Electric Propulsion : A Literature Review Advanced Propulsion Fall 2013

Submitted by: Arvindh R Sharma M06175602

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

Introduction
The dawn of Space Age heralded the maturation and invention of a number of technologies. The propulsion requirements increased in a multitude of ways. While the chemical rockets were able to provide the necessary thrust to achieve escape velocity, they were severely limited by the mass considerations. New technology that could offer propulsion systems capable of powering spacecrafts in interplanetary missions were suddenly in demand. Electric propulsion, after many years of conceptualization, was once again under focus to meet the new demands. While the Electric Propulsion Systems (EPS) have been around for decades, renewed interest is generated because the level of technology that could aid in utilizing EPS have only recently matured.

Concept of Specific Impulse 1,2,3

Specific impulse is a concept that links the impulse delivered to the vehicle with the mass of the propellant used to produce the impulse. The impulse is the time integral of the force (thrust) produced. Specific impulse is defined as the impulse produced by unit weight of ejected propellant. ISP = F/(dw/dt) where ISP Specific Impulse in seconds, F Thrust in Newton, dw/dt Weight flow rate of propellant. For a constant exhaust velocity during operation of thruster, we have v = ve ln (m0/mt) where v Velocity increment im m/s, ve Propellant exhaust velocity in m/s, m0 Mass of spacecraft at time=0, mt Mass of spacecraft at time=t, end of thrust period. From this equation, we can see that as mt approaches m0, then ve must also approach the value of v. That is, a very high exhaust velocity will aid in delivering a higher mass fraction at the end of thrusting period. It is evident that future space missions require thrusters that can provide a large velocity increment in order to carry higher proportions of useful mass.

Comparison of Electric Propulsion with Conventional Chemical Rockets

Chemical rockets utilize the energy stored in the propellants to heat the propellant gases and expand them in a nozzle to high speeds. The propellants have an energy limit meaning they
1

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

have fixed amount of energy for unit mass. The energy that can be transferred is limited by the thermal transfer properties, as well as by the maximum thermal loading of the engine components but is independent of the mass. In effect, higher thrust levels are possible by expanding a larger mass of propellant but there exists an upper bound on the maximum exhaust velocity. To give a perspective, the usual upper limit on exhaust velocity in rocket engines is 4.5 km/s. As the velocity increment requirement increases, v equation indicates that extremely high ratio of propellant mass is to be carried, limiting useful payload mass. 4 The solution, then, is to separate the power/energy source from the exhaust gases. Then, theoretically, a much larger energy transfer is possible which will provide large exhaust velocities. This is where electric propulsion offers the advantage over chemical rockets. But electric propulsion is power limited in that the energy transfer rate to propellants is governed by the mass of the propellant available. This results in electric propulsion systems being low thrust, high specific impulse devices. 3 While the chemical rockets achieve high thrust in a shorter time by expanding a larger mass of propellant, the electric propulsion systems can deliver lower thrust for a longer period of time by expending low amounts of propellants at very high speeds, thus achieving higher total impulse. The trade off governs the suitability of using either of the systems based on the thrust and total impulse requirements. While the energy source and propellant mass decrease together with operation in chemical rockets, the decoupling between the two offers electric propulsion systems a clear advantage when the operating time becomes large.

Principle of Operation
Electric propulsion systems work on the principle of transferring electrical energy to a propellant from an external energy source, and then ejecting the propellant to produce thrust. The energy transfer can be achieved in a number of ways. The simplest technique is thermal transfer of energy, where the propellant is heated with electric arcs or wire coils. Another technique is to ionize the propellants, and then drive them to very high velocities with the help of electric and magnetic fields. [Ref. C] The electric power sources also have a great impact on the selection of the EP system. Sources like solar panels, batteries, nuclear fission reactors, radio-isotopes, etc. have been under study. Thus various combinations of electrical energy transfer mechanisms, propellants and energy source are possible. 5

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

Schematic of EP system5

Classification and Types of Electric Thrusters

Based on the energy transfer mechanism employed, the thrusters can be classified into electrothermal, electrostatic, electromagnetic and other types. For the purpose of brevity, the classes are explained and individual thruster types are mentioned.

