Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 48 65 www.elsevier.

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!emoval of n"trients in vario"s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s

&an '#ma(al )
E*+, o.$.s.- ./0anova 40- 162 00 3raha 6- 4(ech !e$"5lic 6"7e 8niversit# 9etlan% 4enter- *icholas School of the Environment an% Earth Sciences- 6"rham- *orth 4arolina 27708- 8S: !eceive% 23 ;cto5er 2005< receive% in revise% form 2 &"l# 2006< acce$te% 13 Se$tem5er 2006 :vaila5le online 31 ;cto5er 2006

:5stract The $rocesses that affect removal an% retention of nitro=en %"rin= wastewater treatment in constr"cte% wetlan%s (49s) are manifol% an% incl"%e *>3 volatili(ation- nitrification- %enitrification- nitro=en fi?ation- $lant an% micro5ial "$ta7eminerali(ation (ammonification)- nitrate re%"ction to ammoni"m (nitrate@ammonification)- anaero5ic ammonia o?i%ation (:*:AA;B)fra=mentation- sor$tion- %esor$tion- 5"rial- an% leachin=. >owever- onl# few $rocesses "ltimatel# remove total nitro=en from the wastewater while most $rocesses C"st convert nitro=en to its vario"s forms. !emoval of total nitro=en in st"%ie% t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s varie% 5etween 40 an% 55D with remove% loa% ran=in= 5etween 250 an% 630 = * m E 2 #rE 1 %e$en%in= on 49s t#$e an% inflow loa%in=. >owever- the $rocesses res$onsi5le for the removal %iffer in ma=nit"%e amon= s#stems. Sin=le@sta=e constr"cte% wetlan%s cannot achieve hi=h removal of total nitro=en %"e to their ina5ilit# to $rovi%e 5oth aero5ic an% anaero5ic con%itions at the same time. 'ertical flow constr"cte% wetlan%s remove s"ccessf"ll# ammonia@* 5"t ver# limite% %enitrification ta7es $lace in these s#stems. ;n the other han%- hori(ontal@flow constr"cte% wetlan%s $rovi%e =oo% con%itions for %enitrification 5"t the a5ilit# of these s#stem to nitrif# ammonia is ver# limite%. Therefore- vario"s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s ma# 5e com5ine% with each other in or%er to e?$loit the s$ecific a%vanta=es of the in%ivi%"al s#stems. The soil $hos$hor"s c#cle is f"n%amentall# %ifferent from the * c#cle. There are no valenc# chan=es %"rin= 5iotic assimilation of inor=anic 3 or %"rin= %ecom$osition of or=anic 3 5# microor=anisms. 3hos$hor"s transformations %"rin= wastewater treatment in 49s incl"%e a%sor$tion- %esor$tion- $reci$itation- %issol"tion$lant an% micro5ial "$ta7e- fra=mentation- leachin=- minerali(ation- se%imentation ($eat accretion) an% 5"rial. The maCor $hos$hor"s removal $rocesses are sor$tion- $reci$itation- $lant "$ta7e (with s"5seF"ent harvest) an% $eat soil accretion. >owever- the first three $rocesses are sat"ra5le an% soil accretion occ"rs onl# in G9S 49s. !emoval of $hos$hor"s in all t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s is low "nless s$ecial s"5strates with hi=h sor$tion ca$acit# are "se%. !emoval of total $hos$hor"s varie% 5etween 40 an% 60D in all t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s with remove% loa% ran=in= 5etween 45 an% 75 = * m E 2 #rE 1 %e$en%in= on 49s t#$e an% inflow loa%in=. !emoval of 5oth nitro=en an% $hos$hor"s via harvestin= of a5ove=ro"n% 5iomass of emer=ent ve=etation is low 5"t it co"l% 5e

s"5stantial for li=htl# loa%e% s#stems (cca 100200 = * m E 2 #rE 1 an% 1020 = 3 mE 2 #rE 1). S#stems with free@floatin= $lants ma# achieve hi=her removal of nitro=en via harvestin= %"e to m"lti$le harvestin= sche%"le. H 2006 Elsevier I.'. :ll ri=hts reserve%.
+e#wor%sJ 4onstr"cte% wetlan%s< *itro=en< 3hos$hor"s< Stan%in= stoc7< 9astewater

1. ,ntro%"ction
) E*+, o.$.s.- ./0anova 40- 162 00 3raha 6- 4(ech !e$"5lic. Tel.J K420 233 350 180. E@mail a%%ressJ v#ma(alL#ahoo.com . 0048@2627 M @ see front matter H 2006 Elsevier I.'. :ll ri=hts reserve%. %oiJ10.1016 C.scitotenv.2006.02.014

4onstr"cte% wetlan%s are en=ineere% s#stems that have 5een %esi=ne% an% constr"cte% to "tili(e the nat"ral $rocesses involvin= wetlan% ve=etation- soils- an% their

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associate% micro5ial assem5la=es to assist in (*>4K)- nitrite (*;2E) an% nitrate (*;3E). Paseo"s treatin= nitro=en wastewater. The# are %esi=ne% to ta7e a%vanta=e of ma# e?ist as %initro=en (*2)- nitro"s o?i%e (*2;)- nitric man# of the $rocesses that occ"r in nat"ral wetlan%so?i%e (*;2 an% *2;4) an% ammonia (*>3). 5"t %o so within a more controlle% environment (>ammer 2.1. *itro=en transformations in wetlan%s an% Iastian- 1282). S#non#mo"s terms to Nconstr"cte%O The maCor nitro=en transformations in wetlan%s are incl"%e Nman@ma%eO- Nen=ineere%O or NartificialO wet@ $resente% in Ta5le 1. The vario"s forms of nitro=en are lan%s. The 5asic classification is 5ase% on the t#$e of contin"all# involve% in chemical transformations from macro$h#tic =rowth- f"rther classification is "s"all# inor=anic to or=anic com$o"n%s an% 5ac7 from or=anic 5ase% on the water flow re=ime (Gi=. 1). The $a$er to inor=anic. Some of these $rocesses reF"ire ener=# %eals (t#$icall# %erive% from an or=anic car5on so"rce) to onl# with constr"cte% wetlan%s with free@floatin= $rocee%- an% others release ener=#- which is "se% 5# $lants or=anisms for =rowth an% s"rvival. :ll of these (GG3)- free water s"rface 49s with emer=ent $lants transformations are necessar# for wetlan% ecos#stems (G9S) an% s"5@s"rface 49s with hori(ontal (>SSG or to f"nction s"ccessf"ll#- an% most chemical chan=es are >G) an% vertical ('SSG or 'G) flows (Gi=. 2) as %ata on controlle% thro"=h the $ro%"ction of en(#mes an% 49s with floatin= leave% $lants an% s"5mer=e% catal#sts 5# the livin= or=anisms the# 5enefit. $lants are still not a5"n%ant- an% therefore it is not $ossi5le 2.1.1. :mmonia volatili(ation to :mmonia volatili(ation is a $h#sicochemical $rocess ma7e so"n% eval"ations. where ammoni"m@* is 7nown to 5e in eF"ili5ri"m 2. *itro=en *itro=en has a com$le? 5io=eochemical c#cle with m"lti$le 5iotic a5iotic transformations involvin= seven valence states (K5 to E 3). The com$o"n%s incl"%e a variet# of inor=anic an% or=anic nitro=en forms that are essential for all 5iolo=ical life. The most im$ortant in@ or=anic form of nitro=en in wetlan%s are ammoni"m 5etween =aseo"s an% h#%ro?#l forms. !e%%# an% 3atric7 (1284) $ointe% o"t that losses of *>3 thro"=h volatili(ation from floo%e% soils an% se%iments are

Gi=. 1. 4lassification of constr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment ('#ma(al- 2001).

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&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

Gi=. 2. 4onstr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment (from to$ to 5ottom)J 49 with free@floatin= $lants (GG3)- 49 with free water s"rface an% emer=ent macro$h#tes (G9S)- 49 with hori(ontal s"5@s"rface flow (>SSG- >G)- 49 with vertical s"5@s"rface flow ('SSG- 'G) (5ase% on '#ma(al2001).

s"5mer=e% macro$h#tes often creates hi=h $> val"es insi=nificant if the $> val"e is 5elow 7.5 an% ver# often losses are not serio"s if the $> is 5elow 8.0. :t $> of 2.3 the ratio 5etween ammonia an% ammoni"m ions is 1J1 an% the losses via volatili(ation are si=nificant. :l=al $hotos#nthesis in wetlan%s as well as $hotos#nthesis 5#

%"rin= the %a#. The $> of shallow floo% water is =reatl# affecte% 5# the total res$iration activit# of all the heterotro$hic or=anisms an% the =ross $hotos#nthesis of the s$ecies $resent. Stowell et al. (1281) re$orte% that volatili(ation of ammonia can res"lt in nitro=en removal rates as hi=h as 2.2 = * mE 2 %E 1.

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Ta5le 1 *itro=en transformations in (constr"cte%) wetlan%s 3rocess 'olatili(ation :mmonification *itrification *itrate@ammonification 6enitrification *2 Gi?ation Transformation ammonia@* (aF) Q ammonia@* (=) or=anic@* Q ammonia@* ammonia@* Q nitrite@* Q nitrate@* nitrate@* Q ammonia@* nitrate@* Q nitrite@* Q =aseo"s *2- *2; =aseo"s *2 Q ammonia@* (or=anic@*)

availa5le n"trients an% soil con%itions s"ch as te?t"re an% str"ct"re (!e%%# an% 3atric7- 1284). The o$timal ammonification tem$erat"re is re$orte% to 5e 4060 R4 while o$timal $> is 5etween 6.5 an% 8.5 ('#ma(al1225). : wi%e ran=e of ammonification rates are re@ $orte% in the literat"re- with val"es ran=in= 5etween 0.004 an% 0.53 = * mE 2 %E 1 (!e%%# an% 6S:n=elo1227< Tanner et al.- 2002).

2.1.3. *itrification *itrification is "s"all# %efine% as the 5iolo=ical o?i@ %ation of ammoni"m to nitrate with nitrite as an inter@ 3lant micro5ial "$ta7e ammonia@- nitrite@- nitrate@* Q me%iate in the reaction seF"ence. This %efinition has (assimilation) or=anic@* some :mmonia a%sor$tion ;r=anic nitro=en 5"rial limitations where heterotro$hic microor=anisms are in@ :*:AA;B (anaero5ic ammonia ammonia@* Q =aseo"s *2 volve% 5"t is a%eF"ate for the a"totro$hic an% %ominant o?i%aton) s$ecies (>a"c7- 1284). *itrification has 5een t#$icall# associate% with the chemoa"totro$hic 5acteria- altho"=h it is now reco=ni(e% that heterotro$hic nitrification occ"rs 2.1.2. :mmonification an% can 5e of si=nificance (3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226). *i@ :mmonification (minerali(ation) is the $rocess trification is a chemoa"totro$hic $rocess. The nitrif#in= where or=anic * is 5iolo=icall# converte% into ammo@ 5acteria %erive ener=# from the o?i%ation of ammonia nia. :mmonia is converte% from or=anic forms an% thro"=h or nitrite an% car5on %io?i%e is "se% as a car5on so"rce a com$le?- ener=#@releasin=- m"lti@ste$- 5iochemical for $rocess. ,n some cases- this ener=# is "se% 5# s#nthesis of new cells. 3a"l an% 4lar7 (1226) $ointe% o"t micro5es that 9arrin=ton- in 1878- at !othamste%- 8nite% for =rowth- an% ammonia is %irectl# incor$orate% into +in=%ommicro5ial 5iomass. : lar=e fraction ("$ to 100D) of fo"n% that nitrification was a two@ste$ $rocess involvin= the two =ro"$s of microor=anisms. ;ne micro5ial =ro"$ o?@ or=anic nitro=en is rea%il# converte% to ammonia i%i(e% ammoni"m@* to nitrite@* an% nitrite@* an% another (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). o?i%i(e% nitrite@* to nitrate@* (3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226< The ammonification $rocess is essentiall# a Schmi%t et al.- 2001- 2003)J cata5o@ lism of amino aci%s an% $res"ma5l# incl"%es several V3W *>T4 T 1J5;2 U*;E2 T 2>T T >2; t#$es of %eamination reactions. The o?i%ative %eamina@ V4W *;E2 T 0J5;2 U*;E3 tion can 5e written as (Savant an% 6e6atta- 1282)J :mino aci%sQ,mino aci%sQ+eto aci%sQ*> 3 V1W V5W *>T4 T 2;2 U*;E3 T 2>T T >2; 1 cm- the contri5"tion of aero5ic minerali(ation to the overall * minerali(ation wo"l% 5e ver# smallcom$are% to fac"ltative anaero5ic an% o5li=ate anaero5ic miner@ ali(ation (!e%%# an% Praet(- 1288). :mmonification rates are %e$en%ent on tem$erat"re- $>- 4 * ratio-

an% ma# 5e o$erative in the o?i%i(e% soil la#er. ;n the other han%- the re%"ctive %eamination (!ose- 1276) $res"ma5l# ta7es $lace in the re%"ce% soil la#erJ :mino aci%sQSat"rate% aci%sQ*>3 V2W

