BLOOD NOTES BLOOD: It is a mobile connective tissue composed of a fluid (plasma) and the cells. It is slightly alkaline (pH-7.4).

Blood : 1. CELLULAR PART(45%)a) Erythrocytes (RBCs): men and mammals have Non nucleated, biconcave and circular, camel RBCs are oval and non nucleated. ALL RBCs IN THEIR INITIAL STAGES ARE NUCLEATED BUT AFTER MATURATION BECOME NON NUCLEATED. Birds and amphibians, fishes, reptiles have oval and nucleated RBCs. RBCs- 65% water+ 35% solid (of which 33% is Hb) Number of RBCs/mm3 4-6 millions. b) Leucocytes (WBCs)- nucleated cells, two types-i) agranulocytes ( Monocytes and lymphocytes) ii) granulocytes ( eosinophil, neutrophil, basophil) 4000-10,000 WBCs are present per mm3 of blood. DNA profiling is done using these cell of blood, for karyotyping, Monocytes are used. c) Thrombocytes (platelets)- these are the cell fragments hence lack nucleus, play role in blood clotting. 2. PLASMA (55%)- 91.5% Water+ 8.5% solutes ( proteins like albumin, globulin, fibrinogen and solutes like electrolytes(Na+, K+, Ca+, etc), Nutrients(glucose ,fatty acids ,cholestrol, Regulatory Substance (hormones, GF, ) ,Gases(O2, CO2, N2), Wastes(urea, uric acid, ammonia, bilirubin) LANDSTEINER- blood grouping, ABO blood gp system. EPSTEIN and OTTENBERG- disputed paternity ( blood groups are passed to next generation). BERNSTEIN- elaborated the manner in which the inheritance of blood gp substances are controlled by single gene). WEINER and PETER- blood transfusion, incompatibility due to Rh factor. More than 400 blood group substances known as antigens are presently detectable in RBCs, also present on WBCs. Red cells antigen systems- ABO, Rh, MNS, Kell, Duffy, Kid, Lutheran, P, Lewis. White cell antigen system- Human leucocyte antigen(HLA) Serum constituent- Gm, Km, haptoglobin, Gc, Ag, Lp, Xm. Iso enzyme systems(polymorphism of red cell enzyme)- EAP, PGM, GPT,GLO,etc. ABO SYSTEM- 4 blood groups- A,B, AB, O Controlled by 3 allelic genes A,B and O, 4th gene H is responsible for expression of A and B genes. Incidence of ABO GROUP- O, A, B, AB Incidence of ABO GROUP in INDIA- O, B, A, AB

MNS SYSTEM- Involve antigen M & N. BLOOD GROUP GENOTYPE 1. M MM 2. N NN 3. MN MN Seed Extract of vicia graminea serves as anti N serum. Rh SYSTEM- 5 ANTIGENS( C, D, E, c,e) Levine gave the concept of haemolytic disease of new born( Rh+ father and Rh- mother). HUMAN LEUCOCYTE ANTIGEN SYSTEM- 1ST HLA was reported by Dasusset. Genes present on 4 loci on chromosome 6. Helpful in establishing paternity. In tissue graft, the better the HLA matches between donor and recipient, the better the chances of survival of graft. HAPTOGLOBIN SYSTEM- alpha-2 GLOBULIN, normally occurring constituent of serum protein, capable of binding Hb. PHOSPHOGLUCOMUTASE (PGM) SYSTEM- catalyses conversion of glucose-1phosphate to glucose-6-phosphate, Useful in paternity. Physical examination of blood Colored photographs of blood stain. Difference between ante mortem and post mortem blood: Blood which has effused during life can be peeled off in scales on drying due to presence of fibrin. Blood which has flowed after death tends to breakup into powder on drying. Difference between adult and foetal blood: Hb of foetal type is present upto 6 months and blood when shed forms a thin and soft coagulum. Adult blood forms thick and firm coagulum. Adult Hb is denatured by alkali while foetal Hb is not.

 Sex determination: In human females one of the X chromosome become condensed and called as Barr body, it can be stained with orcine reagent. In males, Y chromosome is fluorescent to quinacrine. Recent blood stains are red in color, within 24 hours Hb is converted to methaemoglobin and then haematin (reddish brown). Collection of blood samples: blood from outside the body cannot be collected in liquid state, drying of blood should be natural process. 20 ml femoral blood can be taken from the body for analysis, preservation by sodium fluoride-do not let decompose the blood. Preliminary tests for blood: Dried blood can be dissolved in normal saline (0.9% NaCl) or Viberts fluid (NaCl+HgCl+H2O). 1. Benzidine test or Adler testBenzidine reagent-10% benzidine solution in glacial acetic acid or ethanol. Blood+ Benzidine reagent+ H2O2 = GREENISH BLUE color (+ve) Reaction is catalyzed by hydrogen per oxidase activity of Hb. Sensitivity- test is +ve with dilution of one part of blood in 5,00,000 parts. 2. Phenolphthalein test or Kestle Meyer testReagent (reduced form , colorless)- phenolphthalein+ Zn dust+ KOH/NaOH Blood+ reagent+ H2O2 = PINK color(+ve) Pink color produced by oxidation of phenolphthalein by hydrogen per oxidase. Sensitivity- 1: 50,00,000 3. O-Toluidine testIt is a derivative of benzidine, give blue color with blood. 4. Leucomalachite green testIt is oxidized by H2O2, produce green color for blood. Reaction is catalyzed by Hb. 5. Luminol Test: Luminol and an oxidizer is applied to blood stain. Catalytic activity of Hb accelerates oxidation of luminol. It produces blue-green luminescence. Advantages: used as spray. give +ve result with old as well as fresh blood stain.

Confirmatory tests1.Takayama or Haemochromogen testTakayama reagent- 10%NaOH+ PYRIDINE (nitro compound)+ SATURATED SOLUTION OF GLUCOSE+ DISTILLED WATER. Blood film on glass slide+ reagent+ heat= pink/orange needle shaped crystals Heme has tendency to combined with nitrogen containing substances to form colored products called hemochromogen. 2. Teichmanns or Haemin crystal testReagent- KBr/ KCl+ gl. Acetic acid Blood film+ reagent+heat= BROWN RHOMBOID crystals Haemoglobin in presence of halide is converted to heamin. 3. Thin layer chromatography- solvent system: methanol+acetic acid+water 4. Electrophoresis- main bulk of Hb remain at origin, tail move towards anode. 5. Spectroscopy- microspectroscope is used. Fresh blood contain- oxyhaemoglobin Old blood- methhaemoglobin, by the action of a reducing agent can be converted to oxy Hb. Specie origin form blood- to determine whether the blood is human or not. Anti sera are produced from rabbits by injecting the human antigens. A) Immunological Method- PRECIPITIN TEST OR RING TEST: Antigens present on cell membranes are known as precipitinogen or agglutinogens (hence Ag is used). Antibodies(anti serum) are also called as precipitin, very specific to Ag. Precipitin test can be performed in 4 ways1.In test tube-Simple diffusion between two liquids (human antiserum + human antigen) in contact with one another in a test tube. Appearance of fine line of precipitate at the interface of two liquids shows +ve test.

