Taoism, or the Way

Article written by Judith A. Berling for the Asia Society's Focus on Asian Studies, Vol. II, No. 1, Asian Religions, pp. !11, "all 1 #$. %opyright AskAsia, 1 &. Humans model Earth Heaven on And the way on !! 'ao(i Daodejing ( ao te ching!, "#$1 themselves on that the which is )'ao on earth, heaven, Way, naturally so. *(u+

A noted %hinese anthropologist has written that %hinese religion ,-irrors the social landscape of its adherents. *here are as -any -eanings as there are .antage points., $ *he sa-e could be said of the di.erse tradition we call *aois-. *aois- was understood and practiced in -any ways, each reflecting the historical, social, or personal situation of its adherents. /hile this di.ersity -ay confuse and perple0 the outside obser.er, it accounts for the resilience of *aois- in %hina. *aois- was adaptable, e.ol.ing to fill spiritual gaps created by the .agaries of life. *aois- can also be called ,the other way,, for during its entire history, it has coe0isted alongside the %onfucian tradition, which ser.ed as the ethical and religious basis of the institutions and arrange-ents of the %hinese e-pire. *aois-, while not radically sub.ersi.e, offered a range of alternati.es to the %onfucian way of life and point of .iew. *hese alternati.es, howe.er, were not -utually e0clusi.e. "or the .ast -a1ority of %hinese, there was no 2uestion of choosing between %onfucianis- and *aois-. 30cept for a few straightlaced %onfucians and a few pious *aoists, the %hinese -an or wo-an practiced both !! either at different phases of life or as different sides of personality and taste. %lassical *aoist philosophy, for-ulated by 'ao(i )the 4ld 5aster, 6th century B.%.7+, the anony-ous editor of the Daodejing )%lassic of the /ay and its 8ower+, and 9huang(i ):rd century B.%.+, was a reinterpretation and de.elop-ent of an ancient na-eless tradition of nature worship and di.ination. 'ao(i and 9huang(i, li.ing at a ti-e of social disorder and great religious s;epticis- )see article on %onfucianis-+, de.eloped the notion of the <ao )*ao !! way, or path+ as the origin of all creation and the force !! un;nowable in its essence but obser.able in its -anifestations !! that lies behind the functionings and changes of the natural world. *hey saw in <ao and nature the basis of a spiritual approach to li.ing. *his, they belie.ed, was the answer to the burning issue of the day= what is the basis of a stable, unified, and enduring social order7 *he order and har-ony of nature, they said, was far -ore stable and enduring than either the power of the state or the ci.ili(ed institutions constructed by hu-an learning. >ealthy hu-an life could flourish only in accord with <ao !! nature, si-plicity, a free!and!easy approach to life. *he early *aoists taught the art of li.ing and sur.i.ing by confor-ing with the natural way of things? they called their approach to action wuwei (wu%wei !! lit. no!action+, action -odeled on nature. *heir sages were wise, but not in the way the %onfucian teacher was wise !! learned and a -oral paragon. 9huang(i's sages were often artisans !! butchers or woodcar.ers. *he lowly artisans understood the secret of art and the art of li.ing. *o be s;illful and creati.e, they had to

