K.L.N. COLLEGE OF INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY Pottapalayam 630 611, !"a#a$#a! %!&t'!(t.

Y)a' * +00, -+00.,

)m)&t)' * 6

/'a$(0 * III /.E. EEE

123)(t * EE 134+ Po5)' y&t)m A$aly&!&

Nam) o6 t0) 7'!t)' 8Colla2o'ato'9 * R. Ram)&0, P'o6)&&o' 8EEE9, IT %)pt. :$!t * ; ylla21& * ;t0 :$!t
POWER SYSTEM STABILITY :

%at) o6 12m!&&!o$ *

.1.+00.

Sl.No. 1. 2. 3. #. '. ). ,. -. .. 10. 11.

Topics Basic concepts and definitions - Rotor angle stability Voltage stability Mid Term and Long Term stability Classification of stability n elementary !ie" of transient stability $%&al area criterion (actors infl&encing transient stability *&merical integration met+ods $&ler met+od Modified $&ler met+od R&nge-/&tta met+ods ssignment - V 1nit V Test Total

L 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 .

T 1 1 3

P -. -

EE 1352 - POWER SYSTEM ANALYSIS 1

VI semester EEE r!"c# $2%%&-2%1% !tc#' ("it ) V ) Po*er S+stem St!,ilit+ S+ll!,-s . !sic co"cepts !"/ /e0i"itio"s ) Rotor !"1le st!,ilit+ ) Volt!1e st!,ilit+ ) Mi/ Term !"/ Lo"1 Term st!,ilit+ ) 2l!ssi0ic!tio" o0 st!,ilit+ ) A" eleme"t!r+ 3ie* o0 tr!"sie"t st!,ilit+ ) E4-!l !re! criterio" ) 5!ctors i"0l-e"ci"1 tr!"sie"t st!,ilit+ ) N-meric!l i"te1r!tio" met#o/s ) E-ler met#o/ ) Mo/i0ie/ E-ler met#o/ ) R-"1e-6-tt! met#o/s. 5.1 I"tro/-ctio" T+e transient be+a!ior of a po"er system res&lting from ma2or dist&rbances s&c+ as a fa&lt follo"ed by s"itc+ing operations3 s&dden re2ection of load or generation etc. ma2or dist&rbance &psets t+e balance bet"een mec+anical inp&t and electrical o&tp&t of t+e generator "it+ t+e res&lt t+at some generators may accelerate "+ile ot+ers may decelerate. T+e rotor angles "ill &ndergo "ide !ariations and in t+is process t+e 4sync+ronism5 of t+e system gets affected. 6ync+ronism m&st be maintained by timely operation of circ&it brea7ers. Critical clearing times of circ&it brea7ers can be comp&ted and protection 8ones of distance relays d&ring transient s"ings can be ad2&sted. Compared to s+ort circ&it and load flo" st&dies3 transient stability st&dies are more comple9 since t+ey in!ol!e t+e electromec+anical dynamics of t+e sync+rono&s mac+ines and its associated controls s&c+ as e9citation system and go!ernor. 5.2 !sic co"cepts !"/ 7e0i"itio"s . :o"er system stability ; <t is defined as t+at property of a po"er system t+at enables it to remain in a state of operating e%&ilibri&m &nder normal operating conditions and to regain an acceptable state of e%&ilibri&m after being s&b2ected to a dist&rbance. necessary condition for satisfactory po"er system operation is t+at all sync+rono&s mac+ine remain in sync+ronism or in step. T+is aspect of stability is infl&enced by t+e dynamics of generator rotor angles and po"er angle relations+ips. <nstability may also be enco&ntered "it+o&t lose of sync+ronism. (or e9ample3 a system consisting of sync+rono&s generator feeding an ind&ction motor load t+ro&g+ a transmission line can become &nstable beca&se of t+e collapse of load !oltage. Maintenance of sync+ronism is not an iss&e3 instead3 t+e concern in stability and control of !oltage. T+is form of instability can also occ&r in loads co!ering an e9tensi!e area s&pplied by a large system. 5.3 Rotor !"1le st!,ilit+ .

