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= 8.31 J K mol
= 9.65 x 10 C mol
= 6.02 x 10 mol
= 6.63 x 10
= 3.00 x 10 m s
mp
= 1.67 x 10
1
0
mn
= 1.67 x 10
0
1
me
= 9.11 x 10
= 1.60 x 10
1
1
electronic charge
23
34
Js
27
kg
27
kg
31
kg
19
C
1
Vm
= 22.4 dm mol at s.t.p.
3
1
Vm
= 24 dm mol under room conditions
(where s.t.p. is expressed as 101 kPa, approximately, and 273 K (0 C))
ionic product of water
14
= 1.00 x 10 mol dm
(at 298 K [25 C])
Kw
= 4.18 kJ kg K
1 1
(= 4.18 J g K )
37
Ionisation energies (1st, 2nd, 3rd and 4th) of selected elements, in kJ mol
Proton
Number
First
Second
Third
Fourth
1310
He
2370
5250
Li
519
7300
11800
Be
900
1760
14800
21000
799
2420
3660
25000
1090
2350
4610
6220
1400
2860
4590
7480
1310
3390
5320
7450
1680
3370
6040
8410
Ne
10
2080
3950
6150
9290
Na
11
494
4560
6940
9540
Mg
12
736
1450
7740
10500
Al
13
577
1820
2740
11600
Si
14
786
1580
3230
4360
15
1060
1900
2920
4960
16
1000
2260
3390
4540
Cl
17
1260
2300
3850
5150
Ar
18
1520
2660
3950
5770
19
418
3070
4600
5860
Ca
20
590
1150
4940
6480
Sc
21
632
1240
2390
7110
Ti
22
661
1310
2720
4170
23
648
1370
2870
4600
Cr
24
653
1590
2990
4770
Mn
25
716
1510
3250
5190
Fe
26
762
1560
2960
5400
Co
27
757
1640
3230
5100
Ni
28
736
1750
3390
5400
Cu
29
745
1960
3350
5690
Zn
30
908
1730
3828
5980
Ga
31
577
1980
2960
6190
Ge
32
762
1540
3300
4390
Br
35
1140
2080
3460
4850
Sr
38
548
1060
4120
5440
Sn
50
707
1410
2940
3930
53
1010
1840
2040
4030
Ba
56
502
966
3390
Pb
82
716
1450
3080
4080
38
Bond energies
(a)
Diatomic molecules
Bond
HH
DD
N{N
O=O
FF
ClCl
BrBr
II
HF
HCl
HBr
HI
(b)
Energy/kJ mol
436
442
994
496
158
244
193
151
562
431
366
299
Polyatomic molecules
Bond
CC
C=C
C{C
C C (benzene)
CH
CCl
CBr
CI
CO
C=O
CN
C=N
C{N
NH
NN
N=N
OH
OO
SiCl
SiH
SiO
SiSi
S Cl
SH
SS
Energy/kJ mol
350
610
840
520
410
340
280
240
360
740
305
610
890
390
160
410
460
150
359
320
444
222
250
347
264
39
at 298 K (25 C)
in alphabetical order
Electrode reaction
E /V
Ag
+0.80
Al
1.66
Ba
2Br
Ca
2Cl
Cl2 + 2H2O
+1.64
2+
Co
0.28
Co
+1.82
Co + 6NH3
0.43
Cr
0.91
Cr
2Cr + 7H2O
+1.33
Cu
+0.52
Cu
+0.34
Cu
+0.15
Cu + 4NH3
0.05
2F
Fe
0.44
Fe
0.04
Fe(OH)2 + OH
H2
2I
2.92
Li + e
Li
3.04
2+
Mg
2.38
Mn
1.18
Mn
MnO4 + e
MnO4 + 4H + 3e
MnO4 + 8H + 5e
NO3 + 2H + e
NO3 + 3H + 2e
NO3 + 10H + 8e
+
2
MnO4
+0.56
MnO2 + 2H2O
+1.67
Ag + e
Al
3+
2+
Ba
+ 3e
+ 2e
Br2 + 2e
2+
Ca
+ 2e
Cl2 + 2e
2HOCl + 2H + 2e
Co
Co
2+
[Co(NH3)6]
+e
+ 2e
Cr
2+
+ 2e
Cr
3+
+ 3e
Cr
2
Cr2O7
+ 2e
3+
3+
+e
+ 14H + 6e
+
Cu + e
2+
Cu
Cu
+ 2e
2+
2+
[Cu(NH3)4]
+e
