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( )
a
cos sin
sin cos
a
(4.1)
through an angle of the a-coordinate system to a new orientation (see
Fig. z.z0). The product of two rotations is denned by rotating nrst by the angle
z
and then by
1
. According to Eqs. (J.J) and (J.J7), the product of the
orthogonal z z matrices, (
1
) (
z
), describes the product of two rotations
cos
1
sin
1
sin
1
cos
1
cos
z
sin
z
sin
z
cos
z
cos(
1 z
) sin(
1 z
)
sin(
1 z
) cos(
1 z
)
,
(4.z)
using the addition formulas for the trigonometric functions. The product is
clearly a rotation represented by the orthogonal matrix with angle
1 z
. The
product is the associative matrix multiplication. It is commutative or AbeIian
because the order in which these rotations are performed does not matter. The
inverse of the rotation with angle is that with angle . The unit corresponds
to the angle 0. The group's name is SO(z), which stands for apeciaI
orthogonaI rotationa in two dimenaiona, where special means the z z
rotation matrices have determinant 1, and the angle varies continuously
from 0 to z , so that the group has innnitely many elements. The angle is the
group parameter.
A aubgroup G of a group G is a group consisting of elements of G so that the
product of any of its elements is again in the subgroup G , that is, G is cIoaed
under the multiplication of G. For example, the unit 1 of G always forms a
subgroup of G, and the unity with angle 0 and the rotation with
about some axis form a nnite subgroup of the group of rotations about that
axis.
If qq q
1
is an element of G for any q of G and q of G , then G is called
an invariant aubgroup of G. If the group elements are matrices, then the
element qq q
1
corresponds to a similarity transformation [see Eq. (J.10S)] of
q in G by an element q of G (discussed in Chapter J). Of course, the unit 1
of G always forms an invariant subgroup of G because q1q
1
1 When an
element q of G lies outside the subgroup G , then qq q
1
may also lie outside
G Let us illustrate this by three-dimensional rotations.
EXAHPIE 4.1.2
SimiIarity TranaIormation Rotations of the coordinates through a nnite
angle counterclockwise about the :-axis in three-dimensional space are de-
scribed as
a
:
:
( )
a
:
cos sin 0
sin cos 0
0 0 1
a
:
, (4.J)
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232 Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
which form a group by a generalization of Eq. (4.z) to our special J J matri-
ces that keep their special form on multiplication. Moreover, the order of the
rotations in a product does not matter, just like in Eq. (4.z), so that the group
is Abelian. A general rotation about the a-axis is given by the matrix
a
( )
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
Now consider a rotation E
a
by 90 about the a-axis. Its matrix is
a
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
,
and its inverse is
1
a
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
,
corresponding to the angle 90 This can be checked by multiplying them:
a
1
a
1 Then
a :
( )
1
a
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
1 0 0
0 0 1
0 1 0
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos
,
which is a rotation by about the -axis and no longer a rotation about the
:-axis so that this element lies outside the subgroup of rotations about the :-
axis, and this subgroup is not an invariant subgroup. The set of these elements
for all form a group called conjugate to the group of rotations about the
:-axis.
Orthogonal n n matrices form the group O(n), and they form SO(n) if their
determinants are 1 (S stands for special" and O for orthogonal"), with
elements denoted by
Because
1
c
z
c
(
1 z
)
More-
over, (c
) c
and c
c
1 show unitarity and inverse, and 0 gives
the unit. This group (of unitary 1 1 matrices) has one continuous real param-
eter and is therefore called U(1). The two elements 1 form a nnite (unitary)
subgroup, and the four elements 1, form another subgroup.
A nnite unitary group of z z matrices is denned by the two-dimensional
unit matrix and one of the three Pauli matrices,
, using matrix multiplication.
Because
z
1
z
, the inverse
1
and 1
1
z
1
z
When a potential has spherical symmetry we choose polar coordinates, and
the associated group of transformations is a rotation group. For problems with
spin (or other internal properties such as isospin or avor), unitary groups play
a similar role. Therefore, in the following we discuss only the rotation groups
SO(n) and the unitary group SU(z) among the classical Lie groups.
Hioqrohicol Doto
Lie, Sophua. Lie, who was born in 1S4z in Nordfjordeid, Norway, and died
in 1S99 in Kristiana (now Oslo), started his analysis of continuous groups of
transformations in Paris and continued it throughout his life.