+ineticall#- ammonification $rocee%s more ra$i%l# than nitrification (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). Aineral@ i(ation rates are fastest in the o?#=enate% (one- an% %ecrease as minerali(ation switches from aero5ic to fac"ltative anaero5ic an% o5li=ate anaero5ic microflora (!e%%# an% 3atric7- 1284). Since %e$th of the aero5ic (one in floo%e% or sat"rate% soils is "s"all# less than

The first ste$- the o?i%ation of ammoni"m to nitrite- is e?ec"te% 5# strictl# chemolithotro$hic (strictl# aero5ic) 5acteria which are entirel# %e$en%ent on the o?i%ation of ammonia for the =eneration of ener=# for =rowth. ,n soils$ecies 5elon=in= to the =enera *itrosos$ira- *itrosovi@ 5rio- *itrosolo5"s- *itrosococc"s an% *itrosomonas have 5een i%entifie%. *itrosomonas e"ro$aea is also fo"n% in fresh waters (Prant an% Zon=- 1281< Schmi%t- 1282< 3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226). The chemoa"totro$hic nitrifiers are =enerall# aero5es that %erive their 4 lar=el# from 4;2 or car5onates. The $ro5a5le reaction seF"ence for the o?i%ation of ammonia to nitrite 5# *itroso =ro"$ 5acteria is (>a"c7- 1284)J
E

V6W

:mmonia X h#%ro?#lamine X nitro?#l X nitroh#%ro?#lamine X nitrite

V*>3 Y*>4 W V*>2 ;> W V*;> W V*;2 %*>2 ;> W V*;2 W

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&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

The secon% ste$ in the $rocess of nitrification- the o?i%ation of nitrite to nitrate- is $erforme% 5# fac"ltative chemolitrotro$hic 5acteria which can also "se or=anic com$o"n%s- in a%%ition to nitrite- for the =eneration of ener=# for =rowth. ,n contrast with the ammonia@ o?i%i(in= 5acteria- onl# one s$ecies of nitrite@o?i%i(in= 5acteria is fo"n% in the soil an% freshwater- i.e.- *itro5acter wino=ra%s7#i (Prant an% Zon=- 1281). 3a"l an% 4lar7 (1226) re$orte%- in a%%ition to *itro5acter- also a =en"s *itros$ira (*. =racil"s- *. marina) an% *itrococc"s mo5il"s to 5e fo"n% in marine environments. '#ma(al (1225) s"mmari(es that nitrification is in@ fl"ence% 5# tem$erat"re- $> val"e- al7alinit# of the water- inor=anic 4 so"rce- moist"re- micro5ial $o$"la@ tion- an% concentrations of ammoni"m@* an% %issolve% o?#=en. The o$tim"m tem$erat"re for nitrification in $"re c"lt"res ran=es from 25 to 35 R4 an% in soils from 30 to 40 R4. 4oo$er et al. (1226) $ointe% o"t that the minim"m tem$erat"res for =rowth of *itrosomonas an% *itro5acter are 5 an% 4 R4- res$ectivel#. 3a"l an% 4lar7 (1226) re$orte% that o$tim"m $> val"es ma# var# from 6.6 to 8.0- however- acclimati(e% s#stems can 5e o$@ erate% to nitrif# at a m"ch lower $> val"e (4oo$er et al.1226). :$$ro?imatel# 4.3 m= ;2 $er m= of ammoniacal nitro=en o?i%i(e% to nitrate nitro=en is nee%e%. ,n the conversion $rocess- a lar=e amo"nt of al7alinit# is cons"me%- a$$ro?imatel# 8.64 m= >4;3E $er m= of ammoniacal nitro=en o?i%i(e% (4oo$er et al.- 1226). The involvement of heterotro$hs in nitrification was first s"==este% in 1824 5"t onl# recentl# it has 5een ta7en serio"sl# as a soil $rocess. >eterotro$hic nitrifiers are now 7nown to 5e ca$a5le of $ro%"cin= *;3E from 5oth inor=anic an% or=anic so"rces with interme%iates shown in EF. (6). Ieca"se man# of the heterotro$hic nitrifiers are also %enitrifiers- it is eas# to "n%erestimate the si=nificance of this $rocess in the nat"re (Gocht an% 'erstraete- 1277< 3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226). Iacteria s"ch as

:rthro5acter =lo5iformis- :ero5acter aero=enes- A#@ co5acteri"m $hlei- Stre$tom#ces =rise"sThios$haeraan% 3se"%omonas s$$. have 5een fo"n% to nitrif#. The

forme% 5# two %ifferent =ro"$s of nitrate@re%"cin= 5acteriaJ the %enitrif#in= 5acteria which $ro%"ce *2; an% *2 as maCor re%"ction $ro%"cts (see Section 2.1.5)an% the nitrate@ammonif#in= 5acteria which $ro%"ce *>4K as the maCor en% $ro%"ct of the re%"ction of nitrate. ,n se%iments an% soils- 5oth %enitrification an% nitrate@ ammonification are o5serve% (+eene# et al.- 1272< S[rensen- 1278). 6ifferent n"m5ers of electrons are "se% in the re%"ction of one molec"le of nitrate in 5oth nitrate@ re%"cin= s#stemJ 5 in the case of %enitrification an% 8 in the case of nitrate@ammonification. Therefore- more or=anic matter can 5e o?i%i(e% $er molec"le of nitrate 5# nitrate@ammonif#in= 5acteria than %enitrif#in= 5acteria. ,n a%%ition- nitrate re%"ction is =enerall# $erforme% 5# fermentative 5acteria that are not %e$en%ent on the $resence of nitrate for =rowth "n%er anaero5ic con%i@ tions. So nitrate@ammonif#in= 5acteria ma# 5e favore% 5# nitrate@limite% con%itions (Zaan5roe7- 1220). :l@ tho"=h %issimilator# nitrate re%"ction seems to 5e more maCor or=anisms involve% a$$ear to 5e f"n=i- e.=.:s@ $er=ill"s flav"s- 3enicilli"m or 4e$halos$ori"m (3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226). *itrification rates in wetlan%s were re$orte% to 5e in the ran=e of 0.012.15 = * mE 2 %E 1 with the mean val"e of 0.048 = * mE 2 %E 1 (!e%%# an% 6S:n=elo1227< Tanner et al.- 2002). 2.1.4. *itrate@ammonification The first ano?ic o?i%ation $rocess to occ"r after o?#=en %e$letion is the re%"ction of nitrate to molec"lar nitro=en or ammonia. The re%"ction of nitrate is $er@

ener=# efficient than %enitrification- 'an ;ostrom an% !"ssell (1224) onl# fo"n% a 5D contri5"tion of the first $rocess to the nitrate removal in an e?$eriment with Pl#ceria ma?ima constr"cte% wetlan%. 2.1.5. 6enitrification 6enitrification is most commonl# %efine% as the $rocess in which nitrate is converte% into %initro=en via interme%iates nitrite- nitric o?i%e an% nitro"s o?i%e (>a"c7- 1284< 3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226< &etten et al.- 1227). Grom a 5iochemical view$oint- %enitrification is a 5acterial $rocess in which nitro=en o?i%es (in ionic an% =aseo"s forms) serve as terminal electron acce$tors for res$irator# electron trans$ort. Electrons are carrie% from an electron@%onatin= s"5strate ("s"all#- 5"t not e?cl"sivel#- or=anic com$o"n%s) thro"=h several carrier s#stems to a more o?i%i(e% * form. The res"ltant free ener=# is conserve% in :T3- followin= $hos$hor#lationan% is "se% 5# the %enitrif#in= or=anisms to s"$$ort res$iration. 6enitrification is ill"strate% 5# the followin= eF"ation (>a"c7- 1284)J 6V4>2;W T 4*;E3 U64;2 T 2*2 T 6>2; V7W

This reaction is irreversi5le- an% occ"rs in the $resence of availa5le or=anic s"5strate onl# "n%er anaero5ic or ano?ic con%itions (Eh Y K 350 to K 100 m')- where nitro=en is "se% as an electron acce$tor in $lace of o?#=en. Aore an% more evi%ence is 5ein= $rovi%e% from $"re c"lt"re st"%ies that nitrate re%"ction can occ"r in the $resence of o?#=en. >ence- in waterlo==e% soils nitrate re%"ction ma# also start 5efore the o?#=en is %e$lete% (+"enen an% !o5ertson- 1287< Zaan5roe7-

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1220). Paseo"s * $ro%"ction %"rin= %enitrification can also 5e %e$icte% 5# (>a"c7- 1284)J 4V4>2;W T 4*;E3 U4>4;E3 T 2*2 ; T 2>2; V8W

is also stron=l# tem$erat"re %e$en%ent. !ates of %enitrification increase "$ to a ma?im"m in the re=ion of 60 to 75 R4 an% then %ecline ra$i%l# a5ove this tem$erat"re (Iremner an% Shaw- 1258< +eene# et al.nitro=en isJ

5V4>2;W T 4*;E3 U>24;3 T 4>4;E3 T 2*2 T 2>2; V2W 6iverse or=anisms are ca$a5le of %enitrification. ,n an arra# are or=anotro$hs- lithotro$hs- $hototro$hs- an% %ia(otro$hs (3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226). Aost %enitrif#in= 5acteria are chemoheterotro$hs. The# o5tain ener=# solel# thro"=h chemical reactions an% "se or=anic com@ $o"n%s as electron %onors an% as a so"rce of cell"lar car5on (>a"c7- 1284). The =enera Iacill"s- Aicrococ@ c"s an% 3se"%omonas are $ro5a5l# the most im$ortant in soils< 3se"%omonas- :eromonas an% 'i5rio in the aF"atic environment (Prant an% Zon=- 1281). 9hen o?#=en is availa5le- these or=anisms o?i%i(e a car5o@ h#%rate s"5strate to 4;2 an% >2; (!e%%# an% 3atric71284). :ero5ic res$iration "sin= o?#=en as an electron acce$tor or anaero5ic res$iration "sin= nitro=en for this $"r$ose is accom$lishe% 5# the %enitrifiers with the same series of electron trans$ort s#stem. This facilit# to f"nction 5oth as an aero5e an% as an anaero5e is of =reat $ractical im$ortance 5eca"se it ena5les %enitrification to $rocee% at a si=nificant rate soon after the onset of ano?ic con%itions (re%o? $otential of a5o"t 300 m') witho"t chan=e in micro5ial $o$"lation (>a"c71284). Ieca"se %enitrification is carrie% o"t almost e?cl"sivel# 5# fac"ltative anaero5ic heterotro$hs that s"5stit"te o?i%i(e% * forms for ;2 as electron acce$tors in re@ s$irator# $rocesses- an% 5eca"se these $rocesses follow aero5ic 5iochemical ro"tes- it can 5e mislea%in= to refer to %enitrification as an anaero5ic $rocess. ,t is rather one that ta7es $lace "n%er ano?ic con%itions (>a"c71284). ,t is =enerall# a=ree% that the act"al seF"ence of 5iochemical chan=es from nitrate to elemental =aseo"s

1272< +nowles- 1282< 3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226). 6enitri@ fication $rocee%s at ver# slow 5"t meas"ra5le rates- at tem$erat"res 5elow 5 R4 (Iremner an% Shaw- 1258) where relativel# lar=e mole fractions of *2; an% *; are re$orte%. Aolec"lar *2 is the maCor $ro%"ct at hi=her tem$erat"res (Iroa%5ent an% 4lar7- 1265). The estimation of %enitrification rates varies wi%el# in the literat"re 5etween 0.003 an% 1.02 = * mE 2 %E 1 (En=ler an% 3atric7- 1274< &ohnston- 1221< !e%%# an% 6S:n=elo- 1227). St"%ies on * conversion "n%er low@o?#=en an% anaero5ic con%itions have shown that ammonia can 5e converte% to %initro=en 5# $rocesses other than con@ ventional nitrification of ammonia to nitrate followe% 5# %enitrification of nitrate to %initro=en =as (>"nt et al.2005). 8n%er low@o?#=en con%itions- the $ro%"ction of nitrite from ammonia is favore% over the $ro%"ction of nitrate (Iernet et al.- 2001). The nitrite can then 5e

%enitrifie% to nitro"s o?i%e an% or %initro=en witho"t 5ein= converte% to nitrate. This $rocess has 5een terme% N$artial nitrification%enitrificationO.

