ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex. No. 1. Energy Units, Conversions and Applications Fundamental Units The measurement of physical quantities is one of the most important operations in engineering. Every quantity is measured in terms of some arbitrary but internationally accepted units, called fundamental units. The various physical quantities and their symbols are furnished below. S. N o Fundamental Units 1 Length (L) !ass (!) # Time (T) $ Temperature (T) ' Electric %urrent (() * Luminous (ntensity ((+) , )mount of substance (n) Supplementary Units 1 -lane angel (,,,) /olid angle (0) "erived Units /ome units are e1pressed in terms of other units, which are derived from the fundamental units are "nown as derived units. E.g. the unit of area, velocity, acceleration, pressure etc. The various physical quantities with the derived units and symbols are furnished below. S#. N o 1 # $ ' * Manual Linear velocity Linear acceleration )ngular velocity )ngular acceleration !ass density 5orce, weight v a e 5,6 uantity Sym!ol Unit 22222222222222222222222222222222222222 222 "erived $ase 22 m3s 22 m3s 22 rad3s 22 rad3s 22 4g3m# 7 "g2m3s Practical Physical uantity Unit Sym!ol

meter "ilogram second %elsius ampere mole .adian /teradian

m "g s & % ) mol rad st

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

, 8 ; 1& 11 1 1# 1$ 1' 1* 1,

-ressure 6or", Energy, Enthalpy -ower )bsolute or <ynamic +iscosity "inematic viscosity 5requency >as constant Thermal %onductance Thermal %onductivity /pecific 9eat !olar !ass or !olecular !ass

p 6,E,9 p f . h " c !

73m : or 72m 6 or :3s 7.s3m 22 9= : 3 "g 4 63m 4 63m4 :3 "g 4

4g3m2s "g2m 3s "g2m 3s# "g3m2s m 3s cycle3s m 3s 4 "g3s#4 "g2m3s#4 m 3s 4 "g 3 mol

%ules &or Using S' Units ?ased on the recommendations from several international conferences, the (nternational organi=ation for standardi=ation and the )merican society of )gricultural Engineers, the following rules have been framed and should be followed in the usage of /( units. S' Pre&ixes The prefi1 symbols are printed in roman (upright) type without spacing between the prefi1 symbol and unit symbol. The prefi1es provide an order of magnitude, thus eliminating insignificant digits and decimals. 5or e1ample, 1;, && m or 1;. . 1 1&#m becomes 1;. "m Factor 1&18 1&1' 1&1 1&; 1&* 1&# 1& 1&1 Pre&ix e1a peta tera giga mega "ilo hecto de"a Sym!ol E T > ! " h da Factor 1&21 1&2 1&2# 1&2* 1&2; 1&21 1&21' 1&218 Pre&ix deci centi milli micro nano pico femto atto Sym!ol d c m n p f a

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

)n e1ponent attached to a symbol containing a prefi1 indicates that the multiple or sub multiple of the unit is raised to the power e1pressed by the e1ponent. 5or e1ample, 1 1 mm# cm21 @ @ (1&2# m)# (1&2 m)21 @ @ 1&2; m# 1& m21

%ompound prefi1es, formed by the Au1taposition of two or more /( prefi1es, are not to be used. 5or e1ample, 1 nm but not 1 mm )mong the base units, the unit of mass is the only one whose name, for historical reasons, contain a prefi1. To obtain names of decimal multiples and sub multiples of the unit mass, attach prefi1es to the word BgramC. )ttach prefi1es to the numerator of compound units, e1cept when using B"ilogramC in the denominator. 5or e1ample, we use .' ":3s but ''& :3"g not not .' :3ms '.' d:3g

(n selecting prefi1es, a prefi1 should be so chosen that the numerical value preferably lies between &.1 and 1&&&. 9owever double prefi1es and hyphenated prefi1es should not be used. 5or e1ample, use >: not "!: Capitali(ation The general principle governing the writing of unit symbols is as follows D roman (upright) type, in general lower case, is used for symbol of units however, if the symbols are derived from proper names, capital roman type is used (for the first letter), for e1ample, 7, :, etc. These symbols are not followed by a full stop (period).

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

(f the units are written in an unabbreviated form, the first letter is not capitali=ed (even for those derived from proper nouns). 5or e1ample "elvin, newton. The numerical prefi1es are not capitali=ed e1cept for symbols E (e1a), (peta), T (Tera), > (giga) and ! (mega). Plurals The unit symbols remain the same in the plural form. (n unabbreviated form the plural units are written in the usual manner. 5or e1ample. $' newtons or $' 7 Punctuation 5or a numerical value less than one, a =ero should precede the decimal point. The /( symbols should not be followed by a period, e1cept at the end of a sentence. English 2spea"ing countries use a centered dot for a decimal point E others use a comma. Large numbers should be grouped into threes (thousands) by using space instead of commas, 5or e1ample, # $'* ,8;. ;1 "erived units The product of two or more units may be written in either of the following ways D 7.m (or) 7m ) solidus (oblique stro"e, l), a hori=ontal line or negative power may be used to e1press a derived unit formed from two others by division. 5or e1ample. m3s m s ) solidus must not be repeated on the same line. (n complicated cases, parentheses or negative powers should be used. 5or e1ample D Practical Manual ms21 not #, $'*, ,8;. ;1, centimetres or cm

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

m3s

or ms2 but not

21 21

m3s3s

: 3 (s m ") or : s m 421 but not :3s3m34

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Energy Unit Conversions Convert the &ollo)ing into *+ 1. 9- F h 9@ @ @ . "cal 1 "cal #. "6h 1 "6h @ @ $. "gf 2m 1 "gf F m '. 1 7m 1 7m 1. !: 1 !: @ @ @ . "cal 1 "cal @ @ @ $. 18* ": $18* 6s $18* 2222222222222222222222 9-2h ,#* 1 #*&& Practical Manual 1&* : @ 1&* 6s 1&* 222222222222222222222 9-2h ,#* 1 #*&& &.#,, 9-2h @ 1 : @ 1&2* !: Convert the &ollo)ing into ,P - h @ @ ;.81 7m @ ;.81 : ;.81 1 1&2* !: : 1&&& 22222 1 #*&& s s #.* !: @ @ $.18* ": $.18* 1 1&2# !: : ,#* 22222 1 #*&& s / * $;* &&& : .*$;& !:

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

@ #. "6h 1 "6h @ @ @ $. "gf2m 1 "gf F m @ @ @ @ '. 1 7m 1 7m @ @ @ Convert the &ollo)ing into .cal 1. !: 1 !: @ @ @ . 9- F h 9- F h @ @ @ @ Manual

1.'8 1 1&2# 9-2h

1&&& 6h 1&&& 22222222 9-2h ,#* 1.#'; 9-2h

;.81 7m @ ;.81 : ;.81 6s ;.81 2222222222222222222222 9-2h ,#* 1 #*&& #., 1 1&2* 9-2h

1 : @ 1 6s 1 222222222222222222222222 9- h ,#* 1 #*&& #.,, 1 1&2, 9- h

1&# ": 1&# 2222222222222 "cal $.18* #8.8; "cal

: ,#* 22222222 1 #*&& s s *$;.* ": *$;.* 22222222222222 "cal $.18* *# .;, "cal Practical

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

#. "6 h "6 h @ @ @ @ $. "gf F m "gf F m @ @ @ ;.81 : ;.81 1 1&2# 22222222222222222 ": $.18* .#$$ 1 1&2# "cal ": 1 22222222 1 #*&& s s #*&& ": #*&& 222222222222 "cal $.18* 8*& "cal

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

'. 7m 1 7m @ @ Convert the &ollo)ing into ./h 1. !: 1 !: @ @ @ . 9p F h 1 9p2h @ @ #. "cal 1 "cal @ @ @ @ $. "gf2m 1 "gf2m @ @ @ ;.81 : @ ;.81 6s ;.81 222222222222222222222 "6h 1&&& 1 #*&& ., ' 1 1&2' "6h $.18* ": $.18* "6s $.18* 222222222222 "6h #*&& 1.1*# 1 1&# "6h ,#* 6h &.,#* "6h 1&* : @ 1&* 6s 1&* 222222222222222222222 1 "6h 1&&& 1 #*&& &. ,8 "6h 1&2# 2222222222222222 ": $.18* .#8; "cal

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

'. 7m 1 7m @ @ @ Convert the &ollo)ing into .g& m 1. !: !: @ 1&* : @ 1&* 7 m 1&* 22222222222222 "gf m ;.81 1&1 ;#* "gf m 1 : @ 1 6s 1 222222222222222222222 "6h 1&&& 1 #*&& .,8 1 1&2, "6h

@ @ . 9-2h 1 9p2h @ @ @ #. "cal "cal @ @ @ $. "62h "6h @ @ @

: ,#* 222222222 1 #*&& s s .$;* *&& 7m ., 1 1&' "gf m $.18* ": $18* 7m $ *., "gf m : 1&&& 222222 1 #*&& s s #*&&&&& 7m #.**; 1 1&' "gf m

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

'. 7m 7m @ @ Convert the &ollo)ing into Nm 1. !: 1 !: . 9-2h 9-2h @ @ @ #. "cal "cal @ @ @ $. "62h "6h @ @ @ '. "gf2m 1 "gf2m @ ;.81 7m : 1&&& 222222 1 #*&& s s #*&&&&& : #.* 1 1&* 7 m $.18* ": $18* : $18* 7 m : ,#* 222222222 1 #*&& s s *$; *&& : .*$;* !7 m @ @ 1&* 1&* 7m 1 22222222222222 "gf m ;.81 &.1& "gf2m

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Applications o& Energy Unit Conversions Unit Conversion 0a!le Sl. No 1 # $ !TGE !T%E 1 boe Energy e1uivalent !TGE !T%E 1 ton pit coal 1 boe @ @ @ + $1.8, 1 1&' ;.# 1 1&1' ;.# 1 1&; *.8*, 1 1&; .cal 1 1 1&1# , 1 1&1 , 1 1&* ./2h 11.# 1 1&; 8.1$ 1 1&; 8.1$ 1 1&# $0U #.;, 1 1&1# .,8 1 1&1# .,8 1 1&,

!illion Tonnes of Gil Equivalent !illion Tonnes of %oal Equivalent 1 ton of pit coal 1 barrel of oil equivalent