Wigner, Eugen PauI. Wigner, who was born in 190z in Budapest, Hungary,
and died in 199b in Princeton, New 1ersey, studied in Berlin, moved to the
United States in the 19J0s, and received the Nobel prize in 19J for his con-
tributions to nuclear theory and applications of fundamental principles of
symmetry, such as the charge independence of nuclear forces. He developed
the unitary representations of the Lorentz group.
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234 Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
Bomomorphism and Isomorphism
There may be a correspondence between the elements of two groups: one-to-
one, two-to-one, or many-to-one. If this correspondence preserves the group
multiplication, the two groups are homomorphic. If the correspondence is
one-to-one, still preserving the group multiplication,
J
then the groups are iao-
morphic. An example is the rotations of the coordinates through an angle
counterclockwise about the :-axis in three-dimensional space described
by Eq. (4.J). If we identify every rotation with its orthogonal z z subma-
trix, we have a one-to-one map that preserves the group multiplication ac-
cording to Eq. (4.z), an isomorphism or IaithIuI repreaentation. Of course,
we can also identify each rotation with its J J matrix in Eq. (4.J), which
is also an isomorphism. Therefore, matrix representations are by no means
unique, but each isomorphism is a group multiplication preserving faithful
map.
Hatrix Representations: Reducible and Irreducible
The isomorphisms betweenrotations and groups of matrices just discussedare
examples of matrix representations of a group (of rotations). Such represen-
tations of group elements by matrices are a very powerful technique and have
been almost universally adopted by physicists. The use of matrices imposes
no signincant restriction. It can be shown that the elements of any nnite group
and of the continuous groups of Sections 4.z4.4 may be represented by ma-
trices. In each case, matrix multiplication follows from group multiplication.
The same group can be represented by matrices of different rank. Examples
are the rotations about the :-axis described in Eqs. (4.1) and (4.J).
To illustrate how matrix representations arise from a symmetry, consider
the time-independent Schr odinger equation (or some other eigenvalue equa-
tion, such as
!
for the principal moments of inertia of a rigid body in
classical mechanics, for example)
H E (4.4)
Let us assume that Eq. (4.4) stays invariant under a group G of transformations
in G For example, for a spherically symmetric Hamiltonian H the group G
would be SO(J) Consequently, H is the same in a rotated coordinate sys-
tem, where the Hamiltonian is given by the similarity transformation H
1
according to Eq. (J.10S) of Chapter J. Hence,
H
1
H, or H H , (4.b)
that is, rotations" from G and H commute. Now take a solution of Eq. (4.4)
and rotate" it with , an element from G: . Then has the aame
J
Suppose the elements of one group are labeled q
. Then q
q
]
q
k
and h
h
]
h
k
,
then q
k
and h
k
must be the corresponding group elements.
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1.l Introduction to 6roup Theory 235
vaIue oI energy E because multiplying Eq. (4.4) by and using Eq. (4.b)
yields
H E( ) H( ) (4.)
In other words, all rotated solutions are degenerate in energy or form a
vector space that physicists call a muItipIet. For example, the spin-up and
-down states of an electron form a doublet, and the states with projection
quantumnumbers u |, | 1, , 0, 1, , | of orbital angular momentum
| form a multiplet with z| 1 basis states. (The magnetic neld in the Zeeman
effect lifts the degeneracy of these states and breaks the rotational symmetry
because the magnetic neld points in some direction.)
Let us now assume that this vector space V of transformed solutions has
a nnite dimension n. Let
1
,
z
, ,
n
be a basis. Since
]
is a member of
the multiplet, we can expand it in terms of its basis,
]
k
r
]k k
(4.7)
Thus, with each transformation in G we can associate a matrix (r
]k
),
and this map ( ) is denned as a repreaentation of G. If we can take any
element of V and by rotating with all elements of G transform it into aII
other elements of V , then the representation is irreducibIe. The spin-up and
-down states of the hydrogen ground state form an irreducible representation
of SU(z) (they can be rotated into each other), but the zs state and zj states of
principal quantum number n z of the hydrogen atom have the same energy
(i.e., they are degenerate) and form a reducible representation because the zs
state cannot be rotated into the zj states and vice versa (angular momentum
is conserved under rotations). With this case in mind, we see that if all ele-
ments of V are not reached, then V splits into a direct sum of two or more
vector subspaces (see Chapter J), V V
1
V
z
, which are mapped into
themselves by rotating their elements (e.g., zs zs, zp zp). The direct aum
of two vector spaces is spanned by the basis vectors of both vector spaces. In
this case, the representation is called reducibIe. Then we can nnd a unitary
matrix so that
(r
]k
)
1
z
(4.S)
for aII of G and aII matrices (r
]k
). Here,
1
,
z
, , are matrices of lower
dimension than (r
]k
) that are lined up along the diagonal and the are matrices
made up of zeros, that is, is bIocI-diagonaI.