ha.e inner spiritual concentration and put aside concern with e0ternals, such as -onetary rewards, fa-e, and praise. Art, li;e life, followed the creati.e path of nature, not the .alues of hu-an society. *hroughout %hinese history, people weary of social acti.is- and aware of the fragility of hu-an achie.e-ents would retire fro- the world and turn to nature. *hey -ight retreat to a countryside or -ountain setting to co--une with natural beauty. *hey would co-pose or recite poetry about nature, or paint a picture of the scene, atte-pting to capture the creati.e forces at the center of nature's .itality. *hey -ight share their outing with friends or -ore rarely !! a spouse, drin;ing a bit of wine, and en1oying the autu-n lea.es or the -oon. %hinese utopian writings also often bore a *aoist sta-p. *ao @ian's )*'ao %h'ien, :A$7! B$A7 A.<.+ fa-ous ,8each Blosso- Spring, told the story of a fisher-an who disco.ered by chance an idyllic co--unity of %hinese who centuries earlier had fled a war!torn land, and had since li.ed in perfect si-plicity, har-ony, and peace, obli.iously unaware of the tur-oil of history beyond their gro.e. Although these utopians urged hi- to stay, the fisher-an left to share his disco.ery with friends and a local official. >e could ne.er find his way bac;. >e did not understand that this ideal world was to be found not by following an e0ternal path, but a spiritual path? it was a state of -ind, an attitude, that co-prised the utopia.: If *aoist ideas and i-ages inspired in the %hinese a lo.e of nature and an occasional retreat to it fro- the cares of the world to rest and heal, it also inspired an intense affir-ation of life= physical life !! health, well!being, .itality, longe.ity, and e.en i--ortality. 'ao(i and 9huang(i had reinterpreted the ancient nature worship and esoteric arts, but they crept bac; into the tradition as ways of using ;nowledge of the <ao to enhance and prolong life. So-e *aoists searched for ,isles of the i--ortals,, or for herbs or che-ical co-pounds that could ensure i--ortality. 5ore often, *aoists were interested in health and .itality? they e0peri-ented with herbal -edicine and phar-acology, greatly ad.ancing these arts? they de.eloped principles of -acrobiotic coo;ing and other healthy diets? they de.eloped syste-s of gy-nastics and -assage to ;eep the body strong and youthful. *aoists were supporters both of -agic and of proto! science? they were the ele-ent of %hinese culture -ost interested in the study of and e0peri-ents with nature. B So-e *aoists belie.ed that spirits per.aded nature )both the natural world and the internal world within the hu-an body+. *heologically, these -yriad spirits were si-ply -any -anifestations of the one <ao, which could not be represented as an i-age or a particular thing. As the *aoist pantheon de.eloped, it ca-e to -irror the i-perial bureaucracy in hea.en and hell. *he head of the hea.enly bureaucracy was the 1ade 3-peror, who go.erned spirits assigned to o.ersee the wor;ings of the natural world and the ad-inistration of -oral 1ustice. *he gods in hea.en acted li;e and were treated li;e the officials in the world of -en? worshipping the gods was a ;ind of rehearsal of attitudes toward secular authorities. 4n the other hand, the de-ons and ghosts of hell acted li;e and were treated li;e the bullies, outlaws, and threatening strangers in the real world? they were bribed by the people and were ritually arrested by the -artial forces of the spirit officials.6 *he co--on people, who after all had little influence with their earthly rulers, sought by worshipping spirits to ;eep troubles at bay and ensure the blessings of health, wealth, and longe.ity.