1 ton pit coal @

Energy "ensity o& "i&&erent Fuels Sl. No Fuel Energy density *E" 4E" /h 3 .g 11&&& #&& $ && '1'& ##&&& 1#8; ,*;$ '8&& 1 8&& 11*&& /h3m5 8#&& 1 '&& &&& #;;& $;& ';&& *1&& $$&& ,&&& ;&&&

1 # $ ' * , 8 ; 1&

Gil %oal 6eed )mmonia 9ydrogen (liquid) !ethane (liquid) Ethanol (liquid) !ethanol (liquid) -ropane -etrol

Calori&ic values o& #i1uid Fuels in di&&erent units Sl. Fuel Speci&ic gravity 1 # $ ' 4erosene <iesel -etrol Ethanol !ethanol &.,; &.8 &.,' &.,; &.,8 *+3# ##.&, #$.## # .;, .,# .1; 4E" .cal3# /h3# ,;&& 8 &1 ,8,* '$#& '#&1 ;18* ;'#* ;1'8 *#1$ *1*$ $0U 3 *+3.g *E" .cal3. /h3.g g 1&&&& 1&&&1 1&'&1 *8,# *,;* $0U 3.g

# #1#$# $1.8* # '#, $1.8, #1 $8 $#.;* 1'$# 8.,, 1&#1 8.$'

x 165 x 165 11.* , #;.*,$ 11.* ; #;.*,; 1 . 11 $1.**$ ,.;; ,. , ,.;& *.;*#

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Po)er to do )or. &or *an and Cattle Sl. No 1 # $ ' Source !an 6oman %hild ?ulloc" pair ?uffalo (single) )atts *& '& #& ,'& '*& ,P &.&8 &.&8* &.&$1 1.&1; &.,*1 ./ &.&* &.&' &.&# &.,' &.'* .cal3h '1.* $# '.8 *$' $81.* $0U3h &$.,8 1,&.*' 1& .#; '';., 1;11.#

*odel Calculation ' 7 1. "cal 1 "cal 1 !TGE @ @ @ . "6h 1 "6h 1 "6h #. ?TH 1 ?TH 1 !TGE @ @ 1&''.1 : $1.8, 1 1&1' 222222222222222222 1&'' .1 @ #.;, 1 1&1# ?TH @ @ 1&# :3s 1 #*&&& s @ #*&& &&& : $1.8, 11&1' 222222222222222222 #.* 11&* @ 11.*# 1 1&; $.18* 1 1&# : $1.8, 1 1&1' 22222222222222222222 $.18* 1 1&# 1 1 1&# "cal

*odel Calculation '' HP 1 9*& watts ./ 1 "6 *& watts @ @ @ @ ,#* watts *& 2222222222 &.&8 9,#* 1&&& watts *& 2222222222 &.&* "6 1&&& Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

.cal 3 h 1 "cal 3 h @ $.18* 1 1&# 6s 2222222222222222222222 @ 1.1* 8 6. #*&& *& 2222222222222 @ '1.* "cal3h 1.1* 8

*& watts

BTU/h 1&''.1 6s 2222222222222222 @ &. ;# 6 #*&& s *& 2222222222 @ &. ;# &$.,8 ?TH 3 h

1 ?TH 3 h

*& watts

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

*odel Calculation ''' For .erosene +olume energy density .cal 3# 1 "cal 3 L ##.&, !: 3 L @ @ @ Wh / L 1 6h 3 L ##.&, !: 3 L @ @ @ BTU / L 1 ?TH 3 L ##.&, !: 3 L @ @ 1&''.1 : 3 L #*&& : 3 L ##.&, 1 1&* 222222222222222222 #*&& ;18* 62hl 3 L $18' :3 L ##.&, 1 1&* 222222222222222222 $18* ,;&& "cal 3 L @ ##.&, !:3 L

##.&, 1 1&* 222222222222222222 1&''.1 @ #1#$# ?TH 3 L

MJ / kg <ensity @ &.,; 1 1&&& @ !: ##.&,22222222 L +olume Energy <ensity 22222222222222222222222222222222 <ensity !E< @ ,;& "g 3 m# ##.&, !: 222222222222222 @ ##.&, 1 1&# !: 3 m# 1&2# m# !ass energy density ##.&, 1 1&# !: 2222222222222222 22222 ,;& m# $1.8* !:3"g m# 222222 "g

@ @ @

.cal 3 .g Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

1 "cal 3 "g $1.8* !:3"g

@ @ @

$18* : 3 "g $1.8* 1 1&* 2222222222222222 $18* 1& &&& "cal 3 "g #*&& :3"g $1.8* 1 1&* 2222222222222222 #*&& 11.* , 1 1&# 6h3 "g

W h / kg 1 6 h 3 "g $1.8* !:3"g @ @ @ BTU / kg 1 ?TH 3 "g $1.8* !: 3 "g @ @ @ Energy "emand o& "i&&erent Activities Sl. No 1 # $ ' * , Activity 9ousehold %attle raising -oultry production %rop production )gro processing .ural artisans Gther activities Unit >: 3 year 3 person >: 3 year 3 animal >: 3 year 3 1&&& birds >: 3 year 3 ha >: 3 year 3 person >: 3 year 3 person >: 3 year 3 person Energy demand 1;. $ 1&&.$& #,&.&, #,.&' &.#8 &. 8# &.$;$ 1&''.1 :3"g $1.8* 1 1&* 22222222222222222 1&''.1 #;.*,$ 1 1&# ?TH 3 "g

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No.8. "E0E%*'NA0'9N 9F :%A4'*E0%'C ANA#;S'S 9F P%9"UC0S 9F C9*$US0'9N 1. ) fuel oil consists of the following percentage analysis by mass D 8 I %,1 I 9 , I G , 1I /, #I 7 <etermine the stoichiometric mass of an air needed to completely burn 1 "g of this fuel and also estimate the products of combustion both by mass and as a percentage. Solution 7 Consti 2tuent *asso& Consti tuent, <.g3.g &uel= &.8 &.1 &.& 98 needed <.g3.g &uel= &.8 1 83# @ .1; &.1 1 8 @ &.;* 2&.& Products o& Com!ustion, <.g3.g &uel= 222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222222 C98 &.8 111 3# @ #.&1 2 2 ,89 2 &.1 1 ; @ 1.&8 2 S98 2 2 2 N8 &.8 1 8.8$ @ ,. ' &.1 1 *.' @ #.18 2&.& 1&.,*8 3 &. # @ 2&.&** &.1 1 #.# @ &.&## &.&# 1&.$ ,

% 9 G

/ 7 Total

&.&1 &.&# 1.&&

&.1 11 @ &.&1 2 #.1$

2 2 #.&1

2 2 1.&8

&.1 1 @ &.& 2 &.&

)ctual 7 supplied through air

@ calculated 7 from air F 7 available in the fuel

@ (,. ' J #.18 J &.&##) F &.&** @ 1&.#;, "g3"g fuel

9ence the products of combustion 3"g fuel are. #.&1 "g %G, 1.&8 "g 9 G, &.& "g /G , 1&.#;, "g 7 Total products of combustion @ (#.&1 J 1.&8 J &.& J 1&.#;,) @ 1$.'&, "g

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

9ence percentage analysis of products by mass, %G 9G /G 7 @ @ @ @ (#.&13 1$.'&,) (1.&83 1$.'&,) (&.& 3 1$.'&,) (1&.#;,3 1$.'&,) 1 1&& 1 1&& 1 1&& 1 1&& @ &.,'I @ ,.$$I @ &.1$I @ ,1.*,I

!ass of air 3 "g fuel @ Total mass of the products F !ass of air supplied @ 1$.'&, F 1 @ 1#.'&, "g . ) fuel consists of , I carbon, & I hydrogen and 8I o1ygen by mass. <etermine the stoichiometric mass of air required to completely burn 1 "g of this fuel. #. <etermine the stoichiometric mass of air needed to completely burn 1 "g of heptane, %,91*. $. The percentage analysis of, by mass, of a fuel is D % , I, 9 1 I, G 8I, and the remainder ash. <etermine the minimum mass of air needed for the complete combustion of 1 "g of this fuel. '. ) sample of )nthracite coal has the following composition by mass D % 8;I, 9 #.'I, G #.&I, 7 1.&I, / &.$I and the remainder ash. i) %alculate the stoichiometric air needed for the complete combustion of 1 "g of this fuel. ii) (f 1* "g air is supplied, calculate D a. the percentage e1cess air b. the masses of the constituents of the wet flue gas per "g of the fuel burnt. *. The percentage composition of a sample of coal was found to be D % 8;.#I, 9 '.&I, G $. I, 7 1.'I and the remainder ash. <etermine the stoichiometric air fuel ratio by mass. (f #&I e1cess air is supplied, find the percent composition of dry flue gases by volume. ,. ) boiler uses coal having the following percentage composition by mass D % 8&I, 9 *.'I, G $.'I, moisture I and the remaining ,I being ash as incombustible matter. %alculate D a. stoichiometric air required for complete combustion of 1 "g of this fuel. b. (f the actual air supplied is 1, "g3"g of coal, hydrogen is completely burnt, 8&I of % burns to %G and the remainder &I to %G, determine the gravimetric analysis of the products of combustion. 8. The dry e1haust gases from a petrol engine contained percent by volume of %G and negligible hydrogen. (f the fuel contained 8$ I % and 1*I 9 by weight, all 9 is burnt and all % may be assumed to burn partially to %G and %G. %alculate the following D Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

a. !ass of air supplied per "g of fuel b. -roportion of % burnt to %G . Solution 7 The combustion equations for the production of %G , %G and 9 G are D % 1 "g % 1 "g 9 1 "g J J J G 83# "g G $3# "g KG 8 "g %G 113# "g %G ,3# "g 9G ; "g

1 "g of % gives ,3# "g of %G. L1M "g of % gives &.& "g of %G. 1 @ 1 2222 1 &.& (,3#) @ &.&&8',1 "g

-roportion of % burnt to %G @ (&.8$ F &.&&8',1) 1 1&& @ ;8.;8 I 1 "g of % requires 83# "g of G to produce %G &.8#1$ "g of % requires . 1, "g of G 1 "g of % requires $3# "g of G to produce %G &.&&8',1 "g of % will require &.&11 "g of G 1 "g of the 9 requires 8 "g of G . &.1* "g of 9 will require 1. 8 "g of G Total G required @ . 1, J &.&11 J 1. 8 @ #.'&8 "g of G 3"g of fuel. Gr 1&& Total theoretical air required @ 222222 1 #.'&8 @ 1'. '$ "g of air3"g of fuel. # ;. The flue gas by volume in a boiler trial wasD%G 1&I,%G1.'I,G 8.'I and 7 8&I . The burnt fuel had the gravimetric analysis. % 8&I,9 'I, G *I and the remaining was incombustible matter. (f the rise in temperature of the flue gases is #'& &%, %alculate D a) !ass of air supplied 3 "g of fuel. b) 9eat carried by e1cess air and product of combustion c) 9eat lost by incomplete combustion Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

d) <ensity of dry gases at 1 "gf3cm and 1' &%. e) -artial pressure of each gas if the total pressure of dry gases is 1 "g f per cm . )ssume the following data D )ir contains #I of o1ygen by mass. %alorific value for % to %G is 81&& "cal 3 "g and % to %G is $,' "cal3"g 6ithin the given temperature range, %p for %G , G , 7 , %G and air are &. ,, &. $', &. *, &. $$ and &. #,' "cal 3 "g 4 respectively.