For example, for the zs states of hydrogen,
1
would be a unitary z z
matrix
1
a b
c d
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236 Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
If the electron spin is ignored,
1
1 of the zs state would be a one-dimensional
unit matrix. We maysaythat the representation has beendecomposed into
1 z
along with V V
1
V
z
, where the smaller
are irreducible.
In any representation, each irreducible representation may be repeated a nnite
number of times, and some do not appear at all.
The irreducible representations play a role in group theory that is anal-
ogous to that of the unit vectors of vector analysis. They are the simplest
representationsall others can be built from them.
a
1
, 1, z,
generates a conjugate aubgroup aHa
1
. Show that this conjugate sub-
group satisnes each of the four group postulates and therefore is a group.
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1.? 6enerators of fontinuous 6roups 23?
4.2 6enerators of fontinuous 6roups
Acharacteristic of continuous groups known as Lie groups is that the elements
are functions of parameters having derivatives of arbitrary orders suchas cos
and sin in Eq. (4.1). This unlimited differentiability of the functions allows us
to develop the concept of generator and reduce the study of the whole group
to a study of the group elements in the neighborhood of the identity element.
Lie's essential idea was to study elements in a group G that are innnites-
imally close to the unity of G. Let us consider the SO(z) group as a simple
example. The z z rotation matrices in Eq. (4.1) can be written in exponential
form using the Euler identity [Eq. (J.1SJ)] as
( )
cos sin
sin cos
1
z
cos
z
sin exp(
z
) (4.9)
From the exponential form it is obvious that multiplication of these matrices
is equivalent to addition of the arguments
(
z
) (
1
) exp(
z z
) exp(
z 1
) exp(
z
(
1 z
)) (
1 z
)
Of course, the rotations close to 1 have small angle 0.
This suggests that we look for an exponential representation
exp( ), 0, (4.10)
for group elements in G close to the unity 1. The operators of the innnites-
imal transformations are called generators of G. Therefore,
z
in Eq. (4.9)
is the generator of rotations about the :-axis. Thus, for SO(z) as denned by
Eq. (4.1) there is only one linearly independent generator,
z
. In SO(J) there is
a generator for rotations about each axis. These generators forma linear space
because multiplication of the elements of the group translates into addition
of generators S its dimension is denned as the order of G. Therefore, the or-
der of SO(z) is 1, and it is J for SO(J). One can also show that the commutator
of two generators is again a generator
[S
]
, S
k
]
|
c
|
]k
S
|
,
where the c's are denned as the atructure conatanta of the group. The vector
space of generators can be endowed with a multiplication by denning the
commutator as the product of two generators. This way the vector space of
generators becomes an algebra, the so-called Lie aIgebra.
Because does not change the volumethat is, det( ) 1we use Eq.
(J 1S4) to see that
det( ) exp(trace(ln )) exp( trace( )) 1,
which implies that generatora are traceIeaa:
tr( ) 0 (4.11)
This is the case for the rotation groups SO(n) and unitary groups SU(n).
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23S Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
If of G in Eq. (4.10) is unitary, then S S is Hermitian, which is also the
case for SO(n) and SU(n). Hence the in Eq. (4.10).
