Localized Irrigation v2.08

A.
Keta, 2008-10
Localized Irrigation
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V 2.08
Introduction
Irrigation : application of water supplementary to the precipitation
supply for crop production (Symposium, Lome, 1997).

Most efforts : Water resources development, few in On-Farm water
use improvement

Increasing demand for higher water use efficiency, intensification
and diversification of crop production

Successful experiences in many countries in pressurized irrigation

Two basic irrigation systems : open channel and pressured pipes.
Focus on latter one, and more on localised irrigation.

2
Objectives
The lecture aims to qualify students and help
them to become competent enough to
Collect basic irrigation data
Treat basic data to produce parameters required
for system design
Design a localized irrigation system
Produce a bill of quantity
Prepare a tender for supply

3

I. Localised irrigation system layout
Traditional vs. Modern
Pressur. Piped irrig. System = network whith
pipes, fittings and other devices designed and
installed to deliver water to a cropping area.
Main differences with surface irrigation
5
Designation Traditional surf. methods Pressurized piped
irrigation methods
Flow regime Large stream Small stream (even
1m
3
/s)
Flow route Open channel and
ditches along contours
Closed pipes under
pressure along shortest
ways
Irrigated surface Large volume per over
large area
Small volume over large
area
Energy Gravity only External pressure (2-3
bars)
System Layout
System Layout
From the head control unit to the hydrants :
buried piped (main, submain). Hence,
protection against sunshine, agric. Machines

Hydrants rising above the ground surface
supply manifolds on which are fitted the
laterals

The laterals have water emitters : sprinklers,
microprinklers, drippers etc.
6
System Layout
7
System Layout
Head station :
Supply line in rigid PVC or galvanized steel. Mini height = 60 cm above ground
Air release valve, check valve, 50 mm hose outlet for connection with fertilizer injector,
a shut off valve between the 2 outlets, a fertilizer injector and a filter

8
System Layout

9
Centrifugal
pump
Electrical
motor
System Layout
10
Sand filters
System Layout
11
Fertilizer tank
Injection
pumps
System Layout
12
Fertilizer bag
System Layout
Main pipeline :
Largest diameter in the network
Buried pipes, can be : rigid PVC, black high density poly
ethylene (HDPE), layflat hose, quick coupling galvanizsed
light steel pipes 63-160 mm (2-6 in)
Submains :
Extend from the main to the manifold
Buried pipes
Same type of pipe as the main, but smaller diameters
Manifolds (feeder lines) :
Smaller diameter than submains
Connected to hydrants and are laid on the ground along
plot edges, supplying the laterals
Possible pipes : any kind, usually HDPE 2-3 in

13
System Layout
Laterals
Irrigating lines fitted to the manifolds and perpend. to
them
The smallest diameters
Laid along plant rows and often bearing emitters at
regular spacing
Emitters
Device, fitted on a pipe, operated under pressure to
deliver a discharge in any form :
shooting water jets (sprinklers)
Small spray (sprayer)
Continuous drops (drippers)
Small stream (bubblers, openings on pipes, ...)

14
System Layout
Analogies between traditional and modern
irrigation methods
15
Traditional surf. methods Modern Pressurized
piped irrig. methods
Designation

Headworks (main gate) Head station
Main canal Main pipes
Submain canals Submain pipes
Canal intake gates Hydrants
Tertiary canals Manifolds
Field canals Laterals
System Layout
System classification
16
3 types of classification
Pressure required for operation
Plant watering method
Dynamic of the system installation
System Layout
Operating pressure classes (head pressure)
Low pressure : 2.0 3.5 bars

Medium pressure : 3.5 5.0 bars

High pressure : > 5.0 bars

Plant watering method classes
Sprinkler irrigation (overhead or under foliage) : water delivered
in form of rain over the entire area

Surface irrigation (furrow, basin, border...): water flows from the
hydrants and spread all over the area or is side applied

Micro-irrigation (localised irrigation) : drippers, bubblers or
sprayers deliver water in low rates at the exact locations of the
plants
17
System Layout
18
Example of low pressure system
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System Layout
Dynamic of the system installation classes
Solid installation : fixed systems, permanent or seasonal
position of all the elements

Semi-permanent installations : the main, submains and
the manifolds are permanent ; the laterals are mobile
(hand or mechanically moved)

Portable installations : all the components of the
system are portable

19
System Layout
Modern vs. Traditional irrigation systems
20
Designation Traditional irrigation in
open channels methods
Modern Pressurized piped irrig. methods
Irrigation efficiency Water losses 40% (unlined
ditches) ; 25% in lined canals
Loss locations : seepage in
canals, phreatophytes, leakage in
gates & spillways
Water losses 10% (local irrig.) ; 30% (overhead sprinkler and surface
methods)
Economic return per
unit of water
Yield increase of 10-45 % due to less water losses
Operation and
maintenance (O&M)
-Requires skilled labour for
operation
-Expensive actions to prevent
damage by roots, seepage,
spread of weeds, sedimentation,
clogging of outlets
-Anyone can easily operate the system
- 1/10
th
to 1/4
th
of man-hour required for O&M in open channel system
-Minimal maintenance during the first 7 years (except in motor pumps)
-Maintenance cost 5.00% of the initial investment

Costs Reduced cost of pipes made in many countries and sizes : PVC, LDPE,
HDPE, polypropylene (PP)
Initial capital investment - 2000 to 25000 US$/ha in
Burkina Faso
-Function of the irrigation method and the type of installation
- Solid installations for localized methods are the highest (See Table in
case of Europe)
Design complexity and
multiplicity
-Only apparent.
-Design is simple and flexible
-Mechanical difficulties only in early years. Farmer get quickly acquainted
-Drastic change in irrigation management practices in the farm
21
Designation Piped surface method Sprinkler classic method
(hand-move)
Drip irrigation in fixed
installation
Area (ha) 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 3 1 1 2 2 3
Installation cost (US$/ha) 1 700 1 600 1 400 2 800 2 700 2 100 3 950 3 300 3 000
Yearly maintenance cost (US$/ha) 85 80 70 140 135 105 200 165 150
Average 1997 prices in Europe
Source : Phocaides, 2001
Components Complex installation Simple installation
Head station > 23% 13%
Mains, submains and manifolds 10% 21%
Fittings and other accessories 22% 24%
Laterals (pipes & emitters) 45% 42%
System comparative costs
System cost breakdown
System Layout
22
System Layout

23
System Layout
Precise application of water to a specific area
Used where irrigating a portion of field is desired

System Layout
25
System Layout
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System Layout
27
System Layout
Maize
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System Layout
Cabbage
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System Layout
Tomato
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System Layout
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System Layout
Maize
32
System Layout
Olive
33
System Layout
Orange
34
System Layout
Peach
35
System design
36
System design
Strawberry
37
System Layout
38
papaya
System Layout
Papaya
39
System Layout
Strawberry

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System Layout
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System Layout
II. Preliminary system design
42
A. Keta, 2iE
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2.1 Four stages in irrigation planning :
Stage 1
Crop water requirements, soil type, climate implications, water
quality and irrigation scheduling
Water supply conditions, availability of electricity or energy,
topography
Stage 2
Economic considerations
The labour, the know-how
Stage 3
System design : selection of emitters, laterals, manifolds, submain
and main pipelines
Head control
Stage 4
Detailed list of equipment needed with full description, standards
and specifications for each item
43
Preliminary design parameters
2.2 Crop Water Requirements
ET
o
is computed according to Penman-Monteith method
ETM = maximum evapotranspiration or loss of water from soil both by
evaporation and by transpiration from the plants growing thereon
Method 1: Formulas using crop cover reduction coeff. Kr
In localised irrigation, the plants cover only a portion of the soil.
Hence, a ground cover reduction factor K
r
is introduced

The values of K
r
suggested are presented in the table below. For
design purpose, the ground cover GC is generally taken between 70 %
and 100%.
Preliminary design steps
44
For sprinkler irrigation
ETM =ET
0
BK
c
For localized irrgation
ETM
loc
= ETMBK
r
=ET
O
BK
c
BK
r
Crop ground cover reduction factor Kr
Ground cover (GC)
in %
Keller & Karmelli Freeman & Garzoli Decroix CTGREF
10 0.12
0.10 0.20
20 0.24
0.20 0.30
30 0.35
0.30 0.40
40 0.47
0.40 0.50
50 0.59
0.75 0.60
60 0.70
0.80 0.70
70 0.82
0.85 0.80
80 0.94
0.90 0.90
90 1.00
0.95 1.00
100 1.00
1.00 1.00
45
System design Crop water requirements
Source : Savva & Frenken, 2001
Crop Initial Crop development Mid-season Late harvest
Bean (green) 0.35 0.70 1.0 0.9
Bean (dry) 0.35 0.75 1.1 0.5
Cabbage 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Carrot 0.45 0.75 1.05 0.9
Cotton 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Cucumber 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Eggplant 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80
Groundnut 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Lettuce 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Maize (sweet) 0.40 0.80 1.15 .09.
Maize (grain) 0.40 0.75 1.15 0.70
Melon 0.45 0.75 1.0 0.75
Onion (green) 0.50 0.70 1.0 1.0
Onion (dry) 0.50 0.75 1.05 0.85
Pea (fresh) 0.45 0.80 1.15 1.05
Pepper 0.35 0.75 1.05 0.90
Potato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.75
Spinach 0.45 0.60 1.0 0.90
Squash 0.45 0.70 0.90 0.75
Sorghum 0.35 0.75 1.10 0.65
Sugar beet 0.45 0.80 1.15 0.80
Sugar cane 0.45 0.85 1.15 0.65
Sunflower 0.35 0.75 1.15 0.55
Tomato 0.45 0.75 1.15 0.80
46
Values of crop factor K
c
for seasonal crops

47
Values of crop factor K
c
for permanent crops

Crop Young Mature
Banana 0.50 1.10
Citrus 0.30 0.65
Apple, cherry, walnut 0.45 0.85
Almond, apricot, pear,
peach, pecan, plum
0.40 0.75
Grape, palm tree 0.70 0.70
Kiwi 0.90 0.90
Olive 0.55 0.55
Alfalfa 0.35 1.1
Method 2 : Formulas using the ground cover percentage
GC
Keller and Bliestner formula

The unit time = day, or decade, or month, or season.

48
ETM
loc
= ETM
peak
mm/ unit time
` a
b c
B 0.1A GC %
` a
q
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
D E
Where
ETM
peak
= conventionally estimated peak ETM
GC = percentage ground cover
Exercise
Mature citrus : ETM
peak
= 7.1 mm/day using modified
Penmann-Monteith method.
GC = 70%
Task : What is the value of ETM
loc
peak computed by the
method of : a) Keller and Karmeli, b) Freeman and Garzoli,
c) Decroix CTGREF, d) Keller and Bliestner ? What
conclusion do you draw while comparing the values ?

