University of Texas Press

A ik for the Twiceborn Author(s): Lewis Rowell Source: Asian Music, Vol. 9, No. 1, Second India Issue (1977), pp. 72-94 Published by: University of Texas Press Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/833818 . Accessed: 20/10/2011 22:03
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A SIKSA FOR THE TWICEBORN By Lewis Rowell The name of the Naradlyas'ika (hereafter NS), the to the legendary sage N~rada, phonetic treatise attributed of Indian music. has a familiar From ring for most students ancient to modern times Indian writings on music have been from this famous with brief citations liberally sprinkled has been held in tremendous respect work, and its authority in spite of the acknowledged difficulties in determining its exact meaning and in reconstructing the pitch system described therein. Western scholars have largely ignored this controversial text, while Indian authors have seen it more as a symbol of ancient learning and a font of approthan as a source of specific information priate quotations on the musical tradition from which it arose. Certainly this s'ik a (pronounced shick'-shah) is not valid today for as a guide to the correct utterance its intended purpose: of the hymns of the Simaveda. The text itself bris les with problems for the and translator. And there is no general agreeinterpreter ment either as to its authorship or date. Like many other of the Vedic and Epic periods it evidently writings "accumulated" at the hands of multiple authors. Although prefer to dismiss the work as a patchwork many scholars assembled at a relatively it can be shown that late period, much of the text comes from late Vedic times. Certain for example, are quoted from the P4inTya verses, 4ik , of the early Aikpas. one of the most comprehensive It seems safe to assume that the core of the work dates from the first A.D. but with numerous later to the fifth centuries accretions. At that the N' ranks as one of the earliest Indian writings on the theory of music. to place the My approach in this paper will be first text among others in its genre and describe its briefly The focus, however, will be on the "social" contents. aspects of this text--reconstructing the Weltanschauung of the Samavedin in terms of how he viewed himself, his priestly service as a chanter of the sacred hymns, his learning, I should and the nature of the world as he perceived it. add that this study is preliminary to a much larger project that should eventually lead to a re-edited translation, text, and commentary on the more technical and controversial issues that do not arise in the present paper.
I

The NS is addressed to the dvija, one literally "twiceborn" through investiture with the sacred thread and therefore one of the upper classes a Brahman). (especially 72

The author describes it as "alpagranthari prabh~ttrthax Sravyai vedxAgamuttamam"--"a little treatise, containing many meanings, praiseworthy, an excellent Limb of the Vedas" (1.2.1). THE GENRE A brief consideration of the Vedigas "Limbs (lit. of the Vedas") will help in understanding 1ikg as a The Vedas themselves are classified as literary genre. that which was "heard," i.e. revealed to the ancient fruti, seers; the Ved5Agas occupy a less authoritative position and are classified as smrti, that which is "remembered," i.e. tradition and the result of human learning. Their primary purpose was to promote the correct performance and of the sacred texts, and hence the following preservation six divisions: 'ik a kalpa vya ara a nirukta chandas jyotiqa and articulation phonetics ritual grammar, analysis etymology metrics astronomy

These subject divisions in an interesting parallel, way, the Mediaeval Trivium and Quadrivium which were based on the need to understand and preserve similarly sacred texts. The "three roads" of the preliminary Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, and logic) led to the four mathematical of the Quadrivium (geometry, disciplines Communication skills arithmetic, music, and astronomy). and mental discipline form the basis for higher learning, in which music emerges as a means of quantifying, both in the abstract and as a scale of reference for measuring the universe as perceived physical by Mediaeval man. I think it is more than coincidence that the earliest Indian on music occur in a genre that is part of a similar writings constellation of disciplines. Kal a and jyotisa concern the proper procedures and times for the Vedic sacrifices, the "how and when." and Vyakarapa and nirukta provide tools for analyzing tracing words back to their radical remembering the texts: elements, deducing meanings, word separation, parts of The NS contains one typical speech, syntax, and the like. example of nirukta in which the word g~ndharva (the style of music described is analyzed as by Bharata and Dattila) follows:

73

The meaning of the GA, say the wise, the proper playing strokes (dhtus); music instrumental

is this: term gndharva means "to be sung"; DHA, of the instrumental and VA, the playing of (in general). 1.4.12

of Chandas and apply to the actual recitation of the the Vedic texts and s'iks analysis present a detailed to the keen ears and analytic Vedic chant that testifies All the VedAgas of the ancient Indian scholars. skill sutra (lit. in the aphoristic "thread") were written style that was designed to compress the maximum amount of into the minimum space, enabling the chanter information on the basis of a to command huge masses of text material limited number of memory clues. seems to occupy a very special place among the for speech (Vic) Vedigas, Sikdue in part to the reverence in hymns X.125 and X.71 of the deified in Indian thought, of speech were recognized, Several gradations Rg-Veda. and a complex theory of sound production gradually The process by which literature. developed in post-Vedic of pure sound and meaning the inner, inarticulate reality becomes transformed into the domain of articulate, is the peculiar communicable recitation province of siksg. In the TaittirTya Upanishad (1.2) the six elements of s'iksa are set forth as: varna svara m~tra bala saiman santna sounds individual vowel quality accents, duration quantity, the organs of pronunciation delivery euphonic laws

each of these topics, The N' addresses although not Svara and varp nor in this order. always systematically of Book I and deserve some preliminary dominate the contents wide range of meanings: remarks. Varna has a particularly word--in general, individual syllable, sound, vowel, letter, It is derived from the first a phonetic unit of some kind. root /vr, meaning "to cover," and develops along this and then caste, color, cover, appearance, semantTc path: unit--of to the appearance of any specific speech or almost anything else. about svara. A great deal of nonsense has been written I take it as a term that has phonemic rather than phonetic of subtle sound. or perception a manifestation leanings: Derived from the root /svr or svar, it is used in the NS to a reiting tone, a tonal accent, mean all of the following: 74

a scale step. If, in the following pages, pitch in general, the reader will generally translate svara as "tone," he Sanskrit will not go far wrong. terms are notorious for their multiple meanings, and the author has made a point of exploring the several meanings of each term; hence not only by descriptions varpa, for example, is represented of the separate sounds but also by the passages equating colors and castes to the various steps of the scale. It should also be emphasized that the sikgas were short, general manuals whose precepts applied to all the various of a particular or schools) Veda. (recensions The prtif sakhs khyas, on the other hand, were more elaborate of word the peculiarities phonetic treatises detailing etc. in each school of Vedic order, accent, separation, the term means literally to each recitation; "belonging had to be known by the specialist, s~ikha." Their doctrines whereas one suspects that the likya was intended more as a textbook for the student and novice-teacher and a handy reference tool for the priest-in-training. There are about 65 extant in the Benares 31 of them contained edition of likss, the Of these, (Vyasa 1893). aiksatgraha the GautamT-, Lomasi-, three are addressed to the Smaveda: and Naraiyi~-'ikg7s. It should be noted that the author of the NS claims a wider application of his precepts: 1~,t [the present work] has been called a for the Twiceborn, telling the Sik of the Rg-, Yajur-, and characteristics Sama-Vedas, completely explained by N~rada, in the proper order. 1.2.3 In sum the NS is by far the most interesting of the siksas of the Samaveda and the only one to exert much influence on later Indian thought and the emerging discipline of the theory of music. DESCRIPTIONAND CONTENTS The NS consists of two books (prap hakas), each book divided into eight chapters (ka iks); the first contains 126 couplets The metre ('lokas), the second 113. is the anugubh, the standard metre of epic poetry, which divides each. each couplet into four pdas of eight syllables There is a tendency to treat each pair of lines in a towards the end of the line. manner, especially parallel Most of the material relevant to music is contained in Book 1; Book 2 is concerned mostly with phonetic matters and concludes with a long set of instructions for the daily life and conduct of a Samaveda trainee.