Returning to Eq. (4.b), we now emphasize the most important result from
group theory. The inverse of is just
1
exp( ). We expand H
E
accord-
ing to the BakerHausdorff formula [Eq. (J.1Sb)], taking the Hamiltonian H
and to be operators or matrices we see that
H H
E
exp( )H exp( ) H [ , H]
1
z
z
[ [ , H]] (4.1z)
We subtract H from Eq. (4.1z), divide by , and let 0. Then Eq. (4.1z)
implies that for any rotation close to 1 in G the commutator
[ , H] 0 (4.1J)
We see that ia a conatant oI the motion: A aymmetry oI the ayatem
haa Ied to a conaervation Iaw. If and H are Hermitian matrices, Eq. (4.1J)
states that and H can be simultaneously diagonalized, that is, the eigenvalues
of are constants of the motion. If and H are differential operators like the
Hamiltonian and orbital angular momentum L
z
, L
:
in quantum mechanics,
then Eq. (4.1J) states that and H have common eigenfunctions, and that the
degenerate eigenvalues of H can be distinguished by the eigenvalues of the
generators . Theseeigenfunctionsandeigenvalues, s, aresolutions of separate
differential equations,
s
s
s
, so that group theory (i.e., symmetries) leads
to a separation of variables for a partial differential equation that is invariant
under the transformations of the group. For examples, see the separation of
variables method for partial differential equations in Section S.9 and special
functions in Chapter 11. This is by far the most important application of group
theory in quantum mechanics.
In the following sections, we study orthogonal and unitary groups as ex-
amples to understand better the general concepts of this section.
Rotation 6roups S(2) and S(8)
For SO(z) as denned by Eq. (4.1) there is only one linearly independent gener-
ator,
z
, and the order of SO(z) is 1. We get
z
from Eq. (4.9) by differentiation
at the unity of SO(z) (i.e., 0),
d ( )
d
0
sin cos
cos sin
0
0 1
1 0
z
(4.14)
For the rotations
:
( ) about the :-axis described by J J matrices in
Eq. (4.J), the generator is given by
d
:
( )
d
0
:
0 0
0 0
0 0 0
(4.1b)
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1.? 6enerators of fontinuous 6roups 239
Here,
z
is recognized in the upper left-hand corner of
:
. The rotation
:
( )
through an innnitesimal angle may then be expanded near the unity ( 0)
as
:
( ) 1
J
:
, (4.1)
with terms of order ( )
z
and higher omitted. A nnite rotation ( ) may be
compounded of successive innnitesimal rotations
:
(
1 z
) (1
J
1 :
)(1
J
z :
) (4.17)
Let N for N rotations, with N . Then,
:
( ) lim
N
[
:
( N)]
N
lim
N
[1
J
( N)
:
]
N
exp(
:
), (4.1S)
which is another way of getting Eq. (4.10). This form identines
:
as the gen-
erator of the group
:
, an Abelian subgroup of SO(J), the group of rotations in
three dimensions with determinant 1. Each J J matrix
:
( ) is orthogonal
(hence unitary), and trace(
:
) 0 in accordance with Eq. (4.11).
By differentiation of the coordinate rotations
a
( )
1 0 0
0 cos sin
0 sin cos
,
( )
cos 0 sin
0 1 0
sin 0 cos
, (4.19)
we get the generators
a
0 0 0
0 0
0 0
,
0 0
0 0 0
0 0
(4.z0)
of
a
(
), the subgroup of rotations about the a- (-)axis.
Rotation of Functions and rbital Angular Homentum
In the foregoing discussion the group elements are matrices that rotate the
coordinates. Any physical system being described is held nxed. Now let us
hold the coordinates nxed and rotate a function (a, , :) relative to our nxed
coordinates. With to rotate the coordinates,
, (4.z1)
we denne on by
(a, , :) (a, , :) ( ) (4.zz)
In words, operates on the function , creating a new Iunction that
is numerically equal to ( ), where are the coordinates rotated by . If
rotates the coordinates counterclockwise, the effect of is to rotate the
pattern of the function counterclockwise, as shown in Fig. z.z0.
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240 Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
Returning to Eqs. (4.J), (4.1b), and (4.z0) consider an innnitesimal rotation
again, . Then, using
:
[Eq. (4.J)], we obtain
:
( ) (a, , :) (a , a , :) (4.zJ)
The right side may be expanded to nrst order in to give
:
( ) (a, , :) (a, , :) a a O( )
z
(1 L
:
) (a, , :), (4.z4)
where the differential expression in curly brackets is the orbital angular mo-
mentumL
:
(Exercise 1.7.1z). This shows how the orbital angular momentum
operator arises as a generator. Since a rotation of nrst and then about the
:-axis is given by
:
( )
:
( )
:
( ) (1 L
:
)
:
( ) , (4.zb)
we have (as an operator equation)
d
:
d
lim
0
:
( )
:
( )
L
: :
( ) (4.z)
In this form, Eq. (4.z) integrates immediately to
:
( ) exp( L
:
) (4.z7)
Note that
:
( ) rotates functions (counterclockwise) relative to nxed coordi-
nates [so Eqs. (4.z7) and (4.10) are similar but not the same] and that L
:
is the
:-component of the orbital angular momentumL. The constant of integration
is nxed by the boundary condition
:
(0) 1.