49
Ans : a) 5.8 mm/day ; b) 6.0 mm/day
; c) 5.7 mm/day ; d) 5.9 mm/day.
2.3 Irrigation Water Requirements (IR)
Net Irrigation water requirements (IR
n
)
IR
n
= Depth required for normal crop growing over the entire
cropping area, excluding other water source contributions (FAO,
1984)

50
IR
n
=ETM
loc
@ R + P
e
b c
Where
IR
n
= net irrigation requirement
ETM
loc
= crop maxi evapotranspiration f or localized system
R = water received by crop f romsources other than irrigation groundwater f low .
b c
P
e
= ef f ective rainf all
P
e
can be computed by :
P
e
= 0.8 Pwhere P>75 mm/ month
P
e
= 0.6 Pwhere P<75 mm/ month
System design Irrigation requirements
Gross irrigation requirements (IR
g
)
IR
g
= Net irrigation requirement over the field application
efficiency (taking into account the losses at field level) plus the
leaching requirement

FAO 1984 proposed for the field application efficiency :

51
IR
g
=
IR
n
E
a
ffffffffff
+ LR
Where
IR
g
= gross irrigation requirement
E
a
= f ield application ef f iciency
E
a
=K
s
B EU
Where
K
s
=
Average water stored in root volume
Average water applied
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
EU= coef f icient ref lecting the unif ormity of application
Storage coefficient values Ks

The EU of design should not be less than 0.90 for localised irrigation

Soil type Ks values
Coarse sand or light topsoil with gravel subsoil 0.87
Sand 0.91
Silt [ loose sedimentary material with rock particles usually 1/20
millimeter or less in diameter (Merriam-Webster) ]
0.95
Loam and clay 1.0
52
System/method Ea %
Earth canal network surface methods 40-50
Lined canal network surface methods 50-60
Pressure piped network surface methods 65-75
Hose irrigation systems 70-80
Low-medium pressure sprinkler systems 75
Microsprinklers, micro-jets, minisprinklers 75-85
Drip irrigation 80-90
53
Values of E
a
as function of on farm
irrigation methods
Exercise
Mature citrus : ETM
peak
= 7.1 mm/day. Grown on
silt soil. GC = 70% (Use Freeman and Garzoli for
Kr). Neither rainfall nor groundwater
contributions. Take EU=0.90.
Task : IR
n
? IR
g
? (peak period)

54
Ans : IR
n
= 6mm/d ; IR
g
= 7.02 + LR
2.4 Leaching Requirements (LR)
Soil water contains salt. So does the irrigation water
Frequent irrigation of the localised method reduces
salt accumulated in the root zone if sufficient
leaching
For salinity control :
55
2types of Electric conductivity requiredQ
irrigationwater :EC
w
saturatedsoil extract :EC
e
X
\
Z
System design Leaching requirements
Keller & Bliestner proposed the yield reduction ratio formula as first step
the computation

If EC
w
< minEC
e
, then no yield reduction expected and Y
r
=1
If EC
w
> maxEC
e,
then the yield is zero and Y
r
= 0
In between the 2 values of EC
e
, the Yr equation is used to find the
reduction factor.

56
Y
r
=
maxEC
e
@EC
w
maxEC
e
@minEC
e
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Where
Y
r
= relative yield, ratio of estimated yield to f ull potential
EC
w
dS/ mor mmhos / cm
` a
= irrigation water elect conduc
maxEC
e
dS/ mor mmhos / cm
` a
= maximumelect conduc
of saturated soil extract that will reduce the yield to zero
minEC
e
dS/ mor mmhos / cm
` a
= minimumelect conduc below which
there is no yield reduction
min ECe max ECe min ECe max ECe
Field Crops Field Crops
Cotton 7.7 27 Corn 1.7 10
Sugar beet 7.0 24 Flax 1.7 10
Sorghum 6.8 13 Broad bean 1.6 12
Soya bean 5.0 10 Cow pea 1.3 8.5
Sugarcane 1.7 19 Bean 1.0 6.5
Fruit and nut crops Fruit and nut crops
Date palm 4.0 32 Apricot 1.6 6
Fig olive 2.7 14 Grape 1.5 12
Pomegranate 2.7 14 Almond 1.5 7
Grapefruit 1.8 8 Plum 1.5 7
Orange 1.7 8 Blackberry 1.5 6
Lemon 1.7 8 Boysenberry 1.5 6
Apple, pear 1.7 8 Avocado 1.3 6
Walnut 1.7 8 Raspberry 1.0 5.5
Peach 1.7 6.5 Strawberry 1.0 4
Vegetable Crops Vegetable Crops
Zucchini squash 4.7 15 Sweet corn 1.7 10
Beets 4.0 15 Sweet potato 1.5 10.5
Broccoli 2.8 13.5 Pepper 1.5 8.5
Tomato 2.5 12.5 Lettuce 1. 9
Cucumber 2.5 10 Radish 1.2 9
Cantaloupe 2.2 16 Onion 1.2 7.5
Spinach 2.0 15 Carrot 1.0 8
Cabbage 1.8 12 Turnip 0.9 12
Potato 1.7 10
57
Rem : Max implies zero yield and min implies no yield reduction
Max and Min values of saturated soil extract electric conductivity in
deci siemens/m for various crops (Source: Keller and Bliesner, 1990)
Exercise
Citrus (orange): irrigated with water of EC
w
= 2 dS/m.
Task : What would be the relative yield ?

Ans :
58
Y
r
= 0.95
Leaching is required if one wants the yield not to be
worse than the 95% of the predicted in the example
of the citrus.
Keller & Bliesner proposed a formula for estimating
the leaching requirement ratio :

59
LR
t
=
EC
w
2B maxEC
e
B C
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Where
LR
t
= leaching requirement ratio under drip irrigation
EC
w
dS/ mor mmhos / cm
` a
= irrigation water elect conduc
maxEC
e
dS/ mor mmhos / cm
` a
= maximumelect conduc
of saturated soil extract that will reduce the yield to zero
The leaching requirement LR is obtained by
the expression :

Exercise :
Task : What is the IR
g
of citrus (orange) taking into account the leaching
requirements ?
Data :IR
n
= 6 mm/day. Clayey soil. Consider EU = 0.90. ECw = 2 dS/m
60

LR =LR
t
B
IR
n
E
a
ffffffffff
Where
LR
t
= leaching requirement ratio under drip irrigation
IR
n
= net irrigation requirement
E
a
= f ield application ef f iciency
Ans :LR
t
=0.125; Ks=1; Ea=0.90 ; LR = 0.83 mm ; IRg = 7.5 mm
61
System design
Compute

LR
t
=
EC
w
2B maxEC
e
B C
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Compute

LR =LR
t
B
IR
n
E
a
ffffffffff
Read
ETo, Kc
Compute

ETM
peak
=ET
o
BK
c
Compute

ETM
loc
=ETM
peak
BK
r
Or ETM
loc
=ETM
peak
mm
unit time
fffffffffffffffffffffffffff
f g
B 0.1A GC %
` a
q
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
D E
Read
GC or Kr
Compute

IR
n
=ETM
loc
@ R+ P
e
b c
Compute

IR
g
=
IR
n
E
a
ffffffffff
+ LR =
IR
n
E
a
ffffffffff
1 + LR
t
b c
Read
K
s
, EU, (E
a
)

Compute
E
a
= K
s
B EU
Read
P
e
Compute
R
Measure
EC
w
Read
maxEC
e
, minEC
e
Compute

Y
r
=
maxEC
e
@EC
w
maxEC
e
@minEC
e
External data
Computational
sequence
Goal
Condensed
2.5 Irrigation application depth
Moisture content of soil is determined by taking
An undisturbed sample of soil, measuring its volume V and mass G1. Afterwards,
the sample is dried in a stove at 105C and weighted to get the mass G2. The
moisture content is determined by

Exercise : Data V = 0.72 l; G1 = 1.63 kg ; G2 = 1.35 kg . Task : Compute
Ans : =

62
System design Practical application depth
u = 100B
G
1
@G
2
w
B V
fffffffffffffffffffffff
Where
w
= the density of w ater : 1 kg/ l
Or
u = 100B
G
1
@G
2
G
2
fffffffffffffffffffffff
B
w
fffffff
In case V is unknow n
b
= 1.2@1.4 kg/ l = bulk density
X
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
\
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
Z
Y
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
]
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
^
[
Moisture content of a soil
pF = log(h) where h = P, pressure in cm of water. If h = 10 cm, than pF =1 ; pf = 2
means h = 100 cm
Field capacity
The soil moisture of a suction state which is in equilibrium with the gravity force and which can retain
water in the pores is between 1/10 1/3 bar (100 and 300 cm) water head ; in other words between pF
= 2 and pF = 2.5.
The corresponding moisture is called field capacity
Permanent Wilting Point
Starting at the plant uses the available moisture for evapotranspiration. The roots are able to
overcome soil moisture tension up to 160 m head (about 15 bars) of 16 000 cm head ; that is also pF
=4.2. The corresponding soil moisture is called permanent wilting point

The difference in moisture content over the entire root zone depth D
r
at FC and WP
is called Available Moisture :

63
u
FC
u
FC
u
WP
AM = u
FC
@u
WP
b c
BD
r
With
D
r
= root zone depth in cmor m
u = moisture in %of volume
Crop Rooting depth Dr (m) Crop Rooting depth Dr(m)
Alfalfa 1.0 -2.0 Melons 1.0-1.5
Banana 0.5-0.9 Olives 1.2-1.7
Barley 1.0-1.5 Onions 0.3-0.5
Beans 0.5-0.7 Palm trees 0.7-1.1
Beets 0.6-1.0 Peas 0.6-1.0
Cabbage 0.4-0.5 Peppers 0.5-1.0
Carrots 0.5-1.0 Pineapple 0.3-0.6
Celery 0.3-0.5 Potatoes 0.4-0.6
Citrus 1.2-1.5 Safflower 1.0-2.0
Clover 0.6-0.9 Sisal 0.6-1.3
Cacao/cocoa > 1.5 Sorghum 1.0-2.0
Cotton 1.0-1.7 Soybeans 0.6-1.3
Cucumber 0.7-1.2 Spinach 0.3-0.5
Dates 1.5-2.25 Strawberries 0.2-0.3
Orchards 1.0-2.0 Sugar beet 0.7-1.2
Flax 1.0-1.5 Sugar cane 1.2-2.0
Grains small 0.9-1.5 Sunflower 0.8-1.5
Grains winter 1.5-2.0 Sweet potatoes 1.0-1.5
Grapes 1.0-2.0 Tobacco early 0.5-1.0
Grass 0.5-1.5 Tobacco late 0.5-1.0
Groundnuts 0.5-1.0 Tomatoes 0.7-1.5
Lettuce 0.3-0.5 Vegetables 0.3-0.6
Maize 1.0-1.7 Wheat 1.0-1.5
64
Potential rooting depths of some crops
Source : Depeweg, 2002
- Moisture content of a soil
Moisture content of a soil
The portion of AM that can be used by the plant to evapotranspire at not less than
ETm = ETrop is determined by fraction p called soil depletion factor of
Management allowed deficit MAD.
The corresponding amount of soil water is called Readily Available soil Moisture, in
short RAM, and calculated by :

The value of p is such as p = p (type of crop, ETm). The table below provides the
values of p for different crop classes.