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No.5. "E0E%*'NA0'9N 49#U*E0%'C ANA#;S'S 9F P%9"UC0S 9F C9*$US0'9N 1. E1plain the method of determining volumetric analysis of the dry e1haust gases from an (nternal combustion engine. . The percentage analysis by mass of a fuel supplied to an (.%. engine is as follows D % @ 8'I, 9 @ 1'I . The air fuel ratio is 1#.'D1. (f all the carbon is burnt either to %G or %G and if there is no free G1ygen in the e1haust gases, calculate D i. +olumetric analysis of the dry products of combustion. ii. 9eat lost by incomplete combustion e1pressed as percentage of gross calorific value. %alorific value of % burning to %G @ 81&& "cal3"g %alorific value of % burning to %G @ $,' "cal3"g %alorific value of 9 burning to 9 G @ #$'&& "cal3"g Solution 7 The combustion equations along with proportion by mass are D 1. . #. % J G 1 83# % J G 1 $3# 9 J G 1 8 @ %G 113# @ %G ,3# @ 9G 18

7ow, G1ygen supplied ( #31&&) 1 1#.' #.1&' "g

@ @

Let 1 "g of % burn to %G and the remainder to %G. G1ygen required for burning 1 "g of % to %G @ (83#) 1 @ .**' 1. G1ygen required for burning (&.8'21) "g of % to %G @ $3# (&.8' F 1) @ 1.1# ' F 1.## ' 1 G1ygen required for burning 9 to 9 G @ 8 1 &.1' @ 1.

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

/ince there is no free o1ygen left in the e1haust gases, !ass of G supplied @ .**'1 J 1.1# ' 2 1.## '1 J 1. 1 @ mass of carbon burnt to %G @ &.'8. The products of combustion are 7itrogen, 7 %G %G @ (,,31&&) 1 1#.' @ (113#) 1 &.'8 @ '*3 $ (&.8' F &.'8) @ 1&.$ "g @ .1# "g @ &.*# "g

@ #.1&'

The following table is obtained in which the final column gives the volumetric analysis Consti tuent *ass o& No o& moles o& constituent constituent <parts !y volume = mass o& the constituent .g > 222222222222222222222222222 *olecular mass <.g mole= 1&.$ 1&.$3 8 @ &.#,1 .1# .1#3$$ @ &.&$8' &.*# &.*#3 8 @ &.& ' Percentage !y volume ? 8$.& 1&.; '.1 1&&.&

7 %G %G Total

ii. >ross calorific heat of combustion of the given fuel @ &.8' 1 81&& J &.1' 1 #$'&& @ *88' J '1,' @ 1 &*& "cal 9eat released from complete combustion of % to %G @ 81&& 1 &.'8 @ $*;8 "cal 9eat released during incomplete combustion of carbon i.e. from % to %G @ (&.8' F &.'8) 1 $,' @ **8. ' "cal 9eat loss due to incomplete combustion @ 1 &*& F ($*;8 J **8. ') @ 1 &*& 2 '#**. ' @ **;#.,' "cal Loss e1pressed as percentage of gross heat value @ '#**. ' 3 1 &*& @ $$.;*I #. ) gas consists of 1$. I %9$, '.;I %G , #*I %G, $&.'I 9 , &.'I G , and .;I 7 <etermine the stoichiometric volume of air for the complete combustion of 1 m# of this gas and also the products of combustion both in m#3 m# of gas and as a percentage. $. The analysis by mass of producer gas is as follows D9 1$I,%9$ I, G I, %G 'I, 7 ''I 5ind the stoichiometric volume of air required for the combustion of 1 m# of this gas. Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

'. ) gas fuel has the following composition by volume D 9 $;.$ I, %9$ &I G &.$ I, %G 1&I, %$98 I, 7 *. I . %alculate the stoichiometric air (chemically correct) fuel ratio. (f the gas is burnt in a &I lean mi1ture with air find the dry and wet analysis of products of combustion. *. The percentage of carbon in a fuel fired in a boiler trial was 81I by mass. (f the dry product analysis by volume isD %G 11I ,%G I, G $I , 9 8#I determine the air fuel ratio used. )lso find the amount of e1cess air supplied per "g of fuel. ,. The volumetric analysis of producer gas supplied to a gas engine is D 9 &I,

%9$ #I, %G I, %G 8I, 7 $,I a.%ompute volume of air needed for complete combustion of 1 m # of gas b.(f '&I e1cess air is added, find the percentage contraction in volume after the products of combustion have been cooled. 8. +olumetric composition of a gas is D %G .'E 7 1.'E %9$ ,#.'E % 9* .'. (t is supplied with 'I e1cess air for combustion. <etermine D i. +olumetric dry flue gas analysis based on %G , G and 7 . ii. Total volume of gas for complete combustion at #&& &% N 1.&1# ' bar

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No.@. C9N4E%S'9N 9F *ASS 09 49#U*E0%'C ANA#;S'S AN" 4'CE 4E%SA 1. ) gas consists of &I %G , 1&I G , and ,&I 7 by volume. <etermine the percentage analysis of the gas by mass. Solution 7 Consti ? !y tuent volum e %G & 7 ,& G 1& Total 1&& Product? !y vol. x %elative *olecular *ass & 1 $$ @ 88& ,& 1 8 @ 1;*& 1& 1 # @ # & #1*& ? !y mass (88&3#1*&) 1 1&& @ ,.; (1;*&3#1*&) 1 1&& @ * .& (# &3#1*&) 1 1&& @ 1&.1 1&&.&

. ) gas consists ofD #&I %G, &I 7 , 1'I %9$ E 'I 9 , 1&I G , and ,&I 7 by mass. <etermine the percentage composition of the gas by volume. Solution 7 Consti ?!y mass ? !y mass 3%** tuent %G #& #& 3 8 @ 1.&,1 7 & & 3 8 @ &.,1' %9$ 1' 1' 3 1* @ &.;#, 9 ' '3 @ 1 .' G 1& 1& 3 # @ &.#1 Total 1&& 1'.'#' %** 2 %elative *olecular *ass ? !y volume (1.&,131'.'#') (&.,1'31'.'#') (&.;#,31'.'#') (1 .' 31'.'#') (&.#1 31'.'#') 1 1&& @ *.; 1 1&& @ $.* 1 1&& @ *.& 1 1&& @ 8&.' 1 1&& @ 1.;8 1&&.&&

#. )n un"nown hydrocarbon fuel has the following Grsat analysis D %G 1 .'I, %G &.#I, G #.1I, 7 8$.1I. <etermine air fuel ratio, fuel composition on mass basis, stoichimetric air fuel ratio and percentage of e1cess air, if any. Solution 7 %ombustion equation may be written as D %a9b J 8$.1 7 J(8$.11 13,;)G @ 1 .' %G J &.# %G J #.1G J 8$.17 J 1 9 G (condensed) ?alancing for %arbon, a @ 1 .' J &.# @ 1 .8 ?alancing G1ygen, (8$.1 1 13,;) @ ( 1 1 .') J (&.# 1 1) J (#.1 1 ) J 1 Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

1 3 @ (8$.1 1 13,; ) 2 (1 .' J &.1' J #.1) @ *.* 1 @ 1#.

?alancing for 9ydrogen, b @ 1 @ *.$ !ass of carbon in fuel @ 1 .8 1 1 "g -ercent composition of %arbon in the fuel @ (1 .8 1 1 ) 3 O(1 .8 1 1 ) J ( *.$ 1 1)P @ 8'.##I -esrcent composition of 9ydrogen in the fuel @ ( *.$ 1 1) 3 O(1 .8 1 1 ) J ( *.$ 1 1)P @ 1$.*,I 5rom %ombustion equation, !ass of air supplied @ 8$.1 J (8$.1. 1 13,;) @ 1&*.$' "g3 18& "g fuel )ir25uel .atio by mass @ &.';1 D1 !inimum air required for 1 "g of fuel for complete combustion %(&.8'##31 )9(&.1$*,3 ) J 1 G @ y %G J = 9 G (condensed) ?alancing for %arbon, y @ &.8'##31 ?alancing for 9ydrogen, = @ &.1$*,3 @ &.&,##' ?alancing for G1ygen, 1@ yJ= 1 @ O( 1&.8'##31 ) J &.&,##'P3 @ &.1&,,8 !inimum air required for 1 "g of fuel for complete combustion @ (&.1&,,8 1 # )3&. # @ 1$.;;'; "g or @ O (&.8'## 1 # 31 ) J ( &.1$*, 1 831)P3&. # @ 1' "g /toichiometric air3fuel ratio -ercentage of shortage of air @ 1' D1 @ (1'2&.';1)31' @ ;*.&*I

$. ) certain petrol consists of 8*I %, 1$I 9 , b y mass. (f the fuel is burnt with &I e1cess of air and the combustion is complete, estimate the mass as well as the volumetric composition of the products of combustion, including the water vapour formed.