If we recognize that the operator
L
:
(a, , :)
:
a
:
, (4.zS)
it becomes clear why L
a
, L
, and L
:
satisfy the same commutation relation
[L
, L
]
]
]k
L
k
(4.z9)
as
a
,
, and
:
and yield the structure constants
]k
of SO(J).
Special tnitary 6roup St(2)
Since unitary z z matrices transform complex two-dimensional vectors pre-
serving their norm, they represent the most general transformations of (a basis
in the Hilbert space of) spin
1
z
wave functions in nonrelativistic quantum me-
chanics. The basis states of this system are conventionally chosen to be
1
0
,
0
1
,
corresponding to spin
1
z
up and down states, respectively. We can showthat the
apeciaI unitary group SU(z) of such unitary z z matrices with determinant
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1.? 6enerators of fontinuous 6roups 241
1 has the three Pauli matrices
as generators. Therefore, we expect SU(z)
to be of order J and to depend on three real continuous parameters , , ,
which are often called the CayIey~KIein parameters and are essentially the
SU(z) analog of Euler angles. We start with the observation that orthogonal
z z matrices [Eq. (4.1)] are real unitary matrices, so they form a subgroup of
SU(z). We also see that
c
0
0 c
is unitary for real angle with determinant 1. Therefore, these simple and
manifestly unitary matrices form another subgroup of SU(z) from which we
can obtain all elements of SU(z)that is, the general z z unitary matrix
of determinant 1 For a two-component spin
1
z
wave function of quantum
mechanics, this diagonal unitary matrix corresponds to multiplication of the
spin-up wave function with a phase factor c
0
0 c
cos sin
sin cos
c
0
0 c
c
cos c
sin
c
sin c
cos
c
0
0 c
c
( )
cos c
( )
sin
c
( )
sin c
( )
cos
Denning , , we have in fact constructed the general element
of SU(z):
z
( , , )
c
cos c
sin
c
sin c
cos
a b
b a
, (4.J0)
where a
z
b
z
1 It is easy to check that the determinant det(
z
) 1 by
the product theorem of Section J.z and that
z
z
1
z
z
holds provided
, , are real numbers.
To get the generators, we differentiate
z
0, 0
1 0
0 1
J
, (4.J1a)
z
0, 0
0
0
z
(4.J1b)
To avoid a factor 1 sin for 0 upon differentiating with respect to , we
use instead the right-hand side of Eq. (4.J0) for
z
for pure imaginary b
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242 Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
with 0 Differentiating such a
z
, we get the third generator
1
z
1
z
0
1
z
1
z
0
0 1
1 0
1
(4.J1c)
Being generators, these Pauli matrices are all traceless and Hermitian. Acorre-
spondence with the physical world is obtained if we scale the SU(z) generators
sothat they yieldthe angular momentumcommutators. Withthe Pauli matrices
as generators, the elements
1
,
z
,
J
of SU(z) may be generated by
1
exp(
1
z),
z
exp(
z
z),
J
exp(
J
z) (4.Jz)
The three parameters are real, and we interpret them as angles. The extra
scale factor 1 z is present in the exponents because
z satisfy the same
commutation relations,
4
[
,
]
]
]k k
, (4.JJ)
as the orbital angular momentum in Eq. (4.z9).
Using the angular momentum matrix
J
, we have as the corresponding
rotation operator
:
( ) exp(
J
z) in two-dimensional (complex wave
function) space, analogous to Eq. (4.J) that gives the operator for rotating the
Cartesian coordinates in the three-space.
For rotating the two-component vector wave function (spinor) or a spin
1
z
particle relative to nxed coordinates, the rotation operator is
:
( )
exp(
J
z) according to Eq. (4.z7).
