$ @n @o)a,
-ontana, @ndiana and Ala*a+a, data )as e7a+ined fro+ the analysis of sa+ples collected
over a four year period fro+ the supernatant of five s)ine +anure lagoons (used for
recycling in flush syste+s )ith high )ater use$ @t )as found that average C%8 values
ranged *et)een ;9< +gFL and 0291 +gFL$ Since the ratio of C%8, B%84 for s)ine
+anure has *een reported as appro7i+ately 2,1, the B%84 )ould *e appro7i+ately 2<<
+gFL to :<< +gFL$ These values are a factor of 1<< lo)er than the esti+ate used in this
report for stored s)ine +anure$ #art of the discrepancy is undou*tedly due to dilution$
(o)ever, the T=! concentrations for these five lagoons )ere reported as averaging
*et)een 2;1 +gFL and :09 +gFL, only a factor of ten lo)er than the value of 29<< +gFL
used in this report$ Si+ilar values have *een reported, a B%84 concentration of 0:9 +gFL
and a T=! concentration of 254 +gFL in an anaero*ic lagoon loaded )ith s)ine +anure$
That effluent fro+ a series of t)o lagoons treating s)ine +anure diluted )ith fresh pond
)ater had an average B%84 concentration of 52$9 +gFL and a T=! concentration of 5;$:
+gFL$
@n each of these cases, the influent B%84 loading to these lagoons should have *een
appro7i+ately ten ti+es the T=! loading$ @f re+oval rates for *oth para+eters had *een
si+ilar, the B%84 concentration should have re+ained ten ti+es higher than the T=!
follo)ing treat+ent and dilution in the lagoon$ The fact that lagoon sa+ples had B%84
Appendi7 8
concentrations al+ost e>ual to T=! concentrations (so+eti+es B%8 )as even lo)er
than T=! suggests that the B%8 re+oval rate of up to 5<H in anaero*ic lagoons
treating s)ine +anure +ay *e e7tre+ely conservative$ This +ay *e due to the fact that
solids tend to settle out of s)ine +anure +ore readily that in the case )ith cattle +anure$
Sedi+entation )ould *e e7pected to re+ove B%8 associated )ith particular +atter *ut
)ould have less of an effect on nitrogen (+ost of )hich )ould *e dissolved$
Breatment in -acultative Ponds
At the 8ignard Constructed .etland, designed *y -c!eely "ngineering (no) Stantec
Consulting and Alfred College to treat e7ercise yard runoff and leachate fro+ a solid
+anure pile, a facultative pond is used in co+*ination )ith an anaero*ic lagoon for pre?
treat+ent Bupstrea+C of the )etland syste+$ The pond receives )aste)ater fro+ the
anaero*ic lagoon at surface loading rates of appro7i+ately 10: 'g B%84FhaFday and 33 'g
T=!FhaFday$ @t achieves appro7i+ately ;1H B%84 and ::H T=! re+oval (it is not
operated during the )inter$
Applying a design loading rate of 12< 'g B%84FhaFday, a facultative pond for treating
gro)erFfinishing s)ine +anure effluent fro+ an anaero*ic lagoon should *e si6ed at 2$5
71<?2 haFhog$ A facultative pond for 1<<< pigs )ould *e 2$5 ha$ This is unrealistic$ Since
a higher loading rate +ay result in anaero*ic conditions developing in the pond, it )ould
*e necessary to aerate in order to reduce the surface area and +aintain an aero*ic 6one in
the pond$
Assu+ing aeration is provided, it is esti+ated that a facultative pond )ould re+ove
appro7i+ately :<H B%84 and 9<H T=! fro+ s)ine +anure previously stored in a tan'
or anaero*ic lagoon$ The pollutant load discharged *y the facultative pond )ould
therefore *e appro7i+ately, <$<;5 'g B%84FhogFday and <$<12 'g T=!FhogFday$
Surface area of facultative pond: Prohibitively large, aeration should be provided to
reduce area
3.6 X 10-3 ha/hog or 2$5 haF1<< gro)erFfinishing hogs
Estimated load discharged by facultative pond:
0.096 kg BOD5/hog/day
0.013 kg TKN/hog/day.
.i3ing a Wetland =sing 9esign 5oading Rates
Appendi7 8
The design B%84 and T=! surface loading into pondF+arshFpond?type )etlands has *een
esta*lishing as 9< 'g B%84FhaFday and 2 'g T=!FhaFday for high >uality effluent$
Using these design criteria and the e7pected +ass loading of <$<;5 'g B%84FhogFday and
<$<12 'g T=!FhogFday for pre?treated s)ine +anure, the total si6e of the
pondF+arshFpond?type )etlands )ould *e 1$2 7 1<?2 haFhog, *ased on B%8 proAections,
and 3$2 7 1<?2 haFhog *ased on T=! proAections for s)ine finishing operations$ The
li+iting factor in the design of the )etland )ould therefore *e the T=! concentration of
the s)ine +anure$ Based on these proAections, a gro)ingFfinishing operation )ith 1<<<
hogs )ould re>uire a )etland syste+ )ith a land *ase of 3$2 ha, )hich is e7cessive$
(o)ever, the nitrogen re+oval efficiency achieved )ith )etlands using this design (the
8ignard syste+ discharges only 0< +gFL of T=! onto a vegetative filter at its outlet is
not necessary if its effluent is to *e spread on agricultural fields$ The highest T=! loading
)hich could *e applied (*efore B%8 )ere to *eco+e the li+iting factor )ould 1< 'g
!FhaFday$
@t has *een reported that over ;4H ! re+oval can *e achieved )ith a surface loading rate
of 13 'g !FhaFday$ %ther studies have reported 91H ! re+oval at a loading rate of 13$2
'g !FhaFday and :;H re+oval at 11$4 'g !FhaFday$ @n another study, the loading rate for
an e7peri+ental )etland syste+ treating s)ine +anure )as increased fro+ 2 'g !FhaFday
to 1< 'g !FhaFday, since its effluent )as to *e disposed via ter+inal land application and
therefore did not re>uire the high level of treat+ent achieved at the lo)er loading rate (at
)hich T;<H T=! re+oval and 92H T# re+oval )ere reported$ (@t should *e noted that
in each of these studies, the B%84 load )as lo)er than proAected in this report, and )as
not the li+iting design factor$
&ollo)ing the design calculations +ade previously, a loading rate of 1< 'g !FhaFday
)ould *e used, the re>uired area of the )etland treat+ent syste+ )ould *e 1$2 7 1<?2
haFhog (B%8 )ould *e li+iting design factor$ @f the syste+ perfor+ance )ere *e
co+para*le to that of si+ilar )etlands and :4H +ass re+oval of nitrogen is assu+ed, the
+ass load in the )etland effluent )ould *e appro7i+ately 0$< 7 1<?2 'g !FhogFday$
Design wetland surface loading rates:
TKN: 10 kg/ha/day
BOD5: 70 kg BOD5/ha/day
Design size of wetland:
1.3 x 10-3 ha/hog (1.3 ha per 1000 grower/finishing hogs
Expected effluent nitrogen load:
Appendi7 8
2.0 x 10-3 kg N/hog/day
Berminal 5and Application
The effluent fro+ the )etland could *e collected in a pond and spread or irrigated over the
su++er +onths$ The total nitrogen load produced over a four +onth operating period
)ould *e appro7i+ately <$03 'g !Fhog$ @f the ter+inal land *ase )ere to *e planted )ith
a forage crop and harvested t)ice over the su++er, the land *ase re>uired to spread this
nitrogen load )ould *e appro7i+ately 1 7 1<?2 haFhog (applying 10< 'g !Fha$ The
volu+e of effluent )ould *e dependent on local )eather conditions$
Area required for final disposal based on nitrogen if a forage crop is planted:
1.0 x 10-3 ha/hog (1 ha per 1000 grower/finishing hogs)
Possible "mprovements to Reduce t1e Wetland .i3e
@t should *e noted that loading rates greater than 9< 'g !FhaFday for the )etland syste+
could *e tested (so that a s+aller )etland could *e used$ The effect of the higher load on
the )etland plants and on the effluent >uality could *e evaluated to deter+ine if this )ould
result in a need for a larger area for ter+inal land application or if the )etland )ould fill
up )ith solids$
The a*ility of a constructed )etland to re+ove nitrogen is said to *e nitrate$ @n other
)ords, the )etland is li+ited *y its a*ility to supply the o7ygen re>uired conversion of
a++oniu+ into nitrate, so that it can su*se>uently *e denitrified to release nitrogen gas$
@t is li'ely that if +ore of the nitrogen supplied to the )etland )ere in the for+ of nitrate,
rather than T=! (a++oniu+Porganic nitrogen, a higher nitrogen load could *e
acco++odated$ This could *e achieved *y aerating the influent to the )etland, )hich
)ould also *e necessary to lo)er the B%84 so that the surface area (and cost of the
)etland could *e decreased$ As discussed in the follo)ing section, reed *eds +ay have
so+e potential for reducing the re>uired area of the )etland$
Appendi7 8
444 'eed 5eds
Reed *eds are a type of su*surface flo) )etland consisting of a *ed of graded +edia
(often gravel or crushed stone in )hich e+ergent a>uatic plants (usually co++on reeds
are planted$ The +edia acts as a physical filter for re+oving suspended particles and also
provides surface area for gro)th of +icro?organis+s$ The plants supply o7ygen to the
root 6one, creating aero*ic +icro?6ones )hich pro+otes nitrification (conversion of
a++oniu+?! into nitrate$ !itrate is re+oved in ano7ic 6ones *y *acterial action )hich
releases nitrogen gas$
There are t)o general types of reed *ed treat+ent syste+ (RBTS designs, hori6ontal
flo) ((& and vertical flo) (/&$
@n a hori6ontal flo) reed *ed, the )aste)ater enters the +edia *ed at the surface of one
end, flo) hori6ontally through the *ed and is collected at the *ase of the other end$ Since
o7ygen is transferred only through the plant roots, the a*ility of (& syste+s to nitrify
)aste)ater is li+ited$
@n vertical flo) reed *eds, the )aste)ater is dosed evenly over the surface of the +edia
*ed and is collected *y an underdrain$ %7ygen is trapped and forced through the *ed *y
the dosing action$ /& syste+s therefore pro+ote nitrification of the )aste)ater$ /& reed
*eds therefore +erit consideration as a +ethod of nitrifying s)ine +anure *efore it enters
an overland flo) +arsh?pond?+arsh type of )etland$ The use of such syste+s +ay allo)
for higher nitrogen loading, decreasing the area re>uired for the overland flo) )etland$
-uch of the develop+ent )or' on reed *ed )as conducted in the Untied =ingdo+$ A
revie) of the technology )as recently prepared for .even Brent Water$ The revie)Ds
vie)s on the applica*ility of the technology to agricultural pollutants are su++ari6ed in
the follo)ing passage,
Most agricultural e//luents are muc1 too strong to be economicall! treated using Reed &ed tec1nolog!
alone* 2o'ever# R&B. 1ave been success/ull! used to treat 'eaAer dirt! 'aters and 1ave been used /or
/inal treatment o/ some 1ig1er strengt1 agricultural e//luents /ollo'ing pre-treatment*
The +a7i+u+ strength of )aste)ater )hich can *e successfully treated *y a reed *ed is