*he initiated *aoist priest saw the -any gods as -anifestations of the one <ao. >e had been ritually trained to ;now the na-es, ran;s, and powers of i-portant spirits, and to ritually direct the- through -editation and .isuali(ation. In his -editations, he har-oni(ed and reunited the- into their unity with the one <ao. >owe.er, only the educated belie.ers ;new anything of the co-ple0 theological syste- of the priest. *hus co--unal rituals had two le.els= )a+ a priestly le.el, which was guided by the priest's -editation and obser.ed by -a1or patrons, who were educated lay-en? and )b+ a public and dra-atic ritual, usually perfor-ed by lower ran;ed *aoist assistants, which was theatrical in for-. It con.eyed the -eaning through .isible actions such as cli-bing sword ladders, or lighting and floating lanterns. *he sa-e ritual had a subtle -etaphysical!-ystical structure for the theologians, and a .isible dra-atic structure for the lay audience.& *aois- was also an i-portant -otif in fiction, theater, and fol; tales. 'ocal eccentrics who did not care for wealth and position were often seen as ,*aoist, because they spurned %onfucian .alues and rewards. In fiction *aoists were often eccentrics? they also had -agical or prophetic powers, which sy-boli(ed their spiritual attain-ent. *hey healed, restored youth and .itality, predicted the future, or read -en's souls. *hey were also depicted as the stewards of a syste- of -oral retribution? the *aoist gods in hea.en and hell e0acted strict punish-ents for wrongdoing, and would let no sinner off the hoo;. 4n the one hand, then, they were non!confor-ists who e-bodied different .alues and life styles? on the other, their strict -oral retribution reinforced the .alues of the society. *aois- was ,the other way,, but it did not threaten the -oral consensus. It was, perhaps, a ;ind of safety .al.e to escape the pressures of society, or at least a co-ple-entary channel for alternati.e .iews and .alues. %hinese co--unists see *aois- as fatalistic and passi.e, a detri-ent to socialist reconstruction. *he 8eople's Cepublic has ;ept ali.e so-e practical arts, such as the use of traditional herbal -edicines, which ha.e longstanding lin;s with *aois-. In a larger sense, since *aois- functioned in i-perial %hina as a retreat and withdrawal fro- the struggles of the political arena, one -ight say that in a .ery general way the current rela0ation of political pressure in reaction against the e0cesses of the Dang of "our represents a *aoistic phase of %hinese 5aois-. Notes 1. 30cerpted and adapted fro- /-. <eBary, ed., Sources o& 'hinese radition, New Eor;,= %olu-bia Fni.ersity 8ress, 1 &G, I= 6&. $. Arthur 8. /olf, ,Dods, Dhosts, and Ancestors,, in his )ed.+ Religion and Ritual in 'hinese Society, Stanford= Stanford Fni.ersity 8ress, 1 AB, p. 1:1. :. %yril Birch, Anthology o& 'hinese (iterature, Vol. 1, New Eor;= Dro.e 8ress, 1 &6, pp. 1&A!1&#. *his anthology contains e0cellent and readable translations of poe-s, biographies, essays, and stories that are .ery successful in con.eying religious attitudes. A useful resource for classroo- selections. B. See Joseph Needha-, Science and 'ivili)ation in 'hina, Vol. $, %a-bridge= %a-bridge Fni.ersity 8ress, 1 6&, pp. ::!1&B. 6. Arthur 8. /olf, ,Dods, Dhosts, and Ancestors,, pp. 1:1!1#$. &. 5ichael Saso, aoism and the Rite o& 'osmic Renewal, 8ull-an= /ashington State Fni.ersity 8ress, 1 A$.

For Further Reference "eng, Dia!fu and Jane 3nglish. (ao su, ao te ching, New Eor;= Hnopf, 1 A$? 'huang )u* +nner 'ha,ters, New Eor;= Cando- >ouse, 1 AB. 'arge picture .olu-es, replete with %hinese calligraphy. Very readable and popular with students? a.ailable at -any boo;stores. *he translations are so-eti-es loose and adapted to -ode- ideas, but they are not seriously wrong. 5ote, "rederic;. +ntellectual Foundations o& 'hina. New Eor;= Hnopf, 1 A1. Short, and e0cellent on social and historical conte0t of 9hou period. /elch, >ol-es. aoism* he -arting o& the Way, Boston= Beacon 8ress, 1 6A. Ceadable and brief, but .ery condescending to religious *aois-. Ceflects certain attitudes and biases? not ,ob1ecti.e reporting., Teaching Resources "il-strip= ,%onfucianis- and *aois-,, /orld's Dreat Celigions Series, 8art III )*i-e! 'ife, 1 &B+ "il-strip= ,*ao= *he >ar-ony of the Fni.erse,, Asian .an* 'hina, 3ncyclopedia Britannica 3ducation %orporation. "il-strip= ,%h'i= *he Arts of %hina,, Asian .an* 'hina, 3ncyclopedia Britannica 3ducation %orporation. Instructional Fnits fro- Indiana Celigion Studies 8ro1ect= See article on %onfucianis-. Note: *his article and the one on %onfucianis- were written during the Indiana Celigion Studies 8ro1ect Institute for *eaching about Celigion in the Secondary Social Studies %urriculu-. *he drafts were criti2ued by the social studies teachers who attended with an eye to supple-enting and correcting the infor-ation in te0tboo;s and other -aterials used by teachers. *he two articles should read as a pair? they co-ple-ent each other in -uch the sa-e way these two religions co-ple-ented each other throughout %hinese history. *Ed. Note: It is a -atter of scholarly debate whether to change the ter- *aois- )or *aoist+ into <aois-I<aoist )see "ocus, .ol. 1, no. : pp. : + to confor- with pinyin's rules. Since *aois- is an coined, anglici(ed word, our choice is not to put it in the pinyin, in spite of the fact that we ha.e changed ,the *ao,, the way, to ,the <ao,. *he current literature on %hina includes both spellings. It re-ains for the future to deter-ine which will predo-inate.