2.1.6. Gi?ation *itro=en fi?ation is the conversion of =aseo"s nitro=en (*2) to ammonia. *itro=en fi?ation reF"ires nitro=enase- an o?#=en@sensitive iron@- s"lf"r@ an% mo@ l#5%en"m@containin= en(#me com$le? which also 5rin=s a5o"t the re%"ction of other s"5strates containin= tri$le covalent 5on%s (e.=.- nitro"s o?i%e- c#ani%es or acet#lene) (Stewart- 1273). ,n wetlan% soils- 5iolo=ical *2 fi?ation ma# occ"r in the floo%water- on the soil s"rface- in aero5ic an% an@ aero5ic floo%e% soils- in the root (one of $lants- an% on the leaf an% stem s"rfaces of $lants (I"resh et al.- 1280). : wi%e variet# of s#m5iotic actinom#cetes (associate% with no%"late% host $lants) an% as#m5iotic (free@livin=) heterotro$hic 5acteria an% 5l"e@=reen al=ae (Y c#ano@ V10W 2*;E3 U2*;E2 U2*;U*2 ;U*2 5acteria) can fi? nitro=en in wetlan%s (&ohnston- 1221). Environmental factors 7nown to infl"ence %enitrifi@ Even tho"=h the a5ilit# to fi? nitro=en is %istri5"te% amon= aero5ic- fac"ltative- an% strict anaero5ic 5acteriacation rates incl"%e the a5sence of ;2- re%o? most st"%ies in%icate that nitro=en fi?ation in soil is $otential=reater "n%er anaero5ic that "n%er aero5ic con%itions soil moist"re- tem$erat"re- $> val"e- $resence of (I"resh et al.- 1280). >eteroc#sto"s 5l"e@=reen al=ae %enitrifiers- soil t#$e- or=anic matter- nitrate (c#ano5acteria)- the maCor =ro"$ of nitro=en@fi?in= 5l"e@ concentra@ tion an% the $resence of overl#in= water (Gocht an% =reen al=ae- fi? nitro=en "n%er aero5ic con%itions in heteroc#sts. 8n%er anaero5ic con%itions heteroc#sts are 'erstraete- 1277< '#ma(al- 1225). 3a"l an% 4lar7 not forme% an% nitro=en fi?ation $rocee%s in ve=etative (1226) re$orte% that the o$tim"m $> ran=e lies 5etween $> cells of 5l"e@=reen al=ae ('#ma(al- 1225). *itro=en@ 6 an% 8. 6enitrification 5ecomes slow 5"t ma# still remain si=nificant 5elow $> 5 an% %enitrification 5# or=ano@ tro$hs is ne=li=i5le or a5sent 5elow $> 4. 6enitrification

54

&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

fi?in= $hotos#nthetic 5acteria reF"ire anaero5ic con%i@ tions for =rowth (I"resh et al.- 1280). *itro=en fi?ation within the soil la#er of floo%e% soil s#stems is =reater "n%er re%"ce% than "n%er o?i%i(e% con%itions. ,t has 5een re$orte% that =reatest nitro=en@fi?in= activit# in a floo%e% soils was fo"n% within the re%o? ran=e from E 200 to E 260 m' (I"resh et al.- 1280). *itro=en fi?ation rates in wetlan%s var# wi%el# in the literat"re 5etween 0.03 an% 46.2 = * mE 2 #rE 1 (I"resh et al.1280< 9hitne# et al.- 1281< Po$al- 1221). +a%lec an% +ni=ht (1226) mentione% that nitro=en fi?ation reF"ires a si=nificant amo"nt of cell"lar ener=# which seems waste% in a nitro=en@rich environment. Gi?ation rates in wetlan%s receivin= wastewater hi=h in nitro=en are therefore $ro5a5l# m"ch lower or essentiall# ne=li=i5le com$are% to other nitro=en transformation $rocesses. 2.1.7. 3lant "$ta7e (an% assimilation) *itro=en assimilation refers to a variet# of 5iolo=ical $rocesses that convert inor=anic nitro=en forms into or=anic com$o"n%s that serve as 5"il%in= 5loc7s for cells an% tiss"es. The two forms of nitro=en =enerall# "se% for assimilation are ammonia an% nitrate nitro=en. Ieca"se ammonia nitro=en is more re%"ce% ener=eticall# than nitrate- it is $refera5le so"rce of nitro=en for assimilation (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). ,n nitrate@rich watersnitrate ma# 5ecome a more im$ortant so"rce of n"trient nitro=en. Aacro$h#te =rowth is not the onl# $otential 5iolo=ical assimilation $rocessJ microor=anisms an% al=ae also "tili(e nitro=en. :mmonia is rea%il# incor$o@ rate% into amino aci%s 5# man# a"totro$hs an% micro5ial heterotro$hs. *"trients are assimilate% from the se%iments 5# emer=ent an% roote% floatin=@leave% macro$h#tesan% from the water in the free@floatin= macro$h#tes (9et(el2001). 'ario"s e?$eriments have $roven that minerals can 5e ta7en "$ %irectl# 5# shoots of s"5mer=e%

$lants. >owever- there is also no F"estion re=ar%in= the "$ta7e ca$acit# of n"trients 5# the roots of these $lants ('#ma(al- 1225). The a5ilit# of roote% macro$h#tes to "tili(e se%iment n"trients ma# $artiall# acco"nt for their =reater $ro%"ctivit# in com$arison with $lan7tonic al=ae in man# s#stems (9et(el- 2001). 3lant s$ecies %iffer in their $referre% forms of nitro=en a5sor5e%- %e$en%in= on the forms availa5le in the soil (Zam5ers et al.- 1228). Aost $lants- howeverare ca$a5le of a5sor5in= an# form of sol"5le nitro=enes$eciall# if acclimate% to its $resence (:t7in- 1226). The *>4K $reference is common in $lant occ"$#in= ha5itats with restricte% nitrification- where *>4K $revails (Parnett et al.2001). ,n tem$erate climates- macro$h#te "$ta7e is a s$rin=s"mmer $henomenon. Ioth a5ove@ an% 5elow@

=ro"n% $lant $arts =row %"rin= this $erio%- 5"t %eath $henomena are %ifferent. 3lants s"ch as T#$ha s$$. or 3hra=mites a"stralis in northern climates have an o5vio"s ann"al c#cle of a5ove=ro"n% 5iomassJ new shoots start from (ero 5iomass in earl# s$rin= an% =row at a ma?im"m rate in s$rin= an% earl# s"mmer. Zate s"mmer is a $erio% of re%"ce% =rowth- an% com$lete shoot %ie 5ac7 occ"rs in the fall (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). 'e=etation n"trient concentrations ten% to 5e hi=hest earl# in the =rowin= season- %ecreasin= as the $lant mat"re an% senesce. 3atterns of seasonal chan=es in com$osition var# for 5oth the s$ecies an% n"trients an% 5roa% =enerali(ation $ro5a5l# cannot 5e ma%e ('#ma(al- 1225). :s the rate of 5iomass an% n"trient acc"m"lation %iminishestranslocation of n"trients an% $hotoassimilate from leaves to rhi(ome occ"rs. The rates var# amon= s$ecies an% are infl"ence% 5# man# environmental factors an% ma# reach even more than 50D ('#ma(al- 1225). Aost of the 5iomass- an% its containe% nitro=en%ecom$ose to release car5on an% nitro=en. This release is im$ortant in the wetlan% nitro=en c#cle \ some $ortion of the nitro=en is release% 5ac7 to the wetlan% waters- some fraction is s"5Cecte% to aero5ic $rocesses in a5ove@water stan%in= %ea% $lant material an% litter- an% some ma# 5e translocate% to rhi(ome. The a5ove@water %ecom$osition favors o?#=enative $rocesses s"ch as nitrification. The 5elow=ro"n% stora=e res"lts in a%%e% 5"rial of the resi%"al from rhi(ome %eca# an% %ecom@ $osition. Th"s- the movement of nitro=en thro"=h the ve=etation res"lts in the enhancement of $rocesses other than those in soil- water col"mn an% the associate% 5iofilms (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). The $otential rate of n"trient "$ta7e 5# $lant is limite% 5# its net $ro%"ctivit# (=rowth rate) an% the concentration of n"trients in the $lant tiss"e. *"trient stora=e (stan%in= stoc7) is similarl# %e$en%ent on $lant tiss"e n"trient concentrations- an% also on the "ltimate $otential for 5iomass acc"m"lationJ that is- the ma?i@ m"m stan%in= cro$. Therefore- %esira5le traits of a $lant "se% for n"trient assimilation an% stora=e wo"l% incl"%e ra$i% =rowth- hi=h tiss"e n"trient content- an% the ca$a5ilit# to attain a hi=h stan%in= cro$ (!e%%# an% 6eI"s7- 1287). ,n the literat"re- there are man# reviews on nitro=en concentrations in $lant tiss"e as well as nitro=en stan%in= stoc7s for $lants fo"n% in nat"ral stan%s an% constr"cte% wetlan%s (e.=.- !e%%# an% 6eI"s7- 1287< '#ma(al1225< '#ma(al et al.- 1222< Aitsch an% Posselin72000). !e%%# an% 6eI"s7 (1287) re$orte% the nitro=en stan%in= stoc7 for emer=ent s$ecies in the ran=e of 14 to 156 = * mE 2 5"t the a"thors in%icate% that more than 50D of this amo"nt co"l% 5e store% 5elow=ro"n%.

&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

55

:5ove=ro"n% * stan%in= stoc7 val"es were re$orte% $rocess- nitrate was "se% as an electron acce$tor. in !e%o? 5alance calc"lations showe% the followin= the ran=e of 0.672 = * mE 2 (&ohnston- 1221)- 22 stoichiometr#J 88 = V11W * mE 2 ('#ma(al- 1225)- 264 = * mE 2 ('#ma(al 5*>T T 3*;E Q4*2 T 2>2 ; T 2>T et al.6"rin= f"rther e?amination of this $rocess in%ications 1222) or 222 = * mE 2 (Aitsch an% Posselin7were o5taine% that nitrite co"l% also serve as a s"ita5le 2000). electron acce$tor for :*:AA;B $rocess (van %e Praaf *itro=en stan%in= stoc7 ma# amo"nt "$ to 250 = * et al.- 1225)J mE 2 for water h#acinth (Eichhornia crassi$es). 6"e to the hi=h $ro%"ctivit# of this $lant- the ann"al amo"nt of nitro=en remove% via m"lti$le harvestin= ma# amo"nt to 600 = * mE 2 #rE 1 ('#ma(al- 1225- 2001). V12W *>T4 T *;E2 Q*2 T 2>2; 2.1.8. :mmonia a%sor$tion ,oni(e% ammonia ma# 5e a%sor5e% from sol"tion s"5mer=ence thro"=h a cation e?chan=e reaction with %etrit"san% $resence of ve=etation (Savant an% 6e6attainor=anic se%iments or soils. The a%sor5e% ammonia 1282). is 5o"n% loosel# to the s"5strate an% can 5e release% 2.1.2. ;r=anic nitro=en 5"rial easil# Some fractions of the or=anic nitro=en when water chemistr# con%itions chan=e. :t a =iven incor$orate% ammonia concentration in the water col"mn- a fi?e% in %etrit"s in a wetlan% ma# 5e event"all# amo"nt of ammonia is a%sor5e% to an% sat"rates the 5ecome availa5le attachment sites. 9hen the ammonia "navaila5le for a%%itional n"trient c#clin= concen@ thro"=h the tration in the water col"mn is re%"ce% (e.=.- as a $rocess of $eat formation an% 5"rial. The val"es res"lt of of nitrification)- some ammonia will 5e %esor5e% to or=anic nitro=en 5"rial have 5een re$orte% for re=ain vario"s the eF"ili5ri"m with the new concentration. ,f the nat"ral wetlan%s- however- in constr"cte% ammonia concentration in the water col"mn is in@ wetlan%s crease%- the a%sor5e% ammonia also will increase. ,f there are $racticall# no %ata availa5le. the wetlan% s"5strate is e?$ose% to o?#=en- $erha$s 5# 2.1.10. :*:AA;B $erio%ic %rainin=- sor5e% ammoni"m ma# 5e :naero5ic ammoni"m o?i%ation (:*:AA;B) is o?i%i(e% the anaero5ic conversion of *;2E an% *>4K to to nitrate (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). The Gre"n%lich *2 (A"l%er eF"ation can 5e "se% to mo%el ammonia sor$tion on et al.- 1225). ,t was %emonstrate% that in the :*:AA;B s"5strate (Si7ora et al.- 1225). :mmoni"m ion (*>4K) is =enerall# a%sor5e% as an e?chan=ea5le ion on cla#s- an% chemisor5e% 5# h"mic s"5stances- or fi?e% within the cla# lattice. ,t a$$ears that these reactions ma# occ"r sim"ltaneo"sl#. The rate an% e?tent of these reactions are re$orte% to 5e in@ fl"ence% 5# several factors- s"ch as nat"re an% amo"nt of cla#s- alternate s"5mer=ence an% %r#in=- nat"re an% amo"nt of soil or=anic matter- $erio% of