75

TABLEOF CONTENTS Book i, Chapter 1 the Vedic purpose of the treatise, tones as practiced reciting by various schools and styles of chant, the three octave registers, the importance of correct articulation the topics of svara: the seven laukika the three basic scales svaras, (grmnas), hexatonic scales modes (tanas), (mtrcchanas); correspondences the ten qualities fourteen faults of singing, the

3 4

colors and castes as related to the chromatic svaras; the grara tones (kakalT and rg.; antarasvara); etymology of the word gndharva the Vedic scale equated to the seven with animal svaras; correspondences and bird sounds, rsis, and deities; regions of utterance the ceremonies of Vedic chant microtones advice to chanters; tempo described, (~ruti);

the Vedic scale with the corresponding and finger movements; bodily locations additional the five correspondences; types of sruti the three anudtta the seven use each udxtta (acute), Vedic accents: and svarita (grave), (circumflex) types of svarita and when to

8 Book 2, Chapter 1 2 3

tremolo (kampa), combinations, syllable of consonants, aspiration reduplication of the three Vedic accents application durato text examples; prolongation, tions, syllable separation the four types of hiatus; nasals and

4 5

vowel and consonant; discontinuity 76

continuity

inserted vowel sounds sibilants; the visarga (an (svarabhakti); at word end); semiaspirated glottal vowels Vedic metres briefly described; examples of the use of svarita and two of its sub-types: pracaya and nigh~ta; general advice on articulation advice practical daily life for the Smavedin's

Rarely is a topic pursued for more than four slokas, is in the most laconic, of material and the presentation The typical condensed style. approach is through a listing of the characteristics or qualities (lakaanas) (gu as) of one another, a topic. contradict Occasional passages and as a whole is a melange of the theoretical the treatise in the are presented and the practical. Instructions mood: "one should" and "one should not." optative the reader is addressed in the second person. Frequently four Some famous names occur here and there: celebrated and (Nrada, Tumburu, Vasistha, Visvavasu) yris are cited in but the author's 2.7.11, point is that not even of the principles they were able to enunciate completely of the svaras'! articulation because of the "subtlety" cited include the acarya Somalarman Other authorities and Audavraji (2.8.5). (2.3.8) in the of the tables As an aid to the interpretation the example below is a conjectural section, following of the two pitch systems that Nrada equates illustration in 1.5.1 & 2. It is generally accepted that the Vedic from its initial nucleus scale spread out in both directions of a few pitches, and it is usually thought of as a the origin of the laukika scale is entirely scale; descending I have proposed what I believe a matter for speculation. to be a logical pitch level for the Vedic scale and then in the text in equating these to followed the instructions the secular svaras.

77

The Vaidika

(Vedic)

scale

krusta (loud)

prathama (first)

dvitiya (second)

trtiya (third)

caturtha (fourth)

mandra (low)

atisvara last) (the

(krusta)

The

laukika

(secular

scale

PA (pancama)

DHA (dhaivata)

NI (nislda)

SA (gadja)

RI (rsabha)

GA (glndh~ira)

MA (madhyama)

PA

WORLDOUTLOOK

listed among The various sets of "correspondences" of how indication of the NS give the clearest the contents The the ancient Indian saw himself and his surroundings. world outlook is one found often in early music theory, that music has a naive belief both in East and West: of existence-with other categories connections specific animal and plant life--as divine beings, creatures, living and the like. By the presentation well as sounds, colors, in one's belief schemes of correspondences, of elaborate and a chain is reinforced, of life the interconnectedness is asserted, linking music and of mutual interdependence the gods, the seven svaras "propitiate" the universe: the three gr-mas "arise" from the and gandharvas; "subsist" is, by means of the Sama three worlds; all creatures and In Indian thought this mode of classifying svaras. relating phenomena reaches back into Vedic times where the and a deity as well a various hymns were each assigned rsi as a metre.

78

Table Correspondences

1 svaras (NS)

to the seven

SVARA

DYNASTY 1.2.15 & 16

COLOR 1.4.1 &2

CASTE 1.4.3 &4

SAMASVARA 1.5.1 &2

ANIMAL/BIRD SOUNDS 1.5.3 &4

B O

1.5.