2. gel diffusion-

3. Cross Over Electrophoresis (COE) Rows of opposing wells are cut in an agarose gel plate so that well pairs can be arranged with one well toward a cathode source and other nearer the anode. Stain extract (Ag) is placed in cathodic well so that it can migrate towards the anode. Ab is placed in anodic well to migrate towards cathode. 4. Rocket electrophoresisquantitative method

B) Enzyme Methods- lactate dehydrogenase(LDH), per oxidase isoenzymes, malate dehydrogenase (MDH) are also specie specific. BLOOD GROUPING- ABSORPTION ELUTION METHOD given by Siracusa Blood sample(unknown blood group) is taken and known Ab are allowed to react with blood antigen. If the known antibodies are for that unknown Ag,these will form complexes ( for example if blood gp is B and known antibodies are anti B, ANTIGEN ANTIBODY COMPLEX WILL BE FORMED). Washing is done to remove excess antibodies that have not formed the complex with antigen. After washing elution (removal) of complex formed antibodies is done at 56 degree Celsius for 10 min. this step results in separation of antigen and antibodies. Then some indicator cells (known Ag, here cells with Ag B) are allowed to react with eluted antibodies, IF there is formation of clumping shows the +ve result for blood group (no clumping means initially there was no complex formed between Ag and known Ab, for example if blood gp is A AND antiserum is of B type, all anti bodies will be washed away during washing with saline). Transferrins are iron-binding blood plasma glycoproteins that control the level of free iron in biological fluids. Human transferrin is encoded by the TF gene. Transferrin glycoproteins bind iron very tightly, but reversibly. Although iron bound to transferrin is less than 0.1% (4 mg) of the total body iron, it is the most important iron pool, with the highest rate of turnover (25 mg/24 h). Transferrin has a molecular weight of around 80 KDa and contains two specific high-affinity Fe(III) binding sites. The affinity of transferrin for Fe(III) is extremely high (1023 M1 at pH 7.4) but decreases progressively with decreasing pH below neutrality. When not bound to iron, it is known as "apotransferrin". Lysates of erythrocytes, leukocytes, lymphocytes, and extracts of sperms were investigated for the PGM1 isozymes by three techniques: starch gel electrophoresis, high voltage thinlayer agarose gel electrophoresis, and thinlayer isoelectric focusing on polyacrylamide gel. On starch, only the well known common phenotypes 1, 2-1, and 2 were demonstrable. On agarose, different distances of the two main cathodal bands (a, b) among the phenotypes 2-1 were noted. In burn cases visual examination of dead body ante mortem burn shows "Line of redness" and "Vesicles" which contains albuminous fluid and chlorides, while vesicles in postmortem burns contain air only. Due to presence of carboxyhaemoglobin in blood of ante mortem burn cases, blood is found thick (due to haemoconcentration) and cherry red (due to carboxyhaemoglobin). A blood level more than 10% carbon monoxide in a nonsmoker may be considered as evidence of smoke inhalation and consequently that the victim was alive after the fire started. The Kell antigen system (also known as Kell-Cellano system) is a group of antigens on the human red blood cell surface which are important determinants of blood type and are targets for autoimmune or alloimmune diseases which destroy red blood cells. Kell can be noted as K, k, or Kp. The Kell antigens are peptides found within the Kell protein, a 93 kilodalton transmembrane zinc-dependent endopeptidase which is responsible for cleaving endothelin-3. The analysis of VNTR alleles in forensic DNA profile analysis is based on Southern hybridization. It is used in analyzing VNTR alleles in a forensics application. Introduction to Blood Group Serology by Barbara E Dodd and Kathleen E Boorman. 1628: British physician William Harvey discovers the circulation of blood. The first known blood transfusion is attempted soon afterward. 1658: Microscopist Jan Swammerdam observes and describes red blood cells.

1818: British obstetrician James Blundell performs the first successful transfusion of human blood to a patient for the treatment of postpartum hemorrhage. 1901: Karl Landsteiner, an Austrian physician, discovers the first three human blood groups. 1907: Reuben Ottenberg performs the first blood transfusion using blood typing and crossmatching. 1939-1940: The Rh blood group system is discovered by Karl Landsteiner, Alexander Wiener, Philip Levine and R.E. Stetson. 1921: Reuben Ottenberg from New York was the first to suggest the application of the ABO grouping system to medico-legal questions, but it was not before the 1950s that legal courts accepted this method. ABO grouping is based on Red cell surface antigen. Absorption-elution method Siracusa for ABO and MN grouping of blood-stains. A radioimmunoassay (RIA) technique was developed for the purpose of determining the sex of an individual by measuring the steroids testosterone (T), progesterone (P), and estradiol-17 beta (E2) in dried bloodstains. The steroid values from a single bloodstain are reported as ratios T/P, T/E2, and P/E2. Haptoglobin (abbreviated as Hp) is the protein that in humans is encoded by the HP gene. In blood plasma, haptoglobin binds free hemoglobin (Hb) released from erythrocytes with high affinity and thereby inhibits its oxidative activity. The haptoglobin-hemoglobin complex will then be removed by the reticuloendothelial system (mostly the spleen). Serum Gc protein (known as vitamin D3-binding protein). It is known that the typing of group-specific component (Gc protein) in human blood stains is difficult since Gc protein of the extracts of blood stains migrates more anodally to the alpha 1-globulin region in agar-gel immunoelectrophoresis, while Gc protein in liquid blood normally migrates to the alpha 2globulin region. The human leukocyte antigen (HLA) test, also known as HLA typing or tissue typing, identifies antigens on the white blood cells (WBCs) that determine tissue compatibility for organ transplantation (that is, histocompatibility testing). There are six loci on chromosome 6, where the genes that produce HLA antigens are inherited: HLA-A, HLA-B, HLA-C, HLADR, HLA-DQ, and HLA-DP. Genomic DNA Isolation from Sperm. About 15 mg of DNA can be isolated from 1 ml of sperm. Esterase D (ESD) is an erythrocyte enzyme. The Blood Group Antigen Gene Mutation Database (BGMUT) was set up under the aegis of the Human Genome Variation Society (HGVS) in 1999. It documents variations in genes that encode antigens for human blood groups. It thus is a locus-specific mutation database (LSDB) that covers multiple genes. The database was compiled and has been curated by Olga O. Blumenfeld, PhD, Department of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, New York, NY, and Santosh K. Patnaik, MD, PhD, Department of Thoracic Surgery, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo NY. In 2006, this website moved to the NCBI to become part of dbRBC where it has been under the direction and additional curatorship of Wolfgang Helmberg, MD, Department of Serology and Transfusion Medicine, Medical University of Graz, Austria. Many who are experts in the study of blood group systems have contributed to the development of this database by providing, among other things, information on the systems and the alleles. In genetics, a locus (plural loci) is the specific location of a gene or DNA sequence on a chromosome. Allele: Genes which exists as alternate expressions at a particular locus. A variant of the similar DNA sequence at a given locus is called an allele. The ordered list of loci known for a particular genome is called a genetic map. Gene mapping is the process of determining the locus for a particular biological trait.