65
Dp mm
` a
= RAM mm
` a
= pB AM mm
` a
With
Dp = practical application depth
RAM = readily available soil moisture
p = depletion f actor
AM = available moisture
Depletion factor p

66
Group Values of ETM (mm/day)
2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0 10.0
1 0.500 0.425 0.350 0.300 0.250 0.225 0.200 0.200 0.175
2 0.675 0.575 0.475 0.400 0.350 0.325 0.275 0.250 0.225
3 0.800 0.700 0.600 0.500 0.450 0.425 0.375 0.350 0.300
4 0.875 0.800 0.700 0.600 0.550 0.500 0.450 0.425 0.400
Group Crops
1 Onion, pepper, potato
2 Banana, cabbage, grape, pea, tomato
3 Alfalfa, bean, citrus, groundnut, pineapple, sunflower, water melon, wheat
4 Cotton, maize, olive, safflower, sorghum, soybean, sugar beet, sugarcane, tobacco
p
SMALL for vegetables
(Group 1) or if ETm high
HIGH for cereals (Group 4) of if ETm
small
Vegetables are more
sensitive to water stress
67
n.a. (1-p)AM p.AM n.a.
Legend :
n.a. = not available
ETA= actual (or instant)
crop evapotranspiration
ETM = maximum crop
evapotranspiration
AM
t
= Instant available moisture
AM
Dr
u
FC
u
WP
soil moisture u 0
1.0
0
(1-p)AM AM 0
AM
t
If AM
t
> 1@p
b c
AM Then ETA = ETM
Else if AM
t
< 1@p
b c
AM Then
ETA
ETM
ffffffffffffffff
=
AM
t
1@p
b c
AM
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
ETA
ETM
ffffffffffffffff
= f AM
t
b c
u
S
AM
t, 1
AM
t, 2
ETA
ETM
ffffffffffffffff
o
This condition is the
one used in the Design
2.6 Irrigation frequency and turn
The irrigation frequency is the time taken by the crop to deplete the
soil moisture to a certain level
Following the computation of the application depth, the irrigation
frequency is obtained by :

The irrigation cycle (tour deau in French)
is chosen on the
base of farmers preference
or economical
considerations :

68
F d
` a
=
Dp mm
` a
IR
n
mm/ d
` a
With
F = irrigation f requency
IR
n
= Net irrigation requirement
System design Irrigation frequency
T d
` a
s F d
` a
With
T d
` a
= irrigation turn
F = Irrigation f requency
Actual application depth
The actual application depth Da is based upon the irrigation turn
chosen and is computed as follows :

Next is to compute the actual depletion factor p
a
:

The gross application depth will be :

69
System design Gross application depth
D
a
mm
` a
= T d
` a
BIR
n
mm/ d
` a
p
a
=
D
a
mm
` a
AM mm
` a
D
g
mm
` a
=
D
a
mm
` a
Ea
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
+ LR mm/ d
` a
B T d
` a
With :
D
g
= gross application depth
D
a
= actual application depth
Ea = f ield application ef f iciency
LR= Leaching requirement
T= irrigation turn
70
- Knowing for example the maximum working hours per day of T
Wmax
in hr/d
(based on the local experience) and the number of lateral positions or shifts
N
sh
done by a lateral per day (chosen in first guess in such a way that Ts would
be less than 24 hours and allow the needed time for the lateral displacement),
the set time in hours per set of laterals T
s
is given by the relation :

- This value of T
s
will be adjusted when an emitter with a know application rate
is chosen. Hence, Nsh will also be adjusted

T
s
hr/ d
` a
=
T
Wmax
hr/ d
` a
N
sh
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Avec
T
s
= number of hours to spend in a position in order
to bring the gross application depthD
g
T
Wmax
= maximumworking hours per day
N
sh
= number of shif ts or positions
b c
per day to be done
by a set of laterals
System design Time per position
The specific or equipment discharge
The specific discharge q
e
is very practical for
Estimating the total discharge that will be required for a localised
irrigation scheme
The comparison of different irrigation projects (eg. surface irrigation vs
localised irrigation
The computation is as it follows :

71
System design Specific discharge
q
e
l/ s/ ha
` a
=
D
g
mm
` a
T d
` a
BT
s
hr/ d
` a
BN
sh
B 0.36
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Avec
qe = specif ic discharge
D
g
T = irrigation turn
T
s
to bring the grsoss application depthD
g
N
sh
= number of shif ts of a set of laterals per day
72
AM = u
FC
@u
WP
b c
BD
r
With
D
r
= root zone depth in cmor m
u = moisture in %of volume
Dp mm
` a
= pBAM mm
` a
F d
` a
=
Dp mm
` a
IR
n
mm/ d
` a
With
F = irrigation f requency
IR
n
= Net irrigation requirement
Chose T d
` a
s F d
` a
With
T d
` a
= irrigation turn
F = Irrigation f requency
D
a
mm
` a
= T d
` a
BIR
n
mm/ d
` a
p
a
=
D
a
mm
` a
AM mm
` a
D
g
mm
` a
=
D
a
mm
` a
Ea
+ LR mm/ d
` a
B T d
` a
With :
D
g
D
a
T= irrigation turn
T
s
h/ d
` a
=
T
Wmax
hr/ d
` a
N
sh
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Avec
T
s
g
T
Wmax
N
sh
b c
per day to be done
by a set of laterals
q
e
l/ s/ ha
` a
=
D
g
mm
` a
T d
` a
BT
s
hr/ d
` a
BN
sh
B 0.36
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Avec
qe = specif ic discharge
D
g
T = irrigation turn
T
s
g
N
sh
= number of shif ts of a set of laterals per day
Condensed
73
Application 1
Data : Crop = Cucumber, ETM peak = 7 mm/d
at peak period, Crop spacing : 30 cm X 30 cm ;
Row spacing :30 cm ;
Soil : Loam and homogeneous; FC = 30%,
WP= 15%; Ea = 95% ; GC= 70%, rainfall P=0;
Groundwater contribution R=0; LR = 1 mm/d
Tasks : i) Compute p, AM, Dp , IRg, ii)
Determine the irrigation frequency F and turn T,
the actual application depth Da, the actual
depletion factor pa
and the gross application depth Db
iii) If the maxi working time per day is Twmax
=22h and assuming that N
sh
=2 shifts are to be
done, compute the time per position Ts
iv) What is the specific discharge q
e
?
System design Specific discharge Solution of application 1
Solution i)
Cocumber (ETM=7mm/d;Group 2)
p 33%
Dr (mm) 900
FC
0.3
WP
0.15
AM (mm) 135
Dp (mm) 43.9
ETM peak (mm/d) 7
GC(%) 70
ETM
Loc
(mm/d) 5.9
Pe (mm/d) 0
R(mm/d) 0
IRn(mm/d) 5.9
Ea 0.95
LR (mm/d) 1
IRg(mm/d) 7.2
Solution ii)
Frequency F(d) 7.5
An irrigation turn T(d) 6
is chosen. It
allows within a
week of 7 days,
one day for
other
businesses
Actual Da (mm) 35.1
Actual depletion pa 26%
Depht Dg(mm) 43.0
Solution iii)
Twmax (h/d) 22
Nsh 2
Ts(hr/d) 11
Solution iv)
qe (l/s/ha) 0.90
74
Final design
III. Final Design
Once obtained the preliminary design parameters, one can
start the final design steps

The required adjustments will a review of the preliminary
parameters in order to adapt them to human an physical
limitations, financial limitations and the localized irrigation
equipment available

The next steps are the emitters selection with their spacings
75
Final design
3.1 The emitter selection with driplines
The first factor for the emitter selection is the soil infiltration rate
The selection of the emitter should be done in such a way that its
application rate is smaller that the soil infiltration one, in order to
avoid runoff
The following catalogue extract provides the emitter as a function
of several variable
In fact :
76
P
emit
in/ hr
` a
=P
emit
soil type, croptype, emitter spacing, lateral spacing
b c
With:
P
emit
= emitter applicationrate
typeof crop = turf ,shrub&groundcover, .
R S
soil type = clay,loam,sand
R S
emitter spacing ~ cropspacing
lateral spacing ~croplines spacing
Final design
Emitter selection table (1)
N
E
T
A
F
I
M
-
U
S
A

T
e
c
h
l
i
n
e

C
V

System design
Application rate P
emit
(in/hr)
+Vegetables
+small trees
N
E
T
A
F
I
M
-
U
S
A

T
e
c
h
l
i
n
e

Emitter selection table (2)
Final design
Application rate P
emit
(in/hr)
+Vegetables
+small trees
Indication of field parameters
79
A
w
S
emit
S
p
S
lat
2 driplines for
1 crop line
Final design
The second (and last) factor for the emitter selection is the energy
Since energy means money, low pressure equipment would be
preferred as far as the uniformity is not compromised
The available equipments from manufacturers have different
sensitivity to pressure variation and this has an impact on
uniformity

80
Final design
Conversion table
Unit Unit Unit Unit Unit
Flow
1 GPH (USA) 0.000001 m3/s 0.003785 m3/h 0.06309 l/min 0.001052 l/s
1 GPM (USA) 0.000063 m3/s 0.227125 m3/h 3.785412 l/min 0.06309 l/s
1 m3/h 0.000278 m3/s 1 m3/h 16.666667 l/min 0.277778 l/s
Pressure
1 PSI 0.068948 bars 0.703088 m of water
Distance
1 in (or ") 0.0254 m 2.54 cm
1 Ft (or ') 0.3048 m 30.48 cm
Area
1 in 0.000645 m 6.4516 cm
1 Ft 0.092903 m 929.0304 cm
1 Acre 4,046.86 m 40,468,564.22 cm
1 Are 100 m 1,000,000 cm
81
Final design
Application 2

Data : Crop = Cucumber, ETM
peak = 7 mm/d at peak period,
Crop spacing : 30 cm X 30 cm ;
Row spacing Sr=30 cm

Soil : Loamy sand; FC = 30%,
WP= 15%; Ea = 95% ; GC=
70%, rainfall P=0; Groundwater
contribution R=0; LR = 1 mm/d

Task : Select an emitter and
give its characteristics

Solution of application 2
P
emit
(Loamy sand,cocumber=vegetable, SeXSr=30cmX30cm)
Conversion factors
1 in = 2.54 cm
1 GPH (US) =

0.001052 l/s
1 in/hr = 25.4 mm/hr
1 PSI 0.70 m of water at 4C
Emitter spacing Se(in) 11.8
Row spacing Sr(in) 11.8
Emitter selected Values Units Values Units
Flow discharge qe 0.4 GPH 4.21E-04 l/s
Semit 12 in 30 cm
Slat 12 in 30 cm
Pemit 0.39 in/hr 9.9 mm/hr
Nominal inlet pressure 35 PSI 24.6 m of water
Comment : since the Sr proposed by the catalogue is a maxi row spacing, we have kept
the Slat =30 cm corresponding to the cocumber which is smaller than 18 in =46 cm
For loamy sand, the application rate must no be greater than 19 mm/hr according to the table of Keller
and B liestner
Therefore, an emitter of 9.9 mm/hr is convenient
N
emit/ pl
=
Pl
can
Ft
` a
B 0.75
Aw
emit
Ft
` a
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
=
t D
can
Ft
` a
b c2
4
B 0.75
Aw
emit
Ft
` a
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Where :
N
emit/ p
= number of emitters per plant
Pl
can
= plant canopy
Aw
emit
= wetted area per emitter This value is
given byexperience or bythe manufacturer
D
can
= diameter of the canopyprojected vertically
on the ground D
can
is also called canopysize
Final design
3.2 Emitter selection with point source irrigation
Use for trees
83
Exercise :
Data : loam soil. The crop is a native plant with a canopy size of 16
foot. The technique is point source drip irrigation. How many drippers
of 1GPH are required per plant a)Using the graph ? , b) Using the
formula ?