+ 2e
F2 + 2e
2+
Fe
3+
Fe
Fe
+ 2e
+ 3e
3+
3
+e
[Fe(CN)6] + e
Fe(OH)3 + e
+
2H + 2e
I2 + 2e
K +e
Mg
2+
Mn
Mn
+ 2e
+ 2e
3+
+e
MnO2 + 4H + 2e
Na + e
2.90
+1.07
2.87
+1.36
2+
Cr
0.74
2+
0.41
3+
+2.87
2+
Fe
+0.77
4
[Fe(CN)6]
+0.36
0.56
0.00
+0.54
2+
Mn
2+
+1.49
+ 2H2O
+1.23
Mn
NO2 + H2O
+0.81
HNO2 + H2O
+0.94
+
NH4
+0.87
Na
2+
+ 4H2O
+ 3H2O
+1.52
2.71
40
Ni
0.25
Ni + 6NH3
0.51
2H2O
+1.77
2H2O
+1.23
4OH
+0.40
H2O2
H2 + 2OH
Pb
PbO2 + 4H + 2e
Pb
+ 2H2O
+1.47
2
SO4
+ 4H + 2e
SO2 + 2H2O
+0.17
S2O8 + 2e
+2.01
S4O6 + 2e
2
2SO4
2
2S2O3
2+
Sn
0.14
Sn
+0.15
1.20
2+
Ni
2+
[Ni(NH3)6]
+ 2e
+ 2e
H2O2 + 2H + 2e
O2 + 4H + 4e
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
+
O2 + 2H + 2e
2H2O + 2e
2+
Pb
4+
Pb
Sn
4+
Sn
2+
+ 2e
+ 2e
+ 2e
+ 2e
+ 2e
3+
V
VO
2+
+
VO2
VO3
+e
+ 2H + e
+ 2H + e
+ 4H + e
2+
Zn
+ 2e
+0.68
0.13
2+
Pb
2+
+1.69
2+
2+
3+
0.83
+0.09
0.26
+ H2O
+0.34
VO
2+
+ H2O
+1.00
VO
2+
+ 2H2O
+1.00
Zn
0.76
All ionic states refer to aqueous ions but other state symbols have been omitted.
41
(b)
2F
+2.87
S2O8 + 2e
2
2SO4
+2.01
2H2O
+1.77
+ 8H + 5e
Br2 + 2e
2Br
NO2 + H2O
+0.81
Ag
+0.80
3+
Fe
4OH
Cu
+0.34
SO2 + 2H2O
+0.17
4+
S4O6 + 2e
2S2O3
H2
0.00
2+
Pb
0.13
Sn
0.14
Fe
0.44
Zn
0.76
Mg
2.38
+ 2e
Ca
2.87
2.92
F2 + 2e
H2O2 + 2H + 2e
MnO4
PbO2 + 4H + 2e
Cl2 + 2e
2
Cr2O7
+ 14H + 6e
NO3
+ 2H + e
Ag + e
Fe
+e
I2 + 2e
O2 + 2H2O + 4e
2+
Cu
2
SO4
E /V
+ 2e
+ 4H + 2e
Sn
+ 2e
2H + 2e
Pb
2+
Sn
2+
Fe
2+
Zn
2+
Mg
2+
Ca
+ 2e
+ 2e
+ 2e
+ 2e
+ 2e
K +e
2+
+ 4H2O
+1.52
2+
+ 2H2O
+1.47
Mn
Pb
+1.36
3+
+1.33
+1.07
2Cl
2Cr + 7H2O
2+
2I
+0.77
+0.54
+0.40
2+
Sn
+0.15
2
42
+0.09
(b)
(c)
Period 3
metallic
atomic/nm
Na
0.186
Mg
0.160
Al
0.143
ionic/nm
Na+
0.095
2+
Mg
0.065
3+
Al
0.050
single covalent
Si
P
S
Cl
0.117
0.110
0.104
0.099
Si
3
P
2
S
Cl
Ar
0.192
Be
Mg
Ca
Sr
Ba
Ra
0.112
0.160
0.197
0.215
0.217
0.220
Be
2+
Mg
2+
Ca
2+
Sr
2+
Ba
2+
Ra
0.031
0.065
0.099
0.113
0.135
0.140
C
Si
Ge
0.077
0.117
0.122
Si
2+
Ge
4+
0.041
0.093
Sn
Pb
0.162
0.175
Sn
2+
Pb
2+
0.112
0.120
F
Cl
Br
I
At
0.072
0.099
0.114
0.133
0.140
Cl
Br
0.136
0.181
0.195
0.216
0.144
0.132
0.122
0.117
0.117
0.116
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
0.116
0.115
0.117
0.125
Sc
2+
Ti
3+
V
3+
Cr
2+
Mn
2+
Fe
3+
Fe
2+
Co
2+
Ni
2+
Cu
2+
Zn
Group II
metallic
Group IV
single covalent
metallic
(d)
(e)
Group VII
single covalent
43
4+
2+
3+
0.041
0.212
0.184
0.181
0.081
0.090
0.074
0.069
0.080
0.076
0.064
0.078
0.078
0.069
0.074
Characteristic values for infra-red absorption (due to stretching vibrations in organic molecules).