Diploid and polyploid cells whose chromosomes have the same allele of a given gene at some locus are called homozygous with respect to that gene, while those that have different alleles of a given gene at a locus, are called heterozygous with respect to that gene. Phenoytpe: A phenotype (from Greek phainein, 'to show' + typos, 'type') is the composite of an organism's observable characteristics or traits, such as its morphology, development, biochemical or physiological properties, phenology, behavior, and products of behavior (such as a bird's nest). Phenotypes result from the expression of an organism's genes as well as the influence of environmental factors and the interactions between the two. Genotype: The genotype of an organism is the inherited instructions it carries within its genetic code. Not all organisms with the same genotype look or act the same way because appearance and behavior are modified by environmental and developmental conditions. Likewise, not all organisms that look alike necessarily have the same genotype. The genotype-phenotype distinction was proposed by Wilhelm Johannsen in 1911 to make clear the difference between an organism's heredity and what that heredity produces. The distinction is similar to that proposed by August Weismann, who distinguished between germ plasm (heredity) and somatic cells (the body). Blood Alcohol Concentration (BAC) refers to the amount of alcohol contained in a person's blood. It is measured as weight per unit of volume. Typically this measurement is converted to a percentage such as 0.10%, which indicates that one-tenth of a percent of a person's blood is alcohol. One method of measuring the blood alcohol content (BAC) of a human is the Kozelka and Hine procedure In this method, protein, aldehydes and ketones are first removed from a blood sample and the purified sample is then reacted with an acidified dichromate solution. India and BAC: Any person under the influence of alcohol or drugs, driving or attempting to drive a motor vehicle found to have an alcohol level exceeding 30 mg per 100 ml of blood detected by a breath analyzer, shall be: Punished for the first offence with imprisonment for a term which may extend upto 6 months or a fine upto Rs.2,000/- or both, and For a subsequent offence committed within 3 yeas of the previous offence, with imprisonment which may extend to 2 years or fine upto Rs.3,000/- or both. Evaluation of latex agglutination tests for fibrin-fibrinogen degradation products in the forensic identification of menstrual blood. The aim of this study was to evaluate two fibrinfibrinogen degradation product (FDP)-latex agglutination test kits, FDPL Test (FDP-L) and FDP Plasma "RD" (FDP-P), for their ability to forensically identify menstrual blood. Sensitivity and specificity of the two kits were compared for menstrual blood and various body fluids, and the sensitivity of the FDP-latex agglutination test kit was also compared with that of an immunochromatographic test for human hemoglobin. The robustness of the FDPlatex agglutination test was compared with that of gene expression analysis of menstrual blood specific markers. The FDP-L kit was more sensitive than the FDP-P kit, but it crossreacted with peripheral bloodstains from healthy volunteers. The FDP-P kit was specific for menstrual blood, with the exception of postmortem blood samples, and was not affected by other body fluids. In an FDP-negative menstrual blood sample, the sensitivity of human hemoglobin detection was lower than for FDP-positive samples and peripheral blood stains, suggesting that determination of human hemoglobin could be useful in interpreting negative results in the FDP-latex agglutination test. In menstrual blood samples incubated in wet conditions, FDP was found to be a robust marker in the identification of menstrual blood compared with mRNA markers. FDP-P testing was shown to be a suitable and highly efficient rapid screening test for the laboratory identification of menstrual blood. Carbon monoxide (CO) poisoning remains a common cause of both suicidal and accidental deaths in the United States. As a consequence, determination of the percent carboxyhemoglobin (%COHb) level in postmortem blood is a common analysis performed in

toxicology laboratories. The blood specimens analyzed are generally preserved with either EDTA or sodium fluoride. Potentially problematic scenarios that may arise in conjunction with CO analysis are a first analysis or a reanalysis requested months or years after the initial toxicology testing is completed; both raise the issue of the stability of carboxyhemoglobin in stored postmortem blood specimens. A study was conducted at the Bexar County Medical Examiner's Office to evaluate the stability of CO in blood samples collected in red-, gray-, and purple-top tubes by comparing results obtained at the time of the autopsy and after two years of storage at 3 degrees C using either an IL 282 or 682 CO-Oximeter. The results from this study suggest that carboxyhemoglobin is stable in blood specimens collected in vacutainer tubes, with or without preservative, and stored refrigerated for up to two years. Platelets, or thrombocytes are small, disk shaped clear cell fragments (i.e. cells that do not have a nucleus), 23 m in diameter, which are derived from fragmentation of precursor megakaryocytes. The average lifespan of a platelet is normally just 5 to 9 days. Platelets are a natural source of growth factors. They circulate in the blood of mammals and are involved in hemostasis, leading to the formation of blood clots. Red blood cells are a standard size of about 6-8 m while WBCs are 11-12 m. Carboxyhemoglobin: Hemoglobin, the oxygen-carrying substance in blood, has a much greater affinity for carbon monoxide than it has for oxygen, and together they form a stable compound, carboxyhemoglobin, that decreases the amount of uncombined hemoglobin available for oxygen transport. Carboxyhemoglobin has a characteristic cherry-red colour. Cyanomethemoglobin: a bright red crystalline compound formed by the action of hydrogen cyanide on methemoglobin in the cold or on oxyhemoglobin at body temperature Oxyhaemoglobin: the bright red product formed when oxygen from the lungs combines with haemoglobin in the blood. The Rh system is the second most significant blood-group system in human-blood transfusion with currently 50 antigens. The most significant Rh antigen is the D antigen, because it is the most likely to provoke an immune system response of the five main Rh antigens. It is common for D-negative individuals not to have any anti-D IgG or IgM antibodies, because anti-D antibodies are not usually produced by sensitization against environmental substances. However, D-negative individuals can produce IgG anti-D antibodies following a sensitizing event: possibly a fetomaternal transfusion of blood from a fetus in pregnancy or occasionally a blood transfusion with D positive RBCs. Rh disease can develop in these cases. Rh negative blood types are much less in proportion of Asian populations (0.3%) than they are in White (15%). Benzidine Test requires 10% solution of benzidine in glacial acetic acid and hydrogen peroxide. Greenish blue color confirms presence of blood. The Kastle-Meyer test is a presumptive blood test, first described in 1903, in which the chemical indicator phenolphthalein is used to detect the possible presence of hemoglobin. Phenolphthalein is reduced by zinc dust in a strongly alkalie medium. It then relies on the peroxidase-like activity of hemoglobin in blood which liberates nascent oxygen to catalyze reduced form of phenolphthalein which is visible as a bright pink color. The Kastle-Meyer test is a form of catalytic blood test, one of the two main classes of forensic tests commonly employed by crime labs in the chemical identification of blood. Leucomalachite Green Test Toluidine Blue Test Detection of Species Origin: 1. Precipitin Test (Test tube, gel diffusion, COE: cross over electrophoresis) 2. Haemagglutination-inhibition Test 3. Latex Test