Classification of EPS 6

Electrothermal Thrusters
As the name indicates, electrothermal thrusters operate by applying thermal energy on the propellant fluid from electrical energy. This is achieved either with the help of hot wires heated by the electric current, or by striking an electric arc through the propellant fluid and directly heating it. The former thruster is called a Resistojet while the latter is called Arc-Jet thruster. 4 In resistojets, catalytically decomposed hydrazine is the usual propellant. The heat generated
3

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

from the coils is also lost to the chamber walls, decreasing efficiency of this thruster. The chamber walls material also poses a restriction on the maximum heat that can be supplied to the propellant. Thus, exhaust velocities are relatively lower than other EP systems. Still, I SP of the order of 300-310 s is achieved. Arcjets overcome the wall temperature restriction by applying heat directly to the propellant, usually with the help of a concentric cathode rod upstream and a supersonic nozzle that also acts as the anode. The losses associated in this type are due to the non uniformity of the heated propellant stream due to temperature gradients (10000-20000 K in arc core, around 2000 K near the walls). ISP of the order of 500-600 s is possible with hydrazine arcjets. 5

Schematic of resistojet 4

Fig. Schematic of arc jet 4

Electromagnetic Thrusters
The exhaust velocity limit in electrothermal thrusters due to the thermodynamic considerations can be overcome by directly applying forces on the atoms of the propellant. This can be achieved by ionizing the gas and then applying electric and magnetic fields to accelerate the ions. The key advantage in this method is that since the force acts on each individual ion, and thereby any losses involved in non-uniformity of bulk motion of the propellant is avoided. However, the drawback is that the mass flow has to be small enough so that the ions do not recombine with electrons or get decelerated by collisions. Also electrons should be supplied to de-ionize the propellants so that a negative thrust effect is not established due to the charge on the ejected stream4 Hall thrusters belong to this class of EP systems. Inert gases like xenon are injected through an annular anode and are ionized on encountering a counter flowing stream of electrons emitted by a cathode. The ions are then accelerated by the negative cathode. A magnetic field is applied radially. The Hall effect refers to the voltage difference produced in an electric current in a direction normal to the electric current direction and applied magnetic field. The I SP is in the range of 1500 s. The wider exhaust plume angles mean that the solar panels and other electronic
4

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

panels directional alignment is a major design limitation. under plasma thrusters which will be discussed shortly.

Hall thrusters can also be clubbed

Fig. Principle of Hall effect thruster 4 Ion engines generate ions in separate ionization chambers, one side of which has a double-grid structure. Voltage is applied across this grid and the ions that diffuse through the inner grid are accelerated. The grid gap is free of electrons, so the current in the gap is limited by the level for which the ions in the grid will repel incoming ions. The electric field generates a force which is transmitted as thrust to the structure. Ion thrusters have higher specific impulse but lower thrust per unit power than Hall thursters. 5

Plasma Thrusters

Principle of Plasma Thruster 4

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

Plasma is considered the fourth state of matter. It exists as a mass of ionized particles, but the difference from an ion stream is that plasma is electrically neutral. It contains both positively and negatively charged particles. So while being electrically neutral, the plasma can conduct electricity and can be affected by magnetic fields. The plasma thruster works by simply applying electric and magnetic fields orthogonally to a stream of plasma. Lorenz force is generated on the charged particles in the same direction thus accelerating the plasma. The reaction force then constitutes the thrust. However, in reality, a number of complications arise. For example, the electric current generates its own magnetic field, the gas gets heated and there are unforeseen interactions between the generated electric and magnetic fields. Still, in theory, this technology promised to provide exhaust velocities of the order of 100 km/s with efficiency of 50%. 4 Radiofrequency thrusters use microwaves to heat the gas which is then expanded in a nozzle. In the chamber, a standing system of electromagnetic waves heats the gas with the help of accelerating electrons which ionize the propellant. The microwave induced currents flow in the gas and raise the temperature of the propellant to required levels. Field Effect Electrostatic Propulsion systems use the field effect to achieve variable, precise thrust levels. Field effect refers to the conduction of electric current on the surface of metals due to the high electron density. In this thruster, a liquid metal, usually Cesium, is coated on an electrode. On applying a very high electric field, liquid metal is drawn into conical, sharp protrusions and decreases the field gap over time. As the cone tip diminishes in cross-sectional area and approaches atomic distances, the ions are generated from the liquid metal which are accelerated across the gap. The potential difference between the electrodes can be varied to precisely alter the ion current, thus giving excellent control. Efficiency of around 60% and exhaust velocity of the order of 60-100 km/s is projected.