<t is t+e ability of inter connected sync+rono&s mac+ines of a po"er system to remain in sync+ronism. T+e stability problem in!ol!es t+e st&dy of t+e electromec+anical oscillations in+erent in po"er systems. f&ndamental factor in t+is problem is t+e manner in "+ic+ t+e po"er o&tp&ts of sync+rono&s mac+ines !ary as t+eir motor oscillate. <t is &s&al to c+aracteri8e t+e rotor angle stability p+enomena in terms of t+e follo"ing t"o categories. 5.3.1 Sm!ll si1"!l st!,ilit+ $or' Ste!/+ st!te st!,ilit+ . <t is t+e ability of t+e po"er system to maintain sync+ronism &nder small dist&rbances. 6&c+ dist&rbances occ&r contin&ally on t+e system beca&se of small !ariations in load and generation. <nstability may occ&r in t"o forms. i= 6teady increase in rotor angle d&e to lac7 of s&fficient sync+roni8ing tor%&e or ii= Rotor oscillations of increasing amplit&de d&e to lac7 of s&fficient damping tor%&e. 5.3.2 Tr!"sie"t st!,ilit+ . <t is t+e ability of t+e po"er system to maintain sync+ronism "+en s&b2ected to a se!ere transient dist&rbance. T+e res&lting system response in!ol!es large e9c&rsions of generator rotor angles and is infl&enced by t+e non-linear po"er-angle relations+ip. <n large po"er systems3 transient instability may not al"ays occ&r as first s"ing instability3 it co&ld be res&lt of s&perposition of se!eral modes of oscillation ca&sing large e9c&rsions of rotor angle beyond t+e first s"ing. <n transient stability st&dies t+e st&dy period of interest is &s&ally limited to 3 to ' seconds follo"ing t+e dist&rbance3 alt+o&g+ it may e9tent to abo&t 10 seconds for e!ery large systems. 5.8 S*i"1 e4-!tio" 0or si"1le m!c#i"e i"0i"ite ,-s s+stem . T+e e%&ation go!erning t+e motion of t+e rotor of a sync+rono&s mac+ine is based on t+e elementary principle in dynamics "+ic+ states t+at accelerating tor%&e is t+e prod&ct of t+e moment of inertia of t+e rotor times its ang&lar acceleration. <n M/6 system of &nits t+is e%&ation can be "ritten for t+e sync+rono&s generator in t+e form ; d 2 J 2 = Ta = Tm Te N m..................>1= dt "+ere ? @ T+e total moment of inertia of t+e rotor mass in 7g-m2. Am @ ng&lar displacement of t+e rotor "it+ respect to a stationary a9is in mec+anical radians. t @ Time3 in seconds. Tm @ T+e mec+anical >or= s+aft tor%&es s&pplied by t+e prime mo!er in *-m. Te @ *et electrical >or= electromagnetic tor%&e in *-m. Ta @ *et accelerating tor%&e in *-m.

T+e mec+anical tor%&e Tm and electrical tor%&e Te are considered positi!e for sync+rono&s generator. T+ese means t+at Tm is t+e res&ltant s+aft tor%&e "+ic+ tends to accelerate t+e rotor in t+e positi!e Bm direction of rotation as s+o"n in fig. ..1 >a=. 1nder steady state operation t+e generator Tm and Te are e%&al and t+e accelerating tor%&e Ta is 8ero. <n t+is case t+ere is no acceleration or deceleration of t+e rotor masses "+ic+ incl&de t+e rotor of t+e generator and prime mo!er are said to be in sync+ronism "it+ t+e ot+er mac+ines operating at sync+rono&s speed in t+e po"er system. T+e electrical tor%&e Te corresponds to t+e net air gap po"er in t+e mac+ine and t+&s acco&nts for t+e total o&tp&t po"er of t+e generator pl&s <2R losses in t+e armat&re "inding. <n t+e sync+rono&s motor t+e direction of po"er flo" is opposite to t+at in t+e generator. ccordingly for a motor bot+ Tm and Te are re!ersed in sign as s+o"n in fig. ..1 >b=. Te is t+en corresponds to t+e air gap po"er s&pplied by t+e electrical system to dri!e t+e rotor "+ile Tm C t+e co&nter tor%&e of t+e load and t+e rotational losses tending to retard t+e rotor. <n o&r disc&ssion Tm is considered to be constant since t+e prime mo!er is controlled by go!ernors. 6ince Bm is meas&red "it+ respect to a stationary references a9is on t+e stator3 it is an absol&te meas&re of rotor angle. Bm increases contin&o&sly "it+ time e!en "+en sync+rono&s speed is constant. 6ince t+e rotor speed relati!e to sync+rono&s speed is more con!enient to meas&re t+e rotor ang&lar position "it+ respect to reference a9is "+ic+ rotates at sync+rono&s speed. De define Bm @ Esm F Gm . . . . . >2= "+ere Esm is t+e sync+rono&s speed of t+e mac+ine in mec+. Radians per second. Gm is t+e ang&lar displacement of t+e rotor in mec+. radians from t+e sync+rono&sly rotating a9is. d m d = sm + m dt dt . . . . . >3= H >#= 2 2 d m d = dt dt 2