Determination of the sex of the individual has great medicolegal importance to solve many criminal and civil problems. But, identifying the sex of hermaphrodites, pseudohermaphrodites, concealed sex and body in advanced state of putrefaction or mutilation, might be difficult. Where, determination of the genetic or nuclear sex by identifying Davidson body in neutrophils would solve issues. Thus, a study aimed to identify the sex of individual by screening neutrophils for the percentage of Davidson bodies and to check interobserver variability. Although blood is an excellent source of DNA, the DNA does not come from the red blood cells, as these cells have no nuclei. Rather, the DNA comes chiefly from white blood cells in the blood.

TECHNIQUE NOTES Units of time are seconds (s). Angles are reported in degrees (o) and in radians (rad). There are 2 radians in 360o. The absolute temperature scale in Kelvin (K) is used in NMR. The Kelvin temperature scale is equal to the Celsius scale reading plus 273.15. 0 K is characterized by the absence of molecular motion. There are no degrees in the Kelvin temperature unit. Magnetic field strength (B) is measured in Tesla (T). The unit of energy (E) is the Joule (J). In NMR one often depicts the relative energy of a particle using an energy level diagram. The frequency of electromagnetic radiation may be reported in cycles per second or radians per second. Frequency in cycles per second (Hz) have units of inverse seconds (s-1) and are given the symbols or f. Frequencies represented in radians per second (rad/s) are given the symbol . Radians tend to be used more to describe periodic circular motions. The conversion between Hz and rad/s is easy to remember. There are 2 radians in a circle or cycle, therefore 2 rad/s = 1 Hz = 1 s-1. Power is the energy consumed per time and has units of Watts (W). Abbe Condenser: A lens that is specially designed to mount under the stage and which typically, moves in a vertical direction. Iris diaphragm : It controls the amount of light that passes through the stage and, consequently, through the specimen. Reducing the iris diaphragm aperture increases contrast for an image focused under high power by reducing the amount of light that both fills the objective lens and detracts around specimen edges. Opening the iris diaphragm under high magnification increases "flare", the appearance of light "washing out" an object. By decreasing the flow of light through the specimen, the iris diaphragm limits light defraction and saturation. The French savant, Alphonse Bertillon, coined the phrase "physical anthropometry" in 1883, to include an identification system based on unchanging measurements of the human frame. The primary method for detecting kerosene in biological materials such as blood is gas chromatography (GC). GC may be combined with mass spectroscopy (MS) for peak identification with the gas chromatograph in the electron impact mode (Kimura et al. 1988, 1991). Quantification methods include the use of mass fragmentography (Kimura et al. 1988). Hydrocarbon components of kerosene are determined based on analysis of headspace gas above the sample (Kimura et al. 1991). This method is useful for distinguishing between kerosene intoxication and gasoline intoxication as kerosene gives a high toluene peak and has a pseudocum ene-to-toluene ratio only half that of gasoline. Capillary columns are used, with either Porapak, Chromosorb, or Chemipak, giving acceptable results (Kimura et al. 1988). Two types of microscopy that can be used to analyze a fiber are stereomicroscopy and polarized light microscopy (PLM). Galvanic skin resistance (GSR) - This is also called electro-dermal activity, and is basically a measure of the sweat on your fingertips. The finger tips are one of the most porous areas on the body and so are a good place to look for sweat. The idea is that we sweat more when we are placed under stress. Fingerplates, called galvanometers, are attached to two of the subject's fingers. These plates measure the skin's ability to conduct electricity. When the skin is hydrated (as with sweat), it conducts electricity much more easily than when it is dry.

Numerical Aperture (also termed Object-Side Aperture) is a value (often symbolized by the abbreviation NA) originally defined by Abbe for microscope objectives and condensers. It is given by the simple expression: Numerical Aperture (NA) = n sin() or n sin() Note: Many authors use the variable to designate the one-half angular aperture while others employ the more common term , and in some instances, . In the numerical aperture equation, n represents the refractive index of the medium between the objective front lens and the specimen, and or is the one-half angular aperture of the objective. EM: Materials to be viewed in an electron microscope generally require processing to produce a suitable sample. This is mainly because the whole of the inside of an electron microscope is under high vacuum in order to enable the electron beam to travel in straight lines. The presence of air impedes movement of electrons. A bolometer detector system was developed for the high accuracy infrared spectrophotometer at the National Institute of Standards and Technology to provide maximum sensitivity, spatial uniformity, and linearity of response covering the entire infrared spectral range. A fluorescence microscope uses a mercury or xenon lamp to produce ultraviolet light. The light comes into the microscope and hits a dichroic mirror -- a mirror that reflects one range of wavelengths and allows another range to pass through. The dichroic mirror reflects the ultraviolet light up to the specimen. The ultraviolet light excites fluorescence within molecules in the specimen. The objective lens collects the fluorescent-wavelength light produced. This fluorescent light passes through the dichroic mirror and a barrier filter (that eliminates wavelengths other than fluorescent), making it to the eyepiece to form the image. EMR Spectrum: Visible (3900-77) and UV (100-3900) A Y-STR is a short tandem repeat (STR) on the Y-chromosome. Y-STRs are often used in forensics, paternity, and genealogical DNA testing. Y-STRs are taken specifically from the male Y chromosome. These Y-STRs provide a weaker analysis than autosomal STRs because the Y chromosome is only found in males, which are only passed down by the father, making the Y chromosome in any paternal line practically identical. This causes a significantly smaller amount of distinction between Y-STR samples. Autosomal STRs provide a much stronger analytical power because of the random matching that occurs between pairs of chromosomes during the zygote making process. The flame ionization detector passes sample and carrier gas from the column through a hydrogen-air flame. For GLC, the mobile phase (or "moving phase") is a carrier gas, usually an inert gas such as helium or an unreactive gas such as nitrogen. The choice of carrier gas (mobile phase) is important. Hydrogen has a range of flow rates that are comparable to helium in efficiency. However, helium may be more efficient and provide the best separation if flow rates are optimized. Helium is non-flammable and works with a greater number of detectors and older instruments. Therefore, helium is the most common carrier gas used. However, the price of helium has gone up considerably over recent years, causing an increasing number of chromatographers to switch to hydrogen gas. Historical use, rather than rational consideration, may contribute to the continued preferential use of helium.