Comparison of Specific Impulse 2

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

Electric Power Source

The power source for the EP system affects the available power for a given mass of the system. Significant improvements in power to mass ratio of power source will then provide capability to employ EP systems for deep space applications. The following from Ref. [5] which combines the thrusting time t T, efficiency , effective jet speed c, velocity increment v, thrust F, mass of the spacecraft m and the power delivered by the power source P, explains the importance of P/m ratio (specific power):

We clearly see that increasing the specific power results in lower thrusting time. Nuclear reactors and solar thermal converters are discussed as future power sources. Developments in solar cell technology will enable extending the mission to long range missions. But there will be need of batteries to operate when the spacecrafts are in shadows of either the Earth or other planets. Solar cells are limited by their large area-to-power generation ratio. To put in perspective, we require an area of around 210 sq. m to generate 30 KW. Considering weight, this will amount to 13kg/kW. A lower power solar cell will increase the specific power. Factors like radiation damage due to energetic particles emitted by the sun during solar storms, solar energy to electricity conversion efficiency of 15-20%, are other major concerns. In spite of these factors, solar cells have been widely deployed as power sources in EP systems. 4 Solar generators are proposed as EP power sources in future. These work by concentrating the solar energy to a boiler containing a fluid which drives a generator, as in electric power generators in earth. The efficiency increases to 30-40%. Solar energy based power sources lose their appeal when spacecraft missions are planned to outer reaches of the solar system. Radioactive thermal power generation, which uses the heat produced from radioactive decay of radioactive elements, is used in generating electric power. Plutonium-238 is usually chosen for its suitable half-life of 80 years, since it provides the optimum power per kilogram. The power/kilogram factor is inversely proportional to the half life. The heat generated is then converted to electric energy by thermoelectric generators, with heat junctions in contact with heat source and the cold junctions in contact with the heat radiators that dump the generated heat to space. The electric power produced is of the order of 285 W, while the thermal to electric energy conversion efficiency is limited to 6%. The specific power of this system is much lower than that of solar based power sources.

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

Nuclear fission is another attractive option for use in deep space missions. It is advantageous in that the energy output from fission is 10s of magnitude larger than radioactive decay, and is also controllable. Modern versions are projected to produce 500 kW of power, although the thermoelectric conversion efficiency still limits the available power for propulsion. 4

Electric Propulsion- Applications

The low propellant discharge rate, high specific thrust and large operating times of electric propulsion open up useful avenues in space exploration. However, there are also some interesting possibilities in using EP for applications a little closer home for example, aircraft propulsion and satellite station keeping. A few of the applications are explained here. North-South Station Keeping (NSSK) refers to the small compensations in geostationary satellite orbits to counter the perturbations occurring because of the combined effect of gravitational effects of the sun and the moon on the satellites. The required thrust is quite small, and EP systems can offer economical solutions over the life of the satellite, which is around 12-15 years. Since the orbits are near-Earth, the use of solar electric propulsion can be beneficial over the long run. 5 Orbit raising maneuvers are another possible deployment area for EP systems. Orbit maneuvers may be required to raise the orbit from low LEO to high LEO, interplanetary transfers, drag compensation in LEOs, etc. Since the thrusting direction is almost the same as the flight path (except for plane changes), the v requirements are quite low and EP systems can be used. 5 Missions to Mars and outer planets have also been conceptually analyzed. For a nine-month one way trip to Mars orbit, the expected velocity increment is about 6km/s. EP systems definitely are capable of providing this increment with notable propellant savings. 4