d m is constant and dt d m d m e%&als t+e sync+rono&s speed only "+en is 8ero. T+erefore represents t+e dt dt de!iation of t+e rotor speed from sync+ronism and t+e &nits of meas&re are mec+anical radians per second. (rom e%&ation >3= "e can say t+e rotor ang&lar !elocity $%&ation >#= represents rotor acceleration in mec+anical radian per second s%&ared. 6&bstit&te e%&ation >#= in e%&ation >1= d 2 m J = Ta = Tm Te N m..........>'= dt 2 <t is con!enient for notational p&rposes to introd&ce d m = m for ang&lar !elocity of t+e rotor. dt (rom elementary dynamics po"er @ Tor%&e 9 ang&lar !elocity. M&ltiply e%&ation >'= by Em 3 d 2 m J m = Pa = Pm PeW . . . . >)= dt 2 "+ere :m is t+e s+aft po"er inp&t to t+e mac+ine :e is t+e electrical po"er crossing its air gap :a is t+e accelerating po"er "+ic+ acco&nt for any &nbalance bet"een t+ose t"o %&antities &s&ally rotational loss and <2R losses are neglected and t+in7 :m as po"er s&pplied by t+e prime mo!er and :e C electrical po"er o&tp&t. Coefficient ?Em is t+e ang&lar moment&m of t+e rotor at sync+rono&s speed Esm and is denoted by M called inertia constant of t+e mac+ine. ?Em @ M $%&ation >)= becomes d 2 m M = Pa = Pm Pe . . . . . >,= dt 2 <n practice M cannot be a constant as it is t+e coefficient. M is e9pressed in ?o&le-second I mec+. radian. De "rite as d 2 m M = Pa = Pm Pe . . . . . >-= dt 2 M is not constant beca&se Em@Esm &nder all condition. Jne more constant "+ic+ is !ery m&c+ enco&ntered in t+e stability st&dies is K constant defined as 6tored 7inetic energy in mega2o&les at sync+rono&s speed K @ LLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLLL Mac+ine rating in MV

'

1 1 2 J sm M sm 2 2 H= = MJ I MVA S mach S mach "+ere 6mac+ t+ree p+ase rating of t+e mac+ine in MV 2H M = S mach M?sImac+.rad sm 6&bstit&te t+is in e%&ation >,= "e get P P Pe 2 H d 2 m = a = m . . . . >-= 2 sm dt S mach S mach Gm C e9pressed in mec+. rad. Esm C e9pressed in mec+. rad.Isec. De can "rite t+e abo!e e%&ation as 2 H d 2 = Pa = Pm Pe p.&. . . . . . >.= s dt 2 G and Es are in mec+ >or= electrical degrees or radians. T+&s for a system "it+ a fre%&ency of f +erts3 2 H d 2 = Pa = Pm Pe 2f dt 2 H d 2 = Pa = Pm Pe perunit.......>10= f dt 2 "+en G is in electrical degrees. $%&ation >10= is called t+e s"ing e%&ation o t+e mac+ine is t+e f&ndamental e%&ation "+ic+ go!erns t+e rotational dynamics of t+e sync+rono&s mac+ine in stability st&dies. D+en s"ing e%&ation is sol!ed "e obtain t+e e9pression for G as a f&nction of time. grap+ of t+e sol&tion is called t+e s"ing c&r!e of t+e mac+ine and inspection of t+e s"ing c&r!es of all t+e mac+ines of t+e system "ill s+o" "+et+er t+e mac+ines remain in sync+ronism after a dist&rbance. M-ltim!c#i"e s+stem <n a m&ltimac+ine system a common system base m&st be c+osen. Let 6mac+ @ mac+ine rating >base= 6system @ system base $%&ation >10= can be "ritten as S mach H mach d 2 S = > Pm Pe = mach >or= 2 S system f dt S system H system d 2 = Pm Pe p.&. in system base f dt 2