Dr. Edmond Locard was a pioneer in forensic science who became known as the Sherlock Holmes of France. He formulated the basic principle of forensic science: "Every contact leaves a trace". This became known as Locard's exchange principle. Locard studied medicine and law at Lyon, eventually becoming the assistant of Alexandre Lacassagne, a criminologist and professor. He held this post until 1910, when he began the foundation of his criminal laboratory. He produced a monumental, seven-volume work, Trait de Criminalistique. He continued with his research until his death in 1966. In 1910 Locard succeeded in persuading the Police Department of Lyon (France) to give him two attic rooms and two assistants, to start what became the first police laboratory. An excitation filter is a high quality optical-glass filter commonly used in fluorescence microscopy and spectroscopic applications for selection of the excitation wavelength of light from a light source. Typical components of a fluorescence microscope are a light source (xenon arc lamp or mercury-vapor lamp), the excitation filter, the dichroic mirror (or dichroic beamsplitter), and the emission filter (see figure below). The filters and the dichroic are chosen to match the spectral excitation and emission characteristics of the fluorophore used to label the specimen. In this manner, the distribution of a single fluorophore (color) is imaged at a time. Multi-color images of several types of fluorophores must be composed by combining several single-color images. Most fluorescence microscopes in use are epifluorescence microscopes, where excitation of the fluorophore and detection of the fluorescence are done through the same light path (i.e. through the objective). These microscopes are widely used in biology and are the basis for more advanced microscope designs, such as the confocal microscope and the total internal reflection fluorescence microscope (TIRF). Determination of gold-beryllium alloy by inductively coupled plasma-atomic emission spectrometry. Identification of paint samples requires examination of their polymer binders by pyrolysis gas chromatographymass spectrometry method. (Py-GCMS). Paints are often the subject of forensic examination owing to their wide applications and usages from protection, decoration, or addition of functionality to an object or surface. Paints consist of three principal components, namely binder, pigment and solvent. The first two are the permanent constituents, with the binder providing the adhesion and cohesion, keeping the pigment within the coating and ensuring that the paint remains attached to the substrate. Solvents are present to aid manufacture and application, but are lost during application and the subsequent period of curing. Linseed, Safflower and Cottonseed are used for paint oils. A density gradient technique for use in forensic soil analysis was given in by NYPD. It has been used successfully by the authors in forensic soil analysis. It has a density range that allows for the separation of a soil specimen's heavy mineral components. It has no odor or toxic fumes, which eliminates the need to use a hood during preparation, and is far superior to the organic liquids normally used to prepare density gradients. This liquid should cause many forensic scientists to reexamine their attitudes towards using density gradients in forensic soil casework. Polarized light microscopy can mean any of a number of optical microscopy techniques involving polarized light. Simple techniques include illumination of the sample with

polarized light. Directly transmitted light can, optionally, be blocked with a polariser orientated at 90 degrees to the illumination. More complex microscopy techniques which take advantage of polarized light include differential interference contrast microscopy and interference reflection microscopy. There are two polarizing filters in a polarizing microscope - termed the polarizer and analyzer. The polarizer is positioned beneath the specimen stage usually with its vibration azimuth fixed in the left-to-right, or East-West direction, although most of these elements can be rotated through 360 degrees. The analyzer, usually aligned with a vibration direction oriented North-South, but again rotatable on some microscopes, is placed above the objectives and can be moved in and out of the light path as required. When both the analyzer and polarizer are inserted into the optical path, their vibration azimuths are positioned at right angles to each other. In this configuration, the polarizer and analyzer are said to be crossed, with no light passing through the system and a dark viewfield present in the eyepieces. The use of laser desorption/ionization mass spectrometry in the analysis of inks in questioned documents. Determination of the age of a handwritten or ink printed questioned document can be an important consideration in forensic cases. Most often the age of a document is determined by the chemical behavior of the dyes that make up the ink. Exposure of the dyes to environmental factors such as oxygen and ultraviolet or visible light cause them to degrade. Often this degradation can be correlated to the time since the exposure of the ink to the elements began. A number of methods have been used to track the aging of inks on paper. This paper reports the use of laser desorption mass spectrometry as a valuable tool in not only elucidating the structures of dyes used in inks but tracking the change in their chemistry as they age. This study also explores methods for artificially aging documents using ultraviolet and visible light. The photomultiplier tube is a commonly used detector in UV-Vis spectroscopy. It consists of a photoemissive cathode (a cathode which emits electrons when struck by photons of radiation), several dynodes (which emit several electrons for each electron striking them) and an anode. A photon of radiation entering the tube strikes the cathode, causing the emission of several electrons. These electrons are accelerated towards the first dynode (which is 90V more positive than the cathode). The electrons strike the first dynode, causing the emission of several electrons for each incident electron. These electrons are then accelerated towards the second dynode, to produce more electrons which are accelerated towards dynode three and so on. Eventually, the electrons are collected at the anode. By this time, each original photon has produced 106 - 107 electrons. The resulting current is amplified and measured. Photomultipliers are very sensitive to UV and visible radiation. They have fast response times. Intense light damages photomultipliers; they are limited to measuring low power radiation. A petrographic microscope is a type of optical microscope used in petrology and optical mineralogy to identify rocks and minerals in thin sections. The microscope is used in optical mineralogy and petrography, a branch of petrology which focuses on detailed descriptions of rocks. The method is called "polarized light microscopy" (PLM). After Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X rays in 1895, William Henry Braggpioneered the determination of crystal structure by X-RAY diffraction methods, began a lifelong investigation of the nature of radiation, principally X rays but also alpha and beta particles