Bond
Characteristic ranges
Wavenumber
(reciprocal wavelength)
1
/cm
CCl
700 to 800
CO
1000 to 1300
C=C
C=O
1610 to 1680
aldehydes, ketones, acids, esters
1680 to 1750
C{C
2070 to 2250
C{N
2200 to 2280
OH
'hydrogen-bonded' in acids
2500 to 3300
CH
2840 to 3095
OH
3230 to 3550
NH
primary amines
3350 to 3500
OH
'free'
3580 to 3650
44
45
II
III
IV
VI
VII
1.0
He
hydrogen
helium
Key
6.9
4.0
9.0
Li
Be
atomic symbol
Ne
lithium
beryllium
name
boron
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
fluorine
neon
10.8
atomic number
23.0
Na
Mg
27.0
Al
sodium
magnesium
aluminium
11
24.3
12
12.0
13
14.0
16.0
19.0
Si
Cl
Ar
silicon
phosphorus
sulfur
chlorine
argon
15
32.1
16
35.5
10
39.9
28.1
14
31.0
20.2
18
17
39.1
40.1
45.0
47.9
50.9
52.0
54.9
55.8
58.9
58.7
63.5
65.4
69.7
72.6
74.9
79.0
79.9
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
potassium
calcium
scandium
titanium
vanadium
chromium
manganese
iron
cobalt
nickel
copper
zinc
gallium
germanium
arsenic
selenium
bromine
krypton
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
83.8
36
46
85.5
87.6
88.9
91.2
92.9
95.9
101
103
106
108
112
115
119
122
128
127
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
rubidium
strontium
yttrium
zirconium
niobium
molybdenum
technetium
ruthenium
rhodium
palladium
silver
cadmium
indium
tin
antimony
tellurium
iodine
xenon
42
43
37
133
38
137
39
139
Cs
Ba
La
caesium
55
lanthanum
41
45
46
47
48
184
186
190
192
195
197
201
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
hafnium
tantalum
73
tungsten
74
rhenium
75
osmium
76
iridium
platinum
78
77
gold
79
50
49
181
* 72
57
44
178
mercury
80
204
Tl
thallium
81
51
52
54
53
207
209
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
lead
82
bismuth
83
polonium
84
astatine
85
radon
86
Fr
Ra
Ac
Rf
Db
Sg
Bh
Hs
Mt
Uun
Uuu
Uub
Uuq
Uuh
Uuo
ununbium
ununquadium
ununhexium
ununoctium
114
116
118
francium
87
barium
56
40
131
radium
88
actinium
89
lanthanides
* rutherfordium dubnium
* 104
105
*
*
bohrium
107
hassium
108
meitnerium
109
ununnilium
110
unununium
111
112
140
141
144
150
152
157
159
163
165
167
169
173
Ce
Pr
Nd
Pm
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
cerium
praseodymium
neodymium
promethium
samarium
europium
gadolinium
terbium
dysprosium
holmium
erbium
thulium
ytterbium
lutetium
59
60
61
58
actinides
seaborgium
106
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
175
71
Th
Pa
Np
Pu
Am
Cm
Bk
Cf
Es
Fm
Md
No
Lw
thorium
protactinium
fermium
mendelevium
90
91
uranium
92
neptunium
93
plutonium
94
americium
95
curium
96
berkelium
97
californium
98
einsteinium
99
100
101
nobelium
102
lawrencium
103