 S mach "+ere H system H mach @ Mac+ine inertia constant in system base. S system --------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Sol3e/ pro,lems . E9!mple . '0 K83 fo&r pole t&rbogenerator rated 100 MV 3 11 7V +as an inertia constant of -.0 /?IMV . a= (ind t+e stored energy in t+e rotor at sync+rono&s speed. b= <f t+e mec+anical inp&t is s&ddenly raised to -0 MD for an electrical load of '0 MD3 find t+e rotor acceleration elec.deg.Isec2 neglecting mec+anical and electrical losses. Sol-tio" . 6tored energy in M? K @ LLLLLLLLLLLL Mac+ine rating in MV a= 6tored energy in M? @ K >inertia constant= 9 MV @ - 9 100 @ -00 M?. b= :a @ :m :e @ -0 '0 @ 30 MD Md 2 Pa = dt 2 H M = S mach = x100 = 0.0-.MJ s I elec. deg ree 1-0 f 1-0 x'0 d 2 d 2 Pa 30 Pa = M 2 2 = = = 33,.0-elec. I deg ree M 0.0-. dt dt d 2 cceleration = 33,.0-elec. deg ree I sec 2 dt 2 ------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------T+pic!l 3!l-es o0 : T+pe o0 m!c#i"e I"erti! co"st!"t : i" M;<MVA Dater "+eel generator 6lo" speed M 200 rpm 2.3 Kig+ speed N 200 rpm 2.3 6ync+rono&s capacitor Large 1.2' 6mall 1.00 6ync+rono&s motor "it+ load !arying from 2.00 1.0 to '.0 and +ig+er for fly"+eels T&rbine generator Condensing 1-00 rpm ..) 3000 rpm ,.# *on condensing 3000 rpm #.1

 I a 1 1 1 I a 0 I = 1 a 2 a I b a1 2 I c 1 a a I a2 I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 I b = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2 I c = I a 0 + aI a1 + a 2 I a1 Oi!en t+at3 I a 0 = 3'0.0 = 0 + j 3'0 I a1 = )00 .0 = 0 j )00 = 2'0.0 = 0 + j 2'0

I a2

aI a1 = 1120 x)00 .0 = )0030 = '1..)2 + j 300 a 2 I a1 = 12#0 x)00 .0 = )001'0 = '1..)2 + j 300 aI a 2 = 1120 x 2'0.0 = 2'0210 = 21).'1 j12' a 2 I a 2 = 12#0 x 2'0.0 = 2'0330 = 21).'1 j12' I a = I a 0 + I a1 + I a 2 = j 3'0 j )00 + j 2'0 = 0 I b = I a 0 + a 2 I a1 + aI a 2 = j 3'0 '1..)2 + j 300 21).'1 j12' = ,3).13 + j '2' = .0#.1)1#' A I c = I a 0 + aI a1 + a 2 I a 2 = j 3'0 + '1..)2 + j 300 + 21).'1 j12' = ,3).13 + j '2' = .0#.1)3' A ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Po*er i" terms o0 S+mmetric!l 2ompo"e"ts <f t+e symmetrical components of c&rrents and !oltages are 7no"n3 t+e po"er in a 3 p+ase circ&it can be comp&ted directly from t+e components. T+e total comple9 po"er flo"ing into a t+ree p+ase circ&it t+ro&g+ t+ree lines a3b Q Q Q and c is 6 @ : F 2P @ Va I a + Vb I b + Vc I c D+ere Va3 Vb and Vc are !oltages to ne&tral at t+e terminals and <a3 <b and <c are t+e c&rrents flo"ing into t+e circ&it in t+e t+ree lines. ne&tral connection may or may not present. <n matri9 notation3

S = [Va

Vb

I a Va Vc ] I b = Vb Ic Vc

I a I b Ic

D+ere t+e con2&gate of a matri9 is composed of elements t+at are t+e con2&gates of t+e corresponding elements of t+e original matri9. *o" &se t+e symmetrical components of t+e !oltages and c&rrents in t+e abo!e e%&ation.