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

'. The gas supplied to an engine has the following percentage volumetric composition D %9$ &E % 9$ .&E 9 $&E %G 1'E %G ,E G and 7 1$. The percentage volumetric analysis of dry e1haust gases is %G 8.&, G ;.& and 7 8#.& Hsing mole method, find the volumetric ratio of air to gas in the reactant. )lso calculate the mean volumetric heat and the inde1 of adiabatic e1pansion. Hse the following mean values of %p for %G 1 .&, G ,.8' and 7 ,. ' "cal 3 mole 4. *. The composition by mass of a fuel is *'I he1ane (% *91$) having a net calorific value of 1&,,& "cal3 "g and #'I ben=ene having a net %+ of ;, ' "cal3"g. %alculate the air fuel ratio by mass of a correct mi1ture of this blend with air and calorific value of one cubic metre of the mi1ture at 7.T.-, treating the fuels as gases. )ir contains 1I by volume of o1ygen and 1 "g mole of the fuel occupies .$ m# at 7.T.-. 5ind also the percentage by volume of %G in dry e1haust gases from a #&I rich mi1ture, assuming complete combustion of hydrogen. ,. The dry e1haust gas of an oil engine have the following percentage composition by volume D %G 8.8'I, %G 1. I, G *.8I, 7 8#.1'I. The fuel oil had a percentage composition by mass % 8$I, 9 1$I and G I. <etermine the mass of air supplied per "g of fuel burnt and also convert the volumetric analysis of a flue gas into mass analysis. Solution 7 The fuel oil had a percentage composition by mass of % F 8$I, 9 F 1$I, G F I . To determine the mass of air supplied 3"g fuel burntD )ir contains #I G by mass. Consti tuent % 9 G *ass o& Constituent per .g o& &uel &.8$ &.1$ &.& 98 re1uired per .g o& Constituent Q 8 2 98 re1d.3.g o& &uel &.8$ 1 Q @ . $ &.1$ 1 8 @ 1.1 2&.&

Theoretical total G required @ . $ J 1.1 F &.& @ #.#$ "g 3 "g of fuel Theoretical mass of air required @#.#$ 1 #31&& @ 1$.' "g3"g of fuel

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Conversion o& 4olumetric Analysis 9& Flue :as in to :ravimetric Analysis Consti ? !y ? !y vol x %elative tuent volume *olecular *ass %G 8.8' 8.8' 1 $$ @ #8;.$ %G 1. 1. 1 8 @ ##.* G *.8 *.8 1 # @ 1,.* 7 8#.1' 8#.1' 1 8 @ # 8. Total 1&&.&& ;*8.8 !ass of %3"g of dry flue gas ? !y mass (#8;.$3 ( ##.*3 ( 1,.*3 ( ##&3 ;*8.8)1&& ;*8.8)1&& ;*8.8)1&& ;*8.8)1&& @ 1#.1& @ 1.1# @ ,.# @ ,8.$' 1&&.&&

@ (&.1#1 1 1 3$$) J (&.&11# 1 1 3 8) @ &.&$&'; "g. !ass of %3"g of fuel @ &.8$ "g !ass of dry flue gas 3 "g of fuel @ &.8$3&.&$&'; @ &.*' 9ence mass of e1cess G 3"g fuel @ &.*' 1 &.&,# @ 1.'1# "g. !ass of e1cess air @ 1.'1# 3 *. # @ *.'8 "g3"g of fuel. 5rom this, mass of air supplied 3 "g fuel @ 1$.' J *.'8 @ 1.&8 "g )lternatively, 7 in dry flue gas @ Total 7 from air. !ass of 7 3"g of fuel @ &.*' 1 &.,8 @ 1*. "g mass air 3 "g fuel @ 1*. 3&.,, @ 1.&8 "g. 8. The ultimate analysis of fuel oil is % 8 .,I E 9 1 .'IE / &.;IE 7 .;IE G 1. I with 'I e1cess air and complete combustion. <etermine the dry >as analysis based on %G , G and 7 both gravimetric and volumetric analyses.

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No.A. Aim7

"etermination o& Proximate and Ultimate Analyses o& $iomass

To study the ?iomass characteristics under pro1imate analysis and ultimate analysis >eneral <escription (t is essential to understand the properties of biomass materials not only to evaluate their utility as chemical feedstoc"s, but also to design suitable gasifier systems. 5or e1ample, the stoichiometric air requirements will be different from that needed for coal because o1ygen contents of biomass and bituminous coals are about $&I and $I respectively. ?esides, the relative air requirements for consuming the volatile matter and fi1ed carbon will be different because biomass contains much more volatiles and less fi1ed carbon than coal. <esign of the fuel storage facilities and feeding arrangements will need to accommodate the higher volumetric feed rates necessary for biomass because of its generally lower calorific value and density compared with coal. )lso, because biomass comes in many shapes and si=es, this equipment together with gasifier will need to be designed to accommodate their physical differences. /o, the properties to Rbe evaluated include chemical analysis, heats of combustion and f&rmation, physical structure, heat capacities and transport properties of biomass feedstoc"s. Chemical Analysis o& $iomass (n evaluating the feedstoc" for gasification, it is useful to have pro1imate and ultimate analysis, heats of combustion and sometimes ash analyses. These provide information on volatility of the feedstoc", elemental analysis and heat content. The elemental analysis helps to evaluate feedstoc"s in terms of potential pollutants. There are standard procedures available for evaluating carbonaceous feedstoc"s and they are listed in Table 1. There are number of instruments li"e the -er"in Elmer $& available for determining the elemental composition of biomass for carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur and o1ygen. !ost of these systems employ a catalytic or pyrolysis step to decompose the sample to carbon dio1ide, water, hydrogen sulphur and nitrogen, which are determined quantitatively by gas chromatograph using 5lame (oni=ation <etector (5(<) or Thermal %onductivity <etector (T%<). G1ygen is determined by catalytic conversion to carbon mono1ide over a platini=ed carbon catalyst followed by >% analysis. Proximate Analysis The pro1imate analysis determines the moisture content (!), volatile matter (+!), ash and (by difference) fi1ed carbon content of a fuel. (n the test procedure, the volatile matter is driven off in an inert atmosphere at high temperatures (;'& %) using a slow heating rate. The pyrolysis yield is representative of that for slow pyrolysis processE fast pyrolysis techniques employing very rapid heating rates normally yield more volatile matter. The moisture content determined by pro1imate analysis represents physically bound Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

water onlyE water formed by chemical reaction during pyrolysis is classified with the volatiles. The ash content is determined by combustion of volatile and fi1ed carbon fractions. The resulting ash fraction is not representative of the original ash, more appropriately termed mineral matter, due to the o1idation process employed in its determination. (n the e1act analysis, small corrections to the ash weight are necessary to correct it to a mineral matter basis. The fi1ed carbon content of an as2received sample is calculated by material balance. Thus 5% @ l F ! F )sh F +! The most useful basis for reporting pro1imate analysis is the dry basis. (n this instance, the compositions arc normali=ed to a moisture free basis (indicated by S)D +!S J 5%S J )shS @ 1 and in which case, +!S@ +! 3 (l 2 !) 5%S@ +! 3 (l 2 !) and )shS@ )sh 3 (l 2 !) -ro1imate analyses of some biomass materials are given in Table . 0a!le. 1. AS0* standards methods &or gasi&ication &eedstoc.s *ethod -ro1imate )nalysis !oisture Less than 'I !ore than 'I +olatile !atter 9igh Temp. %o"e ?ituminous %oal Lignite )shD Hltimate )nalysis % 9 G 7 / Less than I !ore than I >ross 9eating +alue )sh analysis /iG 5e G# %aG 4G 7a G 7gG - G' Manual 0est No. a <2#1,'2,# &. &.# <2#1,'2,, &. &.' 1.& &.' &.# &.&, &.&' &.&' &.1& '& ?tu3lb (11*.#4:34g) 1.& &.# &. &.1 &.1 &.# &.&' &.$ 1.& .& 1.& 2 2 2 &.1& &. & 1&& ?tu3lb ( # .*4:34g) .& &., &.$ &.# &.# &.' &.1' Practical &.# &.' %epeata!ility <)t ?=! %eprodu2 ci!ility <)t ?=!

<2#1,$2,# <2#1,82,# <2#1,82,# 7one <2#1,,2,' <2 #*12** (1;,8) <2# 8*2,, <2 ;'2*; (1;,$) <2#*8 2,8 <2#*8#2,8

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

a. The two digit number following the second cash is the year the method was approved. The date in brac"ets is the year the test was reapproved without change. b. Ta"en from (nstitute of >as Technology 1;,8. S9U%CE7 .eed, T.?., ?iomass >asification, 7oyes <ata %orporation, 7ew :ersey, H/), 1;81. Ultimate Analysis7 Hltimate analysis is generally used to determine the %,9,7,/ and G present in the solid fuel. The standard methods to be adopted for determining these elements are listed in Table. %are should be ta"en in using ultimate analyses for fuels with high moisture content because moisture is indicated in the ultimate analysis as additional hydrogen and o1ygen. /o, to avoid confusion, it is always better to perform ultimate analyses on dry basis. 5or certain biomass materials li"e municipal solids and animal wastes, the determination of chlorine is important because it represents a possible pollutant and corrosive agent in gasification and combustion systems. 5i1ed carbon I (5%S) .ice hus" (.2# *8.*& 1,.$& 1$.&& -atnai2 # *;.#& 1'.8& 1$.;& -adma *8.;& 18.*& 1 .,& )rhar stal"s 8 .;& 1.;8 1'.1 -igeon pea ,;. & $.;$ 1'.8* %otton stic"s 81$& #.#& 1'.#& <haincha stal"s (/esbania aculeate) 8 .,& .;8 1$.# >roundnut shell 8#.;& $.$# 11.*, !ai=e stal"s ,;.', #.#* 1,.&, !ai=e cobes 8#.&1 1.8# 1'.1* .ico /traw *;.,& 1;. & 11.1& 6heat straw ,#.*& 8.$, 1,.;# /ourceD .. %. !aheshwari, 5uel characteristics of .esidues, Training !anual on ?iomass production and Energy conversion, )pril 1'T ,, 1;8', %entral (nstitute of )gricultural Engineering, ?hopal, (ndia. Hltimate analyses of some biomass materials are listed in Table #. 0a!le 5. Ultimate Analysis o& some !iomass materials on dry !asis 5uel type ?arely straw %orn cobs %otton stal"s .ice straw 6heat straw Eucalyptus(%amaldulensis % #;.; $*.'8 #;.$, $1.,8 $#. & $;.&& 9 '. , '.8, '.&, $.*# '.&& '.8, G $#.81 $'.$* #;.1$ #*.', #;.$& $#.;, 7 1. ' &.$, 1. & &.,& &.*1 &.#& / 2 &.&1 &.& &.&8 &.11 &.&1 %l 2 &. 1 2 &.#$ &. 8 &.1# )sh ;.,' 1.$& 1'.1& 1'.;$ 11.$& &., 0a!le 8. Proximate Analysis o& some $iomass materials 5uel type +olatile matter I )sh I (+!S)

