Lecture 04 Special Theory of Relativity II

Maxwells Equations

Maxwells equations DO NOT have the same form under a Galilean transformation. In Maxwells theory the speed of light, in terms of the permeability and permittivity of free space, was given by

v = c = 1 / 0 0

Thus the velocity of light between moving systems must be a constant.

Light Speed Contradiction

Based on Maxwells theory,

c = c' c = c '+ v

But classical mechanics tells us that Which one is correct?

A Preferred Reference System

Ether was proposed as an absolute reference system in which the speed of light was this constant and from which other measurements could be made. The Michelson-Morley experiment was an attempt to show the existence of ether.
Ether Earth

v
v 10-4 c
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The Michelson Interferometer

AC is parallel to the motion of the Earth.

Light from source S is split by mirror A and travels to mirrors C and D in mutually perpendicular directions. After reflection the beams recombine at A slightly out of phase as viewed by telescope E.
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Interferometer Fringe Pattern

x

Input beam Mirror

z

Earth Drift

Beam- splitter

Mirror

Wave

( x , t ) = A sin( kx t + 0 ) where A is amplitude,

= kx t + 0 is phase, and 0 is the initial phase,

2 , where is wave length, k is wave number: k = 2 is angular velocity: = , where T is period, T 1 f = is frequency, the phase speed v = f = = . T k T

Wave Interference

Wave Interference

Sources S1 and S2 are coherent wave sources

Constructive Interferences: Destructive Interferences: r2 r1 = m ( m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
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r2 r1 = ( m + 0.5) ( m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)

Wave Interference

Sources S1 and S2 are coherent wave sources

Constructive Interferences: Destructive Interferences: = 2 m = (2 m + 1) ( m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...) ( m = 0, 1, 2, 3,...)
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Wave Interference: Double-Slit

At the center, = 0
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Interferometer Fringe Pattern

x

Input beam Mirror

z

Earth Drift

Beam- splitter

Mirror

At the center, = t = t 2 f ' n= = ( t ' t ) f 2

The fringe pattern should shift if the apparatus is rotated by 90.

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Galilean Velocity Transformation

vP = v ' P + v
v 'P v vP v 'P vP

v
P

v

v ' P = vp v

v

v 'P
2 v ' P = vP v2

vP

v ' P = vp + v

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The Analysis
Assuming the Galilean Transformation

Time t1 from A to C and back:

Parallel and anti-parallel propagation

v
A

l1 l2

Perpendicular propagation

D Time t2 from A to D and back:

t2 =

2l2 c2 v 2

2l2 c

1 1 v 2 / c2
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The Analysis
Assuming the Galilean Transformation

So that the change in time is:

l1 l2 2 t = t2 t1 = c 1 v 2 / c2 1 v 2 / c2
Upon rotating the apparatus, the optical path lengths 1 and 2 are interchanged producing a different change in time: (note the change in denominators)

l1 l2 2 t ' = t '2 t '1 = 2 2 2 2 c 1 v / c 1 v / c

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The Analysis
Thus a time difference between rotations is given by:

l1 + l2 2 l1 + l2 t ' t = 2 2 2 2 c 1 v / c 1 v / c
and upon a binomial expansion, assuming v/c << 1, this reduces to:

t ' t

v ( l1 + l2 )
2

n = ( t ' t ) f
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Results

Using the Earths orbital speed as: V = 3 104 m/s Michelsons apparatus had 1 2 = 1.2 m So that the time difference becomes t t v2(1 + 2)/c3 = 8 1017 s Corresponds to 0.04 fringes for orange light (5 1014 Hz) 0.05 fringes for green light (6 1014 Hz)

Although a very small number, it was within the experimental error (0.005 fringes) for light waves.
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Michelson-Morley Experiment
The Michelson interferometer shouldve revealed a fringe shift as it was rotated with respect to the ether velocity. MM expected 0.4
periods of shift (11 m for l1 and l2) and could resolve 0.005 periods. They saw none! Their apparatus

Interference fringes showed no change as the interferometer was rotated.

Nobel Prize in 1907

Michelson and Morley's results from A. A. Michelson, Studies in Optics

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Michelsons Conclusion

In several repeats and refinements with assistance from Edward Morley, he always saw a null result. He concluded that the hypothesis of the stationary ether must be incorrect. Thus, ether seems not to exist!
Albert Michelson (1852-1931) Edward Morley (1838-1923)

Nobel Prize in 1907: One of the most famous failed expt.

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Possible Explanations
Many explanations were proposed but the most popular was the ether drag hypothesis.

This hypothesis suggested that the Earth somehow dragged the ether along as it rotates on its axis and revolves about the sun. This was contradicted by stellar aberration wherein telescopes had to be tilted to observe starlight due to the Earths motion. If ether was dragged along, this tilting would not exist.

vt v tan = = ct c
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The Lorentz-FitzGerald Contraction

Another hypothesis proposed independently by both H. A. Lorentz and G. F. FitzGerald suggested that the length in the direction of the motion was contracted by a factor of

Therefore

l1 l2 2 t = t ' = 2 2 c 1 v 2 / c2 1 v / c

Hendrik A. Lorentz (1853-1928)

George F. FitzGerald (1851-1901)

This, however, was an ad hoc assumption that could not be experimentally tested.
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Assignments

Reading: Ch. 2.3, 2.4.

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