listed as 0<<< +gFL B%84 and 54< +gFL TSS$
The esti+ated B%8 concentration of li>uid s)ine +anure is 21 <<< +gFL (see previous
section$ (o)ever, this esti+ate +ay vary depending on the a+ount of dilution )ater and
the age of the +anure$ TSS concentration of supernatant of stored s)ine +anure have
also *een reported as 50 ;<< +gFL for Bhigh strength )aste)aterC and 00<< +gFL for
Blo) strength )aste)aterC$ Solids in +anure slurries are nor+ally reported as total solids
or volatile solids rather than suspended solids$ Total solids of 3 to 4H (3< <<< to 4< <<<
+gFL have *een reported$ The TSS of a sa+ple retrieved fro+ the un?agitated
supernatant of a li>uid s)ine +anure tan' in eastern %ntario )as only 91< +gFL$
Appendi7 8
#re?treat+ent of high strength agricultural )aste is said to *e generally achieved in
anaero*ic lagoons$ As discussed in the previous section, an anaero*ic lagoon )ith a
volu+e of 2$0 +2Fhog +ay *e e7pected to discharge <$3: 'g B%84FhogFday during the
su++er +onths (assu+ing 4<H re+oval$ !eglecting precipitation and evaporation and
assu+ing no ground )ater inflo), the concentration of the lagoon effluent )ould *e 14
4<< +g B%84FL$ Therefore, the lagoon effluent )ould have to *e diluted *y a factor of
9$94 if a reed *ed )ere to *e used (it could *e diluted )ith rain)ater, treated )ater,
ground )ater or surface )ater$ Since the lagoon )ould discharge 2<$5 LFhogFday, the
diluted flo) )ould have to *e 029 LFhogFday or <$029 +2FhogFday$
/ertical flo) reed *eds are nor+ally si6ed on a hydraulic *asis at a loading rate of 1
+2F+0Fday$ A vertical flo) reed *ed )ould therefore have to *e si6ed at <$029 +0Fhog$
&or 1<<< gro)erFfinishing hogs, a vertical flo) reed *ed )ould *e si6ed at 029 +0$ "ach
treat+ent stage should consist of four reed *eds, and 3< to 4<H B%8 re+oval is said to
*e achieva*le per stage$ Therefore a total surface area of <$;3: +0Fhog should *e capa*le
of reducing the B%84 of lagoon effluent fro+ <$3: 'gFhogFday to <$03 'gFhogFday$
/ertical flo) reed *eds +ay *e considered as a treat+ent step in a constructed )etland
design$
Size of vertical flow reed beds required:
4 beds of 0.237 m2/hog
Expected performance of reed beds:
0.48 kg BOD5/day to 0.24 kg BOD5/day
46 7Pac$age8 Waste!ater Treatment Plants
B1e BOA.B .!stem
A nu+*er of activated sludge syste+s have *een proposed for the treat+ent of s)ine
+anure$ A ne) syste+, na+ed T%ASTT- (Tertiary %7ygen Activated Sludge Treat+ent,
has recently *een patented in the U$S$ *y "ngineering Concepts of -an'ata, -innesota$
The syste+ is said to Bconvert organic nitrogen and a++onia into car*on dio7ide, )ater
and +icro*e cellsC$ The process creates t)o phases, a sludge phase representing a*out
04H of the volu+e and a li>uid phase representing the other 94H$ @t is clai+ed that a*out
half of the nitrogen and +ost of the phosphorus is re+oved as sludge (leaving
appro7i+ately 4<< +gFL # and 1< <<< +gFL ! in the li>uid phase$ !itrification is said
not to occur (there are no natural nitrifiers in the intestinal tract of s)ine and the +anure is
ta'en directly fro+ the *arnQ further+ore, the detention ti+e is short?2 to 3 hours$ Both
the li>uid and sludge phases are said not to e+it offensive odours$
Appendi7 8
Since the nitrogen is said to e7ist as protein rather than nitrate and test results sho) the
effluent is sal+onella?free, the inventor, Sohn #etering, suggests that it +ay *e possi*le to
feed the li>uid fraction *ac' to the pigs and feed the sludge to cattle (personal
co++unication, Sune 1;;9$ #etering also suggests the possi*ility of e+ploying a floor
flush syste+ in piggeries si+ilar to that used on so+e dairy operations rather than using
slotted floors$ (e suggests that *y 'eeping the pigsD s'in fro+ drying out, there +ay *e a
reduction of s'in?dust production (a source of odours as )ell as a health ha6ard$
The esti+ated cost of the T%AST syste+ in \14< <<< for use for 2<< ani+al units$
"ngineering Concepts is interested in licensing the right to the technology to consultants
andFor installers$
8espite #eteringDs reassurances, a certain degree of reluctance +ay *e encountered )ith
regards to feeding the li>uid effluent *ac' to the pigs, due to fears of spreading disease$ @f
this is the case, the li>uid fraction +ay still have to *e spread or irrigated$ @f the li>uid
cannot *e re?fed to s)ine, the +ain advantage of the syste+ )ould *e odour reduction,
rather than a reduction in land *ase re>uire+ents for spreading$
A prototype T%AST syste+ is currently undergoing testing *y the University of
-innesota$ The syste+ appears to *e very effective in reducing odours$
.ilsoeEs <9irt! Water> Breatment .!stem
The United =ingdo+Ds Silsoe Research @nstitute has conducted trials on the aero*ic
treat+ent of s)ine +anure$ #roviding aeration reduces odours e+anating fro+ the +anure
tan' and fro+ +anure as it is *eing spread$
"7tensive aeration can also *e used to reduce nitrogen levels in +anure$ #art of the
nitrogen is conserved as *io+ass (tied up in the cells of +icroorganis+s, +uch of )hich
settles out, a fraction is conserved as nitrate, and a fraction is lost through volatili6ation$
@f aero*ic cycles are alternated )ith anaero*ic cycles under )ell controlled conditions, it is
possi*le to pro+ote nitrificationFdenitrification processes )hich result in the re+oval of
har+less nitrogen gas$ (o)ever, the Silsoe research has indicated that greenhouse gases
such as nitrous o7ide, !0% are also produced$ -uch of the research focuses on defining
the conditions )hich pro+ote the production of !0 rather than !%7 (greenhouse gases$
8epending on the e7tent of treat+ent to *e achieved ()hether treated for odour reduction
or for nitrification and su*se>uent denitrification, the cost of providing aeration )as
esti+ated to range *et)een 1$5< and 1<$4< per pig produced ( over \2 to \01 in the
U$=$ in 1;;1$
6 2vaporation
Appendi7 8
@t is conceiva*le that the li>uid fraction of the +anure could *e reduced *y si+ply
providing an overflo) fro+ the lagoon or +anure tan' into a shallo) evaporation *asin$
(o)ever, this +ay *e e7pected to cause odour pro*le+s as volatile organic acids and
other odour causing gases volatili6e$
64 Pelleti9ing
A s)ine finishing and poultry *roiler operation in the &raser /alley of British Colu+*ia
conducted trials in )hich s)ine +anure )as co+*ined )ith *roiler litter and pelleti6ed$
The pellets )ere then transported to Al*erta )here they )ere +ar'eted as co++ercial
fertili6er$
The pelleti6ing process )as carried out on a s+all scale at Agriculture CanadaDs research
station an Agassi6 in order to deter+ine the feasi*ility of such a venture$ The trials )ere
econo+ically pro+ising$
POTENTIAL TECHNOLOGIES WHICH COULD BE USED IN MOBILE
TREATMENT UNITS
To avoid forcing each operation to *ear the capital costs of an independent treat+ent
syste+ it +ay *e possi*le to offer a +anure concentration service rather than +ar'eting a
treat+ent syste+$ The overall goal )ould *e to divide the +anure into to) fractions, a
s+all volu+e of concentrated +anure (either solid or li>uid )hich could *e hauled at a
+uch lo)er cost than is currently the caseQ and a larger fraction of dilute +anure )hich
could *e spread at high loading rates on a s+all area of land around the livestoc' facility$
A trained custo+ operator )ould transport the syste+ fro+ far+ to far+, treating the
contents of each +anure tan' in *atches$ This )ould eli+inate the need for each far+ to
o)n and operate its o)n treat+ent syste+ and )ould +a'e use of e7isting storage
facilities$
Candidate technologies for +o*ile *atch treat+ent syste+s )ould have to provide
treat+ent in a relatively short ti+e fra+e so that the operator could >uic'ly +ove fro+
far+ to far+$ @t +ay *e possi*le to adapt so+e technologies )hich have *een tested for
on?far+ use in a central treat+ent plant$ So+e candidate technologies are discussed
*elo)$
4 Chemical Addition
Che+ical precipitation has *een tested as a +ethod of separating solids andFor nutrients
fro+ s)ine +anure and could easily *e adapted as part of a +o*ile treat+ent syste+$
5ime and AlAaline &!-products
Appendi7 8
A si+ple +ethod of reducing the nutrient concentration of the li>uid fraction of s)ine
+anure is add li+e (or al'aline industrial *y?product containing calciu+ or +agnesiu+,
such as fly as or ce+ent 'iln dust and provide agitation$ By increasing the p(, dissolved
a++oniu+ is converted to a++onia gas )hich is stripped fro+ the solution *y agitation$
At high p(, calciu+ and +agnesiu+ react )ith phosphorus for+ing insolu*le co+pounds
)hich precipitate$ This leaves a li>uid fraction )ith greatly reduced nutrient value )hich
can then *e spread on a s+aller land *ase$ 8uring spreading, the li>uid )ould have a less
offensive odour$
This type of treat+ent has *een proposed in Canada and the U$S$ (o)ever, it has so+e
serious dra)*ac's$ 8uring agitation, )hile a++onia and other gases are released, severe
odour pro*le+s +ay *e e7pected$ &urther+ore, the release of a++onia fro+ livestoc'
+anure has *een lin'ed to acid rain$ @n "urope (especially the !etherlands, the
prevention of a++onia volatili6ation is usually considered essential for an accepta*le
+anure +anage+ent syste+$
B8o+tar li+eC a *y?product of the co+panyDs fine paper +anufacturing, could
conceiva*ly *e used to strip a++onia$ (o)ever, such a practice +ay provo'e a negative
reaction fro+ environ+entalists concerned over air pollution$
Metallic .alts
-etallic salts such as ferric chloride and alu+, can *e used to precipitate suspended solids
and phosphorus$ Since they have a depressing effect on p(, they should reduce a++onia
losses through volatili6ation ? alu+ has *een used to reduce a++onia losses in poultry
*oiler litter in the U$S$
A +etallic salt )as used in co+*ination )ith centrifugation in the Ger+an +o*ile
treat+ent syste+ na+ed =@"L discussed *elo) in the section on centrifugation$
Magnesium
@t is possi*le to precipitate a++oniu+ and phosphorus fro+ s)ine +anure *y adding
+agnesiu+ and adAusting the p( a*ove :$ This is the principle *ehind t)o collective