Aore recentl#- it has 5ecome clear that nitrite is the 7e# electron acce$tor Aore recentl#- it has 5ecome clear that nitrite is the 7e# electron acce$tor (Stro"s et al.- 1227). The %etaile% 5iochemistr# of the $rocess is still "n%er investi=ation in la5orator# e?$eriments an% wastewater treatment $lants (e.=.- Schal7 et al.- 2000< Schmi%t et al.2003< Stro"s an% &etten- 2004). :ccor%in= to :*:@ AA;B stoichiometr# 1.2 = ;2 is reF"ire% for 1.0 = of *>4@*- which incl"%es the o?#=en nee%e% to convert ammonia to nitrite (Slie7ers et al.- 2002). This is m"ch less than the o?#=en reF"irement for stan%ar% nitrifica@ tion %enitrification. >owever- there are other %eman%s for o?#=en s"ch as heterotro$hic meta5olism. 9hile these or=anisms have 5een fo"n% in man# nat"ral environments incl"%in= conventional wastewater treat@ ment s#stems an% =rown in s"fficient F"antities for scale@"$ reactors- it is still "n7nown the e?tent of these reactions in constr"cte% wetlan%s. !esearch is nee%e% to 5etter "n%erstan% how the micro5es an% the ammonia o?i%i(in= reactions com$ete in the ecolo=# of varie% wetlan% s#stems (>"nt et al.- 2005). 2.2. !emoval retention mechanisms ,n Section 2.1- nitro=en transformations in treatment wetlan%s are %escri5e%. >owever- not all these $rocesses act"all# remove nitro=en from the wastewater. Aechan@ isms that "ltimatel# remove nitro=en from wastewaters incl"%e onl# ammonia volatili(ation- %enitrification$lant "$ta7e (with 5iomass harvestin=)- ammonia a%sor$tion- :*:A;B an% or=anic nitro=en 5"rial. ;ther $rocesses (e.=.- ammonification or nitrification) Nonl#O convert nitro=en amon= vario"s nitro=en forms 5"t %o not act"all# remove nitro=en from the wastewa@ ter. Gor e?am$le- ammonification converts or=anic nitro=en to ammonia an% th"s increases the amo"nt of ammonia in the s#stem. :lso- not all the $rocesses occ"r in all t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s an% the ma=ni@ t"%e of in%ivi%"al $rocesses varies amon= t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s (Ta5le 2). The maCor reason is the

56

&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

fact that GG3 49s are lac7in= soil $rocesses- G9S aero5ic nitrif#in= 5acteria. *itrification occ"rs in all 49s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s- however- the e?tent of have soil $rocesses ver# limite% an% s"5@s"rface 49s this $rocess is %etermine% 5# o?#=en availa5ilit#. *i@ lac7 $rocesses in the free water (one. ,n fact- the trification is a limitin= $rocess for nitro=en removal ma=@ from most t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s 5eca"se am@ nit"%e of $rocesses which "ltimatel# remove total monia is the %ominant s$ecies of nitro=en in sewa=e nitro=en from the s#stems is "s"all# low- an% an% therefore man# other wastewaters. removal of T* is commonl# low in sin=le@sta=e con@ *itrate@ammonification is $ro5a5l# the less st"%ie% str"cte% wetlan%s. $rocess of nitro=en transformation in wetlan%s an% there 'olatili(ation ma# 5e a si=nificant ro"te for is a lac7 of information a5o"t this $rocess in treatment nitro=en wetlan%s an% its role in treatment $rocess. *itrate@ removal in constr"cte% wetlan%s with o$en water ammonification occ"rs "n%er con%itions of low re%o? s"rface $otential val"es an%- therefore- there is a $otential that where al=al assem5la=es can create hi=h $> val"es this $rocess ma# 5e im$ortant in treatment wetlan%s %"rin= the %a# thro"=h their $hotos#nthetic activit#. where anaero5ic con%itions %o occ"r- e.=.- in treatment ,n wetlan%s with hori(ontal s"5@s"rface flow. >owever- no s#stems with hi=h concentrations of $lan7ton or $e@ matter what the stat"s of o"r 7nowle%=e is of this ri$h#tic al=ae $> can reach val"es "$ to * 10.0 $rocess- nitrate@ammonification %oes not remove nitro@ %"rin= the =en from wastewater. %a#- th"s $rovi%in= s"ita5le con%itions for ammonia 6enitrification is consi%ere% as a maCor removal volatili(ation. mechanism for nitro=en in most t#$es of constr"cte% The $rocess of ammonification as s"ch %oes not wetlan%s. The concentrations of nitrate- however- are remove nitro=en from the wastewater in treatment "s"all# ver# low in wastewater (the e?ce$tion is %rain@ wetlan%s \ it C"st converts or=anic nitro=en to a=e water from the a=ric"lt"re an% some in%"strial wastewaters) an%- therefore- %enitrification m"st 5e ammonia which is then availa5le for other $rocesses (e.=.co"$le% with nitrification. 6ifferent reF"irements for the nitrification- volatili(ation- a%sor$tion- $lant "$ta7e). $resence of o?#=en for nitrification an% %enitrification :mmonification also ta7es $lace %"rin= are the maCor o5stacle in man# treatment wetlan%s for %ecom$osition achievin= hi=her nitro=en removal. of wetlan% $lants 5iomass an% $rocee%s 5oth "n%er Gi?ation of =aseo"s nitro=en ma# contri5"te "n%er aero5ic an% anaero5ic con%itions. Therefores$ecific environmental con%itions si=nificantl# to the ammonifi@ nitro=en c#cle in wetlan%s. :fter the %eca# of the ni@ cation occ"rs in all t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s. tro=en@fi?in= or=anisms- nitro=en converte% to or=anic *itrification- similar to ammonification- %oes not com$o"n%s is release% to the water. This $rocess is remove nitro=en from wastewaters. >oweverne=lecte% %"rin= the eval"ation of nitro=en removal in nitrifica@ tion co"$le% with %enitrification seems to 5e the maCor removal $rocess in man# treatment wetlan%s. *itrifica@ tion ta7es $lace when o?#=en is $resent in concentra@ tions hi=h eno"=h to s"$$ort the =rowth of strictl#
Ta5le 2 3otential ma=nit"%e of nitro=en transformations in vario"s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s GG3 'olatili(ation :mmonification *itrification *itrate@ammonification 6enitrification *2 fi?ation Aicro5ial "$ta7e G9S 3 l a n t " $ t a >SSG 'SSG 7 e
a

Zow ia >i=h a%s Zow or$ tion ]] Ae%i"m ]] Zow

Ae%i"m Xero

: m m o n

Ae%i"m >i=h Ae%i"m ]] Ae%i"m ]] Zow Zow 'er# low

constr an% that in s#stems with free water s"rface fi?ation ma# "cte% $rac@ ta7e wetla ticall# no $lace intensivel# via fi?ation 5# 5l"e@=reen al=ae n%s %ata are (c#ano5acteria). 3lant "$ta7e is the maCor removal mechanism in for availa5le waste at constr"cte% wetlan%s with free@floatin= macro$h#tes. water $resent. The $otential of emer=ent $lants is F"ite low es$eciall# treat ,t seems- in constr"cte% wetlan%s for the treatment of m"nici$al ment however- or low low %omestic sewa=e. ,t seems- however- that in tro$ical ;r=anic nitro=en 5"rial 'er# low Zow Zow 'er# re=ions where seasonal translocations are minimal- an% low m"lti$le harvest is $ossi5le- harvestin= of emer=ent ]] Gra=mentation an% ]] ]] ]] $lants co"l% $la# a si=nificant removal ro"te es$eciall# leachin= for li=htl# loa%e% s#stems. :*:AA;B ]] ]] ]] ]] :mmoni"m a%sor$tion is limite% to constr"cte% 3rocesses that "ltimatel# remove total nitro=en from wastewater are wetlan%s with s"5@s"rface flow where the contact
in 5ol%. a 9ith harvest.

Xero >i=h 'er# low ]] 'er# hi=h ]] Zow Zow 'er#

Xero >i=h 'er# hi=h ]] 'er# low ]] Zow Zow 'er#

5etween s"5strate an% wastewater is efficient. ,n

&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

57

Ta5le 3 !emoval of total nitro=en (T*) in vario"s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s (mean val"es) 49 T#$e 4oncentrations GG3 m= lE 1 14.6 6.6 54.8 G9S 14.3 8.4 41.2 m= lE 1 >SSG m= lE 1 46.6 26.2 42.3 'SSG m= lE 1 68.4 37.2 44.6 Zoa%in=s !emove% loa% GG3 = mE 2 #rE 1 838 431 407 G9S = mE 2 #rE 1 466 212 247 >SSG = mE 2 #rE 1 644 324 250 'SSG = mE 2 #rE 1 1222 522 630 14 85 137 51 14 85 113 42 8nit T* in T* o"t Efficienc# *

GG3 Y free@floatin= $lants (res"lts from so"theastern 8S:)- G9S Y free water s"rface s#stems (res"lts from :"stralia- 4ana%a- 4hina*ew Xealan%- 3olan%- Swe%en- The *etherlan%s- 8S:)- >SSG Y hori(ontal s"5@s"rface flow (:"stralia- :"stria- Ira(il- 4ana%a- 4(ech !e$"5lic- 6enmar7- Perman#- ,n%ia- Ae?ico- *ew Xealan%- 3olan%Slovenia- Swe%en- 8+- 8S:)- 'SSG Y vertical s"5@s"rface flow (:"stralia- :"stria- 4hina- 6enmar7- Grance- Perman#- ,relan%3olan%- *orwa#- The *etherlan%s- T"r7e#- 8+). Iase% on '#ma(al (2001- 2005a-5).

$h#tes (Section 2.1.7)- it is o5vio"s that the amo"nt of nitro=en remove% via harvestin= is F"ite low an% "s"all# %oes not e?cee% 10D of the inflow loa% for secon%ar# treatment s#stems. 9hen inflow loa%in= is low (cca 5 100200 = * mE 2 #rE 1) as in the case of tertiar# treatment- then removal via harvestin= ma# 5e im$or@ tant. ,t is also im$ortant to ta7e into acco"nt the fact that stan%in= stoc7 is limite% an% %oes not increase with increasin= loa%in= rate in constr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment (Gi=. 3). 'SSG 49s remove more ammonia@* than G9S an% >SSG wetlan%s %"e to the hi=h o?#=enation of 'SSG 5e%s (Ta5le 4). ;n the other han%- the $otential to remove nitrate is ver# low in 'SSG wetlan%s an% the increase in nitrate concentration in the o"tflow is s"5stantial. Ioth G9S an% >SSG wetlan%s remove nitrate. The res"lts $resente% in Ta5les 3 an% 4 clearl# in%icate that sin=le@ sta=e constr"cte% wetlan%s are not a5le to remove s"5stantial amo"nts of total nitro=en "nless it is achieve% at the e?$ense of a lar=e treatment area an%- thereforeh#5ri% s#stems ma# 5e a 5etter sol"tion when total nitro=en is the main tar=et val"e. secon%ar# treatment sta=e while GG3 an% G9S s#stems are commonl# "se% as tertiar# sta=e. Thereforeo"tflow T* concentrations are hi=her in SSG s#stems. :lsoinflow T* concentrations in 'SSG 49s are hi=her than in >SSG 5eca"se >SSG wetlan%s ver# freF"entl# treat %il"te% wastewaters from com5ine% sewer s#stems. Gor loa%in=s- the same $attern has 5een fo"n%. 9hen com@ $arin= inflow loa%in= of constr"cte% wetlan%s (Ta5le 3) an% a5ove=ro"n% stan%in= stoc7s for emer=ent macro@

a%%ition- s"5strates "se% for constr"cte% wetlan%s "s"all# %o not $rovi%e lar=e amo"nts of sor$tion sites. The cla#e# soils which are most effective in ammonia sor$tion are "s"all# not "se% for constr"cte% wetlan%s at $resent. ;r=anic nitro=en 5"rial as removal mechanisms is restricte% to constr"cte% wetlan%s with emer=ent ve=@ etation an% free water s"rface where the $eat litter la#er $la#s an im$ortant role in the removal of n"trients. The removal of total nitro=en in constr"cte% wetlan%s with free@floatin= $lants- free water s"rface 49s with emer=ent ve=etation an% s"5@s"rface flow 49s is s"mmari(e% in Ta5le 3. The removal efficienc# is similar in all s#stems with a sli=htl# hi=her removal fo"n% for GG3 49s as a res"lt of m"lti$le harvestin=. !emoval of total nitro=en in st"%ie% t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s varie% 5etween 40 an% 50D with remove% loa% ran=in= 5etween 250 an% 630 = * mE 2 #rE 1 %e$en%in= on 49s t#$e an% inflow loa%in=. ,t is also im$ortant to note that SSG s#stems have m"ch hi=her inflow concentrations %"e to the fact that these s#stems are commonl# "se% as

2.3. !emoval of nitro=en in h#5ri% constr"cte% wetlan%s 'ario"s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s ma# 5e com5ine% in or%er to achieve hi=her treatment effectes$eciall# for nitro=en. >owever- h#5ri% s#stems com@ $rise most freF"entl# 'SSG ('G) an% >SSG (>G) s#s@ tems arran=e% in a sta=e% manner (Gi=. 4). >oweverthere has 5een a =rowin= interest in achievin= f"ll# nitrifie% effl"ents. >G s#stems cannot %o this 5eca"se of their limite% o?#=en transfer ca$acit#. 'G s#stems- on

Gi=. 3. !elationshi$ 5etween nitro=en stan%in= stoc7 in a5ove=ro"n% 5iomass of 3hra=mites a"stralis in G9S 49 at Everste7oo=- The *etherlan%s an% inflow nitro=en loa%in= (%ata from Toet et al.- 2005).