SA

gods

lotus leaf parrot yellow gold

brahman

caturtha

peacock

RI

rsis pitys (forefathers) gandharvas (celestial musicians) gods, and pitrs, rsis

k atriya

trtiya

bull

GA

vaisya ~dra brahman

or

dvitiya

goat

\O
MA jasmine prathama crane

PA

dark

brahman krus.a

cuckoo

chest, and t

DHA

the whole host of beings yaksas (attendant demi-gods)

saffron

ksatriya vaisya or ~Tdra

mandra

horse

NI

multicolored

atisv~ra

elephant

all

r com

In such a system the occasional redundancies and are much less disturbing rationalizations to the Indian sense of order than a lacuna, and Indian theorists are by no means unique in resorting to the doctrine of misra out an otherwise (mixed, combined) to fill incompletE of Table 1 reveals what seems to Closer analysis system. be an unconscious for SA, MA, and PA--the first, preference and fifth scale degrees--which tends to bear out fourth, Sachs' observations on the tendency for musical systems to around perfect intervals (1943:64). crystallise Systems for such as this are also subject to cultural preferences certain numbers, and, as Gombrich points out (1975:117f), and ancient Indian cosmology was dominated by "sevenness" The seven svaras provide an obvious parallel "threeness." to all other groups of seven, while the three grmas and the three registers are equated respectively with the three worlds (earth, air, and heaven) and the three daily Soma oblations. table, Comparison with a similar adapted from is the 13th-century 1945:64), (Sardgadeva Safgitaratnakara instructive:

80

Table Correspondences to the seven

2 svaras (SR I.3.46-59)

SVARA

DYNASTY

COLOR

CASTE

CONTINENT

RSI

DEITY '

METRE

RAS

52 & 53
SA gods

54 & 55
lotus

53
brahman

55 & 56
Jambu

56 & 57
fire

57 & 58
Agni

58 & 59
anustubh

59

vira adb and (ang

RI GA MA

rsis gods gods

yellow gold jasmine

ksatriya " vaisya brahman

SEl~a Kusa Kraunca

creator

BrahmK

gayatri tristubh brhati

sam

Oo

moon Visnu

Sarasvati Siva

karu

hasy
and

(ero PA DHA pitrs rsis dark saffron brahman ksatriya ? ""and Salmali Sveta N--rada Visnu pakti

sam

Tumburu Ganesa u.ih

bibh

(fea

NI

asuras (demons)

spotted

vaisya

Pugkara

Tumburu Sun

jagati

sam

as well Table 2 gives evidence of changes in society in the musical system which can be as some developments to the deduced, e.g. the ?idra caste has been restricted and antarasvara, and thus do two chromatic tones, kakali to the regular not appear in this table in connection have been removed (cf. svaras. Certain inconsistencies the and in general an attempt to regularize Agni's role), have acquired status, Later deities system is apparent. the concentric have been added: and several new categories that surround Mt. Meru, the system of world-continents of the eightfold metres, and the unconvincing adaptation rasa system. the general scheme is closely Still patterned are similar. upon that in the NS, and many of the details sets of correspondences It should be pointed out that similar (Kaufmann 1967:55) and appear in early Chinese literature It is Mediaeval European music theory (Rowell 1972:5). at different cultures to add that different hardly necessary to times have obviously arranged the scheme and its details of the world and existence. suit their perception Table 3 presents Finally, Ntrada's the svaras of the STmavedic scale: correspondences to

82

Table 3
Correspondences to Correspondences to the the Sasvaras S~raasvaras (NS) (NS)

SAMASVARA LAUKIKASVARABODILY LOCATION FINGER PLACEMENT DYNASTY 1.5.1 &2 1.7.1 &2 1.7.3-5 1.7.6-8

krusta prathama dvitiya

PA MA GA

top of head forehead between brows ears eye-

tip

of thumb

gods humans beasts

thumb forefinger middle

trtiya

RI

finger

gandharvas apsarasas (celestial nymphs) also birds, the pitys

and

caturtha

SA

throat

ring little

finger

mandra

DHA

chest

finger

dwarfs, demons, and monsters all things animate and inanimate on earth

atisv~ra

NI

heart

base of little finger

83

into the At the risk of pursuing the subject farther I shall attempt an interpretation realm of fantasy, of the in the N'--a multidimensional, general world scheme outlined at the concentric universe: the human body is clearly central core of this orderly cosmos, animated (as the author from tells us in 1.5.7-12) breath that arises by the vital the navel and strikes the various organs of utterance, either and is then emitted from singly or in combination, the various registers--an of the system early description known as Kupdalini yoga. This inward-looking egocentric stance is one of the most basic traits of Indian thought, and art. expressed throughout Indian literature frequently That the Indians were not the only early men to place themselves at the center of existence is shown in the European often diagrammed as a human concept of microcosm/macrocosm, in the midst of a set of concentric figure spread-eagled circles the four elements and, on the outside, representing the seven planets.
I