Ans :
a) Using the black graph with
Dcan = 16 (4.88 m), we obtain
Nd/p= 6 drippers of 1 GPH.
b) Using the formula we get :
Aw
drip
= 24 ft
(red from the catalog) and
N
d/ p
=
tD
can
2
4
ffffffffffffffff
B 0.75
Aw
drip
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
=
3.14 B16
2
4
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
B 0.75
24
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
= 6.28 ~ 6 drippers
Final design
Final design
3.3 System layout

The final layout will permit :
fitting emitters and emitter lines spacing and the
dimensions of the cropland so as to reduce to the
minimum non irrigated portions of land

letting enough space for the roads, the drains (to be
realized for the removal of excessive rainfall only), farm
bunds, toilets, ...

3.4 System design for a single farmer
First, one should compute the set time Ts : it is the time during
which a set of laterals operates at the same time in order to bring
the soil the gross application depth D
g
, before opening a new set
of laterals at the next location. The set of laterals is not moved,
but is open or closed
One should ensure that this time Ts is enough for launching the
operation of the new set at new location
The formula used is :

85
T
s
hr
` a
=
D
g
mm
` a
P
emit
mm/ hr
` a
Where
D
g
P
emit
= application rate of the emitter
T
s
= application time f or a set of laterals
Final design
One must bear in mind that Ts and N
sh
are linked. Once Ts is chosen then
the value of N
sh
is re-evaluated using the expression :
86
N
sh
=
T
Wmax
hr/ d
` a
T
s
hr/ d
` a
With
T
Wmax
T
Wmax
<24 hrs, the dif f erence would be the equipment displacement time
b c
T
s
N
sh
b c
per day to be done
by a set of laterals to bring the grsoss application
depth D
g
Final design
Assume that Ts gives Ts=12 hrs in a first computation. In this figure, it is
theoretically possible to make N
sh
= 2 shifts within 24 hours since
2x12=24 hrs

In localised irrigation, the working time Tw may reach 24 hours if no
displacement is required;
On the other hand, irrigation turn can be T=1 day since it is possible in
localized irrigation to bring permanently the soil moisture near the field
capacity
87
In the example of Ts=12 hrs with 2 shifts per day, if the shift consists of
the automatic operation of a the inlet of a manifold, then no additional
time is required ; otherwise an additional time is needed to the manual
operation to join the new location and operate the valve. Ts could be
Ts=11hrs for example, with the 1hr for the manual operation

In the case one wants to make 2 manual shifts for example a Ts=12 hrs
are is not acceptable

What can be done if Ts is not acceptable ? There are 3 options :
Option 1 : install additional laterals and ensure a more important discharge so as
to have more laterals working simultaneously

Option 2 : re-evaluate the soil moisture depletion p
a
level at which a new
irrigation must be done. That means changing the irrigation turn T

Option 3 : change the emitter selection and take one with a higher flow rate (but
not exceeding the soil infiltration rate)

Final design
The option 1 is often the less economical. The option 2 the most practical.
The option 3 can be used if there is at least another sprinkler with an
application rate compatible with the soil infiltration rate

In the table below are presented some values of application rate not to
exceed while selecting an emitter with a certain application rate
88
Final design
Land slopes
0-5% 5-8% 8-12% 12-16%
Texture and layers Application rates (mm/hr)
Gross sand till 1.8 m 50 38 25 13
Gross sand on top of more
compact soils 38 25 19 10
Loose sand and loam til 1.8 m 25 20 15 10
Loose and loamy sand over
more compact soils 19 13 10 8
Fine loamy sand till 1.8 m 13 10 8 5
Fine loamy sand over more
compact soil layers 8 6 4 2.5
Heavy soils with clay and clay-
loam 4 2.5 2 1.5
Maximum application rates for different types
of soil and soil thickness by Keller et Bliesner (1990)
S
o
u
r
c
e

A
d
a
p
t
e
d

f
r
o
m

S
a
v
v
a

&

F
r
e
n
k
e
n
,

2
0
0
1

The emitter must be
selected in such a
way that its
application rate will
not exceed than the
above ones
89
In case one choses option 2, the procedure for changing the value of T in order to get
a new Ts is as it follows :
Final design
Ts
Ok ?
Yes
No
Modify the irrigation
turn T
The values of T, pa,
Dg and Ts are OK
T
s
hr
` a
=
D
g
mm
` a
P
emit
mm/ hr
` a
Where
D
g
P
emit
= application rate of the emitter
T
s
= application time f or a set of laterals
D
a
mm
` a
= T d
` a
BIR
n
mm/ d
` a
p
a
=
D
a
mm
` a
AM mm
` a
D
g
mm
` a
=
D
a
mm
` a
Ea
+ LR mm
` a
With :
D
g
D
a
Start
Because no time
left for the shift
operations
90
Final design
Application 3
Cocumber project continued
Data : Crop = Cucumber, ETM peak = 7 mm/d at
peak period, Crop spacing : 30 cm X 30 cm ; Row
spacing Sr=30 cm
Soil : Loamy sand ; the gross application depth
Dg=43 mm and the first selection of an emitter
yielded Pemit)9.9 mm/hr
Task : i) Compute the time per position Ts ii) the
number of shifts Nsh to be done per day by a
lateral if Twmax= 22hrs
iii) the time assigned to the shifts operations
Dg (mm) 43.0
Pemit(mm/hr) 9.9
Ts(hr) 4.34
Twmax (hrs) 22
Nsh(nbr/d) 5
Missing time to reach 22h = 0.30
There still remain
2 hours to reach
24 hours
This last result means Ts is OK
91
Bad because
not parallel
to any side
Bad : the laterals will
be too long
Bad since will required
too long laterals
Bad because the
rotation of laterals is
impossible
Bad : it is preferable to
avoid a 90 elbow with
a lateral
Good and bad layouts of the manifold according to the farm
shape in case of an horizontal land
Bad since will not lead
to a maximum number
of laterals with equal
size
The system layout
Final design
The number emitters per lateral
is calculated by :

The discharge of a lateral is
given by :

The nominal discharge of the
system is given by :

92
Final design
Q
lat
l / s
` a
=
q
emit
l/ hr
` a
BN
emit / lat
3600
Avec :
q
emit
= discharge of one emitter
N
emit / lat
= number of emitters per lateral
Q
lat
= discharge of the lateral
Q
syst
l/ s
` a
=N
lat,sim
BQ
lat
l/ s
` aa
With :
N
lat,sim
= number of laterals working
simultaneouly
Q
lat
= discharge of a lateral
N
emit / lat
=
L
lat
m
` a
S
emit
m
` a
ffffffffffffffffffffffffff
With:
L
rp
= lateral length
S
emit
= emitter spacing
N
emit / lat
= number of emitter
per lateral
If Ts is acceptable, the next are described below
The number of lateral positions
on a manifold , N
pos
, is obtained by :

Knowing the number
N
sh
of shifts per day
and the irrigation turn
T(d), the number of laterals
working simultaneously is
deduced by the expression :

93
Final design
N
pos
=
L
farm
m
` a
S
lat
m
` a
N
pos
= total number of lateral positions
L
farm
= length or width
` a
of the farm
parallel to the manifold
S
lat
= lateral spacing
N
lat,sim
=
N
pos
T d
` a
BN
sh
nbr/ d
` a
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
With :
N
lat,sim
= nombre of laterals working simultaneously
on the irrigated farm
N
pos
= total number of lateral positions
N
sh
= number of shifts per day for a set of laterals
T = irrigation turn
94
System design
T s h
` a
=
Dg mm
` a
P
emit
mm/ hr
` a
Avec
Dg = gross application depth
P
emit
= emitter application rate
T s = application time f or a set of laterals
Ts
Ok
?
YES
NO
D
a
mm
` a
= T d
` a
BET
mpeak
mm/ d
` a
Change the turn T pa =
Da mm
` a
AM mm
` a
Dg mm
` a
=
D
a
mm
` a
Ea
+ LR mm/ d
` a
B T d
` a
T
s
h
` a
=
D
g
mm
` a
P
emit
mm/ hr
` a
N
lat
=
L
farm
m
` a
S
lat
m
` a
N
lat
= nombre total de position de rampes
L
farm
= length or width
` a
of the farm
parallel to the manifolds
S
lat
= lateral spacing
N
lat,sim
=
Npos
T d
` a
BN
sh
nbr/ d
` a
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
With :
N
lat,sim
= number of laterals working simultaneously
on the farm
Npos = total number of lateral positions
N
sh
= number of shifts per day of a set of lateral
T = the irrigation turn
The values of T, pa,
Dg and Ts are OK

Nlat,sim
Ok ?
NO
YES
N
emit / lat
=
L
lat
m
` a
S
emit
m
` a
With:
Lrp = lateral length
S
emit
= emitter spacing
N
emit / lat
= number of emitter
per lateral
Q
lat
l / s
` a
=
q
emit
l/ hr
` a
BN
emit / lat
3600
Avec :
q
emit
= discharge of one emitter
N
emit / lat
= number of emitters per lateral
Q
lat
= discharge of the lateral
Q
syst
l/ s
` a
=N
lat,sim
BQ
lat
l/ s
` aa
With :
N
lat,sim
= number of laterals working
simultaneouly
Q
lat
= discharge of a lateral
Summary of the design steps for a semi-
moved system
95
Final design
105.0 m
105.0 m
105.5 m 105.5 m
106.0 m
106.0 m
106.5 m 106.5 m
107.0 m
107.0 m
107.5 m 107.5 m
Water source
6
0
0

m

300 m
Map of the
scheme
r
o
a
d

108.0 m
108.0 m
Application 4

Cocumber project continued
Taking into account the data of
application 3, make the final
design of the semi-portable
system for a single farmer for the
map represented on the right.