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&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

Ta5le 4 !emoval of ammonia@* an% nitrate@* in vario"s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s (mean val"es) 49 ,nflow ;"tflow Efficienc# * (D) t#$e

(60 m2) at the thir% sta=e. The s#stem is %esi=ne% for 60 3E.

2.3.2. >G'G s#stems ,n the mi%@1220s- &ohansen an% Iri? (1226) in@ 4oncentration (m= lE 1) tro%"ce% a >G'G h#5ri% s#stem (Gi=. 4- ri=ht). The G9S *>4@* 12.2 5.8 55.1 64 lar=e >G 5e% is $lace% first to remove or=anics an% *;3@* 5.6 2.2 60.7 57 s"s$en%e% soli%s an% to $rovi%e %enitrification. :n >G *>4@* 38.2 20.1 48.3 151 intermittentl# loa%e% small 'G 5e% is %esi=ne% for *;3@* 4.4 2.2 38.5 72 8.7 84.2 80 'G *>4@* 55.0 f"rther removal of or=anics an% SS an% to nitrif# am@ 24.4 62 *;3@* 0.7 monia to nitrate. >owever- in or%er to remove total Zoa%in= (= * mE 2 #rE 1) nitro=en- the nitrifie% effl"ent from the 'G 5e% m"st 5e 71 66 72 G9S *>4@* 137 rec#cle% to the se%imentation tan7. Iri? et al. (2003) 18 16 47 *;3@* 34 255 133 20 re$orte% ver# =oo% $erformance of a >G (456 m2)'G >G *>4@* 388 67 31 66 *;3@* 28 (30 m2) constr"cte% wetlan% (55 3E) at IC[%str"$@ 65 'G *>4@* 780 122 651 Zan%5or"$- 6enmar7- where *>4@* an% T* concentra@ 46 *;3@* 12.6 376 tions were re%"ce% from 60 an% 72 m= lE 1 in the Iase% on '#ma(al (2001- 2005a-5). Gor %etails see Ta5le 3. inflow to 2 an% 28 m= lE 1 in the o"tflow- res$ectivel#. The im$ortance of rec#clin= co"l% 5e %emonstrate% from the res"lts =iven 5# Za5er et al. (2003) for a >G (140 m2) 'G (120 m2) h#5ri% s#stem in *e$al. The s#stem the other han% %o $rovi%e a =oo% con%itions for ni@ shows trification 5"t no %enitrification occ"rs in these an e?cellent removal of ammonia. >owever- removal of s#stems. total nitro=en wo"l% 5e ver# low 5eca"se of nearl# (ero Therefore- there has 5een a =rowin= interest in %enitrification in the last 'G sta=e. The ammonia h#5ri% s#stems (also sometimes calle% com5ine% s#stems). nitro=en is o?i%i(e% to nitrate in the vertical@flow sta=e 5"t witho"t rec#clin= is then %ischar=e% (Gi=. 6). ,n com5ine% s#stems- the a%vanta=es of the >G an% 'G s#stems can 5e com5ine% to com$lement each other. 3. 3hos$hor"s ,t is $ossi5le to $ro%"ce an effl"ent low in I;6- which is f"ll# nitrifie% an% $artl# %enitrifie% an% hence has a m"ch lower total@* concentrations (4oo$er- 1222). 3hos$hor"s in wetlan%s occ"rs as $hos$hate in or=anic now this t#$e is =ettin= more attention aro"n% 2.3.1. 'G>G s#stems the worl%. Aan# of these s#stems are %erive% from ori=inal h#5ri% s#stems %evelo$e% 5# Sei%el at the Aa? ,n 'G>G s#stems- the first sta=e $rovi%es 3lanc7 s"ita5le ,nstit"te in +refel%- Perman#. The $rocess is 7nown con%itions (aero5ic) for nitrification while the as secon% the Sei%el s#stem- the +refel% s#stem or the Aa? sta=e $rovi%es s"ita5le con%itions 3lanc7 (ano?ic anaero5ic) ,nstit"te 3rocess (A3,3) (Sei%el- 1265) an% consists of %enitrification. ,n Gi=. 5- a t#$ical treatment two sta=es of 'G wetlan%s followe% 5# one or more effect of the >G 'G>G s#stem 5ase% on the ori=inal Sei%elSs sta=es (Gi=. 4- left). ,n earl# an% mi%@1280s- several conce$t is h#5ri% s#stems of Sei%elSs t#$e were 5"ilt in Grance $resente%. The 4olecott s#stem near 6"5linan% ,relan%consists of 4 'G 5e%s (total of 64 m2) at the 8+. ,n the 1220s an% earl# 2000s- 'G>G s#stems first sta=e- 2 were 'G 5e%s (60 m2) at the secon% sta=e an% 5"ilt in man# E"ro$ean co"ntries- e.=. in *orwa# one >G 5e% (A^hl"m an% St_lnac7e- 1222)- :"stria (Aitterer@ !eichmann- 2002) or ,relan% (;S>o=ain- 2003) an%

an% inor=anic com$o"n%s. Gree ortho$hos$hate is the onl# form of $hos$hor"s 5elieve% to 5e "tili(e% %irectl# 5# al=ae an% macro$h#tes an% th"s re$resents a maCor lin7 5etween or=anic an% inor=anic $hos$hor"s c#clin= in wetlan%s. :nother =ro"$ of inor=anic $hos$hor"s com$o"n%s are $ol#$hos$hates linearl# con%ense% an% c#clic. ;r=anicall#@5o"n% $hos$hor"s is $resent e.=.- in $hos$holi$i%s- n"cleic aci%s- n"cleo$roteins- $hos$hor#@ late% s"=ars or or=anic con%ense% $ol#$hos$hates (coen(#mes- :T3- :63) ('#ma(al- 1225). ;r=anic 3 forms can 5e =enerall# =ro"$e% into 1) easil# %ecom$os@ a5le 3 (n"cleic aci%s- $hos$holi$i%s or s"=ar $hos$hates) an% 2) slowl# %ecom$osa5le or=anic 3 (inositol $hos@ $hates or $h#tin) (6"nne an% !e%%#- 2005). The soil $hos$hor"s c#cle is f"n%amentall# %ifferent from the * c#cle. There are no valenc# chan=es %"rin= 5iotic assimilation of inor=anic 3 or %"rin= %ecom$o@ sition of or=anic 3 5# microor=anisms. Soil 3 $rimaril# occ"rs in the K 5 (o?i%i(e%) valenc# state- 5eca"se all lower o?i%ation states are thermo%#namicall# "nsta5le an% rea%il# o?i%i(e to 3;4 even in hi=hl# re%"ce% wetlan% soils (Zin%sa#- 1272).

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52

Gi=. 4. >#5ri% constr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment (5ase% on Iri?- 1228< 4oo$er- 1222).

3.1. 3hos$hor"s transformations in wetlan%s 9etlan%s $rovi%e an environment for the interconver@ sion of all forms of $hos$hor"s. Sol"5le reactive $hos$hor"s is ta7en "$ 5# $lants an% converte% to tiss"e $hos$hor"s or ma# 5ecome sor5e% to wetlan% soils an%

se%iments. ;r=anic str"ct"ral $hos$hor"s ma# 5e release% as sol"5le $hos$hor"s if the or=anic matri? is o?i%i(e%. ,nsol"5le $reci$itates form "n%er some circ"mstances5"t ma# re@%issolve "n%er altere% con%itions (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). 3hos$hor"s transformations in wetlan%s

Gi=. 6. !emoval of ammonia@* an% nitrate@* in >G'G constr"cte% wetlan% at 6h"li7hel- *e$al (%ata from Za5er et al.- 2003). ST Y se$tic tan7. Gi=. 5. !emoval of nitro=en in 'G>G constr"cte% wetlan%s at 4olecott near 6"5lin- ,relan% (%ata from ;S>o=ain- 2003).

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Ta5le 5 areJ $eat soil accretion- a%sor$tion %esor$tion!emoval of total $hos$hor"s (T3) in vario"s t#$es of constr"cte% $reci$@ itation %issol"tion- $lant micro5ial "$ta7e- fra=menta@ wetlan%s (mean val"es) tion an% leachin=- minerali(ation an% 5"rial. Th"s8nit T3 in T3 o"t Efficienc# * when eval"atin= a wetlan% ecos#stem to retain 3- all 49 T#$e these com$onents sho"l% 5e F"antifie%. !ichar%son 4oncentrations m= lE 1 GG3 3.8 2.2 42.1 14 an% Aarshall (1286) fo"n% that soil a%sor$tion an% G9S m= lE 1 4.2 2.15 48.8 85 $eat accretion control lon=@term $hos$hor"s seF"es@ 8.75 5.15 41.1 142 >SSG m= lE 1 tration in wetlan%s. >owever- sor$tion as well as stor@ 'SSG 10.5 4.25 52.5 78 m= lE 1 a=e in 5iomass are sat"ra5le $rocesses- meanin= Zoa%in=s !emove% loa% = mE 2 #rE 1 200 73 GG3 127 the# G9S 68 70 85 = mE 2 #rE 1 138 have a finite ca$acit# an% therefore cannot >SSG 26 45 104 = mE 2 #rE 1 141 contri5"te 54 72 62 'SSG = mE 2 #rE 1 126 to lon=@term s"staina5le removal (6"nne an% !e%%#2005). 1223< &ohnston- 1221). The retention of 3.1.1. 3eat soil accretion $hos$hor"s in Aost of these st"%ies on $hos$hor"s c#clin= in constr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment wetlan%s have shown that soil $eat acc"m"lation is is "s"all# the m"ch hi=her ("$ to a5o"t 75 = mE 2 #rE 1) 5"t maCor lon=@term $hos$hor"s sin7 an% that nat"ral it is wetlan%s are not $artic"larl# effective as $hos$hor"s im$ortant to reali(e that 3 loa%in= of nat"ral sin7 when com$are% with terrestrial ecos#stems wetlan%s is (!ichar%son- 1285). The se%iment@litter com$artment several or%ers lower as com$are% to treatment is the maCor 3 $ool (* 25D) in nat"ral wetlan%s- with wetlan%s m"ch lower $lant $ool an% little in the overl#in= (Ta5le 5). water ('erhoeven- 1286< !ichar%son an% Aarshall- 1286) 3.1.2. Soil a%sor$tion an% $reci$itation with :%sor$tion refers to movement of sol"5le c#clin= 5etween $ools controlle% 5# 5iolo=ical forces inor=anic (i.e.- micro5es an% $lants). 3 from soil $orewater to soil mineral s"rfacesThe $eat acc"m"lation rate in $eatlan%s is ver# where it slowacc"m"lates witho"t $enetratin= the soil with the worl% avera=e of accretion 5ein= onl# 1 to 2 s"rface. mm 3hos$hor"s a%sor$tion ca$acit# of a soil $er #ear (4raft an% !ichar%son- 1223). 4oncomitant =enerall# in@ with creases with cla# content or mineral $eat 5"il%in= is 3 stora=e with val"es avera=in= com$onents of that 0.005 to 0.024 = mE 2 #rE 1 for "nfertili(e% wetlan%s (!ichar%son1285). ,n n"trient@enriche% wetlan%s lon=@term 3 accre@ tion can reach nearl# 1 = mE 2 #rE 1 (4raft an% !ichar%son1223). 4raft an% !ichar%son (1223) re$orte% 3 acc"m"@ lation rates in or=anic soil freshwater wetlan%s in the 8nite% States in the ran=e of 0.06 to 0.20 = mE 2 #rE 1. !esearch to %ate wo"l% s"==est that $ermanent stora=e of $hos$hor"s in wetlan%s is 5elow 1 = mE 2 #rE 1 an% "s"all# avera=es aro"n% 0.5 = mE 2 #rE 1 (!ichar%son1285< !ichar%son an% Aarshall- 1286< 4raft an% !ichar%son-