and gamma rays. After the discovery of the diffraction of X rays by crystals in 1912, Bragg and his son, William L., derived Bragg's law, which relates the wavelength of X rays to the glancing angle of reflection. In 1913 the elder Bragg built the first X-ray spectrometer, which he initially used to study X-ray spectral distributions. Within several years they were able to use this instrument and Bragg's law to derive the structure of crystals and show the exact positions of atoms. Subsequently, they demonstrated that the properties and behavior of a large variety of substances can be related to the position of their constituent atoms. In 1971 Hara et al. first described a protein in the seminal fluid, named gammaseminoprotein. In 1978, Sensabaugh et al. characterized the protein in detail, found that its molecular weight corresponds to 30,000 Dalton and named it p30. In 1980 first immunometric assays were developed and Graves and Sensabaugh demonstrated that p30 is a reliable forensic marker for the identification of semen. The range of p30 is 200,000 to 5.5 million nanogram per ml of semen. Various methods of detection of p30 include Ouchterlony double diffusion, crossover electrophoresis, rocket immunoelectrophoresis, radial immunodiffusion, and ELISA. Vacuum metal deposition (VMD) is an established technique for the development of latent fingerprints on non-porous surfaces. VMD has advantages over cyanoacrylate fuming, especially in circumstances where prints are old, have been exposed to adverse environmental conditions, or are present on semi-porous surfaces. Under normal circumstances, VMD produces 'negative' prints as zinc deposits onto the background substrate and not the print ridges themselves. A phenomenon of 'reverse' development, when zinc deposits onto the print ridges and not the background, has been reported by many authors but its causes have not been conclusively identified.

BALLISTICS NOTES Page 57, 58 THE ARMS ACT, 1959 ACT NO. 54 OF 1959 [23rd December, 1959.] An Act to consolidate and amend the law relating to arms and ammunition. The matchlock was really the first major advance in pistols as it enabled the weapon to be fired in one hand and also gave some opportunity to aim it as well. The construction of the matchlock was exactly the same as the hand cannon in that it was muzzle loaded and had a touch hole covered with a priming charge. The only difference was that the match, a slowburning piece of cord used to ignite the priming charge, was held in a curved hook screwed to the side of the frame. The standard bore size for a 12 gauge is .729 thousandths (18.53 mm) and with a full choke tube size of .690 you will have .039 thousandths of choke. Shotgun ammunition is once again a confusing subject with the smaller calibres being referred to by the approximate bore diameter, that is, 0.22 , 9 mm, 0.410 . Once past 0.410 , the calibre changes to a bore (or if using the American nomenclature gauge ) size where the bore is the number of lead balls of the same diameter as the inside of the barrel which weighs 1 lb. Thus, a 12 - bore shotgun has a barrel diameter of 0.729 and 12 round lead balls of 0.729 diameter weigh exactly 1 lb. The larger the ballistic coefficient, the more efficient the bullets performance in air. It can be described as the ratio its sectional density to its coefficient of form, where sectional density is the weight of the bullet divided by the square of its diameter. It can be written as: (1) C = SD/i = w/id2 or W/d2n Where C = ballistic coefficient SD = sectional density i = form factor w = weight of bullet, lbs. d = diameter of the bullet, in. The development of firearm lock mechanisms had proceeded from matchlock to wheellock to snaplock to snaphance and miquelet in the previous two centuries, and each type had been an improvement, contributing some design features which were useful. Le Bourgeoys fitted these various features together to create the flintlock mechanism. French courtier Marin le Bourgeoys made the first firearm incorporating a true flintlock mechanism for King Louis XIII shortly after his accession to the throne in 1610. Flintlock weapons were commonly used until the mid 19th century, when they were replaced by percussion lock systems. HMX is also known as cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, tetrahexamine tetranitramine, or octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine, HMX was first made in 1930. HMX is more complicated to manufacture than most explosives and this confines it to specialist applications. It may be produced by nitration of hexamine in the presence of acetic anhydride, paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate. RDX produced using the Bachmann Process usually contains 810% HMX. Materials used as a primer in cartridge (Hg fulminate, Lead azide, Lead styphnate)

An expanding bullet is a bullet designed to expand on impact, increasing in diameter to limit penetration and/or produce a larger diameter wound. It is informally known as a Dum-dum or a dumdum bullet. The two typical designs are the hollow-point bullet and the soft-point bullet. Expanding bullets were given the name Dum-dum, or dumdum, after an early British example produced in the Dum Dum Arsenal, near Calcutta, India by Captain Neville BertieClay. There were several expanding bullets produced by this arsenal for the .303 British cartridge, including soft point and hollow point designs. These were not the first expanding bullets, however; hollow point expanding bullets were commonly used for hunting thin skinned game in express rifles as early as the mid-1870s. The use of the term "Dum-dum", applied to expanding bullets other than the early .303 designs, is considered slang by some. Manufacturers have many terms to describe the particular construction of the various types of expanding bullets, though most fall into the category of soft point or hollow point designs. Another early name was General Tweedie's "mushroom bullet", cited in the New York Times in 1892. Magazine capacity for a AK-47 rifle is 30 rounds. The FN Browning Trombone is a pump-action long takedown rifle designed by John M. Browning in 1919, patented on 1 August 1922 and manufactured by Fabrique Nationale d'Herstal Belgium from 1922 to 1974. Models manufactured post 1969 had a product code W. The rifle has a .22 calibre chamber, a tubular 11-round magazine, 24-inch round barrel, wooden semi-pistol grip stock. Models made in the late 1960s featured a dovetail notch for mounting scopes. Some firearms have no ejectors, only extractors, requiring the user to manually remove spent cartridges. In this situation, the extractor pulls the case out of the chamber far enough to give the user a good grip on the cartridge, but not far enough to remove the entire cartridge from the chamber. This situation is encountered on some single shot rifles, single shot pistols such as the Thompson Contender with its break-action design, and on some break-action single and double barrel shotguns. A contact shot is defined as a gunshot wound incurred while the muzzle of the firearm is in direct contact with the body at the moment of discharge. Contact shots are often the result of close range gunfight, suicide or execution. Some slaughterhouses use contact shots with firearms to stun or kill livestock during slaughter. Amatol is a highly explosive material made from a mixture of TNT and ammonium nitrate. The British name originates from the words ammonium and toluene (a raw material of TNT). Similar mixtures were known as Schneiderite in France. Amatol was used extensively during World War I and World War II, typically as an explosive in military weapons such as aircraft bombs, shells, depth charges, and naval mines. It was eventually replaced with alternative explosives such as Composition B, torpex, and tritonal. Pentaerythritol tetranitrate (PETN), also known as PENT, PENTA, TEN, corpent, penthrite (orrarely and primarily in Germanas nitropenta), is the nitrate ester of pentaerythritol. Penta refers to the five carbon atoms of the neopentane skeleton. PETN is most well known as an explosive. It is one of the most powerful high explosives known, with a relative effectiveness factor of 1.66. PETN mixed with a plasticizer forms a plastic explosive. As a mixture with RDX and other minor additives, it forms another plastic explosive called Semtex as well. The compound was discovered in the bombs used by the 2001 Shoe Bomber,