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) %asuarina $8.*1 '.8# $#.#* &.8; &.& &.1* 1.$# .ice hulls $&.;* $.#& #'.8* &.$& &.& &.1 18.#$ /ource D ?.!.:en"ins and :.!. Ebeling1 Thermochemical -roperties of ?iomass fuels, %alifornia )griculture, !ay2:une 1;8'1 +o. #;, 7o. 'N*, Hniversity of %alifornia, H/). *oisture Content7 ?iomass materials have varying moisture contents and it is useful to "now the moisture content of the fuel to be used in order to determine its drying cost and as2received heat content. The actual recoverable heat is reduced because of the heat requirements for vapourising the moisture and for superheating the vapour. Table $ gives the moisture content of some biomass materials. 0a!le @7 *oisture content or some !iomass materials 5uel Type -addy straw .ice hus" >roundnut straw ?agasse 6heat straw %otton stic"s !ai=e stal"s !ai=e cobe ?aAra stal"s !oisture content (wt I) 1&.* ;.* 1 .1 1'.& ;. 1 .& 11.' 8.* 11.

/ource D +imal G.-. and Tyagi.-.<., Energy from ?iomass, )gricole -ublishing, 1;8$, 7ew <elhi, (ndia.

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex. No. B. "E0E%*'NA0'9N 9F CA#9%'F'C 4A#UE 9F A:%'CU#0U%A# %ES'"UES %alculate the %alorific +alue of the following agricultural residues using the three different formulae and draw the relationship between the calculated values and the e1perimental values and also obtain their relationships from the graphs. '. Standard &ormula 7 9%+ @ 131&& U81&& % J O #$$&& (9 2 (G38) ) P J ''. "ulongCs &ormula 7 9%+ @ 1 31&& U8&8& % J O #$'&& (92(G38) ) PJ '''. $oieCs &ormula7 9%+ @ 131&& U#'1*& % J 11* ' 9 F 11&;& G J * 8& 7 J 1&$*' /V ":3"g 0a!le. Ultimate Analysis o& 4arious $iomass $iomass .ice hus" -addy /traw ?aAra /traw >roundnut /hell %otton /tal" 6ood(?arren land) %oconut hus" %oconut shell %oconut wood !ai=e cob !ai=e stal" /ugarcane bagasse .ed gram stal" 5odder %oir pith /unflower ear head /orghum stal" ?arley straw Elemental Composition, per cent !y mass, dry !asis Experimental, ,,4 % 9 G 7 )sh <*+3.g= #,.8' '.&& $&.#, &.#& 1*.$8 1'.'$ #*.8# $.;; #8.#; &.'; 1;. & 1'.&# #1.#& &.*& '$.#8 1. & 1 .' 2 $1.&' $.8& $8.1' 1.', $.$# 1'.$$ '1.&1 #'.&& $*.8& '&. & $;.1& $*.18 $1.&8 $8. ' '1.&& $8.$& #;.1& #1.#& $ .&& #;.# $.#& $.#& *.; *.$ *. $.;, $. *.& $.8& *.1& &.#& &.'& $.8& '. , $&.'1 ';.#& $#.#& $ .*& $#.,& $*.#& '&., #*.1* $1.'8 $1.'& '$.1& * .&& $*.'& $#.81 &.;8 &.$& 2 2 2 &.*& &.* &.1; &.*$ &.*& &.'& 1. & .1& 1. ' #. & 1.&& #.&& &.8& 1.& 1.8# #.#* *.$ 1.;8 #.$& *.&& '.&& $.*& ;.,' 1,.$& &. 1 18.1& &.1& 1;.&& 18.1' 1,.*, 1;.,& 18.'8 18.*& 18.1& 1 .*8 18. & 1,.#1 & /V "cal3"g & /V "cal3"g

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex. No.D. "etermination o& Calori&ic 4alue o& Fuels using $om! Calorimeter 1. 'ntroduction The heat of combustion and the calorific value of solid and liquid fuels can be determined by using ?omb calorimeter. (n this type of calorimeter the small quantity of fuel under test is burnt at constant volume under high2pressure container. G is admitted to the bomb under pressure to burn the fuel. The energy liberated is indicated by the rise in temperature, which can be measured and thus the calorific value of fuel is determined. 1. "escription o& the apparatus The schematic diagram of bomb calorimeter is shown in figure. (t consists of a thic" wall, stainless steel, high2pressure cylinder L)M. ) non return, G admission valve L?M and a pressure release valve L%M are fitted to the top of it. ) base cap L<M is screwed onto the bottom of this cylinder and sealed by a LHM section rubber washer E. Two pillars 5 and > are set into the base of cap < and protrude up into the bomb. -illar 5 is set directly into the base while pillar > is electrically insulated from base and is connected to an electric contact, which protrudes out from the base cap at the bottom. ) support ring 9 is fitted onto the pillar 5 and the ring can be slid up or down on the pillar. ?oth the pillars have a slot at the top into which a piece of fuse wire is wedged. ) Wuart= crucible 4 is mounted in the support ring. 6hile in use, the calorimeter is mounted in a water container can, L, with a mount ! at the bottom. (n this mount, there are registers for the feet of the bomb and also electrical contacts which mate with the corresponding contacts in the base of the bomb. Electrical power is fed to the mount via lead2covered wire, 7 from a plug and soc"et LGM. The can L is itself mounted in another outer can -, which serves as a heat insulator. ) wooden plate form W which serves as a register for the can LLMis set into the base of the outer can L-M. The apparatus is covered by the cover plate . and a stirrer L/Mis set inside it. ) ?ec"mann Thermometer, T is inserted into the cover plate L.M through a hole. The electrical circuit for firing the fuse : is shown in figure. The fuse is put in series, with an ammeter, a power supply (battery or mains), a rheostat and a switch. ) pestle and mortar is needed for powdering the coal and a small press is available for compressing the powdered coal into small pellets. ) chemical balance, a high pressure G supply usually from a high pressure cylinder and a stop cloc" are also required.

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5. Experimental Procedure &or the "etermination o& C4 o& Fuels )ssume that coal is under test. The coal is first crushed in the pestle and mortar until it becomes a fine powder. (according to ?/ specification2 ?./. 1&1*D -art 'D1;*,, the coal should be ground to pass through a 1& Xm sieve F , mesh). The crucible from the calorimeter is then weighed. The powdered coal is then pressed in to a small pellet in the pellet press. Then appro1imately 1 g of this is placed in the crucible. The crucible along with the coal is weighed and the mass of the coal is determined by subtracting the "nown mass of the crucible. The top and bottom of the bomb are then separated and the crucible is set centrally at the base of the bomb in the support ring. ) fuse is set across the support pillars and adAusted such that it touches the coal in the crucible. /ometimes, the fuse wire is set tightly across the pillars and then a piece of cotton is tied centrally and its free end is hanging down into the coal. %are is needed to "eep the bomb upright so as not to upset its contents. The bomb is then charged with G to a pressure of # !73m (#& atm), without displacing the original air content. )fter charging, the valves at the top of the bomb are carefully sealed. The charged bomb is now inserted into the water container can, ma"ing sure that the bottom of the bomb and the electrodes register correctly at the base of the can. ) measured quantity of distilled water ( "g) is poured into the can such that it Aust covers the bomb. The temperature of water should be such that the final temp. reached is within a degree of standard reference temperature of ' &%. The cover and its stirrer are now assembled and the thermometer inserted through this cover. Electrical connections are then made ma"ing sure that the switch is open F circuit. /tirring is commenced at a moderate pace and this stirring is continued throughout e1periment. )fter a period of not less than ' minute, the thermometer readings are noted at intervals of 1 minute. )t the fifth minute, the switch is closed to fire the bomb. :ust before firing, ma"e sure that the electrical connections are correct by pressing the switch. The ammeter may be quic"ly observed here to see if the bomb fuse has fired. This is detected by the ammeter swinging up to a ma1imum value and then quic"ly returning to =ero showing that the fuse has bro"en. This mar"s the end of preliminary period and chief period commences. The thermometer will now commences to rise rapidly showing successful firing of the bomb. The thermometer is read every minute with minimum accuracy of &.&1 &% and this should be continued for the remainder of the e1periment. 6hen the ma1imum temperature has reached, this mar"s the end of chief period and mar"s beginning of after period.

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

The temperature fall in the after period may be slow initially and when the temperature fall shows a steady rate and temperature is recorded for ' min. )fter this, the bomb is removed from the apparatus and the pressure release valve is opened to reduce the pressure in the bomb to the atmospheric. The bomb is then opened and crucible is inspected to see that there is a complete absence of sooty deposit to ensure that the coal has been completely burnt. Then the calorific value of coal can be determined from the results obtained during the e1periment. @. %egnault - P&aundler cooling correction c %orrection @ nvY J vR 2 vY tR F tY @ where, nv J "/ Z (t) J K (t& Jtn) F ntY 1

/ F E1pression within the brac"ets n F no. of minutes within the chief period vY F rate of fall of temp. per minute within the preliminary period (f the temperature rises in this period, then v is negative. vR F rate of fall of temp. per minute in the after period. tY and tR F average temps during preliminary and after periods respectively. n21

Z (t) F sum of temp. reading during the chief period. 1 K (t& J tn) F mean of firing temp. t& and the first temp, tn after which the rate of change is constant. vR FvY " @ 22222222 cooling constant of calorimeter. tR F tY ((f total water equivalent is not less than '&& g and with adequate heat insulation, " should not e1ceed &.&& ') -reliminary period Time Temp. & % & 1. $; %hief period Time Temp. & % * #.$' )fter peiod Time Temp. & % 1&( tn #.8*8 Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

1 # $ ' (t&) )verag e

1. 1. 1. 1.