Iase% on '#ma(al (2001- 2005a-5). Gor %etails see Ta5le 3.

soil (!h"e an% >arris- 1222). The 5alance 5etween 3 a%sor$tion an% %esor$tion maintains the eF"ili5ri"m 5etween soli% $hase an% 3 in soil $orewater. This $he@ nomenon is %efine% as $hos$hate 5"fferin= ca$acit#which is analo=o"s to the $> 5"fferin= ca$acit# of a soil (Iarrow- 1283< !h"e an% >arris- 1222). ,n or=anic soils 3 a%sor$tion has 5een relate% to either hi=h :l- Ge or 4a levels an% 3 sor$tion ca$acit# of wetlan% soils ma# 5e $re%icte% solel# from the o?alate@ e?tracta5le (amor$ho"s) al"min"m content of the soil (!ichar%son- 1285). The sor$tion of 3 5# soil is con@ trolle% 5# the concentration of $hos$hate in soil $orewater an% the a5ilit# of the soli% $hase to re$lenish $hos$hate into soil $orewater. 9hen soil $articles 5ecome sat"rate% with 3- an% soil $orewater has low concentrations of 3- there is a net movement of 3 from soil to soil $orewater "ntil there is an eF"ili5ri"m 5etween soil an% soil $orewater 3 concentrations. Sor$tion is =enerall# %escri5e% as a two@ste$ $rocessJ 1) $hos$hate ra$i%l# e?chan=es 5etween the soil $ore@ water an% soil $articles or mineral s"rfaces (a%sor$tion)an% 2) $hos$hate slowl# $enetrates into soli% $hases (a5sor$tion). Similarl#- %esor$tion of 3 can also occ"r in a two@ste$ $rocess (6"nne an% !e%%#- 2005). ;ne of the $ro$ose% mechanisms for the release of $hos$hor"s from soils "$on s"5mer=ence is the re%"ctive %issol"tion of Ge(,,,) an% An(,') $hos$hate minerals (3atric7 et al.- 1273). :naero5ic soils release more $hos$hate to soil sol"tions low in $hos$hate an% sor5e% more $hos$hate from soil sol"tions hi=h in sol@ "5le $hos$hate than %o aero5ic soils (3atric7 an% +hali%- 1274). The %ifference in 5ehavior of $hos$hate "n%er aero5ic an% anaero5ic con%itions is attri5"te% to the chan=e 5ro"=ht a5o"t in ferric o?#h#%ro?i%e 5# soil re%"ction. The $ro5a5l# =reater s"rface of the =el@li7e re%"ce% ferro"s com$o"n%s in an anaero5ic soils res"lts in more soil $hos$hate 5ein= sol"5ili(e% when the

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61

Gi=. 7. !emoval of $hos$hor"s in >G constr"cte% wetlan%s at 6o7s#4(ech !e$"5lic (to$) an% in +o%iC`rve- Estonia (5ottom- %ata for Estonia from 'ohla et al.- 2005).

sol"tion $hos$hate is low an% more sol"tion $hos$hate 5ein= sor5e% when the sol"tion $hos$hate is hi=h (3atric7 an% +hali%- 1274). 3reci$itation can refer to the reaction of $hos$hate ions with metallic cations s"ch as Ge- :l- 4a or A=formin= amor$ho"s or $oorl# cr#stalline soli%s. These reactions t#$icall# occ"r at hi=h concentrations of either $hos$hate or the metalloi% cations (!h"e an% >arris1222). : variet# of cations can $reci$itate $hos$hate "n%er certain con%itions. Some im$ortant mineral $re@ ci$itates in the wetlan% environment are (!e%%# an% 6S:n=elo- 1224)J :$atite 4a5(4l-G)(3;4)3- >#%ro?#l@ a$atite 4a5(;>)(3;4)3- 'ariscite :l(3;4)a2>2;Stren@ =ite Ge(3;4)a2>2;- 'ivianite Ge3(3;4)2a8>2; an% 9avellite :l3(;>)3(3;4)2a5>2;. ,n a%%ition to %irect chemical reaction- $hos$hor"s can co@$reci$itate with other minerals- s"ch as ferric o?#h#%ro?i%e an% the car5onate minerals- s"ch as calcite (calci"m car5onate)4a4;3. 3.1.3. Aicro5iota "$ta7e Aicro5ial "$ta7e is ver# fast- 5"t the ma=nit"%e (amo"nt store%) is ver# low. The "$ta7e 5#

%e$en%s also on tro$hic stat"s of the wetlan%. ,n less enriche% sites the micro5ial "$ta7e ma# store more $hos$hor"s as com$are% to more e"tro$hic sites (!ichar%son et al.- 1227). Soil microor=anisms $artici$ate in the sol"5ili(ation of soil 3. Aeas"rements of $recise amo"nts of soil 3 sol"5ili(e% 5# soil or=anisms is com$licate% 5# the concomitant minerali(ation of or=anic 3 (3a"l an% 4lar7- 1226). :ltho"=h 5acteria are =enerall# consi%@ ere% %ecom$osers that sim$l# minerali(e or=anic 3- the# have also 5een shown to re="late the 3 fl"? across the se%imentwater interface (+lee5er= an% Schl"n=5a"m1223) an% contri5"te to terminal 3 5"rial thro"=h $ro%"ction of refractor# or=anic com$o"n%s (P`chter an% Ae#er- 1223). ;f im$ortance- an% sel%om reco=ni(e%- is the amo"nt of 3 that can 5e seF"estere% 5# the al=al com$onent of wetlan%s- es$eciall# in areas with o$en water. '#ma(al (1225) $ointe% o"t that the role of al=ae in wetlan%s is mostl# ne=lecte% %es$ite the fact that al=ae can si=@ nificantl# infl"ence the n"trient c#clin= in wetlan%s. ,n micro5iota (5acteria- f"n=i- al=ae- microinverte5rates- etc.) is ra$i% 5eca"se these or=anisms =row an% m"lti$l# at hi=h rates. ,t seems that the amo"nt of micro5ial stora=e

a%%ition- attention is "s"all# $ai% onl# to attache% forms ($eri$h#ton) while the role of $lan7ton in wetlan%s has 5een assesse% onl# rarel#. :l=ae an% al=al assem5la=es can affect $hos$hor"s c#clin= either %irectl# ("$ta7erelease) or in%irectl# thro"=h $hotos#nthesis@in%"ce% chan=es in water an% soil water interface $arameters ($>- %issolve% o?#=en). 3.1.4. 3lant "$ta7e Aost of the $hos$hor"s is ta7en "$ 5# $lant rootsa5sor$tion thro"=h leaves an% shoots is restricte% to s"5mer=e% s$ecies 5"t this amo"nt is "s"all# ver# low. 3hos$hor"s "$ta7e 5# macro$h#tes is "s"all# hi=hest %"rin= the 5e=innin= of the =rowin= season (in most re=ions %"rin= the earl# s$rin=)- 5efore ma?im"m =rowth rate is attaine% (Io#%- 1262< '#ma(al- 1225). Iiomass increases- however- sho"l% not 5e co"nte% as $art of the lon=@term s"staina5le $hos$hor"s removal ca$acit# of wetlan%s (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). :n im$ortant res$onse to seasons is the translocation of n"trients within the $lant. 3rior to a"t"mn senes@ cence- the maCorit# of im$ortant ions is translocate% from shoot $ortions to the roots an% rhi(omes. These store% n"trients are "se% %"rin= earl# s$rin= =rowth (6#7#Covb an% +vct- 1278< Parver et al.- 1288). 3hos$hor"s stora=e in ve=etation can ran=e from short@ to lon=@term- %e$en%in= on t#$e of ve=etationlitter %ecom$osition rates- leachin= of 3 from %etrital tiss"e- an% translocation of 3 from a5ove@ to 5elow@ =ro"n% 5iomass. 3hos$hor"s stora=e in a5ove=ro"n% 5iomass of emer=ent macro$h#tes is "s"all# short@term-

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&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

Ta5le 6 with a lar=e amo"nt of 3 5ein= release% %"rin= the 3otential ma=nit"%e of $hos$hor"s transformations in vario"s t#$es of %ecom$osition of litter. The a5ove=ro"n% $arts of constr"cte% wetlan%s most macro$h#tes =row an% %eca# on a c#cle ran=in= from T#$e of 49 GG3 G9S >SSG 'SSG the ann"al =rowin= season in northern climates to Soil accretion 'er# low >i=h Xero Xero faster :%sor$tion 'er# low Zow >i=h a >i=h a c#cles in so"thern climates. 3reci$itation 5 Xero 'er# low 'er# low 'er# low 3hos$hor"s is release% 5ac7 from the 5iomass to 3lant "$ta7e c Ae%i"m Zow Zow Zow the Aicro5ial "$ta7e Zow Zow Zow Zow wetlan% ecos#stem after the $lant %eca#. The %ecom$o@ sition of a5ove=ro"n% litter an% the res"ltant release of n"trients to the water involve at least two $rocesses. a 9hen s$ecial filtration materials are "se%. :n 5 9hen washe% =ravel or cr"she% roc7 is "se%. initial loss of sol"5le materials is attri5"te% to a5iotic c 9ith harvest. leachin=. This $rocess is F"ite ra$i% an% acco"nts for the maCorit# of mass re%"ction %"rin= the earl# sta=es of %ecom$osition. The ra$i% initial release of n"trients 5# leachin= has 5een %emonstrate% in man# wetlan% stoc7 ma# amo"nt "$ to 45 = 3 mE 2 for water h#acinth $lants \ "$ to 30D of n"trients are lost 5# leachin= (E. crassi$es). 6"e to the hi=h $ro%"ctivit# of alone %"rin= the first few %a#s of %ecom$osition. !e@ lease% n"trients ma# 5e incor$orate% into the this $lant$roto$lasm the ann"al amo"nt of $hos$hor"s ta7en "$ 5# of %ecom$oser or=anisms where activities s"ch as water res$i@ h#acinth co"l% 5e as hi=h as 126 = 3 mE 2 #rE 1 ration an% %enitrification acco"nt for a%%itional ('#ma(al- 1225). n"trient loses ('#ma(al- 1225). >owever- %ea% roots 3.2. !emoval retention mechanisms in constr"cte% %ecom$ose wetlan%s "n%er=ro"n%- therefore a%%in= refractor# com$o"n%s to ,n Section 3.1- $hos$hor"s removal retention s"5@s"rface soils an% leachates to the $orewater in mechanisms in wetlan%s have 5een %escri5e%. the root ,t is (one. Th"s- the a5ove=ro"n% $ortions of macro$h#te clear- however- that the e?tent to which ret"rns 3 to the water- while 5elow=ro"n% $ortions $artic"lar mech@ ret"rns anisms are involve% %e$en%s on the t#$e of 3 to the soil (!e%%# et al.- 1222). constr"cte% The concentration of $hos$hor"s in the $lant wetlan%s (Ta5le 6). :lso- it has 5een well tiss"e esta5lishe% varies amon= s$ecies an% sites an% also it varies that the mechanisms that remove 3 in %"rin= constr"cte% the season. !e%%# an% 6eI"s7 (1287) re$orte% the wetlan%s incl"%e onl# sor$tion on antece%ent nitro=en stan%in= stoc7 for emer=ent s$ecies in the s"5stratesran=e of 1.4 to 37.5 = 3 mE 2 with more than 50D stora=e in 5iomass- an% the formation an% of this accretion of amo"nt store% 5elow=ro"n%. :5ove=ro"n% 3 stan%in=

stoc7 val"es were re$orte% in the ran=e of 0.16.8 = 3 m@ 2 (&ohnston- 1221)- 0.111 = 3 m@ 2 ('#ma(al1225)0.0112 = 3 mE 2 ('#ma(al et al.- 1222) or 315 = 3 mE 2 (Iri? an% Schier"$- 1282). 3hos$hor"s stan%in=