Va 1 1 V = 1 a 2 b Vc 1 a

1 Va 0 I a 1 1 2 a Va1 and I b = 1 a a2 Va 2 Ic 1 a

1 I a0 a I a1 a2 I a2

Va I a V = AV 3 and I = AI b b Vc Ic

S = [ AV ] x[ AI ]
T

T+e re!erse r&le of matri9 algebra states t+e transpose of t+e prod&ct of t"o matrices is e%&al to t+e prod&ct of t+e transposes of t+e matrices in re!erse order. ccording to t+is r&le3 [ AV ] T = V T AT S = V T AT A Q I Q *oting t+at T @ and a and a2 are con2&gates "e get3

S = [Va 0

Va1

1 1 2 Va 2 ] 1 a 1 a
T Q

1 1 1 a 1 a 2 a2 1 a

1 I a0 a2 I a1 a I a2

1 0 0 A A = 3 0 1 0 0 0 1 S = 3[Va 0 Va1
6o comple9 po"er is
Q Q Q Q Q Va I a + Vb I b + Vc I c = 3V0 I 0 + 3V1 I 1Q + 3V2 I 2

I a0 Va 2 ] I a1 I a2

<f t+e symmetrical components of c&rrents and !oltages are 7no"n3 t+e po"er cons&med by a t+ree p+ase circ&it can be comp&ted directly from t+e se%&ence components. T+&s t+e abo!e relation is !ery &sef&l for comp&ting po"er in &nbalanced po"er system. ----- --Se4-e"ce Impe/!"ce <n any part of circ&it3 t+e !oltage drop ca&sed by c&rrent of a certain se%&ence depends on t+e impedance of t+e part of t+e circ&it to c&rrent of t+at se%&ence. T+e impedance of any section of a balanced net"or7 to c&rrent of one se%&ence may be different from impedance to c&rrent of anot+er se%&ence. T+e se%&ence impedance of an e%&ipment or component of a po"er system are t+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence impedances. T+ey are defined as follo"s ;

T+e impedance of a circ&it element "+en positi!e se%&ence c&rrents alone are flo"ing is called positi e!se"uence!impedance# 6imilarly3 "+en only negati!e se%&ence c&rrents are present3 t+e impedance is called ne$ati e!se"uence!impedance# D+en only 8ero se%&ence c&rrents are present t+e impedance is called %ero!se"uence!impedance#! T+e impedance of any element of a balanced circ&it to c&rrent of one se%&ence may be different from impedance to c&rrent of anot+er se%&ence. T+e single p+ase e%&i!alent circ&it of po"er system >impedance or reactance diagram= formed &sing t+e impedances of any one se%&ence only is called t+e se"uence! net&or'!for!the!particular!se"uence# T+erefore t+e impedance or reactance diagram formed &sing positi!e se%&ence impedance is called positi e!se"uence!net&or'. 6imilarly t+e impedance or reactance diagram formed &sing negati!e se%&ence impedance is called ne$ati e !se"uence!net&or'# T+e impedance or reactance diagram formed &sing 8ero se%&ence impedance is called %ero!se"uence!net&or'# T+e se%&ence impedances and net"or7s are &sef&l in t+e analysis of &nsymmetrical fa&lts in t+e po"er system. <n &nsymmetrical fa&lt analysis of a po"er system3 t+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence net"or7s of t+e system are determined and t+en t+ey are interconnected to represent t+e !ario&s &nbalanced fa&lt conditions. $ac+ se%&ence net"or7 incl&des t+e generated emfs and impedances of li7e se%&ences. lso3 t+e se%&ence net"or7 carries only t+e c&rrents of li7e se%&ence. Se4-e"ce impe/!"ce !"/ "et*or=s o0 ! 1e"er!tor Consider t+e t+ree p+ase e%&i!alent circ&it of a generator s+o"n in fig. 1. T+e ne&tral of t+e generator is gro&nded t+ro&g+ a reactance Rn. D+en t+e generator is deli!ering a balanced load or &nder symmetrical fa&lt3 t+e ne&tral c&rrent is 8ero. B&t "+en t+e generator is deli!ering an &nbalanced load or d&ring &nsymmetrical fa&lts t+e ne&tral c&rrent flo"s t+ro&g+ Rn. T+e generator is designed to s&pply balanced t+ree p+ase !oltages. T+erefore t+e generated emfs are positi!e se%&ence only. 5i1. 1 T#ree p#!se e4-i3!le"t
circ-it o0 ! 1e"er!tor 1ro-"/e/ t#ro-1# ! re!ct!"ce.