'1 '# '* '8

, 8 ; )verag e

#.8* #.8,1 #.811 #.,$8

) 11 1 1# 1$

#.8*$ #.8*& #.8', #.8'#

1. *& 1. '$' n21

1' #.8$; )verage #.8'8 tC @ #.8'8 vC @ &.&&#8 vR FvY " @ 22222222 @ &.&& # tR F tY

tM @ 1. '$' vM @ 2 &.&& n @ ' nvM @ 2 &.&11

Z (t) 1$.;; 1 K (t& J tn) @ 2ntM 1 .'# /

.'* @

@ '.&

A. Calculation o& C4 o& Fuels %ooling correction @ nv J "/ @ 2&.&11 J &.& ; & @ J&.&18 % Hncorrected temperature rise %orrected temperature rise @ tn F t& @ #.8*8 2 1. * @ .*&8 &% @

.*&8 J &.&18 @ .* * &% /ince the water equivalent of the calorimeter is .* "g3equiv, Energy liberated by the coal @ .* 1 .* * 1 $.18*8 @ 8.'8' ": for
&

rise )ssuming that &.;8 g of coal was ta"en for e1periment, %alorific value of coal @ .* 1 .* * 1 $.18*8 3 (&.;8 1 1& 2#) @ ; && ":3"g.

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Ex. No. E. "etermination o& Flue :as Analysis Using 9rsat Apparatus 1.Aim To determine the volumetric analysis of the given sample of flue gas .)pparatus needed Grsat apparatus, aspirator, and flue gas 5. "escription o& the apparatus (n the LGrsatM apparatus, three double glass pipettes are connected to a front glass header as shown in figure. The front pipettes are filled with glass tubes while the rear pipettes remain empty. The rear pipettes are connected to a rear glass header. This rear glass header is sealed by means of a rubber bladder, at its open end. The left2hand end of the front glass header has a three2way top which can be arranged to couple the inside of the apparatus to the gas sample supply, to atmosphere or seal the apparatus altogether. To the right2hand end of the front glass header , is connected a LEudiometerM which is usually surrounded by a water Aac"et, so as to preserve a uniform temperature of the gas during analysis. The Eudiometer tube is calibrated from & to 1&&. The bottom of the Eudiometer is connected to a rubber hose which in turn is connected to a water filled aspirator bottle. The whole apparatus is mounted in a wooden bo1. The three pipettes are separately part filled with chemical solutions which absorbs %G , G and %G. Typical solutions are as followsD -ipette 1 This absorbs %G . The solution in this pipette is made up of one part caustic soda or caustic potash to two parts of water by mass. -ipette This absorbs G . The solution in this pipette is made up of one part of pyrogallic acid to three parts of water together with $ parts of caustic soda or caustic potash in 1* parts of water by mass. -ipette # This absorbs %G. The solution in this pipette is made up of a solution of cuprous chloride in 9%l acid. This is prepared by dissolving cuprous o1ide in about & times its mass of strong 9%l and allowing it to stand in a cor"ed vessel containing copper wire until the solution becomes colourless. @. Experimental Procedure &or &inding the percentage composition o& Exhaust :as (n actual use, the levels of the pipette solution are broad to the levels ), ? and % mar"ed on the pipette empty tubes Aust below single2way taps. Then, the taps are sealed.

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

The gas sample to be tested is then connected by means of a rubber hose to the left2hand end of the front glass header. The three2way tap is then turned to atmosphere and the aspirator is raised to fill the eudiometer with water. Thus, the gas sample in the eudiometer is e1pelled to the atmosphere. The three way tap is then turned to connect in the gas sample and by lowering the aspirator, a sample is drawn into the apparatus. The sample is then e1pelled through the three2way tap and again a new sample is ta"en in. This procedure is repeated for a few times in order to ma"e sure that a representative sample of gas is contained in the apparatus. The levels in both eudiometer and aspirator are then dropped to =ero on Eudiometer scale. The three2way tap is then sealed. To analy=e the %G , the tap to the pipette1 is then opened and by raising the aspirator, the gas sample can be pushed out of the eudiometer into the pipette. )s the gas moves into the pipette, it will displace the absorbing fluid from the front pipette into the rear pipette. This will be e1posed by glass tubes in the front pipette which will be covered with thin film of absorbing fluid and thus a large absorbing area is presented to the gas. The gas is pushed in and out of the pipette a few times by raising and lowering the aspirator. 5inally, the absorbing fluid is brought bac" to its original datum level and the single2way tap is closed. The aspirator is then held close to the eudiometer so that, both their levels are the same. There will be a positive reading on the eudiometer showing that the %G in the gas has been absorbed. )s the eudiometer is calibrated from & to 1&&, this will give the percentage of %G directly. The same procedure is adopted for the determination of percentage of G in pipette and I of %G in pipette #. (n these cases, however the difference between the original and final eudiometer reading gives the percentage of the particular gas which is being analy=ed. 5inally, by subtracting the last reading from 1&&, the percentage of 7 is determined. Thus, percentage dry product analysis of gas is made. (n order to ensure that only dry gas has to be analy=ed, a LHM tube containing %a%l or some other drying agent is sometimes filled before the three way tap. Thus, the gas sample is firstly drawn through this drying agent before entry to the apparatus and hence only dry products enter. A.%esult The volumetric composition of the given sample of flue gas is found and presented.

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No. 11. Aim7

Study o& "i&&erent 0ypes o& Filns &or Charcoal Production

To study the wor"ing principle of charcoal production using different types of "ilns Furnaces2'ntroduction ) furnace is a device in which the chemical energy of fuel or electrical energy is converted into heat which is then used to raise the temperature of material, called the burden or stoc", placed within it for that purpose. 5urnaces operating at low temperatures are often called ovens depending on their purpose. There are also others used for higher temperatures for different purposes. 6hen associated with the ceramic industries they are called "ilns. >lass in melted in tan"s and other special terms often occur, suggest the purpose, such as sintering machine used in metallurgical are dressing etc. Classi&ication The classification of furnace can be done asD ?atch type 2 continuous type <irect heating type 2 indirect heating type. <ifferent metallurgical furnaces areD %rucible 5urnace 9earth 5urnace /haft 5urnace F ?last 5urnace %onverters F ?essemer, side blown or top blown (L<) !uffle 5urnace F /oa"ing pits .eheating furnaces )nnealing furnaces. 9ther 0ypes o& Furnaces .otary 4iln 2 %ement 4iln Tunnel 4iln ?oiler 5urnace Electric furnaces 2 Three -hase or /ingle -hase a) 9eating by metallic resistors, or b) 9eating by induction. 5urnaces are further classified based on various factors as belowD $ased on type o& &uel used /olid fuel fired furnace (coal fired boiler) Liquid fuel fired furnace (rotary "iln) >aseous fuel fired furnace (%o"e oven /inter furnace, /oa"ing pit, .e2 heating furnace etc.) Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

!ulti fuel fired furnace (%aptive power plant boiler) $ased on use o& heat saving appliances .egenerative furnace (e.g. %o"e oven) .ecuperative furnace (e.g. /oa"ing pit, .e2heating furnace) 6aste heat type furnace (e.g. .otary lime "iln) $ased on dra&t control system 7atural draft furnaces (e.g. ?.5. stoves, co"e ovens etc.) 5orced draft furnaces induced draft furnaces balanced draft furnaces (most large combustion furnaces come under this category) /ome of the above classified furnaces e.g. batch furnace, continuous, recuperative furnace and regenerative furnace have been shown in 1 (a), 1 (b), 1 (c), and 1 (d) respectively. (n a !atch &urnace, the stoc" to be heated is charged in the furnace and is heated for a predetermined period to achieve the required temperature. The heated stoc" is then ta"en out of the furnace and the fresh cold stoc" is again charged. This furnace can be put off as and when needed. (n a continuous &urnace, the stoc" enters or is pushed in from one end (i.e, charging end) of the furnace and it travels countercurrent to the hot flue gases to the other end i.e, discharge end). (ts speed is so controlled that it gets heated upto the required temperature by the time it reaches the discharge end. (t is then discharged out of the furnace and another cold stoc" may be charged. This process of stoc" charging and discharging goes o continuously. (n a recuperative &urnace, waste heat recovery is done from the flue gas in a metallic or ceramic (tile recuperator by preheating the combustion air and or fuel gas (if permissible) before it is e1hausted out through the chimney. (n a regenerative &urnace, waste heat recovery from flue gas is done by a matri1 of refractory chec"er wor"3bric"s, which gets heated up during the passage of hot flue gas through it for a predetermined time (usually &2#& minutes). (n the ne1t reversal cycle, cold combustion air and or3cold fuel gas (provided its preheating is permissible) is routed through the hot chec"er wor"3bric"es of the regenerator, which preheats them. )gain when the hot regenerators bric"s loose their heat and become cool, the passage of the hot flue gas and cold air and cold fuel gas is reversed through the reversal damper3valve. That is why two sets of regenerators are provided for each furnace so that while one set of regenerator is being heated by hot flue gas, the other set of already heated hot regenerator is loosing its heat to the cold combustion air and3or cold fuel gas for preheating them. )nd after a fi1ed interval (called reversal cycle usually of &2#& minutes), regenerators duty is interchanged3reversed. Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No. 18. Aim7

0esting o& 9pen Core Agro2residue :asi&ier

To study the wor"ing principle of rice hus" gasifier and to test its performance Apparatus o& the unit7 ?alance, measuring Aar, thermometer, watch etc., "escription o& gasi&ier 1. 5unction . /pecification D D 5or thermal applications in small scale industries

.ice hus" consumption rate D * F 8 "g3h Thermal efficiency D '' F *& I >as yield D 1& F 1 m#3h -ower required for blower D &. "6 Thermal capacity D 1&,&&&F1',&&& "cal3h

All "imensions are in mm %omponents of Gpen core >asifier

Fig. 9pen Core Agro %esidue :asi&ier

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

1 .eactor ?urner # Tar collecting bottle $ ?ottom lid ' >rate * Tie rods #. >eneral information D

The $.' "6 downdraft open core rice hus" gasifier consists of two cylindrical drums of #&& mm and #,& mm diameter, Aoined with flange at the top and fitted with a grate and a lid at the bottom. ) &. 46 electrical motor run blower suc"s gas, produced from the plant and supplies to the burner. ) gas cooling and cleanup system was provided in between the reactor and the burner. $. %ost of unit '. %ost of operation *. /alient features D D D .s. ',&&&