Task : Determine i) The number
of laterals working
simultaneously N
lat,sim
, ii) the
number of positions N
pos
and the
layout on the field iii) the
discharges of a lateral Q
lat
(l/s), a
manifold Q
mani
(l/s) and the main
Qmain(l/s)

96
Final design
qemit (l/s) 4.21E-04
Lfarm (m) 600
Wfarm (m) 300
Slat (m) 0.30
Semit(m) 0.30
Npos
1
2000.0 first evaluation
T(d) 6
Nsh(nbr/d) 5
Nlat,sim 66.7 66
which is an
even number
is chosen
Npos 1980
the lost area is
20*0.3m*300m =

1800 m
Nemit/lat 1000
Qlat (l/s) 0.42
Qmani (l/s) 27.77 or 8 m
3
/hr
We make a designer choice of dividing the lateral into 4 portions 75 m
The 1980 lateral positions are clustered into sets of 66 commanded each one by a valve
Four sets of 66=264 laterals; all the laterals of the 4 sets works simultaneouly
Every day (from day 1), 5 (number of shifts) x 264= 1320 laterals receive water
After 6 days, 6*1320 = 4*1980 = 7920 laterals of 75 m lenght eachone have received water

Llat (m) 75.0
Slat (m) 0.30
Semit(m) 0.30
Nsh(nbr/d) 20
T(d) 6.0
Nlat,sim 264
Nlat/mani 66
Npos 7920
qemit (l/s) 4.21E-04
Nemit/lat 250
Qlat (l/s) 0.11
Qmani(l/s) 6.94
Nmani/main 60
Nmani,sim per main 2
Qmain(l/s) 13.89
97
Final design
Elevation
100m
105.0 m
105.5 m
106.0 m
106.5 m
107.0 m
107.5 m
Water
source
6
0
0

m

300 m
Day 1
108.0 m
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
5x264 (4x66) laterals receive water
everyday. There are 5 shifts per day for 4
sets of 66 laterals each one. After 6 days,
6x5x264 laterals have received water
Each line represents a position for 66
laterals of 75 m length each one
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
e
t
s

2 mains of 600 m
Day 6
Valve
Main
Manifold
Set of 66
laterals
Roads
Q
lat
(l/s) = 0.11
Nlat/man i = 66
Qmani (l/s) = 6.94
Qmain (l/s) =13.89
Middle
line
Pipe connecting the tow
mains
Transport pipe
i. Dimensioning the pipes
The manifolds feed simultaneously a number of laterals (flow is
distributed en route). Therefore, Christiansens factor is applied to
compute the friction losses (which should not exceed 20% of the emitters
operating pressure)
The laterals, submains, mains and all hydrants are selected in such sizes
that the friction losses do not exceed 15% of the total dynamic head
required at the beginning of the system network
The system flow Q
syst
may be Q
tot
(total flow rate of the laterals) or
imposed by the water resource (dam, river, spring etc.)

98
Final design
ii. Discharge-pressure relationship :

where q= emitter discharge in l/h
K
d
= discharge coefficient characterising each emitter
H = emitter operating pressure in m
x = emitter discharge exponent. The less the value of X, the less the flow will
be affected by pressure changes. x=0 for fully compensated emitters. x= 0.5
for turbulent emitters like orifice; x=0.4 for vortex emitters. For tortuous path
emitters, x is varies between 0.5 and 0.7 whist the value is 0.7-0.8 for long
path emitters.
After measuring (q1,H1) and (q2,H2), it is possible to compute Kd and x.

Exercise
An equipment tester measured (q1,H1)=(2,8) and (q2,H2)=(3,20) for one
emitter. What are the values of K
d
and x) ? Tip : use

99
System design
x =
log q
1
/ q
2
B C
log H
1
/ H
2
B C
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
q = q H
` a
=K
d
H
x
Ans : x=0.44; K
d
=0.80
Knowing the manufacturer average discharge under the average pressure,
one can calculate the pressure required for a different discharge by the
relation :

Exercise : Data : From a manufacturer catalogue was selected a dripper with : x =
0.42, q = 4 lph at H = 10 m. Task : The suitable discharge to meet the irrigation
needs is 4.32 lph. What should be the pressure ?

100
System design
H
a
= H
q
a
q
fffffff
H
J
I
K
1
x
ffff
With
q
a
lph
b c
= average emitter discharge obtainable
under the average pressureH
a
q lph
b c
= emitter discharge obtainable under the average pressure H
x = discharge pressure relation exponent
In practice : several emitters, various flow regimes,
other factors affecting the pressure/discharge
relation along the laterals in the field (local minor
losses at emitters/connection, temperature
fluctuations etc.)

Hence : manufacturers should always provide charts
for the optimum length of emitter laterals, based on
the size of pipe, emitter spacing, operating pressure,
flow rate and slope

101
System design
102
System design
103
Pressure distribution along a lateral placed on a level ground
Inlet pressure (Pi)
Average pressure (Pav)
Lateral
Pressure at
distal end (Pd)
P
r
e
s
s
u
r
e

Distance along lateral
L
H

3
/
4
H

1
/
4
H

0
Q
lat
Q
emit
L/3 L/3 L/3
L
System design
General trends
Maximum at the inlet and minimum at distal end (assuming level lateral)
Linear variation in between? NO !
Equations for a level lateral

Pressure variation along an horizontal lateral
104
P
i
m
` a
=P
av
m
` a
+
3
4
ffff
AH m
` a
P
d
m
` a
=P
av
m
` a
@
1
4
ffff
AH m
` a
Where :
P
i
= inlet pressure
P
av
= average pressure
P
d
= distal pressure
AH = absolute value of the pressure loss
~ AH
allow
= 0.20BP
av
for the design
System design

The above equations assume that the third in elevation change occur upstream
of the average pressure point, and the two third occur downstream of that point
(even if that assumption is not exact, the equations still work pretty well)

105
Equations for a sloping lateral
!
System design
P
i
=P
av
+
3
4
ffff
AH@
1
3
fff
E
i
@E
d
b c
P
d
=P
av
@
1
4
ffff
AH +
2
3
fff
E
i
@E
d
b c
Where :
P
i
= inlet pressure
P
av
= average pressure
P
d
= distal pressure
~ AH
allow
= 0.20BP
av
for the design
The pressure variation in between the inlet and the distal points are given by :
Case of a level ground (slope nil) :

Case of a lateral on a sloping land:
106
AP = P
i
m
` a
@P
d
m
` a
=Pav m
` a
+
3
4
ffff
AH@Pav m
` a
+
1
4
ffff
AH m
` a
= AH m
` a
With
P
i
= inlet pressure
Pav = average pressure
P
d
= distal pressure
~ AH
allow
= 0.20BPav for the design
AP =P
i
@P
d
=P
av
+
3
4
ffff
AH@
1
3
fff
E
i
@E
d
b c
@P
av
+
1
4
ffff
AH@
2
3
fff
E
i
@E
d
b c
= AH@ E
i
@E
d
b c
Where :
P
i
= inlet pressure
P
av
= average pressure
P
d
= distal pressure
~ AH
allow
= 0.20BP
av
for the design
System design
107
Allowable pressure variation along a lateral
The pressure variation inside an hydraulic unit must be obey to the
Christiansen criterion that ensures a high degree of uniformity within
the unit
An hydraulic unit can be a hole irrigation scheme or a sub-set of the
scheme (area depending on the a sub-main, a sub-sub-main, manifold )
The recommendation is that the difference (q
max
- q
min
) along any lateral must not exceed 10% of
q
av
of the emitters (criterion of Christiansen, applicable in all pressurized systems)
Because of the square root relationship between the discharge and the pressure Q ~H
0.5
, this
criterion means the pressure difference (P
max
- P
min
) must not exceed 20% of the average
pressure P
av
of the emitter :

General rule :
AH
allow
= 20%BP
av
and AP = P
max
@P
min
s AH
allow
Avec:
AH
allow
= allowable pressure variation
P
nom
= average pressure of the emitters
P
max
= maximumpressure along the lateral can be P
i
b c
P
min
= minimumpressure along the lateral can be P
d
b c
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
System design
This design aims to determine the pipe diameter i) that will allow a
flow with a velocity inferior to the allowable v
allow
, and ii) along which
the head loss H between any two emitters is less than allowable
H
allow

The velocity in any pipe must comply with the following :
For plastic pipes V 1.7 m/s
For metal pipes (steel, aluminium, cast steel) V 2 m/s
The preliminary diameter of the pipe is computed from V=Q/A,
according to the process :

The diameter obtained must be changed against a commercial available
diameter, which can selected from the following abacuses or the
commercial catalogues before any friction loss calculation

108
System design
Design of the laterals (distributing pipes)
D mm
` a
=
Q m
3
/ h
b c
V m/ s
` a
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
v
u
u
u
u
t
wwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwwww
x 18.811
For metal steel, alu,cast steel etc A
b c
, Chose V s 2m/ s
For plastic PVC, PE, etc A
b c
, Chose V s 1.7 m/ s
X
^
^
^
^
\
^
^
^
^
Z
Y
^
^
^
^
]
^
^
^
^
[
Pipes are found in the commerce in classes of nominal pressures that
should not exceed any equipment :
For example, for unplasticized PVC (uPVC), are found classes 4, 6, 10
and 16 corresponding to nominal pressures of 4, 6, 10 and 16 bars

Design of the laterals
The friction head loss is
a function of the diameter
of the pipe
The friction head loss in
non distributing pipe is
computed using a formula
or an abacus
For example, a useful
formula is the opposite
one :

109
System design
Colebrook, Calmon &Lechapt :
AH
simple
m/ m
` a
= a
Q m
3
/ s
b c
D EN
D m
` a
B CM
= a
Q m
3
/ h
b c
3600
H
J
I
K
N
D mm
` a
B 10
@3
B CM
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
With :
AH
simple
= f riction head loss per meter in the pipe
a = a material of the pipe
b c
, a coef f icient
N = N material of the pipe
b c
, a coef f icient
M = M material of the pipe
b c
, a coef f icient
Matriaux a N M
Mortier de ciment centrifug 1.049 .10
-3
1.88 4.93
Mtal neuf 1.100 .10
-3
1.89 5.01
Bton centrifug 1.160 .10-3 1.93 5.11
Fonte acier revtement ciment 1.400 .10
-3
1.96 5.19
Fonte acier non revtu neuf 1.601 .10
-3
1.975 5.25
Fonte acier non revtu ancien 1.863 .10
-3
2 5.33
PVC 1.101 .10
-3
1.84 4.88
PVC diamtre D tel que 50D200 mm 0.916.10
-3
1.78 4.78
PVC diamtre D tel que 250D1000 mm 0.971.10
-3
1.81 4.81
110
S
o
u
r
c
e

:

D
e
b
o
i
s
s
e
z
o
n
,

1
9
8
5

Coefficient values in the formula of Colebrook,
Calmon & Lechapt
An alternative option consists in using an abacus among
those presented in the following pages
System design
111
Example of friction head loss diagram : case of soft polyethylene
Diameters
(mm)
Head
loss
(%)
Q(m
3
/hr)
Abacus 1 : Calculation of the friction loss H
simple
= H
simple
(Q,D,Press,v, PE pipes)
System design
S
o
u
r
c
e

:

S
o
u
t
h

A
f
r
i
c
a
n

B
u
r
e
a
u

o
f

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s

112
Diameters (mm)
Q(m
3
/hr)
Head
loss
X100
Pressure class :
4 4 bars
simple
= H
simple
(Q,D,Press,v, uPVC pipes)
System design
113
This abacus is made considering :
- Pipes of the class 16 bars from 12 to 90
included.
- Pipes of the class 10 bars from 110 to 400
included.

How to use the abacus :
Determination of the friction loss for a given
diameter D and a discharge Q.
Draw the vertical through Q till the intersection
with the line of D.
From this point, draw an horizontal line that cuts
the friction loss axis
at the researched value.