in the 2009 Christmas Day bomb plot, and in the 2010 cargo plane bomb plot. On 7 September 2011, a bomb suspected to have used PETN exploded near the High Court of Delhi in India claiming 13 lives and injuring more than 70. It is also used as a vasodilator drug to treat certain heart conditions, such as for management of angina. An air gun (or airgun) is any one of a variety of guns that propel projectiles by means of compressed air or other gas, in contrast to firearms which use a burning propellant. Both the rifle and pistol forms (air rifle and air pistol) normally fire metallic projectiles, either pellets or spherical balls based on the BB size of birdshot - although a few fire darts. The most popular ammunition used in rifled air guns is the lead diabolo pellet. This waisted projectile is hollowed at the base and available in a variety of head styles. The diabolo pellet is designed to be drag stabilized, though is not as stable as some other shapes in the transonic region (272408 m/s ~ 8931340 ft/s). Pellets are also manufactured from tin, or a combination of materials such as steel-tipped plastic. Most air guns are .177 (4.5 mm) or .22 (5.5 mm / 5.6 mm), and are designed for target practice, small game hunting and field target shooting. Cost per round is less than $0.02 (US) for Olympic-quality ammunition, and far less for cheaper grades. Though less common, .20 and .25 caliber (5.0 mm and 6.4 mm) guns also exist and are used predominantly for hunting. Beveling of the skull in bullet injury: The principle which guides the occurrence of beveling is that the bullet produces beveling in the second layer (or exit point). In entry wound the beveling is present in inner table of skull. In exit wound the beveling is present in the outer table of skull. Methaqualone is a sedative-hypnotic drug that is similar in effect to barbiturates, a general central nervous system depressant. The sedative-hypnotic activity was first noted by Indian researchers in the 1950s and in 1962 methaqualone itself was patented in the US by Wallace and Tiernan. Its use peaked in the early 1970s as a hypnotic, for the treatment of insomnia, and as a sedative and muscle relaxant. It has also been used illegally as a recreational drug. Clandestinely produced methaqualone is seized by government agencies and police forces around the world. In 1965 a Methaqualone/antihistamine combination was sold as the sedative drug Mandrax, by Roussel Laboratories (now part of Sanofi-Aventis). In 1972 it was the sixth-bestselling sedative in the USA, where it was legal under the brand name Quaalude. Bloodstains can interfere with the Griess test. Traces of blood can be transferred to the test paper, either partially or completely obscuring the color of the reaction product. The Maiti test was developed to avoid this masking problem. In the Maiti test sheets of photographic paper are prepared by fixation in so-diumthiosulfate solution, washed and then dried. Then the sheets are soaked in a solution of p-nitroani-line, a-naphthol and magnesium sulfate (0.25% of each in 1:1 aqueous alcohol). The impregnated paper is now dried and preserved for later use. When a powder pattern is to be visualized, a sheet of impregnated photographic paper is placed on the laboratory bench emulsion side up. The item of clothing bearing the powder pattern is then placed on top of the photographic paper with the surface bearing the powder pattern placed in contact with the emulsion layer of the photographic paper. A cloth moistened with 10% acetic acid is placed on top of the itemof clothing and the whole stack is pressed with a hot iron to transfer powder particles to the photographic paper. Finally, the surface of the emulsion is swabbed with a 10% sodiumhydroxide solution. The resulting powder pattern consists of blue flecks on a pale yellow background. Most rifling is created by either: cutting one groove at a time with a machine tool (cut rifling or single point cut rifling); cutting all grooves in one pass with a special progressive

broaching bit (broached rifling); pressing all grooves at once with a tool called a "button" that is pushed or pulled down the barrel (button rifling); forging the barrel over a mandrel containing a reverse image of the rifling, and often the chamber as well (hammer forging); flow forming the barrel preform over a mandrel containing a reverse image of the rifling (rifling by flow forming). When the projectile is swaged into the rifling, it takes on a mirror image of the rifling, as the lands push into the projectile in a process called engraving. Engraving takes on not only the major features of the bore, such as the lands and grooves, but also minor features, like scratches and tool marks. The relationship between the bore characteristics and the engraving on the projectile are often used in forensic ballistics. A detonator is a device used to trigger an explosive device. Detonators can be chemically, mechanically, or electrically initiated, the latter two being the most common. The commercial use of explosives uses electrical detonators or the capped fuse which is a length of safety fuse to which an ordinary detonator has been crimped. Many detonators' primary explosive is a material called ASA compound. This compound is formed from lead azide, lead styphnate and aluminium and is pressed into place above the base charge, usually TNT or tetryl in military detonators and PETN in commercial detonators. Other materials such as DDNP (diazo dinitro phenol) are also used as the primary charge to reduce the amount of lead emitted into the atmosphere by mining and quarrying operations. Old detonators used mercury fulminate as the primary, and it was often mixed with potassium chlorate to yield better performance. A further group of miscellaneous injuries includes flash burns, caused by the radiant and convective heat of the explosion. Major Sir Gerald Burrard wrote a book titled The Identification of Firearms and Forensic Ballistics which was published in London.

INJURIES: Compression tool mark: shows outline of tool (hammer into wood) Sliding tool mark: parallel striations when tool slides across material (screwdriver or crowbar) Cutting tool mark: striations when tool cuts through material (scissors) Impressed marks are caused when a harder object is pressed into a softer object without moving back and forth. The tool mark is an impression of the part of the tool that made direct contact with the soft surface. A hammer mark on a door frame is an example of an impressed mark. Striated marks are caused by two objects sliding across each other. They appear as striations or a series of parallel lines. The harder object leaves an abrasion or scratch marks on the softer object. A key scraped along a car door causes a striated mark. Crush marks are caused by pressure applied on opposite sides of an object producing a ridge of compressed material. Tools such as wire cutters cause crush marks. Multi-stroke marks are caused by the repetitive sliding action of a tool upon a surface. Using a saw or a file produces multi-stroke marks. Incised wounds are deeper at the beginning, because more pressure is exerted on the knife at this point. This is known as the head of the wound. Towards the end of the cut the wound becomes increasingly shallow till finally as the knife leaves the tissues the skin alone is cut. This is known as the tailing of the wound and it indicates the direction in which the cut was made. Age of abrasions: Fresh: Bright red; 12-24 h: Bright Red; 2-3 days: Reddish brown; 4-7 days: Dark brown to brownish black; After 7 days: scab dries, shrinks and falls off, leaving depigmented area underneath which gets gradually pigmented. Age of bruises: At first: Red; Few hours to 3 days: Blue; 4th day: Bluish black to brown (haemosiderin); 5-6 days: Green (Haemotoidin); 7 to 12 day: Yellow (Bilirubin); 2 weeks: Normal