.s.#&3h

Thermal applications of rice mills can be suitably met out with thermal efficiency of '' to *&I %ompared to diesel system about .s.#&&3day can be saved 9!servations The gasifier can be ignited from bottom. ) bed of ignited charcoal (&.' "g.) to a depth of '& mm is placed over the grate. Then the biomass is dumped over the red2hot charcoal. ) white gas emanates and it is ignited. 1) ) #) 4) ') *) ,) !ass of water ta"en (m) "g (nitial temperature (t1) 5inal temperature (t ) Loss in weight of water ( m) "g !ass of fuel used in "g (nitial time T1 5inal time T

CA#CU#A0'9NS Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

4nown values /pecific heat of water (/) @ 1 ". cal.3"g Latent heat of water (L) @ '$& ". cal.3"g %alorific value of firewood @ $ ,1 ". cal.3"g 9eat output 9G @ ms t J L m 9eat input 9i @ (mass of fuel used 1 calorific value of fuel) J (mass of charcoal 1 calorific value of charcoal) Thermal efficiency @ 9G3 9( -ower output rating -. @ f %v 38*& 6here, f @ quantity of fuel burnt "g3h. %v @ calorific value of fuel ". cal3"g @ Thermal efficiency of the stove. %ESU#0S Thermal efficiency of gasifier burner system -ower .ating of gasifier burner system

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No. 15. Aim7

0esting o& "o)n "ra&t :asi&ier

To study the wor"ing principle of down draft gasifier and to test its performance :asi&ication 0heory The thermo2chemical decomposition of hydrocarbons from biomass in a reducing (o1ygen deficient) atmosphere is called gasification. The resulting gas product contains combustible gases F hydrogen (9 ) and carbon mono1ide (%G) as the main constituents. ?yproducts are liquids and tars, charcoal and mineral matter (ash or slag). .educing atmosphere of the gasification stage means that only &I to $&I of stochiometric amount of o1ygen (G ) related to a complete combustion enters the reaction. This is enough to cover the heat energy necessary for a complete gasification. (t creates sensible heat necessary to complete gasification from its own internal resources. -revailing chemical reactions are listed in Table , wherein the following main three gasification stages are described. Stage '. >asification process starts as auto2thermal heating of the reaction mi1ture. The necessary heat for this process is covered by the initial o1idation e1othermic reactions by combustion of a part of the fuel. Stage ''. (n the second 2 pyrolysis stage, combustion gases are pyroly=ed by being passed through a bed of fuel at high temperature. 9eavier biomass molecules distillate into medium weight organic molecules and %& . (n this stage, tar and char are also produced. Stage '''. (nitial products of combustion, carbon dio1ide (%G ) and (9 G) are reconverted by reduction reaction to carbon mono1ide (%G), hydrogen (9 ) and methane (%9$). These are the main combustible components of producer gas. These reactions, not necessarily related to reduction, occur at high temperature. >asification reactions, most important for the final quality (heating value) of syngas, ta"e place in the reduction =one of the gasifier. 9eat consumption prevails in this stage and the gas temperature will therefore decrease. Tar is mainly gasified, while char, depending upon the technology used, can be significantly RburnedR, reducing the concentration of particulates in the product. 0a!le 87 $iomass gasi&ication chemical reactions >asification /tage .eaction formula .eaction heat Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

E1othermal %J13 G %G %G J 13 G %G % J G %G %*91&G' 1%G J y9 G 9 J 13 G 9 G %G J 9 G %G J 9 %G J #9 %9$ J 9 G Stage '' 7 Endothermic %*91&G' %19= J %G -yrolysis %*91&G' %n9mGy Stage ''' 7 Endothermic % J 9 G %G J 9 >asification % J %G %G (.eduction) %G J 9 %G J 9 G E1othermic % J 9 %9$ (/ource D :.?. :ones N %.). 9aw"ins. Engineering Thermodynamics, 1;8*,-. $'*) Stage 17 G1idation and Gther e1othermic .eaction The net product of air gasification can be found by summing of the partial reactions, as followsD %arbohydrate matter (%*91&G') J G %[9\ J %L9!G7 J%G J9 J9eat .eactions labeled in Table as e1othermic means that chemical energy is converted to sensible heat and reactions labeled as endothermic means that heat is consumed in favor of chemical energy. <esign of gasifier depends upon type of fuel used and whether gasifier is portable or stationary. >asifiers are classified according to how the air blast introduced in the fuel column. 9istory of gasification reveals several designs of gasifiers. The fi1ed bed gasifier has been the traditional process used for gasification, operated at temperatures around 1&&& %. The most commonly built gasifiers are classified asD Hpdraft gasifiers (fig 1) <owndraft gasifiers (fig ) %rossdraft gasifiers (fig #)

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No. 1@. Aim7

Study o& Producer :as Cleaning System

To study the various types of producer gas cleaning systems :as Conditioning7 'ntroduction ?iomass gasifiers of current design produce a raw gas Rconsisting chiefly of carbon mono1ide, and hydrogen with minor amounts of methane, higher molecular weight hydrocarbons, sulpher compounds, tar and oil. (t also contains impurities such as soot, ash, unburnt fuel dust, etc. This gas requires little or no cleanup when it is used for thermal application, i.e. burned as a boiler fuel. (f the product gas is intended for use as an engine (/( or %() fuel, or synthesis gas (e.g. in the production of methanol) it will require substantial cleanup. Necessity o& :as cleaning The gas produced from the gasifier has a high temperature and contains impurities such as soot, ash, un2burnt fuel particulates, organic vapour, tar, which are harmful to the engines. These impurities are to be reduced to a value suitable for engine operation to prevent the engine from e1cessive wear, carbon deposits, pitting of the valve seat, sludging of the oil and in e1treme cases sei=ing of the engine. This can be achieved by using a suitable filteration and cooling system. The cooling of the gas not only removes the condensible vapor, but also helps to achieve the best possible volumetric efficiency of the engine, (i.e.) increases its density so as to allow a greater charge (by mass) per cylinder. 0he gas cleanup train The design and sequence of the clean up train will depend upon the ultimate application of producer gas (i.e.) thermal or engine application. 5or engine application, producer gas has to be almost free from particulates. The allowable limit is 1& mg37m#. (t should be noted that if, the gasifier is wor"ing on engine suction, e1cessive pressure drop across the gas cleanup train should be avoided. -rimary removal of coarse material may be effected by a simple e1pansion bo1, a baffle bo1 or a cyclone in which particles, drop out of the gas stream when the gas changes direction and. loses velocity. /econdary cleaning which may follow the cooling section may be a dry or wet process. The gas may be filtered dry through wool, paper, fabric, etc., (n wet filteration, the filter element is wetted with oil or water. 6et filtering is also called scrubbing or washing. (f water is used as the scrubbing medium, the gas is saturated with water at the outlet temperature and pressure of the scrubbing system. The scrubbing water probably is corrosive to carbon steel due to the presence of organic and inorganic water soluble acids. %onsequently the water scrubbing system might have to be stainless steel unless the surfaces were protected by coating with a corrosion2resistant material. Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Expansion !ox and $a&&le !ox7 The lower part of the gas generator has a large flow area which gives the gas a low velocity. (n this way most of the big dust particles are separated and fall down into the ash bin. ?ecause of their weight (in wood gas generators the charcoal or porous concrete beds also have the effect of filters). The same principle is used for baffle2plate cleaners as shown in fig.1 in which the gas velocity is alternatively decreased and increased. Cyclone cleaner7 ) cyclone is by definition a dust collector without moving parts in which the gas is supplied tangentially in the cylindrical upper part of the cleaner. (n the centre of the cleaner is a driving pipe. The gas is first forced down into the cleaner then suc"ed upward by this pipe. The dust separation from the gas stream ta"es place through centrifugal forces. The suspended particles tend to be driven to the wall of the cyclone and are collected in an ash bin at the bottom. (n almost all cases, the cyclone is the first stage of cleaning the raw gas. (t is usually located right after the gas e1it from the gasifier. %yclones are easy to build and ine1pensive. They separate only coarse particles from the gas. Table 1 shows efficiency ranges of medium and high efficiency cyclones. These are differentiated on the basis of cyclone body dimensions. 0a!le 1. E&&iciency range o& *edium and ,igh E&&iciency cyclones -articles si=e !edium cyclone 9igh cyclone (micron) (collection efficiency in I) Less than ' Less than '& '&28& '2 & '&28& 8&2;' 1'2$& 8&2;' ;'2;; >reater Than $& ;'2;; ;'2;; The efficiency of a cyclone is highly depended on the inta"e gas velocity. (t is therefore advisable to locate the cyclone right after the gas e1it where the gas has its highest velocity because of the reduced area at and after the e1it. This location of the cyclone also has the advantage of cooling down the gas through e1pansion before it reaches the subsequent purification units such as fabric filters (which are sensitive to high temperatures) and wet scrubbers. >enerally cyclone efficiency increases with an increase in 1. <ensity of the particle matter. . (nlet velocity into the cyclone. #. %yclone body length. $. 7umber of gas revolutions inside the cyclone ( 21& are normal for high efficiency cyclone). '. -article diameter *. )mount of dust (mg3m#) ,. /moothness of the cyclone wall.