new se%iments an% soils (+a%lec an% +ni=ht- 1226). The first two $rocesses- however- are sat"ra5le- meanin= the# have a finite ca$acit# an% therefore- cannot contri5"te to lon=@term- s"staina5le 3 removal (6"nne an% !e%%#- 2005). 3eat soil accretion is the maCor lon=@term $hos$hor"s sin7 in wetlan%s 5"t it co"l% 5e effective onl# in treatment wetlan%s with hi=h $ro%"ction of 5iomass an% water overl#in= the se%iment as it is the case of free water s"rface constr"cte% wetlan%s with emer=ent ve=etation. :%sor$tion an% $reci$itation of $hos$hor"s is effective in s#stems where wastewater =ets in contact with filtration s"5strate. ,t means that constr"cte% wetlan%s with s"5@s"rface flow have the maCor $otential for $hos$hor"s removal via these mechanisms. Grom those s#stems- hori(ontal@flow s#stems have hi=her $otential as the s"5strate is constantl# floo%e% an% there is not m"ch fl"ct"ation in re%o? $otential in the 5e%. 'ertical@flow s#stems- where wastewater is fe% inter@ mittentl#- ma# not 5e as effective 5eca"se the o?#=en@ ation of the 5e% ma# ca"se %esor$tion an% s"5seF"ent release of $hos$hor"s. >owever- materials which are commonl# "se% for s"5@s"rface flow 49S- i.e.- washe% =ravel or cr"she% roc7- "s"all# $rovi%e ver# low ca@ $acit# for sor$tion an% $reci$itation. !ecentl#- several filtration materials s"ch as ZE4: (li=ht wei=ht cla# a==re=ates) have 5een teste% in constr"cte% wetlan%s. The removal of $hos$hor"s is ver# hi=h ('ohla et al.2005< &enssen an% +ro=sta%- 2003) 5"t it is im$ortant to reali(e that sor$tion an% $reci$itation are sat"ra5le an% the sor$tion %ecreases over time (Gi=. 7). Similar to nitro=en- %"e hi=h inflow loa%in=s (Ta5le 5)the amo"nt of 3 remove% via harvestin= of emer=ent macro$h#tes is low (see Section 3.1.4) 5"t co"l% 5e im$ortant in 49s which have low inflow loa%in= (cca 5 1020 = 3 mE 2 #rE 1). 3lant "$ta7e is a more im$ortant ro"te of $hos$hor"s removal in s#stems with free@floatin= macro$h#tes. >owever- it is im$ortant to %evelo$ an

&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

63

efficient harvestin= freF"enc# in or%er to 7ee$ macro@ $h#tes at the o$tim"m =rowth sta=e to ens"re o$tim"m $hos$hor"s removal. Aicro5ial "$ta7e is consi%ere% in all treatment s#stems onl# as tem$orar# stora=e of $hos$ho@ r"s with ver# short t"rnover rate. 3hos$hor"s which is ta7en "$ 5# micro5iota is release% 5ac7 to the water after the %eca# of the or=anisms. 9astewater treatment "nits 5ase% on al=al removal (e.=.- hi=h@rate al=al $on%s) are not incl"%e% in this review. 4. 4oncl"sions !emoval of total nitro=en in st"%ie% t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s varie% 5etween 40 an% 50D with remove% loa% ran=in= 5etween 250 an% 630 = * mE 2 #rE 1 %e$en%in= on 49s t#$e an% inflow loa%in=. >oweverthe $rocesses res$onsi5le for the removal ma# %iffer in ma=nit"%e amon= s#stems. Sin=le@sta=e constr"cte% wetlan%s cannot achieve hi=h removal of total nitro=en %"e to their ina5ilit# to $rovi%e 5oth aero5ic an% anaero5ic con%itions at the same time. 'ertical@flow constr"cte% wetlan%s remove s"ccessf"ll# ammonia@* 5"t ver# limite% %enitrification ta7es $lace in these s#stems. ;n the other han%- hori(ontal@flow constr"cte% wetlan%s $rovi%e =oo% con%itions for %enitrification 5"t the a5ilit# of these s#stem to nitrif# ammonia is ver# limite%. Therefore- vario"s t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s ma# 5e com5ine% (h#5ri% s#stems) with each other in or%er to e?$loit the s$ecific a%vanta=es of the in%ivi%"al s#stems. The maCor $hos$hor"s removal $rocesses are sor$tion$reci$itation- $lant "$ta7e (with s"5seF"ent harvest) an% $eat soil accretion. >owever- the soil accretion- the onl# non@sat"ra5le $rocess- occ"rs onl# in G9S 49s. !emoval of $hos$hor"s in all t#$es of constr"cte%

wetlan%s is low "nless s$ecial s"5strates with hi=h sor$tion ca$acit# are "se%. !emoval of total $hos$hor"s varie% 5etween 40 an% 60D in all t#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s with remove% loa% ran=in= 5etween 45 an% 75 = * mE 2 #rE 1 %e$en%in= on 49s t#$e an% inflow loa%in=. !emoval of 5oth nitro=en an% $hos$hor"s via harvestin= of a5ove=ro"n% 5iomass of emer=ent ve=etation is low 5"t it co"l% 5e s"5stantial for li=htl# loa%e% s#stems (cca 100200 = * mE 2 #rE 1 an% 1020 = 3 mE 2 #rE 1). !eferences
:t7in ;+. !eassessin= the nitro=en relations of arctic $lantsJ a mini@ review. 3lant 4ell Environ 1226<12J625704. Iarrow *&. ;n the reversi5ilit# of $hos$hate sor$tion 5# soils. & Soil Sci 1283<34J7518. Iernet *- 6an=con= 3- 6el=enes &@3- Aoletta !. *itrification at low o?#=en concentration in 5iofilm reactor. & Environ Ener=# 2001<127J26671.

Io#% 4E. 3ro%"ction- mineral n"trient a5sor$tion- an% 5iochemical assimilation 5# &"sticia americana an% :lternanthera $hilo?er@ oi%es. :rch >#%ro5iol 1262<66J13260. Iremner &A- Shaw +. 6enitrification in soil. ,,. Gactors affectin= %enitrification. & :=ric Sci 1258<51J4052. Iri? >. 6enmar7. ,nJ '#ma(al &- Iri? >- 4oo$er 3G- Preen AI- >a5erl !- e%itors. 4onstr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment in E"ro$e. Zei%en- The *etherlan%sJ Iac7h"#s 3"5lishers< 1228. $. 12352. Iri? >- Schier"$ >@>. The "se of macro$h#tes in water $oll"tion control. :m5io 1282<18J1007. Iri? >- :rias 4- &ohansen *>. E?$eriments in a two@sta=e constr"cte% wetlan% s#stemJ nitrification ca$acit# an% effects of rec#clin= on nitro=en removal. ,nJ '#ma(al &- e%itor. 9etlan%sJ n"trients- metals an% mass c#clin=. Zei%en- The *etherlan%sJ Iac7h"#s 3"5lishers< 2003. $. 23758. Iroa%5ent GE- 4lar7 G. 6enitrification. ,nJ Iartholomew 9'- 4lar7 GE- e%itors. Soil nitro=en- vol. 10. :=ronom#< 1265. $. 34452. I"resh !&- 4asselman AE- 3atric7 &r 9>. *itro=en fi?ation in floo%e% soil s#stemsJ a review. :%v :=ron 1280<33J14222. 4oo$er 3G. : review of the %esi=n an% $erformance of vertical flow an% h#5ri% ree% 5e% treatment s#stems. 9ater Sci Technol 1222<40 (3)J12. 4oo$er 3G- &o5 P6- Preen AI- Sh"tes !IE. !ee% 5e%s an% constr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment. Ae%menhamAarlow- 8+J 9!c 3"5lications< 1226. 184 $$. 4raft I4- !ichar%son 4&. 3eat accretion an% $hos$hor"s acc"m"lation alon= a e"tro$hication =ra%ient in the northern Ever=la%es. Iio=eochemistr# 1223<22J13356. 6"nne E&- !e%%# +!. 3hos$hor"s 5io=eochemistr# of wetlan%s in a=ric"lt"ral watershe%s. ,nJ 6"nne E&- !e%%# !- 4arton ;Te%itors. *"trient mana=ement in a=ric"lt"ral watershe%sJ a wetlan% sol"tion. 9a=enin=en- The *etherlan%sJ 9a=enin=en :ca%emic 3"5lishers< 2005. $. 105112. 6#7#Covb 6- +vct &- e%itors. 3on% littoral ecos#stemsJ str"ct"re an% f"nctionin=. IerlinJ S$rin=er@'erla=< 1278. En=ler !A- 3atric7 &r 9>. *itrate removal from floo%water overl#in= floo%e% soils an% se%iments. & Environ d"al 1274<3J40213. Gocht 66- 'erstraete 9. Iiochemical ecolo=# of nitrification an% %enitrification. :%v Aicro5 Ecol 1277<1J135214. P`chter !- Ae#er &S. The role of microor=anisms in mo5ili(ation an% fi?ation of $hos$hor"s in se%iments. >#%ro5iolo=ia 1223<253J 10321. Parnett T3- Sha5ala S*- Smeth"rst 3&- *ewman ,:. Sim"ltaneo"s meas"rement of ammoni"m- nitrate an% $roton fl"?es alon= the len=th of e"cal#$t"s roots. 3lant Soil 2001<236J5562. Parver EP- 6"55e 6!- 3ratt 64. Seasonal $atterns in acc"m"lations an% $artitionin= of 5iomass an% macron"trients in T#$ha s$$. :F"at Iot 1288<32J11527. Po$al I. Iiolo=# an% ecolo=#. ,nJ 3atten I4- e%itor. 9etlan%s an% shallow continental water 5o%ies. The >a="eJ S3I :ca%emic 3"5lishin=< 1221. $. 21@232. Prant 96- Zon= 3E. Environmental micro5iolo=#. Plas=owJ Ilac7ie an% Son< 1281. >ammer 6:- Iastian !+. 9etlan%s ecos#stemsJ nat"ral water $"rifiers] ,nJ >ammer 6:- e%itor. 4onstr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment. 4helsea- Aichi=anJ Zewis 3"5lishers< 1282. $. 5@12. >a"c7 !6. :tmos$heric nitro=en chemistr#- nitrification- %enitrificationan% their relationshi$s. ,nJ >"t(in=er ;- e%itor. The han%5oo7 of environmental chemistr#. 'ol. 1. 3art 4- the nat"ral environment an% 5io=eochemical c#cles. IerlinJ S$rin=er@'erla=< 1284. $. 10527. >"nt 3P- 3oach AE- Ziehr S+. *itro=en c#clin= in wetlan% s#stems. ,nJ 6"nne E&- !e%%# +!- 4arton ;T- e%itors. *"trient mana=ement

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&. '#ma(al Science of the Total Environment 380 (2007) 4865

in a=ric"lt"ral watershe%sJ a wetlan% sol"tion. The *etherlan%sJ 9a=enin=en :ca%emic 3"5lishers< 2005. $. 23@104. &enssen 36- +ro=sta% T. 6esi=n of constr"cte% wetlan%s "sin= $hos$hor"s sor5in= li=htwei=ht a==re=ate (Z9:). ,nJ Aan%er e&enssen 36- e%itors. 4onstr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment in col% climates. So"tham$ton- 8+J 9,T 3ress< 2003. $. 25271. &etten ASA- Zo=emann S- A"#(er PA- !o5ertson Z:- 6e'ries S'an Zoos%recht A4A- et al. *ovel $rinci$les in the micro5ial conversion of nitro=en com$o"n%s. :ntonie van Zee"wenhoe7 1227<71J7523. &ohansen *>- Iri? >. 6esi=n criteria for a two@sta=e constr"cte% wetlan%. ,nJ 3roc. 5th ,nternat. 4onf. 9etlan% S#stems for 9ater 3oll"tion 4ontrol 1226- ,9: an% 8niversit`t ffr Io%en7"lt"r'ienna- 4ha$ter ,B 3. &ohnston 4:. Se%iments an% n"trient retention 5# freshwater wetlan%sJ effects on s"rface water F"alit#. 4!4 4rit !ev Environ 4ontrol 1221<21J421565. +a%lec !>- +ni=ht !Z. Treatment wetlan%s. Ioca !aton- Glori%aJ 4!4 3ress< 1226. 823 $$. +eene# 6!- 4hen !Z- Praet( 6:. 6enitrification an% nitrate re%"ction in se%imentsJ im$ortance to the nitro=en 5"%=et in