treat+ent syste+s tested in "urope, the A/8A syste+ in &rance and the -A# syste+ in
Ger+any$ The +agnesiu+, a++oniu+, and the phosphate are said to react in a 1,1,1
stoichio+etric ratio$ Since the +anure contains an e7cess of a++oniu+ co+pared to
phosphate, it is necessary to provide additional phosphate in addition to the +agnesiu+ in
order to precipitate all of the a++oniu+$ The "uropean syste+s are +agnesiu+ o7ide
and phosphoric acid$ As +uch as ;:H of the a++oniu+ and ;;H of the phosphorus can
*e re+oved fro+ the li>uid fraction$
An esti+ate of the che+ical re>uire+ents can *e +ade using the suggested 1,1,1
stoichio+etric ratio of a++oniu+, +agnesiu+ and phosphate$ Using the ratio, it is
esti+ated that over 44<< 'g of -g and over 54<< 'g of # )ould have to *e provided to
Appendi7 8
re+ove all of the a++onia produced *y a 1<<< pig finishing operation over 0<< days$
Tests )ould have to *e carried out to deter+ine a++onia re+oval efficiencies )ith
different sources and doses of +agnesiu+ and phosphorus$ @t should *e noted that a*ove
p( :, there )ill *e so+e loss of volatili6ed a++onia$ A++onia volatili6ation )ould
pro*a*ly *e of less concern in !orth A+erica than in "urope$
@t +ay *e possi*le to use dolo+itic li+e as an ine7pensive source of +agnesiu+$ A
phosphorus additive +ay prove to *e +ore e7pensive$
Bench scale trials )ere conducted using dolo+itic li+e and phosphoric acid$ !o
apprecia*le a++onia nitrogen )as achieved$ @t is possi*le that an insufficient a+ount of
+agnesiu+ fro+ the dolo+itic li+e dissolved in the )aste)ater, and therefore not enough
+agnesiu+ )as availa*le to react )ith the a++oniu+ and phosphorus$
Commercial Pol!mers
#oly+ers can *e used to aid solid?li>uid separation of )aste)aters including li>uid
livestoc' +anure$
@n la*oratory trials conducted at the University of British Colu+*ia, the poly+er #"RC%L
90: )as tested for its a*ility to re+ove suspended solids and che+ical o7ygen de+and
fro+ the supernatant of t)o s)ine +anure tan's$ The poly+er )as found to *e effective
for use )ith Bhigh strengthC )aste)ater in co+*ination )ith settling$ At a dosage of 4<
+gFL a suspended solids (TSS re+oval of ;3H and a che+ical o7ygen de+and (C%8
re+oval of 93H )ere achieved for a )aste)ater )ith an initial suspended solids
concentration of 50 ;<< +gFL and a che+ical o7ygen de+and of 4; 3<< +gFL$ (o)ever,
no i+prove+ent )as reported in suspended solids and che+ical o7ygen de+and re+oval
for a lo) strength )aste)ater (TSSJ00<< +gFL & C%8J:35< +gFL$ @f centrifugation
)as provided, the addition of the poly+er did not i+prove the treat+ent for either high
strength nor lo) strength )aste)ater$
A representative of Allied Colloids Ltd$, the producer of the #"RC%L poly+er series,
suggested testing several poly+ers for solid?li>uid separation of s)ine +anure, #"RC%L
949, #"RC%L 942, #"RC%L 90: and #"RC%L 901$ #reli+inary *ench scale tests
carried out on a )ea' s)ine +anure )aste)ater (TSSJ9<< +gFL did not sho) any
i+prove+ent in settling$
8re) Che+icals Ltd$ suggested testing the follo)ing poly+ers, Chargepac Series, 4, 0<,
25, 5< and 8re)floc 009<$ These tests have yet to *e conducted$
44 Centriugation
Appendi7 8
#orta*le centrifuge units are availa*le for solidFli>uid separation, and have *een used for
other applications (including septage de?)atering$ A centrifuge could conceiva*ly *e
used as one step in a treat+ent syste+, assu+ing that a good level of solid?li>uid
separation could *e achieved$
8r$ Lo of the University of B$C$ reported good TSS re+oval *y centrifugation in
la*oratory trials$ (o)ever, other researchers )ho have tested centrifugation of s)ine
+anure (personal co++unications )ith 8r$ Sohn %gilvie and 8r$ !aveen #atni, Sune
1;;9 have indicated that results have *een disappointing (the +anure is stic'y and tends
to retain )ater$
"ven follo)ing successful separation *y centrifugation, a relatively high level of a++onia?
! +ay *e e7pected in the li>uid fraction, as it is highly solu*le$ Centrifugation could
conceiva*ly *e used in conAunction )ith che+ical treat+ent to separate solids and
nutrients fro+ the li>uid fraction of s)ine +anure$
B1e @"05 0(periment
A +o*ile syste+ co+*ining centrifugation, che+ical treat+ent and flotation processes )as
tested in Ger+any in the early 1;;<Ds$ @n )hat )as 'no)n as the =@"L e7peri+ent, the
li>uid fraction, separated *y centrifugation, )as treated )ith &eClS%3 (dosing )as <$1 to
1 'g of &e2P per +2 of )aste)ater, *efore flo)ing into a static +i7er )here an anionic
polyelectrolyte )as added$ The resultant floc particles )ere re+oved in a flotation unit$
#art of the floc )as recycled to the start of the treat+ent process$
The syste+ )as reported to achieve the follo)ing re+oval rates for the li>uid fraction of
s)ine +anure, 42H total nitrogen (T!, :4H phosphates (as #0%4 and 04H potassiu+
(as =0%$
The capital cost of the +o*ile unit )as \:<< <<<Q fi7ed costs )ere esti+ated to *e
\15< <<< to \0<< <<< per yearQ and varia*le costs )ere appro7i+ately \2$0< per cu*ic
+eter$ The +ini+u+ cost to treat 3< <<< +2 per year )as esti+ated to *e \:$5< per +2
(this includes )or'er )ages at \3< <<< per year *ut does not consider the cost of
co+posting the solid fraction$ These costs )ere not co+prehensive )ith storage and
long distance hauling and the process )as a*andoned$
Representatives fro+ Alfa?Laval @nc$ have indicated that they +ay *e interested in
providing a centrifuge for a s)ine +anure treat+ent proAect$
444 /em%rane 3ystems
Appendi7 8
Since +e+*rane +odules are easily adapta*le as porta*le treat+ent units, the possi*ility of
using a +e+*rane technology for concentrating s)ine +anure has *een included in this
section, although the units used in the trials descri*ed *elo) )ere not +o*ile$
An on?far+, +e+*rane *ased treat+ent unit )as proposed in British Colu+*ia in 1;;4$
The design +ade use of technologies developed *y Uenon Technologies (for other
applications )hich incorporate *iological digestion and +e+*rane separation ('no)n as
UenoGe+T- and Uee.eedT-$ The effluent fro+ a *iological reactor )as to *e forced
through an ultrafiltration +odule )hich )ould re+ove all *acteria and suspended +atter
)hile allo)ing the dissolved nutrients to pass through$ The per+eate (the li>uid passing
through the +e+*rane fro+ the ultrafiltration +odule )as to *e concentrated in reverse
os+osis unit$ The product )ould *e a concentrated solution of nitrogen, phosphorus and
potassiu+ )hich could *e +ar'eted as a li>uid fertili6er, since it )ould have no effective
odour and )ould *e pathogen free$
8ue to personal pro*le+s of the colla*orating producer, the original test site had to *e
a*andoned$ A second producer decided to proceed )ith si+ilar trials, using +e+*rane
+odules +anufactured *y a different co+pany$ @n this design, the *ioreactor )as replaced
)ith a se>uencing *atch reactor (SBR, *ut ultrafiltration and nanofiltration +odules are
still included$ So+e li+ited trials have *een atte+pted to date and there has evidently
*een so+e difficulty )ith suspended solids in the effluent of the SBR$ (o)ever, the
syste+ is still *eing Bfine tunedC$
According to -r$ Richard /an'leec', of the B$C$ -inistry of Agriculture &isheries and
&ood, the Uenon +e+*rane technology see+s to sho) a great deal of pro+ise, since it can
handle a +uch higher suspended solids loading than can conventional ultrafiltration
+odules (including the +odule currently *eing tested, and deserves further testing$ @ts
adapta*ility to a +o*ile, contractor operated syste+ is unclear$
46 Ammonium Adsorption
A++oniu+ can *e re+oved through adsorption, rather than *y precipitation or gas
stripping$ A University of Guelph study identified the follo)ing natural +aterials for
a++oniu+ adsorption, clinoptilolite (a 6eolite, *entonite, ver+iculite and peat$ These
+aterials )ere proposed as additives to +anure tan's to reduce a++onia losses fro+ the
+anure tan' and to control the release of nitrogen fro+ +anure applied to the field$ Since
the adsorption +aterial )as to *e applied to the field along )ith the +anure, it )as
decided to use only BnaturallyC occurring +aterials$
@n a related study, clinoptilolite )as used to adsor* air?*orne a++onia in poultry houses$
An ion e7change colu+n, filled )ith 6eolite and Bspi'edC )ith nitrifying *acteria, )as
designed and tested at an e7peri+ental *arn operated *y the University of Guelph$ The
idea )as to adsor* the a++onia onto the 6eolite, then pro+ote conditions in )hich
*acteria )ould convert the adsor*ed a++onia into nitrate then nitrogen gas$ This )ould
effectively free ne) adsorption sites and allo) continued re+oval of a++onia$ Although
Appendi7 8
the colu+n re+oved a++onia, it )as not definitively proven that the nitrifiers li*erated
adsorption sites$
Lin'ing these t)o ideas related to a++oniu+ adsorption could *e valua*le to the
develop+ent of a syste+ for reducing the nitrogen content of s)ine +anure$ @f an
adsorption +ediu+ could *e used to re+ove a++oniu+ fro+ the li>uid fraction of the
+anure, then re?generated *y nitrification?denitrification, a nu+*er of +ethods )ould *e
possi*le to treat s)ine +anure$ The li>uid fraction of a +anure tan' could *e filtered
through a *ed of adsorption +ediu+ (possi*ly follo)ing so+e type of pre?treat+ent to
reduce its clogging tendency$ Alternatively, the adsorption +edia could *e +i7ed )ith a
tan' containing pre?separated li>uid +anure$ The spent adsorption +edia could then *e
*iologically regenerated on?site$
The a++oniu+ adsorption capacity of the 6eolite, clinoptilolite, is reported to *e
appro7i+ately 0+e>Fg *ut the adsorption capacity +ay *e e7pected to vary depending on
the source of the +ineral (since it is naturally occurring and the concentration of a++onia
in the li>uid fro+ )hich the a++oniu+ is to *e adsor*ed$ Assu+ing the reported
adsorption capacity, it )ould re>uire appro7i+ately 53 'g of clinoptilolite to adsor* the
a++oniu+ contained in one cu*ic +eter of +anure$ @t )ould therefore *e necessary to
recover the clinoptilolite rather than spread it on the fields )ith the +anure$ The +ass of