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%yclone efficiency decreases with an increase in 1. %arrier gas viscosity . %yclone diameter #. >as outlet diameter and gas inlet duct width $. (nlet area '. >as density Fa!ric2cloth Filter ) simple and very effective method of removing solid matter from a gas stream is to filter it through cloth or some other porous material. /everal types of natural and synthetic fabrics such as cotton fibre glass, nylone, glass wool, etc. are commercially available and their characteristics concerning permeability, durability, resistance to certain acids and, temperature are given in Table .1 5abric filters have very high collection efficiency in e1cess of ;;I. Their pressure drop is within the range of '2 & cm of water column. The overall pressure drop is caused by combination of fabric resistance which is primarily a function of air flow, structure of the fabric and resistance due to the dust accumulated on the fabric surface. Hsually less than 1&I of the total resistance is attributed to the clean fabric resistance. (f the opening between the threads of the cloth are many times larger than the si=e of the particles collected, then it has a low efficiency and low pressure drop initially. The disadvantages of fabric filters are their short life and temperature sensitivity. )t temperature above #&&]% fabric filters cannot be used. !oreover, the hygroscopic material, condensation of moisture and tarry adhesive components found in producer gas may cause plugging of the fabric. 5abrics can burn if readily combustible dust as in producer gas is being collected. That is why their use has not been as wide2spread in the past although their efficiency is e1cellent even in submicron range where wet scrubber systems are totally ineffective. )lmost all fabric filters are either envelope or cylindrical shaped as shown in 5ig.# /et Scru!!ers 6et scrubbers have the ability to remove gaseous pollutants and solid particles while cooling the gas. )t the same time which ma"es them ideal for stationary units where the degree of removal is only limited by the pressure drop throughout the system. (n almost all cases the scrubbing agent is water, or water2oil emulsion. /crubbers for small scale gas producer engine system will be categori=ed as followsD 1. -ac"ed bed scrubbers. . +enturi scrubbers. #. (mpingement and entrainment scrubbers. Pac.ed !ed scru!!ers ) pac"ed bed scrubber typically consists of pac"ing, liquid spray, distributor plates, a support grate for the pac"ing and ports for gas and water. Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

%ommercially available pac"ing materials are shown in 5ig. $. Their purpose is to brea" down the liquid flow into a flim with high surface area. The design and shape of the material determines the pressure drop through the column overall surface area available for water2gas contact and most important, the homogenuity of the pac"ing. They are usually made out of metal, ceramics, plastics or carbon. -ac"ing materials are by no means restricted to the commercially available materials. They can be Rhome madeR materials, e. g. steel wool, wood wool, wood chips or bloc"s, saw dust, carcoal, co"e, gravel, crushed roc"s, sand cor" and porcelain marbles. The gas2liquid contact may be cocurrent, counter current or cross flow. ) proper pac"ing is most important for better performance of the scrubber. (mproper pac"ing causes channeling and lowers the collection efficiency considerably. 5riable pac"ings such as soft co"e are not as suitable because of their physical properties. /oft co"e soon cho"es up the scrubber. The pac"ing material must be perfectly clean and free from dust. 5or home made -ac"ings, it is best to grade them according to si=e and start with a layer of coarse material (#2' %m diameter) separated by a liquid distribution plate from the fine material layers (12# cm diameter). (f the bed is not pac"ed evenly, the washing water will tend to ta"e the easiest path and leave unwetted areas through which the gas will pass. The water distributor at the top of the column must given an even distribution over the full cross section. 5ig. ' displays an adequate and inadequate liquid distribution system1. -ac"ed bed scrubbers are subAected to plugging but can be shut down periodically to change the pac"ing. Temperature limitations area of special importance when plastic pac"ing is used and corrosion can result when metallic pac"ing is used. 5ig. * shows a design used to a fairly large e1tent in /weden for motor boats and /hips . (t consists of a full cylindrical containerE hori=ontally divided by two perforated wall partitions into three chambers. The lower chamber is a wet cyclone, equipped with a gas inlet and a bottom drain with a water loc" for the cooling and cleaning water. 5rom here, gas is suc"ed up into the middle chamber which is partially filled with co"e, resching2rings (rings made of ceramic pipes), etc. The filter layer is flushed from above with water from a pipe entering through the chamber wall. (n this way, not only effective cooling is achieved, but also direct washing of the gas as well as cleaning of the filter pieces. 5rom here the gas is suc"ed further up through a layer of cor" in the top chamber and from there to the gas outlet to the engine. (n the feed line for the gas to the scrubber is another water inlet whereby the gas and the pipe walls are sprayed. This enhances both cooling and cleaning. This type of scrubber is mainly used in cases where water is available and when weight and si=e are of little importance. 4enturi Scru!!er7 ) venturi scrubber (5ig. ,) uses high gas velocities (*& to 1 & m3s) to atomi=e liquid into droplets and then accelerate the droplets to promote droplet collection#. Liquid may be introduced in several ways without affecting collection efficiency. Hsually, the liquid is introduced at the entrance to the throat through several straight pipe no==les directed radially inward. .emoval efficiency Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

increases with throat velocity and liquid to gas ratios. +enturi scrubbers are the smallest and simplest of all scrubbers. They do not plug easily but are subAect to corrosion due to the high throat velocity. They can be built with adAustable throat openings to permit variation in pressure drop and collection efficiency. Liquid2to gas ratios ranging from &.8 to # l3m# is generally used. (mpingement Entrainment or self2induced spary scrubber D This is also a wet scrubber operate with a stationary water bed and, no pac"ing material. (t can be used for particle collection of several microns diameter. The pressure drop may range from 1&2'& cm of water column. The principle of operation is based on particle collection by multitudes of drops generated through the gas flow below or past the water surface. This type of scrubber has some important advantages such as no clogging or bloc"ing of the unit can occur under heavy dust load. The system is always well irrigated and does not require a continuous water flow if evaporation is not e1cessive. The spray is self induced by the gas stream without employing mechanical devices or spray orifices. %irculating water is used without purification, e1cessive build up of solids being avoided by purging the settled solids and adding clean water. 6ater consumption is low between &.&# and &.*, l3m# gas depending on temperature of the gas and allowable concentration of the slurry, concentration is usually "ept at '21&I.

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ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

Ex.No. 1A.

0esting o& Fuel E&&icient /ood $urning Stoves

Aim7 To find out the thermal efficiency of biomass gas stove "escription The fi1ed biomass gas2stove is to be tested and should be constructed on a firm and flat surface, located on the site close to the field conditions, vi=., "itchen and hutments of rural areas. The chulha is allowed to dry completely on its site. The chimney, cowl, must remain reasonably out of the roof level and should not have any sidewall in close pro1imity to avoid bac" draft. %himney should be properly sealed with roof. The fuel opening of the chulha (fi1ed3portable) should not be e1posed to direct wind as it would increase burning rate and also have cooling effect on the fire and pot.

5uel The fuel wood cut into convenient si=e, $2' cm in dia and #&2$&cm long is ta"en from a single lot completely sun dried (moisture content less than 1 I) for '2, days. ?efore starting the test, weighed quantity of fuel wood is stac"ed in small lots of 1.& "g each close to the feed opening of the chulha. Wuantity should be sufficient to last for full test duration of hours. The fuel wood used is of "nown calorific value, determined in the laboratory with the help of ?omb calorimeter and corrected for sulphur and moisture content. 'nstruments and other accessories 1. <ial Thermometers (range &21'&&%) with stem2# nos. . /ingle pan balance (1 "g capacity dial type with least2count of 1&& gm) #. !easuring Aars 1lit, lit capacity2 each $. /top watch or time measuring device '. -airs of tong, metallic tray and matchstic"s etc. *. -iece of clean cloth ,. -aper pad and pencil for recording the observations 8. Testing vessels of required specification 4essels The flat bottom cylindrical vessels made of 9indolium or equivalent (1*>) shall be used for better heat transfer. The h3< ratio of vessel shall be &.'2&.*. Practical Manual

ERG 282 Thermo Chemical Conversion Technologies (2+1)

a. The diameter of vessel for portable stoves shall be ta"en as 1.' times the outer diameter of e1posure slit or '& mm more than the stove diameter, whichever is less. b. The vessel used for fi1ed chulha should fit into the pots hole and sealed properly to avoid lea"age. c. -roper si=e lids of the same material as that of vessels shall be required to cover the vessels during the test to fit on it without any air gap in between. 9oles are cut at the center of the lids to fit rubber cor"s for insertion of thermometer stems. d. ?efore filling in water into the vessel, its inner and outer surface should be well cleaned and dried and should be free of any foreign material deposit. The lid should also be cleaned. e. +essels should be cleaned for subsequent tests. /ater %lean portable water should be used for water boiling test. 4nown quantity of water is filled into the vessel, so as to occupy its 3# volume. Let the quantity (in lit) of water in first pot placed on the first pot hole) be w1 and that in the second pot be w . (nitial temperature of water in both the pots is noted using laboratory (mercury2in2glass) thermometer (T1). 'gniting the &uel The fire is started by igniting small piece of chopped fuel wood or with minimum (1&21' ml) "erosene with the help of match stic". )s soon as the fuel wood catches fire in the first pot hole (hearth) vessels containing water are placed properly on the pot seats. )t this moment the time (t 1) of the starting the test is noted down by the stop watch. The dampers, if any, are "ept open at this stage. $oiling 1. )llow combustion of fuel in such a way that the flame becomes steady. This can be done by adAusting the chimney damper3fuel2wood pieces of the hearth. . 7ote the temperature rise of water at regular interval. #. 6hen water starts boiling in the first pot, note down the time at this stage. /immering sound of the boiling water and its temperature will indicate the boiling point. 7ote down its temperature (T ) and timing (t ) and remove lids. $. /imilar procedure should be adopted for second pot. 7ote the timing to reach boiling point in second pot (t#) and remove lids. '. 4eep constant fuel feed rate until duration of the test is over. 7ote down timing (t$) and final temperature (T#). *. E1tinguish the fire in the hearth immediately at the end of the test duration. Ta"e out coal (residue) and weigh it.

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,. !easure quantity of residual water, separately in both the pots. %alculate quantities of water evaporated in the two pots separately, but subtracting quantity of residual water from the initial quantity of water ta"en in the vessels. 8. The test should be continued till two consecutive readings become consistent. ;. The test should be repeated after allowing sufficient time for cooling of chulha. Calculations 1. Wuantity of fuel2wood burnt D 5 ("g) . Wuantity of water evaporatedD ( pot D (61261) lit (( pot D (6 26 ) lit Latent heat of Evaporation DL #. .ise in temperature of D T#2T1 @ T&% $. <uration of the test D t$2t1 @ 9rs '. 9eat absorbed by water D 61 (T 2T1) J 6 (T#2T1) @91 *. 9eat used in the formation of steam D (61261) L J (6 26 ) L @ 9 ,. Total useful heat D 91 J 9 8. Wuantity of heat liberated from the burning of fuel 5 [ %.+. Therefore, Thermal efficiency, @
H1 + H 2 FXC .V .

Po)er rating The power rating of chulha is a measure of total energy produced during one hour by fuel wood, -... @ @
FXC.V . Xn 46 860

F ( kg / hr ) XC.V .( KCal / kg ) Xn 46 860

Practical Manual