3atric7 &r 9>- Potoh S- 9illiams IP. Stren=ite %issol"tion in floo%e% soils an% se%iments. Science 1273<172J5646. 3a"l E:- 4lar7 GE. Soil micro5iolo=# an% 5iochemistr#. 2n% e%. San 6ie=o- 4aliforniaJ :ca%emic 3ress< 1226. 340 $$. !e%%# +!- 6S:n=elo EA. Soil $rocesses re="latin= water F"alit# in wetlan%s. ,nJ Aitsch 9&- e%itor. Plo5al wetlan%sJ ol% worl% an% new. :mster%am- The *etherlan%sJ Elsevier< 1224. $. 30224. !e%%# +!- 6S:n=elo EA. Iio=eochemical in%icators to eval"ate $oll"tion removal efficienc# in constr"cte% wetlan%s. 9ater Sci Technol 1227<35(5)J1@10. !e%%# +!- 6eI"s7 9G. *"trient stora=e ca$a5ilities of aF"atic an% wetlan% $lants. ,nJ !e%%# +!- Smith 9>- e%itors. :F"atic $lants for water treatment an% reso"rce recover#. ;rlan%o- Glori%aJ Aa=nolia 3"5lishin=< 1287. $. 33757. !e%%# +!- Praet( 6:. 4ar5on an% nitro=en %#namics in wetlan% soils. ,nJ >oo7 66- et al- e%itor. Ecolo=# an% mana=ement of wetlan%s. Ecolo=# of 9etlan%s3ortlan%- ;re=onJ Tim5er 3ress< 1288. $. 30718. !e%%# +!- 3atric7 9>. *itro=en transformations an% loss in floo%e% soils

an% se%iments. 4!4 4rit !ev Environ 4ontrol 1284<13J273302. !e%%# +!- +a%lec !>- Glai= E- Pale 3A. 3hos$hor"s retention in streams an% wetlan%sJ a review. 4!4 4rit !ev Environ Sci Technol 1222<22J83@146. la7es. *at"re 1272<233J667. +eene# 6!- Giller# ,!- Aar? P3. Effect of tem$erat"re on the =aseo"s !h"e !6- >arris 9P. 3hos$hor"s sor$tion %esor$tion reactions in nitro=en $ro%"cts of %enitrification in a silt loam soil. Soil Sci Soc soils an% se%iments. ,nJ !e%%# +!- ;S4onnor P:- Schels7e 4Ze%itors. 3hos$hor"s 5io=eochemistr# in s"5tro$ical ecos#stems. :m & 1272<43J11248. +lee5er= :- Schl"n=5a"m 9. ,n sit" $hos$hor"s release e?$eriments Ioca !aton- Glori%aJ 4!4 3ress< 1222. $. 187206. in the 9arnow !iver (Aec7len5"r=- northern Perman#). >#%ro@ !ichar%son 4&. Aechanisms controllin= $hos$hor"s retention ca$acit# 5iolo=ia 1223<253J26374. in freshwater wetlan%s. Science 1285<228J14247. !ichar%son 4&- Aarshall 3E. 3rocesses controllin= movement+nowles !. 6enitrification. Aicro5iol !ev 1282<46J4370. +"enen &P- !o5ertson Z:. Ecolo=# of nitrification an% %enitrification. stora=e- an% e?$ort of $hos$hor"s in a fen $eatlan%. Ecol Aono=r ,nJ 4ole &:- Ger="son S&- e%itors. The nitro=en an% s"l$h"r c#cles. 1286<56J272302. !ichar%son 4&- dian SS- 4raft I4- d"alls !P. 3re%ictive mo%els for 4am5ri%=e- 8+J 4am5ri%=e 8niversit# 3ress< 1287. $. 162218. Zaan5roe7 >&. Iacterial c#clin= of minerals that affect $lant =rowth $hos$hor"s retention in wetlan%s. 9etlan%s Ecol Aana= in 1227<4J15275. waterlo==e% soilsJ a review. :F"at Iot 1220<38J10225. Za5er &- >a5erl !- Zan=er=ra5er P. Treatment of hos$ital wastewater with a 2@sta=e constr"cte% wetlan% s#stem. ,nJ >a5erl !Zan=er=ra5er P- e%itors. :chievements an% $ros$ects of $h#tor@ eme%iation in E"ro$e. Ioo7 of :5stracts'ienna- :"striaJ 8niver@ sit# of *at"ral !eso"rces an% :$$lie% Zife Sciences< 2003. $. 85. Zam5ers >- 4ha$in ,,, GS- 3ons Z. 3lant $h#siolo=ical ecolo=#. *ew gor7J S$rin=er< 1228. Zin%sa# :Z. 4hemical eF"ili5ria in soils. *ew gor7J &ohn 9ile# an% Sons< 1272. A^hl"m T- St_lnac7e 3. !emoval efficienc# of three col%@climate constr"cte% wetlan%s treatin= %omestic wastewaterJ effects of tem$erat"re- seasons- loa%in= rates an% in$"t concentrations. 9ater !ose :>. 4hemical micro5iolo=#. *ew gor7J 3len"m 3ress< 1276. Savant *+- 6e6atta S+. *itro=en transformations in wetlan% rice soils. :%v :=ron 1282<35J241302. Schal7 &- %e 'ries S- +"enen &P- &etten ASA. ,nvolvement of a novel h#%ro?#lamine o?i%ore%"ctase in anaero5ic ammoni"m o?i%ation. Iiochemistr# 2000<32J540512. Schmi%t EZ. *itrification in soils. ,nJ Stevenson G&- e%itor. *itro=en in a=ric"lt"ral soil- vol. 22. :m. Soc. :=ron- Aa%ison- 9isconsin:=ronom#< 1282. $. 25367. Schmi%t ,- Xart 6- Ioc7 E. Effects of =aseo"s *;2 on cells of *i@ trosomonas e"tro$ha $revio"sl# inca$a5le of "sin= ammonia as an ener=# so"rce. :ntonie van Zee"wenhoe7 2001<72J3247. Schmi%t ,- Slie7ers ;- Schmi% A- Ioc7 E- G"erst &- +"enen &P- et al. *ew conce$ts of micro5ial treatment $rocess for the nitro=en

Sci Technol 1222<40(3)J27381. removal from wastewaters. GEAS Aicro5iol !ev 2003<27J48122. Aitsch 9&- Posselin7 &P. 9etlan%s. *ew gor7J 'an *ostran% Sei%el +. *e"e 9e=e ("r Pr"n%wasseranreicher"n= in +refel%. 'ol. ,,. !einhol% 4om$an#< 2000. 220 $$. >#%ro5otanische !eini="n=smeho%e. P9G 9asser :5wasser Aitterer@!eichmann PA. 6ata eval"ation of constr"cte% wetlan%s for 1265<30J8313. treatment of %omestic wastewater. ,nJ 3roc. 8th ,nternat. 4onf. Si7ora G&- Xh" T- Iehren% ZZ- Stein5er= SZ- 4oonro% >S. :mmoni"m 9etlan% S#stems for 9ater 3oll"tion 4ontrol. ,9: an% 8niversit# removal in constr"cte% wetlan%s with recirc"latin= s"5s"rface flowJ of 6ar es Salaam- 2002- $$. 4046. removal rates an% mechanisms. 9ater Sci Technol 1225<32 A"l%er :- van %e Praaf ::- !o5ertson Z:- +"enen &P. :naero5ic (3)J123202. ammoni"m o?i%ation %iscovere% in a %enitrif#in= fl"i%i(e% 5e% Slie7ers :;- 6erwort *- 4am$os Pome( &Z- Stro"s A- +"enen &Preactor. GEAS Aicro5iol Ecol 1225<16J17784. ;S>o=ain S. The %esi=n- o$eration an% $erformance of a m"nici$al h#5ri% ree% 5e% treatment s#stem. 9ater Sci Technol 2003<48(5)J112 26. 3atric7 &r 9>- +hali% !:. 3hos$hate release an% sor$tion 5# soils an% se%imentsJ effect of aero5ic an% anaero5ic con%itions. Science 1274<186J535. &etten ASA. 4om$letel# a"totro$hic nitro=en removal over nitrite in one sin=le reactor. 9ater !eso"r 2002<36J247582. S[rensen &. 4a$acit# for %enitrification an% re%"ction of nitrate to ammonia in a coastal marine se%iments. :$$l Environ Aicro5iol 1278<35J3015.

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Stewart 963. *itro=en fi?ation. ,nJ 4arr *P- 9hitton I:- e%itors. The 5iolo=# of the 5l"e@=reen al=ae. Ier7ele#- 4aliforniaJ

'#ma(al &. :l=ae an% element c#clin= in wetlan%s. 4helsea- Aichi=anJ Zewis 3"5lishers< 1225. 628 $$. '#ma(al &. T#$es of constr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatmentJ 8niversit# of 4alifornia 3ress< 1273. $. 26078. their $otential for n"trient removal. ,nJ '#ma(al &- e%itor. Stowell !- Z"%wi= !- 4olt &- Tcho5ano=lo"s P. 4once$ts in aF"atic Transformations of n"trients in nat"ral an% constr"cte% wetlan%s. treatment s#stem %esi=n. & Env En= 6iv :S4E 1281<107J21240. Zei%en- The *etherlan%sJ Iac7h"#s 3"5lishers< 2001. $. 1@23. Stro"s A- &etten ASA. :naero5ic o?i%ation of methane an% '#ma(al &. 4onstr"cte% wetlan%s for wastewater treatment in E"ro$e. ammoni"m. :nn" !ev Aicro5iol 2004<58J22@117. ,nJ 6"nne E&- !e%%# !- 4arton ;T- e%itors. *"trient mana=ement Stro"s A- van Perven E- +"enen &P- &etten A. Effects of aero5ic an% microaero5ic con%itions on anaero5ic ammoni"m@o?i%i(in= (ana@ in a=ric"lt"ral watershe%sJ a wetlan% sol"tion. 9a=enin=en- The mmo?) sl"%=e. :$$l Environ Aicro5iol 1227<63J24468. *etherlan%sJ 9a=enin=en :ca%emic 3"5lishers< 2005a. $. 23044. '#ma(al &. >ori(ontal s"5@s"rface flow an% h#5ri% constr"cte% Tanner 44- +a%lec !>- Pi55s AA- S"7ias &3S- *="#en ZA. wetlan%s s#stems for wastewater treatment. Ecol En= 20055<25 *itro=en $rocessin= =ra%ients in s"5s"rface@flow treatment wet@ (5)J47820. lan%s. Ecol En= 2002<18J422520. Toet S- Io"wman A- 4evaal :- 'erhoeven &T:. *"trient removal '#ma(al &- 6"ie7 &- +vct &. *"trient "$ta7e an% stora=e 5# $lants in thro"=h a"t"mn harvest of 3hra=mites a"stralis an% T#$ha constr"cte% wetlan%s with hori(ontal s"5@s"rface flowJ a com$ar@ ative st"%#. ,nJ '#ma(al &- e%itor. *"trient c#clin= an% retention in latifolia shoots in relation to n"trient loa%in= in a wetlan% s#stem "se% for $olishin= sewa=e treatment $lant effl"ent. & Environ Sci nat"ral an% constr"cte% wetlan%s. Zei%en- The *etherlan%sJ Iac7h"#s 3"5lishers< 1222. $. 85@100. >ealth 2005<40J113356. 9et(el !P. Zimnolo=#. 3r% e%. San 6ie=oJ :ca%emic 3ress< 2001. van %e Praaf ::- A"l%er :- %e Ir"iCn 3- &etten ASA- !o5ertson Z:+"enen &P. :naero5ic o?i%ation of ammoni"m is a 5iolo=icall# 1006 $$. 9hitne# 6A- 4halmers :P- >aines EI- >anson !I- 3omero# Z!me%iate% $rocess. :$$l Environ Aicro5iol 1225<61J124651. Sherr I. The c#cles of nitro=en an% $hos$hor"s. ,nJ 3omero# !Z'an ;ostrom :&- !"ssell &A. 6enitrification in constr"cte% 9ie=ert !P- e%itors. The ecolo=# of a salt marsh. IerlinJ S$rin=er@ wastewater wetlan%s receivin= hi=h concentrations of nitrate. 9ater Sci Technol 1224<22J7@14. 'erla=< 1281. $. 16381. 'erhoeven &T:. *"trient %#namics in minerotro$hic $eat mires. :F"at Iot 1286<25J11737. 'ohla 4- 3hl%vere E- *oorvee :- +""semets '- Aan%er e. :lternative filter me%ia for $hos$hor"s removal in a hori(ontal s"5s"rface flow constr"cte% wetlan%. & Environ Sci >ealth 2005<40J125164.