clinoptilolite re>uired )ould pro*a*ly preclude its use in a +o*ile syste+$
(igh capacity synthetic ion e7change resins are also availa*le for a++oniu+ adsorption$
These resins are nor+ally recharged )ith sodiu+ chloride (salt or sodiu+ hydro7ide
(caustic soda$ Synthetic resins +ay *e *etter suited for a +o*ile type of treat+ent than
)ould *e the natural 6eolite (it )ould *e prefera*le if they could *e recharged
*iologically$
#reli+inary la*oratory trials )ere carried out using clinoptilolite to adsor* a++oniu+
fro+ li>uid s)ine +anure$
PRELIMINARY LABORATORY TIALS ON CHEMICAL TREATMENT
4 :i"uid 3!ine /anure Tested
A sa+ple of li>uid +anure )as ta'en fro+ a local farro) to )eaning operation )ith
appro7i+ately 2<< so)s$ A 3< L gra* sa+ple )as ta'en fro+ the supernatant (the li>uid
fraction only of the +anure tan', using a *ailer sa+pler )hich collected li>uid fro+
appro7i+ately the top 1$0 + of the 2 + deep tan'$ The tan' )as not agitated prior to
ta'ing the sa+ple$ @t is esti+ated that the li>uid supernatant represented appro7i+ately
:4H of the volu+e of the tan'$
44 ;ar Tests & 3uspended 3olids 'emoval
Appendi7 8
ObMective
Sar tests )ere conducted to deter+ine if re+oval of suspended solids *y settling could *e
i+proved *y che+ical addition$
Met1od
Sar tests )ere carried out using a #hipps?Bird si7 paddle stirrer$ Round one litre *ea'ers
)ere filled )ith the li>uid s)ine +anure and agitated at 12< rp+$ 8ifferent doses of
coagulant )ere added, and the rapid +i7ing continued for 4 +inutes$ The +i7ing )as
then slo)ed to 2< rp+ for 2< +inutes$ This )as follo)ed *y a 1 hour settling period$
Sa+ples )ere then dra)n fro+ the supernatant of the *ea'er using a 5< +L syringe$
Results
@n the first set of Aar tests, 4< +gFL doses of the co++ercial poly+ers #"RC%L 949,
#"RC%L 942, #"RC%L 90:, and #"RC%L 901 )ere added to one litre sa+ples of li>uid
s)ine +anure$ The sa+ples treated )ith #"RC%L 949 and #"RC%L 942 did not sho)
any visual signs of i+proved solidFli>uid separation and )ere not tested further$
Sar tests )ere then conducted using #"RC%L 901 and #"RC%L 90: as coagulants$
Table 1:
as coagulants
1ar Tests using PERCOL 721, PERCOL 728 and dolomitic lime + phosphoric acid
Coagulant
Ra) .aste)ater
#ercol 90:
#ercol 90:
#ercol 901
#ercol 901
#ercol 901
Dose
(+gFL
<
04
4<
1<
04
4<
TSS
(+gFL
9<<
45<
43<
93<
95<
;0<
Another set of Aar tests )as conducted using ferric chloride and a co+*ination of
dolo+itic li+e and phosphoric acid as coagulants$
Appendi7 8
Table 2: 1ar Tests using Ferric Chloride and a Combination of Dolomitic Lime and Phosphoric Acid
as Coagulants
Coagulant
Ra) .aste)ater
&erric Chloride
&erric Chloride
&erric Chloride
8olo+itic Li+e P
Dose
(+gFL
<
0<<<
3<<<
:<<<
22 g li+e P : +L acid
TSS
(+gFL
90<
104
01<
114
003
#hosphoric Acid
Sa+ples of the ra) li>uid s)ine +anure, the supernatant and the sludge of the +anure
treated )ith dolo+itic li+e P phosphoric acid and the +anure tested )ith #"RC%L 901
and #"RC%L 90: )ere preserved )ith sulfuric acid and sent to a private la*oratory for
analysis of a++onia?!$ Results are presented in Ta*le 2$
Table 3: Ammonia-N Concentration of Treated Swine Manure Samples
Treatment
Ra) .aste)ater
8olo+itic li+e P #hosphoric Acid
Supernatant li>uid
Sludge
#"RC%L 901
#"RC%L 90:
Ammonia-N Concentration
(+gFL
0192
0<:<
0<51
1;;1
0<:2
9iscussion
At the doses tested, ferric chloride and the co+*ination of dolo+itic li+e and phosphoric
acid provided the *est suspended solids re+oval$ A lo)er dose of ferric chloride +ay
have sufficed$
The 22 gFL dose of dolo+itic li+e and : +L dose of phosphoric acid )ere *ased on
providing a 1,1,1 ratio of +agnesiu+,a++oniu+,phosphate as used in the "uropean
syste+s (in )hich +agnesiu+ o7ide )as used$ Since the li+e )as only 10H +agnesiu+,
an e7cessive dose )as re>uired$ The addition of phosphoric acid and dolo+itic li+e
lo)ered *y the p( fro+ appro7i+ately p( :$0 and p( 4$3$ The p( )as raised to p( :$2
)ith the addition of 13 +L of !a%( in order to pro+ote the precipitation of +agnesiu+
a++oniu+ phosphate$ (o)ever, although the use of phosphoric acid and dolo+ite
resulted in good suspended solids re+oval, a++oniu+ )as not precipitated (supernatant
and the sludge concentrations )ere al+ost the sa+e as that of the untreated sa+ple and of
the sa+ples treated )ith poly+er$
Appendi7 8
@t is possi*le that the lac' of a++oniu+ re+oval +ay have *een due to a co+peting
reaction in )hich the calciu+ in the dolo+itic li+e re+oved the phosphate *efore it could
co+*ine )ith the +agnesiu+ and a++oniu+$
""" Ammonium Adsorption =sing Clinoptilolite
ObMective
As a preli+inary +ethod of deter+ining if the use of the clinoptilolite had potential for
re+oving a++oniu+ fro+ li>uid s)ine +anure, a si+ple test )as carried out$
Met1od
;<g (appro7i+ately 1<< +L of clinoptilolite and 14< +L of li>uid s)ine +anure )ere
added to an "rlen+eyer flas'$ The flas' )as sealed )ith a ru**er stopper and left
undistur*ed for t)o hours$ At the sa+e ti+e, a second "rlen+eyer )as filled )ith 14<
+L of li>uid s)ine +anure and sealed )ith a ru**er stopper$ After t)o hours, the p( )as
+easured for *oth sa+ples of li>uid s)ine +anure, and the sa+ples )ere preserved )ith
sulfuric acid, and sent to a private la*oratory to *e analysed for a++onia P a++oniu+
nitrogen$
Results
The follo)ing ta*le presents the a++onia?! concentrations of a sa+ple of the original
li>uid s)ine +anure (Bra) +anureC, a sa+ple added to an "rlen+eyer flas' for t)o hours
(BcontrolC, and a sa+ple e7posed to clinoptilolite for t)o hours$
Table 4: Ammonia-N Removal by Adsorption onto Clinoptilolite
Ra) -anure
Control Manure Treated
with Clinoptilolite
p(
a++onia?! (+gFL
:$0
0192
:$0
01<5
:$2
1402
9iscussion
According to the literature, the a++oniu+ adsorption capacity of clinoptilolite is
appro7i+ately 0 +e> or 25 +g of a++oniu+ per gra+ of clinoptilolite$ @t should
therefore *e possi*le to re+ove 203< +g of a++oniu+ )ith ;< gra+s of clinoptilolite$
Since the total +ass of a++oniu+ in the control sa+ple )as 215 +g a++oniu+ (01<5
+gFL 7 <$14< L and the +ass of a++oniu+ in the treated sa+ple )as 00: +g a++oniu+
(1402 +gFL 7 <$14< L, even if it is assu+ed that a++onia volatili6ation )as +ini+al, the
clinoptilolite only re+oved :: +g of a++oniu+$
Appendi7 8
@t should *e noted that this is not a recogni6ed standard test$ @t +ay *e necessary to
circulate the li>uid +anure through the clinoptilolite to i+prove a++oniu+ re+oval$ To
*etter +easure the adsorption capacity of the clinoptilolite, a standard ion e7change
colu+n should *e set?up$
The conclusions and recommendations of the report were expanded upon and are
presented as a summary.
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
A nu+*er of solids separation and nutrient re+oval technologies have *een developed for
+unicipal and industrial )aste)ater treat+ent$ These can *e adapted to the treat+ent of
s)ine +anure$ The construction of central treat+ent plants is not reco++ended since the
strategy )as largely unsuccessful in "urope$ @n choosing the +ost pro+ising technology,
the conditions )hich )ill *e encountered on the far+ +ust *e ta'en into account$ @f a
per+anent on?far+ syste+ is to *e installed, it )ould *e prefera*le that the re>uired
operator attention *e 'ept to a +ini+u+$ Technologies re>uiring +ore operator e7pertise
can *e considered if a contractor operated +o*ile treat+ent syste+ is e+ployed$
Several technologies )ere identified in this preli+inary report$ A detailed analysis
including physical e7peri+entation and a +ar'et analysis )ould *e re>uired to select the
*est technologies$ (o)ever, it is possi*le to identify a fe) technologies )hich could *e
readily tested on?far+ *y Alfred College and Stantec Consulting in colla*oration )ith
other research institutes andFor private enterprises$
Appendi7 8
Treatment strategies identified in this report which show the greatest potential for
on-farm testing are (in no particular order):
1) Composting to Remove Water:
The evaporation of e7cess of )ater in a co+post pile see+s to *e a relatively si+ple
solution to reduce the volu+e of )ater to *e transported and spread$ Co+posting )ould
re>uire so+e operator attention *ut little e7pertise once guidelines are esta*lished$ The
proAect could al+ost certainly *e carried out in colla*oration )ith Agriculture Canada
(!aveen #atni and Ridgeto)n College (Si+ -orris and Ron &le+ing$
Advantages
1$ .e have e7pertise availa*le to us (!aveen #atni etc$
0$ .ill not re>uire e7cessive operator e7pertise, once guidelines have *een
developed$
2$ %ther trials have sho)n that it is possi*le to evaporate all of the li>uid )ith the
heat of the co+post$ This reduces transportation costs$
3$ The process produces a useful soil a+end+ent$
4$ @t +ay *e possi*le to pelleti6e the co+post so that it can *e shipped long
distances and +ar'eted to greenhouses etc$ This )ould tie in )ith another of
our proAects$
9isadvantages
1$ Ron &le+ing does not *elieve that the forced aeration syste+ they are testing is
ready for testing on a co++ercial far+$
0$ #assive aeration syste+s +ay *e too la*our intensive$
2$ There +ay *e so+e concern over odour, although the co+post is e7pected to
adsor* +uch of the odour causing gases$
3$ A co+posting proAect proposal )ould certainly not *e uni>ue$ A nu+*er of
other co+panies )ill )rite si+ilar proposals$
2) Ultrafiltration/Reverse Osmosis Membrane Systems:
-r$ Ric' /an'leec' of the B$C$ -inistry of Agriculture, &ood and &isheries )as involved
)ith a group )hich had already esta*lished a protocol for testing a syste+ developed *y
Uenon Technologies$ @n 1;;4, the group, including a private consulting fir+ ((ill, -urray
and Associates, Uenon and Ric' /an'leec' provided technical infor+ation for a proposal
)hich )as su*+itted to %ntario #or' *y Alfred College$ @t +ay *e possi*le to re?initiate
this proAect, especially considering that the B$C$ trials had to *e cancelled (*ecause of a
personal pro*le+ suffered *y the cooperating producer$
Appendi7 8
Advantages8
1$ -ost of the nutrients )ould *e recovered and put to good use$ @t +ay *e