Using in Eq. (4.Jz) the Euler identity [Eq. (J.1SJ)] we obtain
]
cos( z)
]
sin( z), (4.J4)
etc. Here, the parameter appears as an angle, the coefncient of an angular
momentummatrixlike in Eq. (4.z7). With this identincation of the exponen-
tials, the general form of the SU(z) matrix (for rotating functions rather than
coordinates) may be written as
( , , ) exp(
J
z) exp(
z
z) exp(
J
z), (4.Jb)
where the SU(z) Euler angles , , differ from the , , used in the denni-
tion of the CayleyKlein parameters , , by a factor of 1 z Further discus-
sion of the relation between SO(J) and orbital angular momentum appears in
Sections 4.J and 11.7.
The orbital angular momentum operators are the generators of the rotation
groupSO(J) and(1 z) thePauli spinmatricesarethosefor SU(z), thesymmetry
group of the Schr odinger equation for a spin
1
z
particle such as the electron.
Generators obey commutation relations characteristic of the group.
4
Thestructureconstants (
]k
)leadtotheSU(z) representations of dimensionzJ 1for generators
of dimension zJ 1, J 0, 1 z, 1, . The integraI 1 cases also lead to the representations of
SO(J).
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1.3 rbital Angular Homentum 243
EXERCISES
4.2.1 (i) Showthat thePauli matricesare the generators of SU(z) without using
the parameterization of the general unitary z z matrix in Eq. (4.J0).
Hnl. Exploit the general properties of generators.
4.2.2 Prove that the general form of a z z unitary, unimodular matrix is
a b
b a
,
with a a b b 1. Based on this result, derive the parameterization of
Eq. (4.J0).
4.2.3 A tranaIation operator T(a) converts (a) to (a a),
T(a) (a) (a a)
In terms of the (quantum mechanical) linear momentum operator j
a
d da, show that T(a) exp(aj
a
) (i.e., j
a
is the generator of transla-
tions).
Hnl. Expand (a a) as a Taylor series.
4.2.4 Consider the general SU(z) element Eq. (4.J0) to be built up of three
Euler rotations: (i) a rotation of a z about the :-axis, (ii) a rotation of
b z about the newa-axis, and (iii) a rotation of c z about the new:-axis.
(All rotations are counterclockwise.) Using the Pauli generators, show
that these rotation angles are determined by
a z z
b z
c z z
Nolc. The angles a and b here are not the a and b of Eq. (4.J0).
4.2.5 We know that any z z matrix can be expanded as a
0
1 a ,
where 1 is the two-dimensional unit matrix. Determine a
0
and a for the
general SU(z) matrix in Eq. (4.J0).
4.2.6 Rotate a nonrelativistic wave function
( , ) of spin
1
z
about the
:-axis by a small angle d . Find the corresponding generator.
4.8 rbital Angular Homentum
The classical concept of angular momentum L
class
r p is presented in
Section 1.J to introduce the cross product. Following the usual Schr odinger
representation of quantum mechanics, the classical linear momentum p is
replaced by the operator . The quantum mechanical orbital angular
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244 Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
momentum operator becomes
b
L
M
r (4.J)
This is used repeatedly in Sections 1.7, 1.S, and z.4 to illustrate vector differ-
ential operators. From Exercise 1.7.1J the angular momentum components
satisfy the commutation relations
[L
, L
]
]
]k
L
k
(4.J7)
The
]k
is the LeviCivita symbol of Section z.9. A summation over the index
k is understood.
The differential operator corresponding to the square of the angular mo-
mentum
L
z
L L L
z
a
L
z
L
z
:
(4.JS)
may be determined from
L L (r p) (r p), (4.J9)
which is the subject of Exercises 1.S. and z.b.1z(c). Since L
z
is invariant under
rotations, [L
z
, L
, J
]
]
]k
J
k
, [J
z
, J
] 0 (4.40)
Otherwise J is arbitrary. (See Exercise 4.J.1.)
z. u is a normalized eigenfunction (or eigenvector) of J
:
with eigenvalue
uand an eigenfunction
of J
z
,
J
:
u u u , J
z
u u (4.41)
b
For simplicity, h is set equal to 1. This means that the angular momentum is measured in units
of h.