Example : for a discharge Q= 30 l/s, a pipe D=250
mm
- The friction loss J~2,3 mm/m.
- The flow velocity V is about 0,75 m/s.
Discharge in litre/second
F
r
i
c
t
i
o
n

l
o
s
s

i
n

m
i
l
l
i
m
e
t
r
e
s

p
e
r

m
e
t
e
r

o
f

p
i
p
e

System design
simple
= H
simple

(Q,D,Press,v, PVC pipes)
114
simple
= H
simple
(Q,D,Press,v, AC pipes)
System design
115
simple
= H
simple
(Q,D,Press,v, AC pipes)
Number
of
outlets
F value Number
of outlets
F value
1 1.000 14 0.387
2 0.639 16 0.382
3 0.535 18 0.379
4 0.486 20 0.376
5 0.457 25 0.371
6 0.435 30 0.368
8 0.415 40 0.364
10 0.402 50 0.361
12 0.394 100 0.356
116
System design
For a lateral, the amount of water diminishes from upstream to downstream. The
computation must determine first the friction head loss H
simple
for a non
distributing pipe. Afterwards, this value is corrected using a correction factor
called F, which depends on the number of outlets

The values of F are provided below according to Keller & Karmelli (1975)
0.30
0.35
0.40
0.45
0.50
0.55
0.60
0.65
0.70
0.75
0.80
0.85
0.90
0.95
1.00
1.05
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100
F
a
c
t
o
r

F

Number of outlets on the lateral
117
The friction loss H
lat
of a lateral is computed by :

The total pressure change (due to friction and topography difference)
must be compared with the allowable pressure variation. Therefore, for
a pipe diameter to be acceptable, the following condition is required :

Otherwise, one must increase the diameter, re-select a commercial
pipe and redo the pressure variation check
AH
lat
m
` a
= AH
simple
m
` a
B F
With :
AH
simple
= L
lat
m
` a
B AH
simple
m/ m
` a
F = Correction f actor which value
is a f unction of the number of outlets
L
lat
= length of the lateral
AP = AH
lat
m
` a
@ E
i
@E
d
b c
m
` a
D E
s AH
allow
m
` a
System design
118
Summary of the diameter design steps for
a lateral (uniform distributing pipe)
Use an abacus to determine
Hsimple (m/m)
YES
D, L
lat
and H
lat
are
correct
NO
Increase D
END
Use Colebrook @Calmon @Lechapt :
AH
simple
m/ m
` a
= a
Q m
3
/ h
b c
3600
H
J
I
K
N
D mm
` a
B 10
@3
B CM
General rule :
AH
allow
= 20%BPav
and AP = Pmax @P
min
s AH
allow
Avec:
AH
allow
= allowable pressure variation
Pnom = average pressure of the emitters
Pmax = maximumpressure along the lateral can be P
i
b c
P
min
= minimumpressure along the lateral can be P
d
b c
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
L
D mm
` a
=
Q m
3
/ h
b c
V m/ s
` a
v
u
u
u
u
t
x 18.811
b c
, Chose V s 2m/ s
b c
X
^
^
^
^
\
^
^
^
^
Z
Y
^
^
^
^
]
^
^
^
^
[
Select a commercial
Diameter
AH
lat
m
` a
= AH
simple
m
` a
B F
With :
AH
simple
= L
lat
m
` a
B AH
simple
m/ m
` a
F = Correction f actor which value
is a f unction of the number of outlets
L
lat
= length of the lateral
AP = AH
ramp
m
` a
@ E
i
@E
d
b c
m
` a
D E
s AH
allow
m
` a
System design
4 Constraints to
bear in mind :
i) the discharge
ii) the pressure
iii) the velocity
limit in pipes and
iv) the available
pipe diameters
Exercise : H
av
= 15m, q
av
=0.5 GPH, Number of emitters = 650 while the
lateral length Llat=100 . Polyethylene pipe. Task : a) compute H
lat
b) Is
this value acceptable ?

119
Ans : a) We chose =25mm PE pipe. H
simple
= 6m, H
lat
=2.14 m b) 20% H
av
=3m > H
lat
. Hence 2.14 m losses
are acceptable.
System design
Application 5
Cucumber project continued
Lets consider the configuration of
application 4 with the main located
in the mid of the scheme. The
lateral in Polyethylene will have
Ll
at
=75m and 250 emitters with a
nominal pressure of 35 PSI. The
Q
lat
=0.11 l/s.

Task : Determine i) The allowable
pressure variation along the lateral,
H
allow
ii) An appropriate pipe
diameter D for the lateral and its
friction loss H
lat

Pav (m) 24.6
H
allow
(m) 4.92
Plastic PE pipe, then
Vlimit (m/s) 1.7
Q(m3/h) 0.379 0.105 l/s
D initial (mm) 8.9
D(mm) 20
We chose a PE commercial read
from the abacus 1
Class 6
Abacus Hsimple 3.0%
Llat (m) 75.0
H
simple
(m) 2.25
Number of outlets 250
Correction factor F 0.35
H
lat
(m) 0.79
Conclusion
D(mm) 20
Commercial PE pipe read from the
abacus 1
The laterals are parallel with the
contour lines
Hence Ei-Ed = 0
P (m) 0.79 Smaller than Hallow (m)
New H
allow
(m) 4.13
Difference between H
allow
(m)
and P (m)
120
Design of the manifolds
Pipes in asbestos cement (AC) are no more recommended for domestic use due
to revealed induced health problems.
If farmers may drink irrigation water, it is preferable to avoid using AC pipes
The uPVC are sold per elements of 6 meters and service classes. The most
common classes are 4 up to 16. The internal diameters vary from 25 mm 250
mm
The polyethylene and uPVC pipes are often used in localized and sprinkler
irrigation systems. The service pressure (allowable pressure of the pipe) must be
respected (see table below)

The selection of various commercial diameters can be performed using the
abacuses (see abacus 2)

Classes Service pression de (bars)
4 4
6 6
10 10
16 16
uPVC pipes classes and service pressures
s
o
u
r
c
e

:

S
o
u
r
t
h

A
f
r
i
c
a
n

G
u
r
e
a
u

o
f

S
t
a
n
d
a
r
d
s
,

1
9
7
6

System design
121
Application 6:
Cucumber project
continued

Tasks : i) identify the
manifold with the most
important constraints
in term of pressure and
topography, ii)
determine the
appropriate diameter
in polyethylene pipes
for the manifold that
will be considered as a
standard for the project
Elevation
100m
105.0 m
105.5 m
106.0 m
106.5 m
107.0 m
107.5 m
Water
source
6
0
0

m
300 m
Day 1
108.0 m
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Each line represents a position for 66
laterals of 75 mlength each one
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
e
t
s
2 mains of 600 m
Day 6
Valve
Main
Manifold
Set of 66
laterals
Roads
Q
lat
(l/s) = 0.11
Nlat/man i = 66
Qmani (l/s) = 6.94
Qmain (l/s) =13.89
Middle
line
mains
Transport pipe
System design
122
System design
Elevation
100m
105.0 m
105.5 m
106.0 m
106.5 m
107.0 m
107.5 m
Water
source
6
0
0

m
300 m
Day 1
108.0 m
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
Eachline represents a position for 66
laterals of 75mlength each one
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
e
t
s
2 mains of 600 m
Day 6
Valve
Main
Manifold
Set of 66
laterals
Roads
Q
lat
(l/s) = 0.11
Nlat/man i = 66
Qmani (l/s) = 6.94
Qmain (l/s) =13.89
Middle
line
mains
Transport pipe
i)
The highest elevation in the system area is 108.25 m and the manifold at
the top left corner is the most unfavorable in term of pressure
One should notice that the
manifolds are perpendicular to the
land slope
ii)
Slat (m) 0.30
Nlat/mani 66
Lmani (m) 19.5
Qlat (m3/h) 0.379 0.11 l/s
Nlat,sim 66
Qmani(m3/h) 25.00 6.94 l/s
Pav (m) 24.6
H
allow
(m) 4.13
Type polyethylene pipes
Vlimit (m/s) 1.7
D initial (mm) 72.1
D(mm) 75
commercial PE pipe, deduced from
abacus N2
a 9.160E-04
N 1.780
M 4.78
H
simple
(m) Calmon Lechapt 0.613
Number of outlets 66
Correction factor F 0.357
H
mani
(m) 0.219
Conclusion
D(mm) 75
The manifold are perpendicular to
the contour lines
Average slope 0.5%
Ei (m)-Ed (m) -0.11
P (m) 0.32 smaller than Hallow (m)
New H
allow
(m) 3.81
123
Design of the main
The design process, for a main delivering water to several manifolds is the same
as for a lateral
The pipes will have here bigger diameters since carrying a more important
discharge
One must know first : the number of manifolds fed, the discharge of the manifold,
the topography of the submain
The allowable pressure variation is the rest after deduction of the variation in the
most unfavourable lateral and the related manifold
The computation continue form downstream to upstream (toward the main)

System design
Application 7:

Tasks : determine the appropriate diameter in uPVC pipes for the main
that will be considered as a standard for the project. One should notice that
the mains are perpendicular to the land slope.
124
System design
Spacing mani intakes (m) 20.00
Nmani/main 60
Nmani,sim per main 2
Qmani(m3/h) 25.00
Qmain(m3/h) 50.0 6.94 l/s
Pav (m) 24.6 13.89 l/s
H
allow
(m) 3.81
PVC pipe
Vlimit (m/s) 1.7
D initial (mm) 102.0
D(mm) 200
Commercial PVC class 6 pipe
from abacus N2
Abacus Hsimple 0.08%
Lmain (m) 600
H
simple
(m) abacus 0.48
Number of outlets 1
The most unfavorable case
corresponds to the 2 mani
Correction factor F 1
working at the end of the
main, 600m downstream
H
main
(m) 0.480
Conclusion
D(mm) 200
The manifold are
perpendicular to the
contour lines
Average slope 0.5%
Ei (m)-Ed (m) -3.25
P (m) 3.73 smaller than Hallow (m)
New H
allow
(m) 0.08
Upstream the inlet point of
the main, the pressure
variation
must be compensated by the
pump. Christiansen criterion
is
no more needed, though
head loss should be
reasonably small
Elevation
100m
105.0 m
105.5 m
106.0 m
106.5 m
107.0 m
107.5 m
Water
source
6
0
0

m
300 m
Day 1
108.0 m
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
e
t
s
2 mains of 600 m
Day 6
Valve
Main
Manifold
Set of 66
laterals
Roads
Q
lat
(l/s) = 0.11
Nlat/man i = 66
Qmani (l/s) = 6.94
Qmain (l/s) =13.89
Middle
line
mains
Transport pipe
125
System design
Application 8:
It is assumed that the pipe
connecting the 2 mains has
the same diameter than one
(200mm, L=150 m,
Hinter_main=
150m*0.08%=1.2 m). From
the intersection of the 2 main
pipes, the PVC transport pipe
runs to the water source
where is located the pumping
station. It carries two times
the discharge of a main pipe.
Task : Determine the diameter
and the friction loss of the
transportation pipe if its runs
parallel to the contour lines
and its lengts is 200 m
Elevation
100m
105.0 m
105.5 m
106.0 m
106.5 m
107.0 m
107.5 m
Water
source
6
0
0

m
300 m
Day 1
108.0 m
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
e
t
s
2 mains of 600 m
Day 6
Valve
Main
Manifold
Set of 66
laterals
Roads
Q
lat
(l/s) = 0.11
Nlat/man i = 66
Qmani (l/s) = 6.94
Qmain (l/s) =13.89
Middle
line
mains
Transport pipe
Qtransport (m3/h) 100.0
Twice the discharge
of a main 27.77 l/s
Vlimit (m/s) 1.7
D initial (mm) 144.3
D(mm) 250
Commercial uPVC
class 6, abacus N2
Abacus Hsimple 0.08%
Ltransport (m) 200
H
transport
(m) 0.16
Total head or dynamic head requirements (TDH)
The TDH includes the following :
1. The suction lift at the pumping station
2. Friction losses in the transport line
3. Friction losses in mainline
4. Friction losses in the manifold
5. Friction losses in the laterals or driplines
6. Geometric elevation difference the most unfavorable
7. The drippers operating pressure
8. Friction losses in the head control (filters, injectors etc.)
9. Friction loss in fittings