The seven svaras of the basic scale and (in the NS, at least) the Vedic scale provide the physical scale of and overt physical clues are given by pointing reference, to a corresponding part of the body and/or marking the svaras on the fingers. Impressions reaching the body through the organs of perception come next in the hierarchy: sights, Thus a complete physical emotions. sounds, tastes, smells, Umwelt is created, the body, its receptors, one that involves from the external information it processes and effectors--how world and how it acts upon the surrounding environment by of sound. means of the articulation Beyond the immediate reach of the body is the body Indian the four-tiered caste system that organizes social, as well as the beloved into a specific hierarchy society animals and birds that populate Indian legends and serve as a source for the many colorful throughout the analogies of everyday Beyond these categories sikga literature. come unseen but no less real beings: gods, foreexperience celestial dwarfs, monsters, musicians, fathers, seers, The line between the divine and the demons, and the like. and the demoniac is easily crossed in Indian mythology, to change their form at of supernatural creatures ability will or be reborn in another body further tends to blur the are at times indisAnd the gods themselves categories. from their elements, e.g. Agni from fire and tinguishable the three worlds of earth, Indra from thunder. And finally framework. air, and heaven provide the spatial in this worldThere are few other spatial concepts view other than those spaces measured on or by the body; one exception is the later notion of the world continents

84

listed in Table 2. And although temporal concepts are also of relatively minor importance in the NS, we can safely assume the concentric view of time that persists cyclical in Indian thought: daily cycles of worship are emboxed within lunar cycles within yearly cycles of seasons within the repeated generational within, life-cycles finally, and recreation. The metres cycles of creation, dissolution, are themselves small versions of this larger principle of time and thus in later literature are assigned cyclical stations in this scheme of correspondences. As for music, cyclical rhythm was not a feature of the early t~la system, but it later emerged as the dominant rhythmic principle under the relentless of cultural for pressure preferences circularity. in this cosmology? Why does music figure so prominently I would like to propose that early man felt more at home with his musical scale than the mysteries of his universe, his ancestors, his gods, and his own vital substance. Music's clear divisions and his ability to repeat it at will reassured him that he could measure that which was out of sight, out of reach, or otherwise incommensurable by the simple available standards of daily life. The power of measuring, like the Thus the musical power of naming, brings a sense of control. in "naive" or "pre-scientific" scale, is often speculation, laid out as a scale of reference for the cosmos, and its divisions are also used to mark off temporal experience into measurable increments. And if music, as many Indians believe, is a kind of primal Veda and a means of revelation, then the act of utterance is a means of making manifest the most vital which is internal and inarticulate. part of their being--that THE PRIESTLY LIFE Verses scattered here and there in the Nf afford into the daily life and thought of the Smavedin. glimpses to the process of teaching and learning Many of these relate and will thus be reserved for the final section of this Others speak of the sacred nature of his calling paper. and the powerful forces he can command through his performance of the hymns and sacrificial rites. And the penalties for inexact performance were severe: Whenever anyone, in sacrificing, performs the Rg-, S~ma-, or Yajur- verses in ignorance of discord arises. these treatises [the siks], As he [Nrada] said: the incorrect utterance of a mantra, faulty in either pitch or vowel quality, does not convey the proper meaning; this harsh language injures the sacrificer as when one accents the himself, incorrectly compound IndrasJatrub. 85