possi*le to recover part of the cost *y +ar'eting the concentrate as a li>uid
fertili6er$
0$ @t )ould *e possi*le to re?use the product )ater fro+ the reverse os+osis unit
in the *arn$
2$ The technology is easily scaled up or do)n$
3$ .ith a +e+*rane syste+, it +ay *e possi*le to design a +o*ile syste+ and to
offer a s)ine +anure treat+ent service rather than trying to sell individual
treat+ent syste+s to far+ers$ This )ould generate repeat *usiness for the
custo+ operator and allo) the producers to focus on far+ing$
4$ -e+*rane +odules re>uire little land area$
5$ @t is clai+ed that the Uenon syste+ can handle appro7i+ately 4H TSS$
9$ &unding sources )ill receive fe) si+ilar proAect proposal$ @f the Uenon
*iological reactor P ultrafiltration P reverse os+osis syste+ is proposed, it
)ould li'ely *e seen as uni>ue$
9isadvantages8
1$ .e have only li+ited e7perience )ith +e+*ranes, and +uch of the e7pertise
)ould *e fro+ outside sources$
0$ %ther +e+*rane syste+s have tended to foul$
2$ There have *een no pu*lished trial results of the Uenon syste+ for s)ine
+anure$
3$ Relatively ine7pensive to test$
3) Constructed Wetlands and Reed Beds: Stantec Consulting and Alfred
College both have experience and credibility in the design of such systems. It
would have to be determined if a reed bed would be a suitable method of pre-
treating the manure so that it could be handled in a wetland.
Advantages8
1$ .e already have e7pertise in the design, construction and +onitoring of
)etlands$
0$ .etlands )ould re>uire little operator attention$
2$ There have *een so+e successful syste+s constructed in the U$S$
3$ The proposal could include the testing of various Bpretreat+ent syste+sC,
)hich +ay give us a chance to evaluate other technologies$
4$ %ther groups )ill su*+it proposals, *ut )e should *e a*le to co+pete )ith
the+ *ased on our past e7perience$
Appendi7 8
9isadvantages8
1$ %dour control +ay *e perceived as a pro*le+ *y the funding *odies$
0$ -any acade+ics )ill o*Aect *ecause nutrients )ould *e B)astedC rather than
utili6ed on the land (Sohn %gilvie for e7a+ple$ The idea of treating +anure to
get rid of nutrients contradicts )hat +inistries of agriculture have *een
preaching to producers, B-anure is a valua*le nutrient resource, not a )aste
+aterial to *e disposedC$
2$ -anure )ould have to *e stored over the )inter$
3$ .etlands re>uire land )hich is valua*le in +any regions )ith large livestoc'
producers$
4$ Large lagoons +ay *e re>uired for pretreat+ent$ These have received a lot of
*ad press, particularly in the U$S$ (i$e$ 6? minutes$
5$ Relatively e7pensive to test (involves on?site construction$
4) Chemical Precipitation: The addition of a coagulant to promote
sedimentation of solids and nutrients would appear to be a good candidate
technology: it is simple, relatively inexpensive and previous trials have been
relatively successful. If further nutrient removal from the liquid fraction is
deemed to be advantageous, chemical precipitation can be combined with
other nutrient removal technologies so that the necessary land base for
spreading can be further reduced. Although the initial laboratory trials were
disappointing, a number of other strategies could be tested at relatively low
cost in the laboratory$
Advantages8
1$ /ery si+ple$
0$ Can easily *e co+*ined )ith other treat+ent processes for +o*ile or stationary
syste+s$
2$ Relatively ine7pensive to test$
3$ "asily scaled up or do)n$
9isadvantages8
1$ !ot a co+plete treat+ent$
0$ @s pro*a*ly too e7pensive to i+ple+ent (high doses of che+icals are re>uired$
4 Ammonium adsorption should also be considered$
Appendi7 8
Although naturally occurring 6eolites do not provide sufficient adsorption capacity to
+a'e the+ practical for +o*ile treat+ent syste+s, they can *e tested as high perfor+ance
su*surface filters$ %ther +aterials such as L"CA or shale +ay also *e tested$ The idea
)ould *e to provide a nu+*er of adsorption *eds so that they can *e alternatively loaded
and rested$ 8uring the loading period, the a++oniu+ )ould *e adsor*ed onto the +edia
and during the resting period (aero*ic, it )ould *e nitrified and the adsorption sites )ould
*e regenerated$ The effluent +ay prove to *e +ore nitrified than the effluent of a
conventional reed *ed, in )hich +ost of the a++oniu+ )ould pass right through$
!itrified effluent could then *e passed through a denitrification syste+$ !ote that this +ay
prove to *e a good option for pretreat+ent for a )etland, since a )etlandDs a*ility to
re+ove nitrogen is said to *e nitrification li+ited$
A synthetic ion e7change resin )ith a high a++oniu+ adsorption capacity +ay *e
considered as part of a +o*ile treat+ent syste+$ The idea )ould *e to pretreat the li>uid
+anure to re+ove solids (a +o*ile scre)?press could *e used$ The li>uid )ould then *e
treated in a +o*ile ion e7change reactor to re+ove a++oniu+ (and phosphorus, if
necessary$ Treated li>uid )ould *e irrigated$ The resin )ould *e ta'en off site to *e
recharged at a central location, either che+ically or *iologically (*y spi'ing it )ith
nitrifying *acteria$ The regenerate )ould *e recovered to *e +ar'eted as a li>uid
fertili6er$
Advantages8
1$ @on e7change technologies )ould *e easily incorporated into designs )hich
include other co+ponents (such as constructed )etlands$
0$ Standard +ethods e7ist for co+paring ion e7changers$ .e already have +ost
of )hat )ould *e re>uired in our la*$ The tests )ould *e relatively
ine7pensive$
2$ Tests could *e carried out )hich )ould lead to either a +o*ile syste+ or an
on?far+ syste+$
9isadvantages8
1$ There is a lac' of previous research ()e should order a literature search fro+ a
li*rary$
0$ The che+ical used to regenerate a synthetic resin )ould have to have to
negative effects on agricultural land ? !ACl could not *e used$
2$ The li>uid Bfertili6erC recovered fro+ a synthetic resin +ay still have a *ad
odour$ @f this )ere the case, it )ould *e difficult to +ar'et$
Appendi7 8
APPENDIX E
DESIGN EXAMPLE FOR SEPTAGE WASTE
Design Example for the Treatment of Septage Waste
Using Constructed Wetlands
(by: Olvier Fankhauser, Alfred College)
INTRODUCTION
The follo)ing 8esign "7a+ple is for an actual site located in South)estern %ntario, in the
To)snhip of Stephen, appro7i+ately : '+ south east of Grand Bend$ The property in >uestion
is that of -r$ Andy %DBrien of Grand Bend Sanitation$ The purpose of this design e7a+ple is to
outline the general design of a si+ple natural syste+ to treat septage$ Septage is the +aterial
pu+ped fro+ a septic tan' )hen it is e+ptied$ Under current practices, septage and holding tan'
)astes are either hauled to )aste)ater treat+ent plants or applied on land$ (o)ever, as
provincial govern+ents reduce su*sidies to )aste)ater treat+ent plants, tipping fees for septage
haulers )ill increase$ @t is also *eco+ing +ore difficult to apply septage on land, due to +ore
stringent regulations and pu*lic pressure (i$e$ co+plaints a*out odours$ Thus, it )ill *eco+e
+ore i+portant to find an alternative to conventional septage +anage+ent$ This report )ill
propose a ne) )ay to treat septage$
SEPTAGE CHARACTERISTICS
Septage is characteri6ed *y concentrations of pollutants that are 5 to :< ti+es higher than in
se)age ("#A, 1;:3$ @t is anaero*ic and odoriferous, )hich +ight cause pro*le+s for a
treat+ent plant in a residential area$ @t contains hair, plastic +aterial, food particles, sand, gravel
and other coarse +aterials that +ight clog and )ear pu+ps and conduits$ @ts grease content +ay
cause pro*le+s for a treat+ent plant *ased on natural syste+s$ The presence of detergent
surfactants (LASJlinear al'yl sulfonate +ay cause large >uantities of foa+ to *e produced *y
agitation$ The +aterial has a high concentration of solids, giving it an appearance si+ilar to
se)age sludge$ (o)ever, it is +ore difficult to treat than se)age sludge, *ecause it is +ore inertQ
the +ore readily degrada*le organic +aterial is deco+posed for the t)o to five years in the septic
tan' *efore it is hauled a)ay (Teal & #eterson, 1;;2$
Appendi7 "
#ara+eterSeptage (+gFlSe)age (+gFlSeptageFse)age ratioTS3< <<<90<44T/S04
<<<2545:TSS14 <<<00<5:/SS1< <<<15451B%849 <<<00<20C%814
<<<4<<2<T=!9<<3<19!?!(214<045T#04<:21LAS14<!FA!FAGrease: <<<1<<:<
Table 1: Characteristics of septage (EPA, 1984)
CONVENTIONAL MANAGEMENT
-anage+ent of septage can *e separated into three categories ("#A, 1;:3, land disposal, co?
treat+ent in a )aste)ater treat+ent plant and independent treat+ent (co+posting, sta*ili6ation
lagoon, aero*ic or anaero*ic digestion, li+e sta*ili6ation, chlorine o7idation$ The t)o first
categories are the +ost co++on$ So+e pre?treat+ent (screening, grit re+oval is usually
perfor+ed at the receiving station$
Appendi7 "
Land application
Land application ta'es advantage of the soil and vegetationEs a*ility to re+ove pollutants$
Application can *e done )ith spray irrigation, incorporation, ridge, furro) syste+s and overland
flo) syste+s$ According to the regulations, the sludge should not *e applied to land )hich )ill
*e used )ithin si7 +onths *y gra6ing do+estic livestoc'$ &ruits and vegeta*les should not *e
planted until eight +onths follo)ing the application$ @f the sludge is not covered )ith earth, a
t)elve +onth period should *e adopted$ @n order to apply septage, the land +ust *e licensed as
class 9 and +ust co+ply )ith certain criteria (topography, pro7i+ity of )ells and surface )ater,
soil conditions, depth to ground)ater and *edroc'$ Thus, this syste+ is si+ple and cost?
effective, *ut +ore stringent regulations and pu*lic pressure +a'e it increasingly difficult to use$
@n addition, this +ethod is )eather dependent$
Co-treatment in wastewater treatment plants
Septage can *e added to the li>uid or to the sludge strea+ of )aste)ater treat+ent plants$ @t )as
de+onstrated that the dilution of septage (1?0H in se)age increases its settling characteristics,
)hich has *een sho)n to *e lo) co+pared to other products$ Since a large fraction of its organic
content is associated )ith suspended solids, the pri+ary clarifier )ill reduce its B%84 *y 4<?5<H$