Let $a3 $b3 $c @ Oenerated emf per p+ase in p+ase a3 b and c respecti!ely. R1 @ :ositi!e se%&ence impedance per p+ase of generator. R2 @ *egati!e se%&ence impedance per p+ase of generator. Rg0 @ Rero se%&ence impedance per p+ase of generator. Rn @ *e&tral reactance. R0 @ Total 8ero se%&ence impedance per p+ase of 8ero se%&ence net"or7 of generator. T+e positi!e se%&ence net"or7 consists of an emf in series "it+ positi!e se%&ence impedance of t+e generator. T+e negati!e and 8ero se%&ence net"or7 "ill not +a!e any so&rces b&t incl&de t+eir respecti!e se%&ence impedance. T+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence c&rrent pat+s are s+o"n in fig. 2. T+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence net"or7s of t+e generator are s+o"n in fig. 3.

10

Note . T+e positi!e and negati!e se%&ence c&rrents are balanced c&rrents and so t+ey "ill not pass t+ro&g+ ne&tral reactance. T+e reactances in positi!e se%&ence net"or7 is s&btransient3 transient or sync+rono&s depending on "+et+er s&btransient3 transient or steady state conditions are being st&died. 1nder no load condition t+e emf $a is t+e ind&ced emf per p+ase. 1nder load or fa&lt condition $a is replaced by $gS for transient state and $a is replaced by $g5 for s&btransient state.

5i1. 2 Se4-e"ce c-rre"t p!t#s i" ! 1e"er!tor

5i1. 3 Se4-e"ce "et*or=s o0 ! 1e"er!tor

Jn e9amining t+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent pat+s >refer fig. 2 T= t+e c&rrent t+ro&g+ ne&tral reactance is 3 <a0. T+e 8ero se%&ence !oltage drop from point-a to gro&nd is 3I a 0 ( n I a 0 ( $ 0 .

11

T+e 8ero se%&ence net"or7 is a single p+ase net"or7 and ass&med to carry only t+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent of one p+ase. Kence t+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent of one p+ase3 m&st +a!e an impedance 3R0 F Rg0.

Total 8ero se%&ence impedance per p+ase of a generator gro&nded t+ro&g+

reactance R0 @ 3 Rn F Rg0. Dit+ reference to fig. 33 t+e e%&ations for t+e p+ase-a component !oltages are3 Va1 = ) a I a1 ( 1 Va 2 = I a 2 ( 2 Va 0 = I a 0 ( 0 T+e 8ero se%&ence net"or7 of generator "+en t+e ne&tral is solidly gro&nded >i.e. directly gro&nded= and "+en t+e ne&tral is &ngro&nded are s+o"n in (ig. # and (ig. ' respecti!ely. <n t+ese cases t+ere is no c+ange in positi!e and negati!e se%&ence net"or7.

5i1. 8 . >ero se4-e"ce "et*or= o0 ! 1e"er!tor *#e" t#e "e-tr!l is soli/l+ 1ro-"/e/.

5i1. 5 . >ero se4-e"ce "et*or= o0 ! 1e"er!tor *#e" t#e "e-tr!l is -"1ro-"/e/.

Note : The sequence networks of synchronous motor is same as that of generator when the directions of currents in the sequence network of generator are reversed. Se4-e"ce impe/!"ces !"/ "et*or=s o0 tr!"smissio" li"es T+e impedance per p+ase of transmission line for balanced c&rrents is independent of p+ase se%&ence. T+is is d&e to t+e symmetry of transmission lines. T+erefore t+e impedances offered by t+e transposed transmission lines for positi!e and negati!e se%&ence c&rrents are identical. T+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent is identical >bot+ in magnit&de and p+ase= in eac+ p+ase cond&ctor and ret&rns t+ro&g+ t+e gro&nd3 t+ro&g+ o!er+ead "ires or t+ro&g+ bot+. T+e gro&nd "ires being gro&nded at se!eral to"ers3 t+e ret&rn c&rrents in t+e gro&nd "ire may not be &niform along t+e entire lengt+ of transmission line. B&t for positi!e3 negati!e se%&ence c&rrents t+ere is no ret&rn c&rrents and t+ey +a!e a p+ase difference of 120U. T+erefore t+e magnetic field d&e to 8ero se%&ence c&rrent is different from t+e magnetic field ca&sed by eit+er positi!e or negati!e se%&ence c&rrent. V&e to t+e difference in t+e magnetic field3 t+e 8ero se%&ence ind&cti!e reactance is 2 to 3.' times t+e positi!e se%&ence reactance. Let3 R1 @ :ositi!e se%&ence impedance of transmission line. R2 @ *egati!e se%&ence impedance of transmission line. R0 @ Rero se%&ence impedance of transmission line. 12

T+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence impedances of transmission lines are represented as a series impedance in t+eir respecti!e se%&ence net"or7s as s+o"n in fig. ).