Whenever a mantra is uttered in a distorted of tone or manner, lacking in correctness vowel, it injures the sacrificer's person, his offspring, and his beasts. 1.1.4-6 Pandits often cite Indras'atruh as an example of how a Sanskrit compound can be taken in two diametrically when meanings, depending upon the accentuation: opposite Vytra, before his epic duel with Indra, made a sacrifice and prayed for Indra's downfall, he meant to say: "May the enemy of Indra flourish'" the compound as (intending a genitive case and tatpuruga with Indra in the genitive His false accentuation, [enemy] in the nominative). slatru "May the enemy, [namely] however, produced this meaning: Indra, flourish'" (the compound thus became a karmadhraya with both elements in apposition). Vrtra was taken at his word and was slain by Indra. The procedure for chanting the samans is set forth in 1.6, and the main themes are these: proper beginning the opening invocations, how to hold the hand and posture, and move it during the chant, the right mental attitude, verses are representative: exact timing. The following A wise man should not allow any limb of his body to shake; he should lay the back of his hand down lightly, sit in a relaxed manner, and perform the ceremonies in proper order. 1.6.10 Like a tortoise who has drawn his limbs together-with fixed mind, glance, and body, a wise man should pronounce the syllables, self-controlled, and unafraid. tranquil, 1.6.12 Emphasis is placed on evenness of articulation, with great avoiding any extremes and timing the syllables precision: One should utter speech evenly, synchronized with both the hand and mouth, and one should as conclude the syllables just as precisely one begins them. 1.6.14 One should not attack the syllables with excessive them, force, nor avoid articulating nor nor should one make them too musical, should one use a tremolo: one should sing the S~mans evenly like the course of a hawk in the sky. sky. 1.6.15 86

Precise

continuity

is urged in the following

slokas:

As a lightning flash appears in the middle of the sky, or the thread through a necklace of pearls, or as scissors cutting hair--so should be made the pauses between successive syllables. 1.6.11 One should perform the transition between svaras evenly and precisely, continuous and between yet without too obvious a connection similar to the transition between svaras, shadow and sunlight. 1.6.18 On the other hand, the priest is advised not to be overly concerned for the exact placement of the s~'rutis, the microtones that determine the exact size of each svara: Just as there is no definite path for fishes moving in the water or birds in. the sky, so it is with the s'rutis that govern the perception of svaras. 1.6.16 The final chapter of Book 2 is filled with practical matters pertaining to daily routine: the priest was to brush his teeth well with a get up early, wash himself, brush made from twigs, perform his morning worship, eat a and avoid the company of women and proper breakfast, scoundrels. Mixed in with these admonitions are many other bits of advice on good articulation, control of the breath, how to avoid speech defects, and the like. To conclude this translation of 1.3: section I append a complete

The ten qualities (gutas) of singing are these: raktam, pjrnam, alamkytam, prasannam, vyaktam,
vikrufam, lakspam, madhuram. Raktam the (colored) signifies blending of svaras on the bamboo flute and vip. samam, sukumiram, and

is so-called because it is Purgam (filled) full of microtones, in combination with metres, and syllables. stanzas, Alaikytam (adorned) is so-called manifests the tone in the chest, head registers. because throat, it and

87

is recognized Prasannam (clear) utterance is without hesitation from any speech impediment.

when one's and free

is so-called distinct) Vyaktam (manifest, the distinct because it features utterance of word, meaning, word stem, modification and of words, primary and secondary substitution suffixes, compounds, roots, particles, accent, prefixes, gender, primary and secondary the utterance of all meanings, case endings; these being correct, it is called vyaktam. because words (loud) is so-called Vikrugsam and syllables are clearly uttered aloud. is so-called because the (gentle) Slaksnam svaras are pronounced neither too quickly nor too slowly, neither too high nor too low, sportively playing with the voice and procertain syllables. tracting Saman (even) is so-called because of the combining of the proper regions of utterance, i.e. is restrained whether one's diction (avapa) or released (nirvapa). is so-called because Sukumwram (delicate) the delicate this style of singing features of word, vowel, and tone. articulation because its Madhuram (sweet) is so-called nature is abundantly endowed with a charming of word and syllable. quality a faults of singing: These are the fourteen lack lack of confidence, excitement, timidity, a shrill of clarity, tone, a tone nasality, produced too high in the head or in the wrong disconnected, discordant, tasteless, register, or improperly disordered, roughly pronounced, articulated. for evenness, strive Master teachers (Sc~ryas) women for pandits for correct word-separation, but ordinary men for loudness. sweetness, TEACHING AND LEARNING A recurring theme in the NS is the nature teacher-student From these verses relationship. of the it is clear

88

that the guru system was firmly established when the were formulated: of the relevant portions s'iks There are five kinds of teachers: your hand, the fingers looking at it and placing and what the phonetic treatises, properly, under the guidance of a yourself you recite the best of these is teacher; verily living of a living recitation under the direction teacher. 2.7.9 And the author to get responsibility stresses the best that it is the student's out of his guru:

Just as one obtains water by digging in the earth, so it is when one wishes to obtain knowledge from a teacher. 2.8.27 The following provide one of the few indications of tempo in the verses NS and emphasize that the only worthy teacher is a dvija: With regard to tempo: one should perform in the fast vytti when studying, (style) but in a moderate tempo when reciting, and in the slow vjtti for the instruction of pupils. 1.6.21 A Twiceborn who has studied the phonetic treatises in this manner--he alone is worthy to instruct pupils in accordance with right teachings. 1.6.22 The only other mention of tempo in the NS is celebrated passage from Book 2, found in many other and often quoted by later writers: The mtr? should be given the time of one of an eye) or a nime a (the twinkling and this should be the flash of lightning, duration of a Rc syllable, to the according acarya Somasarman. 2.3.8 Verses such as the preceding have been largely for the state of confusion that arises whenever, responsible in Sanskrit metrics, one attempts to fix the duration of the mrnatrK. The mtrK or mora was taken to be the basic unit of 89 in a s'ikas

text measurement, divided into a us (atoms) and subdivided were into parampus atoms), although the latter (ultimate The to be perceived too delicate singly. considered were classified as short (hrasva or themselves syllables long (aJ1gha or guru), and protracted laghu), (pluta), In one, two, and three matras. receiving respectively Sanskrit prosody the short vowel a came to be the standard mtr?. of measurement and was assigned Clearly a-single "a twinkling of the eye" is much too short a duration, that five nimegas are required to and Bharata specifies The text of the NS, unfortunately, equal one mitr? (1964:153). so the confusion is crystal clear at this point, remains. Even the position of the teacher is specified:

You should intone the seven svaras directly thus the into the right ear of your student; are to be (treatises) along passed sastras of the sipyas by acaryas for the benefit their sons. (pupils), 1.8.5 And the virtues urged upon the student: of patience and perseverance are

One should attain his objectives gradually, in obtaining knowledge just as in climbing a mountain, and one can travel leagues gradually. farther on a journey when proceeding 2.8.15 cited verses have mentioned the hand as a Previously Hand motions play an important role means of instruction. and the habit of marking the svaras on in Vedic chanting, and was both an aid to learning the various finger joints is often called the hastavla The hand itself remembering. and--as in the (the vipa of the hand) in early treatises, well-known Guidonian Hand in the European Middle Ages--the of svaras") "circle lit. musical gamut (the svaramap~ala, locations. was marked off on specificfinger Narada of one hand that the chanter touch the fingers prescribes since the other with the thumb of the same hand (1.6.5), to the bodily regions approhand is occupied with pointing As an opening routine the student is priate to each svara. over the entire gamut once he advised to move his fingers OMand the preliminary has performed the sacred syllable invocations (1.6.4 & 5). The six obstacles to knowledge are listed as:

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Gambling, reading books, hanging around actors and dancers, fondness for women, lazyness, to and sleep--these are the six obstacles knowledge. 2.8.29 And two of the concluding s/lokas sum up, in a colorful animal analogy, the procedure for typically recitation correct and hold out the ultimate reward: Just as a tigress carries her cubs in her neither them nor holding them teeth, biting so loosely so should one that they fall, pronounce the syllables. Just so are the syllables to be uttered, not nor bitten off; by means of the unclearly correct utterance of the syllables, one rises to the world of Brahmn. 2.8.30 & 31

NOTES i. The problems are compounded by the available editions: I began with the 1934 Datia edition, which is still in available It print and readily throughout India. contains the commentary of Bhagtalobhakara, about which almost nothing is known except that there seems to be an older commentary embedded within it. Typically, the commentary glosses over most of the really difficult and raises more questions than it passages answers. The edition, is riddled with furthermore, the most obvious errors, eccentric and word spelling and is generally in a style separations, put together that would make a first-year Sanskrit student wince. It appears to have been casually thrown together from the Benares edition (Vyasa 1893). I have also used a somewhat better edition that about 40 years ago in the Journal appeared seriatim of the Mysore Sanskrit this edition had been College; and was lent for my study and photopieced together copying through the kindness of Dr. V. Raghavan of the Music Academy, Madras. The editor, R. was himself a S-mavedin, and Narayanasvami Dikshitar, his all-too-brief comments supplement those of also included in this edition. Of Bhatas'obhakara, lesser value was a third published edition by Pandit Sastri of Maharashtra; the copy I saw in Datratreya