@n so+e plants, septage is added to the sludge strea+$ (o)ever, due to poor de)atering
characteristics, septage should first *e che+ically or *iologically conditioned$ Septage treat+ent
in )aste)ater treat+ent plants )ill *eco+e +ore costly in the near future, as su*sidies )ill *e
drastically reduced$
ALTERNATIVE MANAGEMENT
Constructed wetlands
NConstructed 'etlands# in contrast to natural 'etlands# are 1uman-made s!stems t1at are
designed# built# and operated to emulate natural 'etlands or /unctions o/ natural 'etlands /or
1uman desires and needsN (2ammer# 1997%*
@n )etlands, four co+ponents act together to reduce the pollution$ These are the vegetation, the
+icroorganis+s, the soil, and the )ater colu+n$ &or e7a+ple, vegetation has four effects, 1 it
increases sedi+entation *y reducing flo) velocitiesQ 0 it provides an environ+ent for the
+icroorganis+sQ 2 it *rings o7ygen to the +edia through the roots and 3 it creates and +aintains
Appendi7 "
a litter?hu+us layer that is highly reactive$ The vegetation also ta'es up a s+all a+ount of the
nutrients, *ut those are returned to the syste+ after the plants die$ -icroorganis+s alter the
pollutants to o*tain nutrients, o7ygen or energy to carry out their life cycles$ The soil acts as a
reactive surface area for co+ple7ing cations, anions and other co+pounds and provides
attach+ent surfaces for the +icroorganis+s$
Constructed )etlands have largely *een used to treat ani+al )aste)aters$ They usually have the
follo)ing set?up, +arshFpondF+arshFoverland flo) syste+$ The e+ergent +arshes are shallo)
*asins (1<?0< c+ )ater depth )ith densely gro)ing vegetation$ The pond is a <$94 to 1 +eter
deep aero*icFo7idation lagoon$ The first +arsh pro+otes a++onification, the aero*ic pond
transfor+s the a++onia into nitrites and nitrates, and finally the last +arsh acts as a denitrifier$
The overland flo) syste+ traps suspended solids that result fro+ the treat+ent, i+proves nitrogen
re+oval and functions in so+e cases as an irrigation area$ These four steps follo) a pre?
treat+ent, as constructed )etlands are essentially designed to polish effluents and should not *e
fed )ith ra) )aste)ater (B%84 should pri+arily *e reduced to 3<< +gFl$ &urther+ore,
pretreat+ent )ith lagoons acco+plishes pollutant reduction +ore efficiently than a stand?alone
)etland syste+ ((a++er, 1;;0$
&or e7a+ple, a )etland designed to treat dairy cattle feedlot and solid +anure pile runoff (.eil et
al$, 1;;9 +anaged to reduce pollutant concentration dra+atically in "+*run, "astern %ntario
(ta*le 0$ The syste+ is designed in the follo)ing )ay$ The +anure pile runoff is collected in an
anaero*ic lagoon *efore entering the syste+ at a controlled rate$ The feedlot runoff is first treated
)ith an overland flo) syste+$ These t)o flo)s then enter a sta*ili6ation pond and a
+arshFpondF+arshFoverland flo) syste+$ The syste+ )as designed for a loading rate of 1<<
'gFhaFday of B%84 for the sta*ili6ation pond and 2 'gFhaFday of T=! for the rest of the syste+$
Appendi7 "
B%84 reductionT=! reductionT# reduction@n cell%verall@n cell%verall@n cell
%verall&acultative pond;1$5 H;1$5 H::$4 H::$4 H:1$0 H :1$0 H-arsh 100$< H;2$4 H1<$2
H:;$9 H1:$5 H :3$9 HAero*ic pond92$9 H;:$2 H49$5 H;4$5 H3:$2 H ;0$1 H-arsh
003$5 H;:$9 H3;$0 H;9$: H3<$3 H ;4$2 H&ilter strip0;$4 H;;$; H? 09$< H;;$9 H?42$4 H
;;$; H
Table 2: pollutant concentration reduction of a wetland to treat dairy runoff
(Weil et al., 1997)
Thus, constructed )etlands could *e used to polish the effluent fro+ a septage treat+ent syste+$
Their principal disadvantage is their high land re>uire+ent as co+pared to other treat+ent
syste+s$
CASE STUDY: SITE SPECIFICATIONS
The study site is located in South)estern %ntario, a*out : '+ south east of Grand Bend$ -r$
Andy %EBrien, president of Grand Bend Sanitation @nc$, o)ns a 0< ha parcel located in Stephen
To)nship, Concession _@_, a*out 1$5 '+ north of (igh)ay :1$ Appro7i+ately : ha are
currently registered as class 9 for septage land application$
A preli+inary hydrogeological investigation )as perfor+ed on?site (Beatty &ran6 and Associates,
1;;9$ The nearest +unicipal drain is located over 2<<+ to the south)est of the property$ The
nearest )ells are located +ore than 4<<+ to the east of the proposed treat+ent syste+$ The soil
is co+posed of 04c+ topsoil, 14?3<c+ thin, +ediu+?grained sand and silty clay )ith so+e sand
and stones$ The silty clay is co+posed of 5<H silt and 04H clay$ This +aterial has a very lo)
hydraulic conductivity$ According to the investigation, this site appears to *e favoura*le for the
Appendi7 "
-ean
precipitation
(++1<?year high
precipitation
(++-ean net
precipitation
(++1<?yr high net
construction of the proposed septage syste+$ (o)ever, the sides of the proposed syste+ should
*e lined )ith co+pacted till to seal the +ore per+ea*le sand and )eathered till units in the upper
layers$
A cli+atic analysis )as perfor+ed *ased on precipitation and evaporation data o*tained fro+ the
%ntario Cli+ate Centre ("7eter station, 1;51?1;;5$ @n order to li+it ris's of overflo), net
precipitation (precipitation?evaporation should *e ta'en into account )hen co+puting the
storage volu+e of the different co+ponents$ &or further ris' reduction, the net precipitation that
is used in the design should have a pro*a*ility of occuring only once in a period of ten years ()et
year$ The cli+atic data is presented in ta*le 2$
Table 3: Total and net precipitation at Exeter, Ontario
DESIGN
The o*Aective of this proAect is to provide a si+ple and cost?effective septage treat+ent syste+
)ith lo) la*our and +onitoring re>uire+ents$ As +entioned a*ove, land application and co?
treat+ent in )aste)ater treat+ent plants )ill *eco+e either +ore costly or +ore difficult in the
future$ Reed *eds, lagoons and the solar a>uatic syste+ (SAS are potential alternatives$ A
preli+inary design )as conceived )hich included a receiving station, a pre?treat+ent, an
anaero*ic lagoon, a reed *ed, a facultative pond and a +arshFaero*ic pondF+arshFoverland flo)
syste+$ This syste+ )ould produce a polished effluent, *ut the area needed and the costs
associated are e7cessive$ @t )as decided to revie) the design and produce an effluent that can *e
used for irrigation onto agricultural land$ The proposed treat+ent syste+ is a lo) cost
technology co+*ining the advantages of lagoons and )etlands, li'e in the SAS syste+, *ut
)ithout the costs of intensive aeration and a greenhouse$
Appendi7 "
Design principle
The proposed syste+ is co+posed of the follo)ing, receiving stationFpre?treat+entFanaero*ic
lagoonFfacultative pondFaero*ic pondF+arshFirrigation$ The natural treat+ent syste+ proposed
for Grand Bend Sanitation is designed to produce an effluent to *e irrigated on 1 or 0 ha of grass
forage having the follo)ing nutrient re>uire+ents (%-A&RA reco++endations in "astern
%ntario for clay soils,
!itrogen (as ! ,
#hosphorus (as #0%4
#hosphorus (as #
#otassiu+ (as =0%
#otassiu+ (as =
12<?14< 'g !Fha
4<?;< 'g #0%4Fha
0<?3< 'g #Fha
<?2< 'g =0%Fha
<?04 'g =Fha
The proposed design is inspired *y the "+*run constructed )etland (.eil et al*, 1;;9$
(o)ever, since the "+*run syste+ )as designed to discharge into a +eado) and eventually flo)
into a cree', its effluent criteria had to *e +ore strict$ The effluent fro+ Grand Bend )ill *e
irrigated onto agricultural land$ As a result, the proposed syste+ )ill *e +ore co+pact and less
costly per cu*ic +etre of )aste)ater treated$ The target effluent >uality in "+*run and Grand
Bend are listed *elo),
Embrun Grand Bend
B%84
T!
T#
I 0< +gFl
I 1< +gFl
I 1 +gFl
!$A
1<< +gFl for 1 ha irrigated
2< +gFl
The T! of the septage )etland effluent +ust *e 1<< +gFl if 1 ha of land is availa*le for irrigation$
@t can *e increased *y 1<< +gFl for each additional availa*le hectare$ The +a7i+u+ at Grand
Bend is 0<< +gFl, as additional land is not availa*le$ The stringent storage re>uire+ents for the
anaero*ic lagoon )ill provide sufficient reduction of TSS and B%84$ This co+*ined )ith the
high T! target in the syste+ effluent should result in a co+pact and ine7pensive syste+ overall$
Appendi7 "
Design boundary conditions
The septage characteristics are *ased on the values proposed *y the "#A (1;:3 and given
in ta*le 1$ The para+eters )hich are +ost i+portant for design purposes are, B%84 J 9
<<< +gFl, TSS J 14 <<< +gFl, T=! J 9<< +gFl and T# J 04< +gFl$
The total volu+e of septage to *e treated is 1 24< +2 per year$ According to the "#A
(1;:3, loadings are lo)er in the )inter$ Therefore, it is assu+ed that loading is 34H in
the spring and su++er, 24H in the fall and 0<H in )inter$ The storage )ill have to store
the fall, )inter and early spring septage for a total esti+ated at 55H of the yearly
production, :;< +2$
A possi*le scenario, )hich +ust *e chec'ed for treat+ent efficiency, is that the anaero*ic
lagoon )ould store and treat :;< +2 (03< days P 0 years of sludge at the *otto+$ The
active treat+ent period *eyond the anaero*ic lagoon is 104 days *et)een (fro+ the end of
-ay to the end of Septe+*er$
8uring an average )inter, <$9 + of precipitation )ill dilute the )aste$ The i+pact of
dilution in )inter is greatly offset *y the concentration in su++er due to evaporation$
The design is governed *y the follo)ing para+eters (fro+ +ost to least i+portant, cost,
a*ility to store in )inter, treat+ent efficiency$ "fficiency )as rated least i+portant,
*ecause the effluent is irrigated onto far+ land$
Septage pretreatment
Before entering the treat+ent syste+, the septage should *e pretreated$ This )ill *e done either
at a receiving station or )ith the use of a screen )hen the truc' du+ps the septage into the
lagoon (access ra+p$ &or financial reasons, the second option is preferred$
@f a receiving station is preferred, it should include,
a a du+ping station, a covered pit )ith a coarse screen and hose connectionQ
* a +echanically cleaned screen )ith an optional drained scre) conveyorQ and
c a grit re+oval syste+ (optional$
Anaero*ic lagoon
Appendi7 "
The lagoon is designed to have the follo)ing characteristics,
@ts inlet (du+ping 6one is e>uipped )ith a grit re+oval *as'et$