126
System design
We have seen how
to compute these 3
components
127
Lifting friction loss at pumping station:
Keller & Bliestner proposed that the suction pipe diameter should be as such
suction velocity V 3.3 m/s. If the pipe is not too long, the lifting suction loss
can be approached as a velocity head
The lifting friction loss can be computed using the formula :

If one takes v=3.3m/s, then the lifting friction loss H
suction
= 0.56 m
AH
suction
m
` a
=
V
2
m/ s
` a2
2g m/ s
2
b c
fffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Avec :
AH
suction
= f riction loss in the lif ting pipe
v = velocity in the pipe
g = gravity acceleration
= 9.81 m/ s
2
System design
128
The friction loss in the transport line (from the water source to
the entrance of the scheme)
Given the length of the pipe L
pipe
and its discharge, the appropriate
diameter is determined using the previous process :

Since water is note distributed en route in this pipe, Christiansen
criterion does not apply. One should find a good agreement
between the permissible friction loss and the diameter (that
influence the cost) of the pipe

Use an abacus to determine
Hsimple (m/m)
Use Colebrook @Calmon @Lechapt :
AH
simple
m/ m
` a
= a
Q m
3
/ h
b c
3600
H
J
I
K
N
D mm
` a
B 10
@3
B CM
D mm
` a
=
Q m
3
/ h
b c
V m/ s
` a
v
u
u
u
u
t
x 18.811
b c
, Chose V s 2m/ s
b c
X
^
^
^
^
\
^
^
^
^
Z
Y
^
^
^
^
]
^
^
^
^
[
Select a commercial
Diameter
System design
129
The geometric elevation difference the most unfavorable
It corresponds to the elevation difference between the water surface at the
pumping station and the highest point in the farm where water must be
delivered :

The total head
It is computed by :

H
total
m
` a
=X
i
P
average
+ AH
lat
+ AH
manifold
+ AH
main
+ AH
transport
+ AH
suction
b c
AH
geom
m
` a
= Z
max
m
` a
@Z
water
m
` a
One should notice that in the computation of
H
total
, except the nominal pressure Paverage of
the emitter, only friction loss terms are
recorded. All the geometric elevation
differences are taken into account in H
geom
System design
130
The friction head loss in the fittings (elbow, T, valves)
It is common to consider they amount to 10% of total of the calculated
head losses

The head loss in filters, injectors etc.
They can be estimated to be 5 to 7 m in general

Eventually, the Total Dynamic Head (TDH) is provided by the
expression :

AH
fittings
m
` a
= 0.10BH
total
m
` a
System design
TDH m
` a
=H
total
m
` a
+ AH
geom
+ AH
fittings
m
` a
+ AH
filtres,injec
m
` a
AH
filtres,injec
m
` a
= 5 to 7 m
` a
131
Pump selection
The pump manufacturers usually provide the pump characteristic
curves
Knowing the total discharge Q and the TDH, one can select an
appropriate pump so as to ensure a high degree of efficiency
and an engine to drive the pump (unless it is a diesel motor
pump)
In the selection process , the NPSH plays also an important role
(see a pumping station lecture)
The pump must be selected so as that the NPSHA (Net Positive
Suction Head Available) is greater than the NPSHR (NPSH Required )

System design
The basic formula for the required power of the engine to drive the pump
is the brake horsepower formula :

Pump efficiency: e1 = 0.5-0.8
Electric motor efficiency: e2 = 0.7-0.9 ; Diesel engine efficiency: e2 = 0.5-
0.75
Hence overall pumping efficiency = 0.35 in diesel engine driven units to
0.50 in electric driven pumps. Higher efficiencies are not realistic.

132
P kW
` a
=
Q m
3
/ h
b c
B TDH m
` a
360Be
1
Be
2
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
P HP
` a
=
Q m
3
/ h
b c
B TDH m
` a
273Be
1
Be
2
ffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffffff
Where
Q = total discharge
TDH = Total dynamic head
e
1
= the pump ef f iciency f raction
` a
;
e
2
= the driving ef f iciency f raction
` a
360 or 273 = a constant f or metric units
133
System design
Application 9:
Considering the left main pipe (this one will impose the minimum
pressure condition at the intersection of the two mains) and the top
left edge farm (the highest) ,

i) compute the total dynamic head TDH assuming 7m of
head loss in the filters and injectors, and ii) select the
electric engine for the pump
Elevation
100m
105.0 m
105.5 m
106.0 m
106.5 m
107.0 m
107.5 m
Water
source
6
0
0

m
300 m
Day 1
108.0 m
Day 2
Day 3
Day 4
Day 5
D
i
r
e
c
t
i
o
n

o
f

s
u
c
c
e
s
s
i
v
e

s
e
t
s
2 mains of 600 m
Day 6
Valve
Main
Manifold
Set of 66
laterals
Roads
Q
lat
(l/s) = 0.11
Nlat/man i = 66
Qmani (l/s) = 6.94
Qmain (l/s) =13.89
Middle
line
mains
Transport pipe
Solution i)
Paverage (m) 24.6
Hlat (m) 0.79
Hmani (m) 0.219
Hmain (m) 0.480
Hinter_main(m) 1.2
Hsuction (m) 0.56
Htotal (m) 27.9
Hfittings (m) 2.8
Zmax(m) 108.5
Zwater(m) 98
Hgeom (m) 10.5
Hfilters,inject (m) 7
TDH (m) 48.1
Solution ii)
Qtot (m3/h) 100.0
TDH(m) 48.1
e1xe2 0.5
P(KW) 27 Electric engine
Bill of quantities
After completion of the design computations,
make :
relevant drawings
the bill of quantities : a detailed list of all
equipment needed
In addition to the quantities specify :
size and name (2-in ball valve, 50-mm pipe, etc.);
kind of material (brass, uPVC, etc.);
pressure rating (PN 16 bars, 6 bars, etc.);
type of joints (screw, solvent welded, etc.);
standards complied with (ISO 161, 3606, BS 21, ISO 7, etc.).

134
System design
IV.
Equipment standards and
tenders for supply
135
A. Keta, 2iE
Table of contents
The 3 required lists, Equipment working
pressure, Main, Submains, Manifolds and
Hydrants, Laterals and fittings, Head control,
Pumping unit, Standards

Tenders

136
Required lists
Three different lists to be prepared :
List 1 : for main, submains and manifolds with
hydrants
List 2 : laterals with emitters
List 3 : head control
137
Equipment
Equipment working pressure
Working pressure of the pipes
Should always be higher than the system
operating pressure
Example :

138
Equipment
Operating
pressure of a
mini sprinkler
system (bar)
Possible
equipment
pressure (bar)
Advised pipe
pressure (bar)
Laterals 2.3 2.5 4.0 4.0
Manifolds 2.5 2.7 4.0 4.0
Main 2.7 3.0 4.0 6.0
(*)
(*)
Desire to prevent water hammer problems
Main, submain, manifolds pipes
and hydrants
Most frequent material used : rigid PVC, HDPE, LDPE, quick coupling
aluminium or light steel
139
Equipment
To be determined Description Quantity
Pipes and related pieces Total length x 1.05
Pipe connector fittings with 2
identical types of connections
bends, tees, end plugs, reducers, etc.
To be used with the above pipes
Total required + 5%
Fittings with 2 different types
of connections
Bends, tees, reduces, etc.
e.g. bend 110 mm x 3 in (flanged)

Total required + 5%
Adaptors (starters) Fittings with one end threaded or flanged
and the other end arranged in the same
type of connection as the pipes. Used at the
starting point of the pipelines and at any
other point where valves are fitted
Total required

Shut-off and air valve The air valves are fitted on riser pipes
connected with clamp saddles
on the mains
Total required
Riser pipes for hydrants (case
where the mains are buried)
Shut off valves, special
hydrant valves
If the mains are not buried, the clamp
saddles/shut-off valve fittings must be
determined (same number as hydrants)
Total required

Generally quick coupling LDPE pipes are used as surface laterals
140
Equipment
Laterals
Pipes with related
pieces
Total length x 1.05
Fittings & filters Adaptors, tees, bends, end plugs
and line filters
Total required + 5%
Emitters and their
connector fittings
e.g. Mini sprinkler complete set Total required + 5%

Shut-off and air
valve
The air valves are fitted on riser
pipes connected with clamp
saddles
on the mains
Total required
141
Equipment
shut-off valves Total required
check valve Total required
fertilizer injector Total required
air valve Total required
filters, Total required
pressure regulators Total required
Pressure gauge etc. Total required
Head control
Example of simplified head control
142
Equipment
Source : NETAFIM FDS
143
Equipment
Average P (kW)
Type of pump - e.g. centrifugal single or
multi-stage, turbine,
electro, submersible
- inlet and outlet diameter
- the type and number of
stages
Total required
Capacity and output
of the pumping unit
the water delivery
versus the dynamic head.