5i1. & Positi3e? Ne1!ti3e !"/ @ero se4-e"ce "et*or=s o0 ! tr!"smissio" li"e. Se4-e"ce impe/!"ces !"/ "et*or=s o0 ! tr!"s0ormer D+en t+e applied !oltage is balanced3 t+e positi!e and negati!e se%&ences of linear3 symmetrical3 static de!ices are identical. T+erefore in a transformer t+e positi!e and negati!e se%&ence impedances are identical. $!en t+o&g+ t+e 8ero se%&ence impedance may slig+tly differ from positi!e and negati!e se%&ence impedance3 it is normal practice to ass&me t+e 8ero se%&ence impedance as e%&al to positi!e or negati!e se%&ence impedance. W(or all types of transformers t+e series impedances of all se%&ences are ass&med e%&alX. Note . W#e" t#e "e-tr!l o0 st!r co""ectio" is 1ro-"/e/ t#ro-1# re!ct!"ce >" t#e" 3>" s#o-l/ ,e !//e/ to @ero se4-e"ce impe/!"ce o0 tr!"s0ormer to 1et t#e tot!l @ero se4-e"ce impe/!"ce. Let3 R1 @ :ositi!e se%&ence impedance of transformer. R2 @ *egati!e se%&ence impedance of transformer. R0 @ Rero se%&ence impedance of transformer. T+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence impedances of transformer are represented as a series impedance in t+eir respecti!e se%&ence net"or7s as s+o"n in fig. ,

5i1. A Positi3e !"/ Ne1!ti3e se4-e"ce "et*or=s o0 tr!"s0ormer T+e 8ero se%&ence net"or7 of t+e transformer depends on t+e type of connections >Y or Z= of t+e primary and secondary "indings and also on t+e gro&nding of ne&tral in Y connection. T+e follo"ing general obser!ations can be made for 8ero se%&ence c&rrents in transformers. 1. D+en magneti8ing c&rrent is neglected3 t+e primary "inding "ill carry c&rrent only if t+ere is a c&rrent flo" in t+e secondary "inding. T+erefore t+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent can flo" in t+e primary "inding of

13

2. 3. #.

a transformer only if t+ere is a pat+ for 8ero se%&ence c&rrent in secondary "inding or !ice-!ersa. <f t+e ne&tral point in t+e Y connected "inding is not gro&nded t+en t+ere is no pat+ for 8ero se%&ence c&rrent in star connected "inding. T+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent flo"s in t+e star connected "inding and in t+e lines connected to t+e "inding only "+en t+e ne&tral point is gro&nded. T+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent can circ&late in t+e delta connected "inding b&t t+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent cannot flo" t+ro&g+ t+e lines connected to t+e delta connected "inding.

Based on t+e abo!e obser!ations t+e 8ero se%&ence net"or7 of 3 p+ase transformer can be obtained for any config&ration. T+e 8ero se%&ence net"or7 for nine possible config&ration are presented in table 1 s+o"n belo". T+e arro"s on t+e "indings3 indicate pat+ for 8ero se%&ence c&rrent and t+e absence of arro"s indicate t+at t+ere is no pat+ for 8ero se%&ence c&rrents.

T!,le 1 >ero se4-e"ce "et*or= o0 t#ree p#!se tr!"s0ormer

1#

Se4-e"ce impe/!"ces !"/ "et*or=s o0 lo!/s 1'

<n balanced Y or Z connected loads t+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence impedances are e%&al. D+en t+e ne&tral point of star connected load is gro&nded t+ro&g+ a reactance Rn t+en 3Rn is added to t+e 8ero se%&ence impedance of load to get t+e total 8ero se%&ence impedance of load. Let3 RL1 @ :ositi!e se%&ence impedance of load. RL2 @ *egati!e se%&ence impedance of load. RL0 @ Rero se%&ence impedance of load. T+e positi!e3 negati!e and 8ero se%&ence impedances of transmission lines are represented as a s+&nt impedance in t+eir respecti!e se%&ence net"or7s as s+o"n in fig. -.