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the library of the Madras Music information about its publication. to indicate my immense gratitude his time and learning, given so midst of the annual Conference. examined numerous copies of the the text with many other Indian 2. Book 1, chapter 2, verse 1. NS will follow this format. All

Academy lacked all the I would like here to Dr. Raghavan for in the generously I have, of course, NS and have discussed scholars. citations from the

Some brief bibliographical notes for readers who may wish to explore topics important to the background of the Ne: for the literature and phonetics, see Allen 1953, Mishrafik 1972, and Varma 1929; Kanta 1970 to the Samaveda. Arnold applies more specifically 1905 is a standard source for Vedic metres, while Velankar 1949 provides a convincing of explanation the evolution of later Sanskrit metrics. Hopkins and comprehensive 1972 is an excellent source for the mythology of ancient India. Deva 1967 contains one of the important studies published by C.R. Sankaran and B.C. Deva: "Vedic Chant: Studies in Indian Musical Scales--l" in which the (87-105) authors address the difficult question of the pitch values of the three main Vedic accents. Faddegon 1963 contains a wealth of information on the Samavedic chant. The many books of Swami with numerous bits of Prajnanananda are interlaced information on the NS, brief quotations, translations, and interpretations which, if assembled under one Their cover, would amount to nearly half of Book i. value is reduced, though, by his unsystematic approach and lack of documentation.

REFERENCES CITED Allen, W.S. 1953 in Ancient India. Phonetics Press. Oxford University Cambridge: London:

Arnold, E.V. Vedic Metre. 1905 Press.

Cambridge University

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Bharata 1964

with the commentary N~tyasastra, ed: by Abhinavabharati by Abhinavagupta, M. Ramakrishna Kavi and J.S. Pade. Vol. 4. Gaekwad's Oriental Series No. 145. Baroda: Oriental Institute. of Music and Speech. Psychoacoustics Madras: the Music Academy. Barend Studies Holland on the Smaveda. Co. Publishing Amsterdam: North-

Deva, B.C. 1967 Faddegon, 1963 Gombrich, 1975

R.F. "Ancient Indian Cosmology". In Ancient ed. by Carmen Blacker and Cosmologies, Michael Loewe, pp. 110-142. London: George Allen & Unwin Ltd. Varanasi: Indological Book

Hopkins, E.W. 1972 Epic Mythology. House.

Kanta, Surya 1970 a Pratis~ikhya of the Samaveda. Sktantram: Delhi: Meharchand Lachhmandas. Kaufmann, Walter 1967 Musical Indiana Mishra, Vidhata 1972 A Critical Varanasi: Office. Narada 1934 Notations University of the Orient. Press. Bloomington:

Phonetics. Study of Sanskrit the Chowkhamba Sanskrit Series

with the commentary NpradTy? ika, by Sikgvivaraiopeta Bhafas'obhakara. Sri Pitambarapitha Sanskrit Society. Development of Indian Music. Firma K.L. Mukhopadhay.

Datia:

Swami Prajnanananda, 1973 Historical Calcutta:

Rowell, Lewis 1972 "Adam of Fulda: Theorist and Composer." The Diapason (April 1972): an Eightieth Birthday Tribute to Harold Gleason, pp. 4,5,20.

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Sachs, Curt 1943 Sarigadeva 1945

The Rise of Music in the Ancient World--East New York: W.W. Norton & Co. and West. tr. by C. Sangitaratnkara of S~rtgadeva, Madras: Adyar Library. Kun an Raja. Observations Royal

Varma, Siddheshwar Studies in the Phonetic Critical 1929 London: of Indian Grammarians. Asiatic Society. Velankar, 1949

H.D. of ancient texts on a Collection Jayadaman: Sanskrit Prosody, ed. by H.D. Velankar. Bombay: Haritosam~lK. Vyasa, Pandit, 1893 Benares Sanskrit Benares: Sikssafgrahab. Series.

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