Pumping unit
Equipments are manufactured according to various standards
Standards, though equivalent, differ in terms of dimensioning,
class rating, safety factor, nomenclature
The International Standard Organisation (ISO) has devoted
great technical engineering effort to make standards , for
regional and national conformity , reducing confusion
But there are still a lot of national standards and small farmers
are often confused
Example : 4-in rigid PVC pipe, 6.0 bars, in two different national standards
144
Equipment
Standards
Produce a simple and clear description of the required
equipment
Example : black LDPE, PN 4.0 bars, to DIN 8072 or equivalent
standards in compliance to ISO, supplied in coils of 200 m :
a) 32 mm DN, 1800 m
b) 25 mm DN, 3200 m
If the equipment does not comply any standard, a full and
clear technical description must be provided in term of
material it is made of, working pressure and use

Most of the irrigation equipment should meet the standard
requirements in the table below

145
Standards
Standards
146
Standards
147
Standards
Tenders
For equipment & services up to 500, purchase possible
through quotations with 2-3 suppliers
When the value of purchase > 600, it is effected through a
tender. This is done in accordance with the store of
regulations of the project or the country
Wide advertisement should be given to any tender
148
Tenders
Tender
advertisement
Name of the buyer
Description of the
items
Address for
equipment delivery
Closing date and
time for the tenders
Indication of where
bidders can have
further information

Statement that
buyer is not bound
to lower offer, etc.
149
Tender
document
Make available for
propect. bidders
General conditions
Technical specifications of
equipment
Time & method of delivery
(FOB, CIF, ex-stock, method
of payment, ...)
Tenders of more than
3000, bidders should
provide a bank guarantee
or check = 10% of tender
value price
Tenders
Include, in case of international bids, in the contract the
following documents (source : Phocades 2001) :
invitation for bids (as described above);
instructions to bidders (source of funds, eligible bidders, goods and
services, cost, content of bidding documents, preparation and
submission of bids, opening and evaluation, award of contract, etc.);
general conditions of contract (definitions, country of origin and
standards, performance, security, inspection and tests, insurance,
transportation, warranty, payment, amendments, delays, force
majeure, etc.);
special conditions;
technical specifications (general, materials and workmanship,
schedules of requirements/bill of quantities, and particular technical
requirements/specifications);
bid form and price schedules;
contract form, bid security and performance security.
150
Tenders
Example (source :
Phocaides, 2001)

151
Tenders
Example (source :
Phocades, 2001)

152
Tenders
153
Example
(source :
Phocades,
2001)

Tenders
V
Equipment and fittings
(see catalogues)
154
A. Keta, Sept-
Nov 2008
Table of contents
Review NETAFIM Landscape and Turf Products
Catalogue

Review JAIN Catalogue for Micro irrigation

SENMINGER catalogue

155
VI
Maintenance & Fertigation

156
A. Keta, 2iE
Table of contents
Clogging and water treatment

Filtration : settling basin, vortex sand
separator, screen mesh filter, sand media
filter, disc filter

Fertigation : closed tank, venture, piston
pump

157
Narrowness of flow paths makes emitters sensitive to clogging
Water analysis is required to determine the appropriate treatment

Water analysis required : 1) Total suspended solids, 2) Comple cathion-
anions analysis, 3) Hardness and PH, 4) Total dissolved solids, 5) Iron (both
ferrous and ferric) and hydrogen sulfide, 6) Bacteria population and
possibly iron bacteria

158
Clogging
Causes of clogging
Physical Chemical Biological
Sand, silt,
plastic chips,
metallic flakes
Precipitation of
iron and salts
(calcium
carbonate), of
fertilisers
Growth of
algae/bacteria
in water source,
in drippers or
sprinklers,
Clogging & Water treatment
159
Confront the results to table below to determine water treatment
required
Install the WT plant (filtration and chemigation) at the pumping area
Since debris can enter the system after any pipe breakage, additional
protection should be provided as small screens, disc filters at the
header of laterals or manifolds (cost optimisation)
Small screens or disc filters required for multi-users system, after the
fertigation unit of each user

160
Simple filtration (screen
filter, disc filter) often
enough to remove sand
Water type
Groundwater
Open sources
Precipitations may
require treatment
of chemicals at
times
Pretreatment with settling
basins or vortex extractor
Sand filter
Screen filter
Chemical treatment
Water treatment
Generally particles of larger than 0.075 mm (0.150 mm for some
manufacturers) must be removed
Consider that fine sand and very find sand may settle in the system areas
(different from emitters) where flow is small (e.g. the end of laterals).
Hence a 200 mesh screens may be required even if the diameter of
emitters is close to 1mm
The 200 mesh screen is the most common used screen filter used. It
cannot arrest fine sand and silts as shown on the table below.
The following table provides the appropriate mesh screen for the particle
size found.

161
Filtration
Settling basin
Vortex sand separator
Screen mesh filter
Sand media filter
Disc filter
162
Type of filtration
163
Settling basin
Design in such a way that
it takes 15 mn to water
particle to reach the
pump (Keller & Bliestner).
Most inorganic particles
greater than 0.080 mm
will settle
Equivalent to 200 mesh
screen filtration
Used together with other
filtration methods

Vortex sand
separator
Suitable if the sand load
is high
Modern one can remove
up to 98 % of the sand
that otherwise will be
trapped in the 200 mm
mesh screen

164
Picture : Phocaides 2001
Screen mesh filter
The simplest of all filters
Generally cannot be back flushed (some manufacturers proposed
this possibility when using a pair of filters)
Not recommended in removal of algae or organic material
To be cleaned manually

165
166
Screen mesh filter
167
Sand media filter
Developed to arrest
particle that other
filters cannot
Effective in filtering
particles from 25-200
microns
Recommended for
filtering out algae,
when mesh screen or
disc filter require too
frequent cleaning...
Cleaned through back
flushing : 2 filters at
least are required (if
irrigation must be
continue during the
process)

168
169
Disc filter
Composed of many plastic discs
with grooves (long narrow
channels) which are very tightly
spaced
Water can flow through the disc in
both directions. Hence, back
flushing is possible (great
advantage compare to mesh screen
filters)
Has become more and more
popular because of back flushing
and cost less than mesh screens
When used together with sand
filter, make provision for a hose
with clean water for cleaning the
filter

170
There are 3 main types of fertilizer injectors :
Closed tank
Venturi
Piston pump
171
Fertigation
Fertigation
Closed tank
Part of the flow is diverted to the tank entering by the
bottom, mixed up with the fertilizer and is reinjected into
the system
172
Fertigation
Venturi
Based on the principle of Venturi tube : a pressure difference is
needed between inlet and outlet
Relatively cheap

173
Fertigation
Piston pump
Powered by the water pressure
Can be installed directly on the supply line
System flow activates the pistons and operates the injector

174
175
Thank you for your attention
References
Ankum, P. 2004. Flow control in Irrigation systems. UNESCO-IHE Lecture Notes.
Delft,The Netherlands.
de Laat, P.J.M. 2006. Soil Water Plant Relations. UNESCO-IHE Lecture Notes. Delft, The
Netherlands.

PHOCAIDES, A. (2001) Handbook on Pressurized irrigation techniques, Rome, Italty,
FAO.
Savva P. A., Frenken K, 2001. Irrigation manual module 8 : sprinkler irrigation systems,
planning, design, operation and maintenance. FAO Subregional office for East and
southern Africa

SAVVA, A. P. & FRENKEN, K. (2002) Localized irrigation systems. Planning, design,
operation and maintenance. Harare, Zimbabwe, FAO.
VERMEIREN L. & JOBLING, G. A. (1980) Localized irrigation - Design, installation,
operation, evaluation Rome, Italy, FAO.

176
177
Appendix I
Point-source irrigation of 44 ha of orange
Denomination Values Units
Data :
A mature orange orchard will be irrigated using point-source technology
Use a single lateral per row of trees.
Fine loamy sand soil
Irrigated area is 44 ha with A 44 ha
length L (m) = 1000 L (m) 1000
width W (m) = 440 W (m) 440
The laterals are parallel to the width
The manifold is perpendicular to the main slope
The main slope of the farm ascending from the water ressource is i = 0.20%
Trees spacing is 5m x 5m and similar to emitter spacing and lateral spacing so that
Sl(m) = 5 Slat 5 m
Stree(m) =5 Stree 5 m
Wetted area per 2GPH emitter A
W
(Feet) = 28 Aw/emit(Feet) 28
Canopy size Dcan(m) = 2.03
Peak daily ETMpeak (mm/d) = 7.0 ETMpeak 7 mm/d
Effective rain, peak-use period: assume zero. Pe 0
Residual R soil water : assume zero. R 0
Use a moisture content (
FC
-
WP
) of 25% (
FC
-
WP
) 25%
The depletion factor p is to be found for orange (citrus) p
Water source: widely available
Irrigation water quality ECw
(dS/m) 1.2 Ecw (dS/m) 1.2
Field application efficiency Ea= 0.9 Ea 90%
Root zone depth Dr (citrus) : take the minimum value in the litterature Dr ???
Shaded area is GC= 75%. GC 0.75
Nominal emitter flow rate qemit (GPH)= 2 qa 2 GPH
Emitter average or working pressure : 45 PSI Pav 45 PSI
178
Appendix I - continued
Tasks Solutions
1. Determine the number of 2 GPH emitters per tree,
Nemit/pl Nemit/tree= 1
2. What is the value of the discharge for one orange qtree (l/s) ? qtree(l/s)= 0.002
3. What is the discharge of one point source Qsource (l/s) ? Qsource(l/s) 0.002
4. What is the application rate for a 2 GPH emitter Pe(mm/h) ? Pemit(mm/h) 2.9
5. What is the allowable infiltration rate for fine loamy sand soil with a slope of 0.20%, Inf (mm/h )? Inf (mm/h) 13
6. What is the value of the ETM
Loc
(mm/d) ETM
Loc
(mm/d) 6.1
7. How much is required for leaching LR (mm/d) LR (mm/d) 0.51
8. What is the gross irrigation requirement IRg (mm/d) IRg(mm/d) 7.24
9. To what amounts the readily available moiture RAM(mm) RAM=Dp (mm) 127.5
10. What is the irrigation frequency F(d) ? F(d) 21.0
11. To what amounts the irrigation Turn if it is 17 days lower than F, T(d) ? T(d) 4.0
12. What is the value of the gross application Depth, Dg (mm) ? Dg(mm) 29.0
13. The number Ts(h) of hours in a position is... Ts(h) 10.0
14. If 4 hours are to be left for activities other than irrigation, how many shifts Nsh are possible per day ? Nsh 2.0
15. Assuming a full lateral is 440 m long, how many lateral positions do we have, Npos Npos 200
16. Now assuming the main passes in de middle of the rectangular farm, how many half-laterals work simultaneously Nlat,sim Nlat,sim 50
17. How many point-source sets of 2GPH emitters do we have along a half-lateral, Nsource/lat ? Nsource/lat 44
18. What is the allowable pressure variation for this farm Hallow (m) Hallow (m) 6.33
19. What is the appropriate class 6 PVC pipe diameter for the half-lateral, Dlat (mm) ? Dlat (mm) 16
20. What is the remaining pressure variation after removing that (Calmon-Lechapt) of the remotest and highest half-lateral, New
Hallow ? New Hallow 4.48
21. What is the discharge of the Manifold giving water to a number of simultaneous half-laterals , Qmani (m3/h) ? Qmani (m3/h) 8.32
22. What is the appropriate (Calmon-Lechapt) PVC diameter for the manifold which is perpendicular to the slope, Dmani (mm) ? Dmani (mm) 50
23. How mani manifolds are fed simultaneously Nmani,sim ? Nmani,sim 2
24. What is the discharge of the main, Qmain (m3/h) ? Qmain(m3/h) 16.63
25. What is the appropriate (Calmon-Lechapt) PVC diameter for the main which is perpendicular to the slope, Dmain (mm) ? Dmain (mm) 63
179
Appendix I - end
Day 1
2x2 shifts per day
Day
2
Day
3
Day
4
25 lat 16
25 lat
Total number of laterals : (2x25*4)x2 = 400
Qh-lat = 0.093 l/s
Qmani = 2.31 l/s
Qmain = 4.63 l/s
qe(l/s/ha) = 0.11
Manifold
50
1
0
0
0

m

440 m
Main 63
System layout

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