Latest Research Interest and Advances

An ion-ion propulsion system, called PEGASES Plasma propulsion with Electronegative GASES- has been proposed by Ecole Polytechnique researchers. In conventional ion thrusters, positive ions are generated and there is a need to de-ionize the charged plasma downstream so that there is not net charge on the plasma plume. In ion-ion plasma, a peripheral plasma containing both positive and negative ions is generated around the plasma core, thus keeping the net charge on the plasma neutral. This technique does away with the downstream neutralizing electron beam requirement. Electronegative elements are the best candidates for the plasma. This encompasses elements in the 17th group of the periodic table, like Chlorine and Iodine. On applying ionization potential, the heavy negative ions and positive ions form. However, the negative ions are much slower than electrons. A method of magnetic filtering can be used to produce ion-ion plasma, where a magnetic field isolates electrons and makes them move along the field lines while allowing ions to move perpendicular to the field. Since the heavier negative ions are much different than electrons, different approaches to accelerate the ions is required than
8

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

what is used in simple ion thrusters. Two oppositely biased grids, one to extract positive beam and the other to extract negative beam is one of the suggested configuration. 1 The use of electric propulsion for atmospheric flights in aircrafts is also an attractive concept. It will significantly reduce the noise levels of engines and the emissions. But the low specific power of conventional machines, of the order of 1 kW/kg, restricts their usability in actual flight. A superconducting motor is proposed to overcome this liability, and is analyzed for propelling a small general aviation four-seater aircraft. It utilized Yttrium barium copper oxide (YBCO) plates with resin as superconducting material for flux trapping in the inductor. While the traditional Cessna employs a 160 kg engine producing 160 hp thrust, this electric motor was capable of delivering 220 hp while weighing just 28 kg for the same angular frequency of 2700 rpm. The promising results could possibly extend the research into actual applications. 7

Limitations of Electric Propulsion Systems

The electric propulsion systems come with a fair share of limitations in applications and design. One of the major concerns is the effects of exhaust plumes. Care has to be taken so that the plasma plume does not interfere with the spacecraft components like solar arrays. Angular alignment of the discharge may have to be changed with a concurrent loss in specific impulse. Thermal loads on the spacecraft from the thrusters or the electric power system may also be significant. For instance, in an 1.8 kW arcjet operation, a surface 20 cm away receives radiative flux given by the equivalent of 1 sun. Also, conductive heat from the thrusters might affect components, so they may need to be isolated. In ion and Hall thrusters, thermal isolation is less of a concern since they operate at relatively lower temperatures. The electromagnetic interactions due to the ionized plume or due to current oscillations (Hall thrusters) is another concern.

Summary
Electric propulsion systems offer unique advantages over conventional chemical rocket propulsion when considered for its high specific impulse. The technology level is slowly maturing and concepts for implementing EPS for long range, deep space missions have been analyzed. While the low thrust levels mean that lift off from the planet surface using only EPS is still improbable, they can still operate in conditions where low-thrust over a high operating time and high specific impulse will be beneficial.

Reference
1

Aanesland, A., Meige, A., and Chabert, P., Electric propulsion using ion-ion plasmas, 2nd International Workshop on Non-equilibrium Processes in Plasmas and Environmental Science, Journal of Physics: Conference Series 162, 2009.
9

Electric Propulsion Arvindh Sharma

2

Patel, M. R., Spacecraft Power Systems, CRC Press, Print ISBN: 978-0-84932786-5, 2004, Chapter 23. European Space Agency, Electric Spacecraft Propulsion. [http://sci.esa.int/smart1/34201-electric-spacecraft-propulsion/?fobjectid=34201&fbodylongid=1534 . Accessed: 11-14-2013]. Turner, M. J., Electric Propulsion, Rocket and Spacecraft Propulsion : Principles, Practice and New Developments, 3rd ed., Springer-Praxis books in astronautical engineering, 2008, pp. 165-217. Martinez-Sanchez, M., and Pollard, J. E., Spacecraft Electric PropulsionAn Overview, Journal of Propulsion and Power, Vol. 14, No. 5, 1998, pp. 688-699. Martynov, M. B., and Petukhov., V. G., Applications of Electric Propulsion in Scientific Space Projects: Benefits, Features, and Implementation Examples, Solar System Research, ISSN 0038-0946, 2012, Vol. 46, No. 7, pp. 523-530. Masson, P. J., and Luongo, C. A., High Power Density Superconducting Motor for All-Electric Aircraft Propulsion, IEEE Transactions on Applied Superconductivity, Vol. 15, No. 2, June 2005.

10