, J J
a
J
(4.4z)
In terms of these operators J
z
may be rewritten as
J
z
1
z
(J J J J ) J
z
:
(4.4J)
From the commutation relations, Eq. (4.40), we nnd
[J
:
, J ] J , [J
:
, J ] J , [J , J ] zJ
:
(4.44)
Since J commutes with J
z
(Exercise 4.J.1),
J
z
(J u ) J (J
z
u ) (J u ) (4.4b)
Therefore, J u is still aneigenfunction of J
z
with eigenvalue , andsimilarly
for J u . However, from Eq. (4.44)
J
:
J J (J
:
1), (4.4)
or
J
:
(J u ) J (J
:
1) u (u 1)J u (4.47)
Therefore, J u is still an eigenfunction of J
:
but with the eigenvalue u 1.
J has raised the eigenvalue by 1 and so is called a raiaing operator. Similarly,
J lowers the eigenvalue by 1, it is a Iowering operator.
Taking the diagonal matrix element (also called expectation value) and
using J
a
J
a
, J
, we get
uJ
z
J
z
:
u u J
z
a
J
z
u J
a
u
z
J
u
z
0
and see that u
z
0, so uis bounded, and 0. Let ] be the Iargeat
u value. Then J ] 0, which implies J J ] 0. Hence, combining
Eqs. (4.4J) and (4.44) to get
J
z
J J J
:
(J
:
1), (4.4S)
we nnd from Eq. (4.4S) that
0 J J ] (J
z
J
z
:
J
:
) ] ( ]
z
]) ]
Therefore,
]( ] 1) 0 (4.49)
7
Ladder operators can be developed for other mathematical functions. Compare Section 1J.1 for
Hermite polynomials.
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246 Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
We now relabel the states u ]u . Similarly, let ] be the amaIIeat u
value. Then J ] ] 0. From
J
z
J J J
:
(J
:
1), (4.b0)
we see that
0 J J ] ] (J
z
J
:
J
z
:
) ] ] ( ] ]
z
) ] ] (4.b1)
Hence,
]( ] 1) ] ( ] 1) ( ])( ] 1)
Therefore, ] ], and ] 0 because ] ] Moreover, uruns in integer
atepa from ] to ],
] u ], (4.bz)
so that z ] must be a positive integer. Thus, ] is either an integer or half of an
odd integer.
Starting from ] ] and applying J repeatedly, we reach all other states
]u . Hence, the ]u form an irreducible representation, u varies and ] is
nxed.
Then using Eqs. (4.40), (4.4S), and (4.b0) we obtain
J J ]u [ ]( ] 1) u(u 1)] ]u ( ] u)( ] u 1) ]u ,
J J ]u [ ]( ] 1) u(u 1)] ]u ( ] u)( ] u 1) ]u
(4.bJ)
Because J and J are Hermitian conjugates,
S
J J , J J , (4.b4)
the eigenvalues in Eq. (4.bJ) must be positive or zero.
9
This follows from
]u J (J ]u ) (J ]u ) J ]u 0 (4.bb)
Examples of Eq. (4.bJ) are provided by the matrices of Exercises J.z.9 (spin
1
z
),
J.z.11 (spin 1), and J.z.1J (spin
J
z
). For the orbital angular momentum ladder
operators L and L , explicit forms are given in Exercise z.b.10.
Since J raises the eigenvalue uto u 1, we relabel the resultant eigen-
function ]u 1 . From Eqs. (4.47) and (4.bJ) we see that
J ]u ( ] u)( ] u 1) ]u 1 , (4.b)
taking the positive square root and not introducing any phase factor. By the
same arguments
J ]u ( ] u)( ] u 1) ]u 1 (4.b7)
S
The Hermitian conjugation or adjoint operation is denned for matrices in Section J.4 and for
operators in general in Section 9.1.
9
For an excellent discussion of adjoint operators and Hilbert space, see Messiah, A. (191). van-
lvu Mcchancs, Chapter 7. Wiley, New York.
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1.3 rbital Angular Homentum 24?
As shown later, orbital angular momentum is described with integral ]. From
the spins of some of the fundamental particles and of some nuclei, we get
] 1 z, J z, b z, . Our angular momentum is quantized, essentially as a
result of the commutation relations.