@t acts as a settling tan' in )hich ;<H or +ore of the TSS content is re+oved ?
sludge accu+ulates for 0 or 2 years, after )hich it is *otto+ pu+ped and irrigated
over on grass forage land$
@t provides 4<H or +ore reduction of B%84, 0<H re+oval of T! and 24H
re+oval of T# (to *e verified$
@t contains a floating fat layer to *e re+oved +anually (accu+ulation in a corner
due to )ind shear or +echanically (s'i++er$ This layer +ight even provide
advantages for the treat+ent, it reduces odor e+ission ((0S, volatile fatty acids,
ensures that the lagoon is co+pletely anaero*ic and functions as a heat insulator$
TSS re+oval
TSS re+oval is achieved *y >uiescent settling$ Appendi7 A contains the su++ary of the settling
tests conducted on the septage )aste)ater, ;<H re+oval is achieved )ithin 90 hours$ After this
ti+e, in a 0$20 + colu+n of li>uid, the supernatant 6one is 1$90 + and the thic'enedFsludge 6one
is <$5< +$ A 2$;<+ deep anaero*ic lagoon is re>uired, including a <$2+ free*oard$ This also
includes 1$0<+ for sludge accu+ulation to *e re+oved *y pu+ping and irrigation$ Appro7i+ately
<$9+ is attri*uted to precipitation accu+ulation in the fall, )inter and spring$ @ntrusion of
ground)ater +ust *e prevented through the use of a clay liner$
B%84 re+oval
B%84 re+oval is achieved in t)o )ays ,
1
0
By settling of suspended solids$ 8igestion gas +ay re?suspend so+e +aterial$
By anaero*ic digestion of solu*le organic +atter associated )ith the deposition of *io+ass
and the release of car*on dio7ide and +ethane$
Tcho*anoglous & Burton (1;;1 reported B%84 conversion rates of 4<H to :4H at a detention
ti+e of 0< to 4< days and a te+perature range of 5 to 4<<C$ .ith B%84 loading rates *et)een
00 to 45< 'gFhaFday and an operational depth of 0$3 to 3$: +, the effluent suspended solids
concentration is :<?15< +gFl$ Re+oval rates of ;0H )ere reported *y the "#A (1;:3 for a
Appendi7 "
septage lagoon in Acton, -assachusetts$ The "#A specifies that the detention ti+e should *e at
least 0< days$ &or a loading rate of <$:3 'g /SFdayF1<<< +0 and 4<< days of detention ti+e, the
reduction should *e +ore than ;4H$
The proposed anaero*ic lagoon )as designed for 03< days of storage (:;< +2 fro+ %cto*er 5th
till -ay 21st$ @n addition, a <$2+ free*oard and <$9+ for precipitation ()et )inter, 1< year return
period are added$ At the end of the treat+ent period, the lagoon only contains the accu+ulated
sludge$ Thus, so+e ele+ents of septage )ill *e stored for 03< days, others < days$ Assu+ing
co+plete +i7ing, the average detention ti+e is 10< days for fall and )inter storage$ Bet)een
Sune 1st and %cto*er 4th, 35< +2 of ne) septage is to *e added$ 8uring this period, the entire
content (124< +2 )ill *e transferred to the facultative pond at the average daily rate of 1<$:
+2Fday$ !ote that the +ean evaporation (<$54 + during this period appro7i+ately co+pensates
for the precipitation accu+ulated in the anaero*ic lagoon in )inter (<$9+$
The overall perfor+ance of the pond can only *e e7trapolated fro+ other co+para*le sites$ The
B%84 re+oval )as esti+ated as 4<H *ecause li+ited digestion occurs in )inter$ The effluent
concentration is esti+ated to *e 2,4<< +gFl$
#hosphorus and nitrogen re+oval
The total phosphorus reduction is ta'en as a direct proportion of the TSS re+oval$ The effluent
concentration is esti+ated to *e 22 +gFl$ To *e conservative, the T=! re+oval is considered to
*e 0<H$ The effluent concentration is esti+ated at 45< +gFl$
8i+ension of the anaero*ic lagoon
a
*
c
Total depth, 2$5 + P <$2 + free*oard J 2$; +
Useful storage depth J 2$; + ? 1$0 + accu+ulated sludge ? <$9 + precipitation ? <$2 +
free*oard J 1$9+
Surface area AA! at )ater level assu+ing straight *an's is,
AA! J :;< +2 F 1$9 + J 402$4 +0 or 29$4 + 7 13 +
All the di+ensions have to *e adAusted to the side slope re>uire+ents$
Facultative pond
Appendi7 "
B%84 re+oval
@n "+*run, %ntario, .eil et al$ (1;;9 +easured a ;1$4H reduction in B%84 )ith a 14<
'gFhaFday loading rate into a facultative pond$ The +ean influent and effluent B%84 )ere 0459
+gFl and 014 +gFl respectively (detention ti+e, 094 days$ =inetic re+oval rates under local
cli+atic condition have yet to *e co+puted$ @n the Grand Bend design, a conservative approach
is to assu+e that the loading encountered in "+*run )ill produce an :<H re+oval in B%84$
Thus, the effluent concentration in B%84 )ould *e appro7i+ately 904 +gFl$
The +ass loading -& and re>uired treat+ent area A& are,
-&
A&
J 1<$: +2Fday 7 24<< +gFl 7 1<?2 J 29$: 'gFday
J 29$: 'g per day F 14< 'g per ha per day J <$040 ha J 040< +0
The di+ensions are,
length
)idth
depth
J 90 +
J 24 +
J 1$4 + (operational level
There is a risk however of the facultative pond becoming mostly anaerobic, due to the high
requirement in dissolved oxygen. Dividing the facultative pond into two cells in series, each
equipped with a wind aerator, will be considered in the detailed design. Wind aerators will
be added on a per need basis.
T=! re+oval
@n "+*run, .eil et al$ (1;;9 +easured a T=! re+oval of ::$4H for a facultative pond )ith a
+ass loading of ;$9 'gFday$ The +ass loading e7pected for Grand Bend is,
-& J 1<$: +2Fd 7 45< +gFl 7 1<?2 J 5$<3 'gFday
Because the e7pected influent B%84 concentration is high (24<< +gFl, nitrification +ight *e
li+ited due to a lac' of o7ygen$ T=! re+oval )ill +ostly occur *y deposition of *io+ass and is
not e7pected to e7ceed 4<H, yielding an effluent )ith a T=! concentration *et)een 04< +gFl
Appendi7 "
and 2<< +gFl$ Again, dividing the facultative pond into t)o aerated cells )ould enhance the
perfor+ance of the syste+$
Polishing low rate aerobic pond/marsh area
The polishing lo) rate aero*ic pondF+arsh is designed to aerate the )aste to +ini+ise odour
pro*le+s as )ell as to protect against pea' loading periods$ A 94H reduction in B%84 )as
o*served in "+*run for a ; 'gFhaFday loading rate$ So+e of the re+aining B%84 is due to algae$
(o)ever, the initial influent average concentration )as lo)er than 15: +gFl in "+*run and
greater percent reduction )ould *e e7pected )ith the higher initial concentration of 904 +gFl$
Tcho*anoglous & Burton (1;;1 specify that a lo) rate aero*ic pond is <$;+ deep, functions
*etter at 0<<C (su++er condition in %tta)a, and can *e loaded *et)een 9< and 13< 'gFhaFday$
@t is e7pected that concentrations in the effluent )ill *e the follo)ing, algae concentration of 3< to
1<< +gFl, TSS of :< to 13< +gFl and B%84 conversion of :<H to ;4H$
The +ass loading over the lo) rate aero*ic pond is,
-AR J 1<$: +2Fday 7 904 +gFl 7 1<?2 J 11$2; 'gFday
The allo)a*le loading rate is selected at a conservative 34 'gFhaFday, ta'ing into consideration
that average te+peratures in -ay and Septe+*er are +uch lo)er than 0<<C$ Thus, the re>uired
treat+ent area is,
AAR
8i+ensions,
J 11$23 'g F 34 'gFhaFday J <$193< ha J 193< +0
LengthJ 4< + .idthJ 24 +
The depth is <$; + in the first half of the pondF+arsh (02$4 + and <$34 + in the
second half (02$4 +$
The +arsh section (second half is deeper than the usual <$0+ to pro+ote aero*ic conditions, as
anaero*ic conditions )ould cause odours$ This approach )ill also reduce the algae production$
The shallo)er area of the pond )ill *e rapidly coloni6ed *y cattails, )hich )ill further aerate the
*otto+ sludge$ The e7pected B%84 concentration is appro7i+ately 5< +gFl to 05< +gFl$ The
e7pected T=! concentration *ased on o*servation in "+*run is appro7i+ately 5<H to 9<H of
the influent concentration, thus *et)een 15< and 00< +gFl or an average of 1;< +gFl$
Appendi7 "
Irrigated area
The effluent yearly +ass loading into the irrigated area is,
-@R J 124< +2 7 1;< +gFl 7 1<?2 J 045$4 'g
Based on the crop re>uire+ents, the filter area re>uired )ill *e appro7i+ately,
A@R J 045$4 'g F 13<'gFha J 1$:2 ha
The land application proposed is *y gravity along a pipe set at the crest of t)o sloped *eds,
Figure 1: Sloped bed design
.idth of each *ed, 5< +
Length of each *ed, 14< +
Crop suggested, a grass forage crop is suggested initially$ This grass forage is not to *e
consu+ed *y ani+als$ The fe) *ales harvested are to *e co+posted$ A poplar or pine
plantation )ould ensure an efficient and *eneficial long ter+ disposal of the effluent$ The
re>uire+ents for nitrogen and phosphorus are appro7i+ately the sa+e for trees as for grass
forage and corn$
Appendi7 "
L (+l (+2
/ (+ 8 (+dt (dayB%84
(+gFlT=!
(+gFlAnaero*ic
Lagoon(1
:;<(0
2$;03<24<<45<&acultative
pond902429:<(2
Summary
The di+ensions of the proposed treat+ent syste+ are su++ari6ed in the follo)ing ta*le,
Table 4: Septage treatment system design
(1, (0,
This is the useful storage volu+e re>uired$ The 2$; + total depth includes <$2 + for
free*oard, 1$0 + for accu+ulated sludge and <$9 + for precipitation$ A clear :;< +2 +ust *e
availa*le$ (2 %perational level
Figure 2: profile of the lagoon
Appendi7 "
The total volu+e of soil e7cavatedFplaced is a*out :<<< +2$