When electrocuted, a living normally dies from asphyxiation. This is caused by the instantaneous cessation of breathing and heart activity. The effect of the shock can be compounded by moisture, the weather, the surroundings and how long the body was exposed to the current. In a situation where the body continues to be exposed to the current long after death, the resulting damage can be enormous. One of the characteristics of electrocution is Joule marks (also called Joule burns). These are entrance and exit wounds caused by the current as it passes into and out of the body. If electricity does not pass completely through the body, a serious shock can occur, which may cause critical localized burns but is not always fatal. In electrocution, the current passes into and out of body leaving grayish,

puckered wounds on the skin where this occurs. Acroreaction test helps to identify a entry wound of joule burn. Filigree burn: A fernlike or featherlike transient skin injury induced by lightning. Cadaveric spasm, also known as postmortem spasm, instantaneous rigor, cataleptic rigidity, or instantaneous rigidity, is a rare form of muscular stiffening that occurs at the moment of death, persists into the period of rigor mortis and can be mistaken for rigor mortis. The cause is unknown, but is usually associated with violent deaths happening under extremely physical circumstances with intense emotion. Cadaveric spasm may affect all muscles in the body, but typically only groups, such as the forearms, or hands. Cadaveric spasm is seen in cases of drowning victims when grass, weeds, roots or other materials are clutched, and provides proof of life at the time of entry into the water. Cadaveric spasm often crystallizes the last activity one did prior to death and is therefore significant in forensic investigations, e.g. holding onto a knife tightly. Raccoon eye/eyes (also known in the UK and Ireland as panda eyes) or periorbital ecchymosis is a sign of basal skull fracture, a craniotomy that ruptured the meninges, or (rarely) certain cancers. Bilateral subconjunctival hemorrhage occurs when damage at the time of a facial fracture tears the meninges and causes the venous sinuses to bleed into the arachnoid villi and the cranial sinuses. In layman's terms, blood from skull fracture seeps into the soft tissue around the eyes. Raccoon eyes may be accompanied by Battle's sign, an ecchymosis behind the ear. An injury in which an object enters the body or a structure and passes all the way through is called a perforating injury, while penetrating trauma implies that the object does not pass through. Perforating trauma is associated with an entrance wound and an often larger exit wound. At the bottom, the internal iliac (hypogastric) vein is shown lacerated, with copious bleeding coming from both sites. FORENSIC EVIDENCE/IDENTIFICATION: Another unexpected use for sulphur was making casts of footprints in snow. Sulphur melts at about 120 deg C but gives out so little heat in the process, and changes size so little, that it can give an accurate cast for forensic purposes. Sulphur is useful for casting in snow. You can take it to the scene in a thermos bottle. The liquid sulphur crystallizes on contact and gives excellent detail. During a fire, glass may break as a result of heat fracturing. Heat fracturing produces breakage patterns on glass that are different from breakage patterns caused by impact. Wavy fracture lines develop in glass that has been exposed to high heat. Glass will tend to break toward the region of higher temperature. If the glass was not broken before the fire, there will be no radial or concentric circle fracture patterns in glass that is broken by high heat. In glasses, fractures caused by excessive exposure to heat can be distinguished from those caused by impact since those due to heat do not show a regular pattern of radial and concentric lines. Heat fractures are characteristically wave-shaped. Heat fractures will also show little, if any, curve patterns (stress lines) along the edges. Expansion of the glass (stretching action) occurs first on the side exposed to the heat, and glass splinters will usually

fall toward that side. Reconstruction of a glass object fractured by heat will disclose the wave-shaped fracture pattern. If the stress lines are smooth, or almost so, and no point of impact or penetration is present, these factors, together with other considerations such as the circumstances under which the fragments were found and their location, may indicate that fracture was due to excessive heat.

History: The most commonly used test of mineral hardness is Mohs Hardness Scale. Lip prints were collected and analyzed as per Suzuki's classification. As an investigator of the human mind, Francis Galton founded psychometrics (the science of measuring mental faculties) and differential psychology and the lexical hypothesis of personality. He devised a method for classifying fingerprints that proved useful in forensic science. He also conducted research on the power of prayer, concluding it had none by its null effects on the longevity of those prayed for. As the initiator of scientific meteorology, he devised the first weather map, proposed a theory of anticyclones, and was the first to establish a complete record of short-term climatic phenomena on a European scale. He also invented the Galton Whistle for testing differential hearing ability. The first Chemical Examiner's Laboratory in India came into existence in Madras in the Year 1849.
The National Institute of Criminology & Forensic Science was set up in January 1972.

The world's first finger print bureau is built on the pioneering work of Sir William Herschel, then Chief Magistrate of Jungipore in Hooghly District of Bengal, who started using finger prints as identification marks in documents. On June 12, 1887, the council of Governor General of India approved a committee report that finger prints should be used for classification of criminal records. Since then it has helped in solving some of the most intriguing and complex cases. IPC and CrPC: Sec 44 Injury Sec 82 Act of child under 7 yrs Sec 83 act of child above 7 yrs and below 12 yrs presumed to be mature enough to commit a offence Sec 84 act of person of unsound mind/Mc Naughtens rule Sec 85 act of person intoxicated without his will Sec 87 act of person less than 18 yrs cannot give consent to suffer any harm with his will Sec 88 to 93 legal protection to medical doctors Sec 89 child cannot give consent for any act done in his favour which can harm it. E.g. Consent of operation Sec 319 hurt Sec 320 grievous hurt Sec 322 voluntarily causing grievous hurt Sec 325 punishment of voluntarily causing grievous hurt Sec 351 assault

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13.

14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Sec 354 assault to outrage the modesty of the women Sec 375 definition of rape Sec 377 unnatural sexual offence Sec 299 culpable homicide Sec 300 murder Sec 302 punishment of murder Sec 304 A death due to negligence SEC 304 B dowry death (176 CrPC) Sec 312 to 316 abandonment of child under 12 yrs Sec 317 abandonment of infants Sec 318 concealment of death of a child Sec 361 kidnapping Sec 363 punishment of kidnapping SEC 497 ADULTRY Sec 498 A torture for dowry Sec 179 punishment for refusal to answer the questions of police inquiry Sec 510 misconduct by the drunken person in public place CrPC i. ii. iii. Sec 174 police inquest Sec 176 magistrate inquest Sec 125 illegitimate child (Rs 500/month)

ACTS INDIAN EVIDENCE ACT Sec 32 dying declaration

Coroners act - 1871 Mental health 1987 Children act 1960 (no, 64) Juvenile justice act 2000 (1986) Delhi artificial insemination act - 1995