5i1. B Positi3e !"/ Ne1!ti3e se4-e"ce "et*or= o0 lo!/ T+e 8ero se%&ence net"or7 of t+e 3 p+ase load depends on t+e type of connection3 i.e. Y or Z connection. T+e 8ero se%&ence c&rrent "ill flo" in net"or7 only if a ret&rn pat+ e9ists for it. T+e 8ero se%&ence net"or7 for !ario&s types of loads are s+o"n in table belo" ; T!,le 2 . >ero se4-e"ce "et*or=s o0 lo!/s

Si"1le li"e to 1ro-"/ 0!-lt o" !" -"lo!/e/ 1e"er!tor 1)

Re3ie* C-estio"s $2 m!r=s' 1. Ko" do s+ort circ&its occ&r on a po"er system [ 2. Visting&is+ bet"een symmetrical and &nsymmetrical s+ort circ&its. 3. D+at are t+e applications of s+ort-circ&it analysis[ #. Vefine s+ort circ&it capacity of a po"er system. '. D+at are t+e different types of fa&lt "+ic+ occ&r in a po"er system[ ). Vefine symmetrical fa&lt. ,. *ame any t"o met+ods of red&cing s+ort circ&it c&rrent. Re3ie* C-estio"s $1& m!r=s' 1. >a= $9plain t+e need for s+ort circ&it st&dies. >b= Vra" t+e oscillogram "+en an &nloaded alternator is s&b2ected to symmetrical s+ort circ&it and +ence e9plain +o" to obtain 9d3 9dS and 9d5 from it. 2. Dit+ t+e +elp of a detailed flo" c+art3 e9plain +o" a symmetrical fa&lt can be analy8ed &sing RB16. 3. D+at are t+e !ario&s types of fa&lts [ Visc&ss t+e fre%&ency of occ&rrence and se!erity. #. $9plain t+e difference bet"een direct a9is transient reactance and direct a9is s&b-transient reactance of alternators. '. $9plain t+e met+od of calc&lation of fa&lt c&rrents in t+e transmission system &sing T+e!eninSs t+eorem. ). Oenerator-transformer &nit is connected to a line t+ro&g+ a circ&it brea7er. T+e &nit ratings are ; Oenerator ; 10 MV 3 ).) 7V3 \d5 @ 0.1 p.&.3 \dS@ 0.20 p.&. and \d @ 0.-0 p.&. Transformer ; 10 MV 3 )..I33 7V3 reactance @ 0.0- p.&. T+e system is operating at no load at a line !oltage at 30 7V3 "+en a t+ree p+se fa&lt occ&rs on t+e line 2&st beyond t+e circ&it brea7er. (ind >a= t+e initial symmetrical rms c&rrent in t+e brea7er. >b= t+e ma9im&m possible VC off-set c&rrent in t+e brea7er >c= t+e momentary c&rrent rating of t+e brea7er >d= t+e c&rrent to be interr&pted by t+e brea7er and t+e interr&pting 7V and >e= t+e s&stained s+ort circ&it c&rrent in t+e brea7er. -. T+e system s+o"n in fig&re is deli!ering '0 MV at 11 7V3 0.- lagging po"er factor into a b&s "+ic+ may be regarded as infinite. :artic&lars of !ario&s system components are ; Oenerator ; )0 MV 3 12 7V3 \dS @ 0.3' p.&. Transformers >eac+= ; 10 MV 3 12I)) 7V3 reactance 0.0- p.&. Line ; Reactance ; 12 o+ms3 resistance negligible. Calc&late t+e symmetrical c&rrent t+at t+e circ&it brea7ers and B "ill be called &pon to interr&pt in t+e e!ent of a t+ree p+ase fa&lt occ&rring at ( near t+e circ&it brea7er B.

1,

.. <n t+e system config&ration of fig&re3 t+e system impedance data is gi!en belo" ; Transient reactance of eac+ generator @ 0.1' p.&. Lea7age reactance of eac+ transformer @ 0.0' p.&.3 R12 @ 20.13 R13 @ 20.123 R23 @ 20.0- p.&. (or a solid 3 p+ase fa&lt on b&s 33 find all b&s !oltages and 6 C c&rrents in eac+ component. ss&me prefa&lt !oltages to be 1 p.&. and prefa&lt c&rrents to be 8ero.

10. (or a fa&lt >solid= location s+o"n in fig&re3 find t+e s+ort circ&it c&rrents in line 1-2 and 1-3. :refa&lt system is on no-load "it+ 1 p.&. !oltage and prefa&lt c&rrents are 8ero. 1se RB16 met+od and comp&te its elements by t+e c&rrent in2ection tec+ni%&e.

1-

1.