EXAHPIE 4.8.1
Spin
1
2
Statea The spin raising operator is given by
S
1
z
1
z
(
a
)
1
z
0 1 ( )
1 0
0 1
0 0
,
so that
S
0 1
0 0
0
1
1
0
,
which is consistent with [
1
z
(
1
z
)](
1
z
1
z
1) 1 of Eq. (4.b).
In spherical polar coordinates , the functions , |u Y
u
|
( , ) are the
spherical harmonics of Section 11.b. Similarly, we can work out Eq. (4.b7)
for the orbital angular momentum lowering operator L L
a
L
c
( cot ) from Exercise z.b.10b acting on the spherical harmonic
, 11
J
S
sin c
Y
11
( , ) We nnd
L Y
11
c
cot ( 1)
J
S
sin c
c
J
S
(cos cos )c
4
cos z , 1, 0 zY
10
,
where (1 1)(1 1 1) z. That is, the ladder formulas (Eqs. 4.bb and
4.b) apply to the spherical harmonics and are equivalent to using the differ-
ential operators for L
Generators for the classical Lie groups can be organized into those denning
additiveeigenvaluesandladder operators that raiseor lower theseeigenvalues.
For the rotation group SO(J) these are L
:
and L Altogether, they denne the
selection rules of a symmetry group.
EXERCISES
4.3.1 Show that (a) [ J , J
z
] 0, (b) [ J , J
z
] 0.
4.3.2 Write down all matrix elements ] u ]u of the angular momentum
operator J
z
, J
:
, and J
4.3.3 Construct matrix representations for J and J
:
for angular momentum
J 1, J z, z, b z
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24S Chatcr 1 6roup Theory
4.3.4 Let a, b be a complete set of common eigenfunctions of the Hermitian
operators and that is,
a, b a a, b , a, b b a, b
Show that [ , ] 0 Is the inverse conclusion valid?
4.3.5 The three z z matrices
]
for ] 1, z, J satisfy the same commutation
relations as the Pauli matrices. Show that there is one matrix so that
]
]
1
for ] 1, z, J Interpret this result in your own words.
4.3.6 Determine the eigenvalues of the orbital angular momentum operators
L
z
and L
:
for the functions c
r
z
a
z
cos and c
r
z
a
z
sin c
, where a is
some constant length.
4.3.? Derive the generators of SU(J). Determine the order of SU(J). Write
down various raising and lowering operators.
4.3.S Explain why the theorem of Exercise 4.J.b does not hold for three cor-
responding J J generator matrices of SU(J).
4.4 Bomogeneous Iorentz 6roup
Generalizing the approach to vectors of Section z., in special relativity we
demand that our physical laws be covariant
10
under
space and time translations,
rotations in real, three-dimensional space, and
Lorentz transformations.
The demand for covariance under translations is based on the homogeneity of
space and time. Covariance under rotations is an assertion of the isotropy of
space. The requirement of Lorentz covariance follows from special relativity.
Space rotations and pure Lorentz transformations together formthe homo-
geneous Lorentz group, and they form the Poincar e group when translations
are included as well.
We nrst generate a subgroupthe Lorentz transformations in which the
relative velocity v is along the a a
1
axis. The generator may be determined
by considering spacetime reference frames moving with a relative velocity ,
an innnitesimal.
11
The relations are similar to those for rotations in real space
(Sections z. and J.J), except that here the angle of rotation is pure imaginary.
Lorentz transformations are linear not only in the space coordinates a
but
also in time l. They originate from Maxwell's equations of electrodynamics,
10
To be covariant means to have the same form in different coordinate systems, often called
inertial frames, so that there is no preferred reference system (compare Section z.).
11
This derivation, with a slightly different metric, appears in an article by 1. L. Strecker, Au. J.
Phs. 35, 1z (197).
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1.1 Bomogeneous Iorentz 6roup 249
which are invariant under Lorentz transformations. Lorentz transformations
leave the quadratic form
c
z
l
z
a
z
1
a
z
z
a
z
J
a
z
0
a
z
1
a
z
z
a
z
J
invariant, where a
0
cl and c is the velocity of light that is the same in all
inertial frames. We see this invariance if weswitchona light source at theorigin
of the coordinate system. At time l light has traveled the distance cl a
z
so that c
z
l
z
a
z
1
a
z
z
a
z
J
0. Special relativity requires that in any inertial
frame whose coordinates are a