The transfers could *e done *y gravity, *ut pu+ps allo) *etter control$ &or that reason, a
pu+p is reco++ended *et)een the anaero*ic lagoon and the facultative pond$
T)o cro)ned *eds 5< + 7 14< + follo) the +arsh$ @nitially, the crop )ould *e grass
forage$ @t cannot *e consu+ed (it is only a fe) *ales$ Christ+as trees or poplars are
reco++ended for the long ter+$
The sludge at the *otto+ of the anaero*ic pond can *e pu+ped every t)o to three years$
@f it is irrigated in the fall, the forage can *e used the follo)ing spring$
The total syste+ should cost a*out \3< <<<, plus the cost of any clay liner, plus
engineering$
&igures 2 and 3 represent the layout of the treat+ent syste+$
Figure 3: Cross Section of Septage Treatment System
Appendi7 "
Figure 4: Plan View of septage Treatment System
CONCLUSION
Septage has high pollutant concentrations$ @t is usually land applied or treated in )aste)ater
treat+ent plants$ (o)ever, due to su*sidy cuts and pu*lic pressure, it )ill *e +ore and +ore
difficult to use these conventional syste+s$ !e) independant treat+ent syste+s are li'ely to
appear to solve these pro*le+s$ (o)ever, these are often la*our intensive, e7pensive, or present
a threat to the environ+ent$
A ne) syste+ to treat septage is proposed$ @t includes a pre?treat+ent, an anaero*ic lagoon, a
facultative pond, an aero*ic pond, a +arsh and an irrigation area$ This syste+ is si+ple and
i+proves traditional anaero*ic lagoons *y reducing the ris' of pollution of ground)ater$ @ts cost
is also +uch lo)er than that of traditional treat+ent processes$ &inally, )ith the increasing cost
to dispose of septage in )aste)ater treat+ent plants and the higher difficulty to apply it to land,
this ne) septage treat+ent syste+ should provide an alternative for the septage industry$ @n the
long ter+, it )ill also reduce the costs for the people )ho generate septage$
Appendi7 "
APPENDIX F
FOOD PROCESSING WASTE TREATMENT
USING CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS
CONSTRUCTED WETLANDS, REED BEDS AND OVERLAND FLOW
FOR THE TREATMENT OF
FOOD PROCESSING WASTWATER
(by: Michael H. Ogden, P.E., The Southwest Wetlands Group Inc., Santa Fe, New
Mexico, USA)
INTRODUCTION
.aste)ater fro+ food processing facilities are generally characteri6ed *y high B%8FC%8
and high suspended solids$ @n so+e industries, the high B%CFC%8 nu+*ers are the result
of high concentration of fats, oils and grease$ %n occasion the South)est .etlands
Group has seen C%8Ds over 3<,<<< +gFl fro+ an egg processing facility$ @n addition,
nutrients +ay *e out of *alanceQ i$e$ the ration of C,!,# does not +atch the nor+ally
occurring ratios in the *acteria that are essential for treat+ent$ &inally, the +icronutrients
for +icro*ial gro)th are often also lac'ing$
DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS
Reed Beds and constructed )etlands generally re>uire so+e fro+ of pre?treat+ent$ The
appropriate fro+ of pre?treat+ent )ill depend on an analysis of the )aste)ater$
.aste)ater should *e analy6ed for B%8, C%8, C, !, #, S, fats, oils, grease and settling
characteristics$ So+e food processing )aste)ater such as eggs and dairy contain colloidal
solids that are very difficult to re+ove *y settling$ #ri+ary treat+ent options include the
follo)ing,
Settling tan's,
anaero*ic tan's (septic tan's ? settling and anaero*ic digestion,
dissolved air floatation (re+oval of fats, oils, grease and colloidal solids,
high rate *io?filtration (pac'ed +edia in vertical flo) enclosures,
e>uali6ationF+i7ing tan's (p( adAust+ent$
#re?treat+ent using +echanical aeration syste+s can also *e considered, *ut *ecause of
energy considerations, this for+ of treat+ent is usually not reco++ended$ &ats, oils and
greases (&%GDs )hen separated can *e sent to a rendering factory, or treated on?site$
&%GDs re>uire aero*ic treat+ent at elevated te+peraturesQ ho)ever, once the levels have
*een reduced to 13< +gFl or less, reed *eds and constructed )etlands can successfully
treat &%GDs$
&igure 1 represents a typical proAect sho)ing the various co+ponents for the treat+ent of
a high nitrogen (!T2<< +gFl and high C%8 (occasionally e7ceeding 3<,<<< +gFl
%ntario Rural Applications
Appendi7 &
)aste)ater strea+$ @n this layout, the reed *ed can *e operated serially or in parallel$
This particular layout can *e considered as a general solution to the pro*le+, *ut it +ust
*e stressed, that since food processing operations are very different fro+ industry to
industry, and plant to plant, the designer +ust pay particular attention to the )aste)ater
strea+, including daily and seasonal fluctuations as )ell as all of the ite+s listed a*ove$
The re>uire+ents for nutrient and +icro*ial additions +ust also *e assessed$
Figure 1 - Wastewater Treatment Schematic
%nce pri+ary treat+ent has *een acco+plished, reed *eds and constructed )etlands are
used in parallel or series$ @f colloidal solids are present, then the use of reed *eds and
)etlands in series can reduce the colloids to accepta*le levels$ @f solids levels are high,
and pri+ary treat+ent has produced sludge, then the reed *ed can *e placed as a parallel
operation )ith supernatant fro+ the pri+ary treat+ent going to the constructed )etlands
and sludge going to the reed *ed$
Reed *eds are e7cellent for the re+oval of solids$ &igure 0 represents the sludge re+oval
fro+ a reed *ed at a candy factory$
Appendi7 &
m
g
/
l
1
F
0
5
0
F
1
5
3
F
1
3
3
F
0
;
:
F
1
3
0
F
2
0
F
;
3
F
0
Figure 2 - Removal Rates, Solids
Waco Reed Beds
Suspended Solids
2<<<<
04<<<
0<<<<
14<<<
@nfluent
"ffluent
1<<<<
4<<<
<
Date
Sludge fro+ pri+ary treat+ent can *e introduced directly onto the reed *eds$ Sludge
concentrations fro+ <$4H to 3$<PH can *e applied throughout the year$ So+e additional
B%8FC%8 re+oval )ill ta'e place, *ut this should not *e counted on for treat+ent$ The
rate of application depends on the level of pre?treat+ent and the nature of the pri+ary
sludge$
Application rates fro+ 3< 'gF+0Fyr to 15< 'gF+0Fyr have *een used$ (igher rates are
appropriate for aero*ically sta*ili6ed sludge, or in the case of anaero*ic sludge )here
odors are not a +aAor consideration$ At the lo)er loading rates, ra) sludge can *e applied
)ithout significant odor pro*le+s fro+ +ost food processing )aste)ater$ Usually odor is
present only during the loading cycle )hich is of a very short duration$
Reed *eds are an e7cellent +eans of de)atering sludge, and are designed to allo) the
sludge to accu+ulate over a period of 9 to 1< years$ Use of reed *eds eli+inate the need
for +echanical presses, further digestion, and provides a sta*ili6ed sludge suita*le for land
application$ Because of the action of the ste+s and roots as )ell as the associated
+icroorganis+s, the sludge is e7posed to o7ygen and su*se>uently o7idi6ed$
.ater fro+ the reed *eds is collected in under drains, and is then directed to constructed
)etlands$ Constructed )etlands can *e either surface flo) or su*surface flo), or
co+*ination thereof$ Surface flo) )etlands have lo)er reaction rate constants than
su*surface flo) )etlands$ They are ho)ever less e7pensive to *uild, and *ecause of
e7posure to )ind, the a*ility of surface flo) )etlands to o7idi6e car*on co+pounds is
greater$ Su*surface )etlands are anaero*ic or ano7ic, and rely +ore on +ethane
Appendi7 &
production for the re+oval of car*on$ Both types of )etlands are e7cellent for
denitrification$ !itrification is pro*le+atic and seasonally dependent$
Cold )eather operations are acco++odated *y ac'no)ledging that the +icro*ial process
are te+perature dependent$ To acco+plish treat+ent, the designer +ust design for the
)orst case conditions, i$e$ Sanuary$ Surface flo) )etlands generally for+ ice covers in
e7tre+e cli+ates )ith treat+ent continuing under the ice$ Surface flo) )etlands are
successfully operating in -andan, !orth 8a'ota, and su*surface )etlands north of the
Arctic Circle in !or)ay$ Seasonal operations are an alternative$
.etlands designs are *ased on real loading for+ulas$ There are li+its to the a+ount of
solids that can *e introduced into the )etlands )ithout suffocating the roots of the plants$
Unifor+ distri*ution of solids is an i+portant design consideration$ (o)ever, if
B%8FC%8 loadings are introduced in solu*le for+ it is possi*le to continuously introduce
)aste)ater into )etlands cells )ith B%8 concentrations in e7cess of 3<<< +gFl, provided
of course that the designer is paying particular attention to nutrient *alances$
@f reed *eds and constructed )etlands are used to reduce B%8FC%8 concentrations, then
land application is an e7cellent option for the final disposal of the treated effluent$ As
&igures 2 and 3 de+onstrate, land application can have a significant i+pact on the final
treat+ent$ The a+ount of land re>uired )ill depend on the nature of the discharge per+it$
@t +ay *e possi*le to totally retain all effluent on site, or it +ight *e necessary to discharge
the final effluent into an adAacent strea+$
SUMMARY
The design strategy +ust include all of the various constituents of the )aste)ater strea+,
including the a*sence or relative deficiency of nutrients$ "7posure of the )aste)ater
strea+ to various different environ+ents can enhance the treat+ent process$ -ultiple
ecologies such as ponds, +arsh, +eado) allo) a range of +icro*ial co++unities to ta'e
advantage of the nutrients and car*on in the )aste)ater strea+$ Strategies can include the
arrange+ents as presented in &igure 4$ These e7a+ples can *e varied *y selecting +ultiple
ecologies, adding recirculation, and *y changing the plant species to reflect nutrient
re>uire+ents$
Appendi7 &
Appendi7 &
FIGURE 5
FLOW SCHEMATIC
REFERENCES
Reed, S$C$, Crites, R$.$ -iddle*roo's, "$S$, Natural .!stems /or Waste Management
and Breatment# 4nd edition* -cGra)?(ill @nc, !e) Wor', 1;;4$
(a++er, 8$A$, ed$ Constructed Wetlands /or Waste'ater BreatmentK Municipal#
"ndustrial and Agricultural* Le)is #u*lishers, Chelsea, -@, 1;:;$
Reed, S$, et al$ Process 9esign MaulK 5and Breatment o/ Municipal Waste'aters$
US"#A 504F1?:1?<12$ Center for "nviron+ental Research, Cincinnati, %(, 3405:$
=i+, B$S$, Per/ormance 0valuation o/ 0(isting Reed &eds /or .ludge 9e'atering$
.ater "nviron+ent &ederation, Ale7andria, /A, %ct, 1;;2$
!ielsen, S$-$ &iological .ludge 9r!ing in Constructed Wetlands* Pub* "n
<Constructed Wetlands /or Water ualit! "mprovements>$ Le)is #u*lishers, Chelsea,
-@, 1;;2$
Appendi7 &

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GUIDANCE MANUAL FOR THE DESIGN,

CONSTRUCTION AND OPERATIONS OF

B%84 & TSS I 2<+gFL,

B%84 & TSS

B%84 and TSS,

@rrigation period J 1<< days (+a7$ design period as per -%"

The filter slope should range *et)een 1H and 3H$

clearing and gru**ing li+its,

e7cavate cells and uild er+s (de)ater cells if necessary$

uying seed that is certified as eing free of )eed seeds,

To intercept feedlot runoff and collect lagoon effluent

often re>uires high capital costs and high financial ris'Q

@ts inlet (du+ping 6one is e>uipped )ith a grit re+oval *as'et$

The total volu+e of soil e7cavatedFplaced is a*out :<<< +2$

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