1 3 .3 .

de-stressing and rhyme reduction

43

^ ^ ^ ^

[k, tg, t ] [kagkag-tghwy] [putg^-tau] [sgthan-9an]

!! [ka- a-tghwy] [pu-'-tau] [g( -'a-gan]

"just went# "don#t know# "production )ine#

*onsonant reduction seems to +e easier in the second position o$ a trisy))a+ic e,pression than in the second position o$ a disy))a+ic e,pression. -e ha.e seen [,w, g, k, tg, tgh] +ecome [w, j, , ! ! ], respecti.e)y, in the midd)e o$ a trisy))a+ic e,pression. /he same process is harder in a disy))a+ic e,pression, e.en i$ the second sy))a+)e is unstressed, as shown in 012. 012 [,w, g, k, tg] [kwai-,wo] [gin-gan] [tgsi-ks] [pau-tg' ]
?[w, j, , ! ] ?[kwai-wo] ?[gi-ja] ?[t%&i- 3] ?[pau-' ] "happy# "$resh# "this one# "newspaper

3t is harder to $ind e,amp)es o$ reduced [ph, th, h h ts , k , s, $ ], a)) o$ which are aspirated4 instead, aspirated consonants tend to de.oice the $o))owing .owe), to +e discussed in section 53.4. (ometimes a consonant can +e de)eted a)together4 see section 53.6.

53.3. 78-(/98((3:; <:7 9=

>8 987?*/3@:

7e-stressing is used here to re$er to the process in which an under)ying $u)) sy))a+)e +ecomes weak and tone)ess. 3t is o$ten accompanied +y the )oss o$ the coda s)ot, and the .owe) reduces towards schwa. /he process has a)so +een o+ser.ed in read speech 0>. Ain and an 59BB2. /wo e,amp)es are shown in 032 0C indicates a+sence o$ tone2. 032 [an] ^ []
=-= [tghwsn-thjan] [su] ^ [o] =A-A= [muu-thsu]
[ai]

=-C [tghw9n-thj] =A-C [muu-tho] A-C 0A-=2 [nau-de]

"spring-day 0spring2#

"wood#

^ [e] A-=A [nau-tai]

"head#

3n "head#, the second sy))a+)e a)so )oses its origina) tone, gi.ing A-C, which is

44 *=. 1 3 . *@::8*/87 (D88*= <:7 @/=89 73<A8*/(

rea)i'ed as A-= in (* 0see *hapter 5C2. 3n connected speech

46 *=. 1 3 . *@::8*/87 (D88*= <:7 @/=89 73<A8*/(

the percentage o$ sy))a+)es that are unstressed and tone)ess is rather )arge. %or e,amp)e, in the corpus o$ 7uanmu et al. 0599B2, a+out one third o$ a)) sy))a+)es are unstressed and tone)ess. /his is considera+)y higher than the percentage o$ weak sy))a+)es in written te,ts, which is estimated to +e +etween 56 and 1C per cent 0-. Ai 59B5E 362. /he increase pro+a+)y comes $rom the de-stressing o$ under)ying)y $u)) sy))a+)es.

53.4. F@-8A 78F@3*3:; <:7 F@3*8A8(( ( AA<GA8(

< high .owe) a$ter an aspirated onset, inc)uding .oice)ess $ricati.es, aspirated stops, and aspirated a$$ricates, can +e de.oiced or de)eted when 0a2 it is unstressed or 0+2 it has a )ow tone. *ase 0a2 o$ten happens to the second sy))a+)e o$ a disy))a+ic word, case 0+2 can occur on any sy))a+)e. (ome e,amp)es are shown in 042 0.owe) )ength not shown2. -hen a .owe) is de.oiced, the tone cannot +e heard, which is indicated +y C.

042

1 3 .4 . .owe) de.oicing and .oice)ess sy))a+)es 4H

=A-A [tsu-$u] =-=A [g$]

=-=A =A-C [tou-$$] =-C A-A= h [k [g^-$$] r-nsg]

=-C "to$u# [thwu-tghwgw] C-A= "master# [kh,-nsg] ,ww C-=A "hus+and# =A-C "history# [swan-gw,w] =-C "together# [gin-khw,w] C-=A "start# [thw,w-tji] C-=A "thing#
h w

"go out# "possi+)e# "summer .acation# "arithmetic# "working hard# ")and# "su$$ering#

s -t u s 3

=A-= [tgag-$u] [u] ^ [,w] =A-A [)]i-3. ] =A-A [i-t9hi] A-=A [tehi-twug] =-= [tug-ei] =A-A= [wsn-thji] =-A [t9g-te y] A-= [ewy-two]
hw

> ^ [,]

=A-C A-=A [tgag-$$] [gwu-tga] =A-C =A-=A [)ji-gg] [swan-gwu] =A-C =-A
h hw [i-te e] [gin-k u] C-=A A-=A hj w [te [thw u-te-t i] ug]

=-C A-=A hw [k [tug-ee] u-nan] =A-C [wsn-thje] =-C [tgsg-tehwew] C-= [ewew-two]

"Juestion# "stri.e $or# "many#

(trict)y speaking, [r] is a mid .owe), +ut since (* does not ha.e the corresponding high .owe) [m], [r] is o$ten rea)i'ed as [m], which is pro+a+)y why it can de.oice. /he .owe) [u] is a .ariant o$ [u] and occurs a$ter [$]. 7e.oiced [u, ^ , i, y, r, u] sound )ike [$, g, g, gw, ,, ,w], respecti.e)y. /he de.oiced sy))a+)es ha.e simi)ar durations as the origina)s 0a)) o$ which shou)d +e c.I, at )east in initia) position, a)though rhyme )ength is not a)ways indicated in the a+o.e transcription2, and there$ore they sti)) sound )ike separate sy))a+)es. <)so, the sy))a+)es [$$, gg, tg hg, gg, thjg, tghwgw, gwgw, khw,w, thw,w] can +e transcri+ed as [$, g, tgh, g, thj, tghw, gw, khw, thw], respecti.e)y, since the rhyme is +asica))y the pro)ongation o$ the onset. /he sy))a+)e [g w,w] shou)d +e transcri+ed as is. /he sy))a+ic consonant ['] can a)so +e de.oiced under simi)ar conditions. (ome e,amp)es are shown in 062. ['] ^ [s]
=A-A [gag-tsh'] =A-= [i-s'] A-=A [tsh'-tji] =A-C [gag-tshs] =A-C [i-ss] C-=A [tshs-tji] ")ast time# "meaning# "this p)ace#

] a n w ,

062

53.6. ( AA<GA8 >89;89

4K

<gain, [tshs, ss] can +e transcri+ed simp)y as [ts h, s], +ut they sti)) sound )ike separate sy))a+)es. -hen the onset consonant is not aspirated, as in 0H2, or when the sy))a+)e does not ha.e a )ow tone, as in 0K2, .owe) de)etion usua))y does not occur.

4B *=. 1 3 . *@::8*/87 (D88*= <:7 @/=89 73<A8*/(

0H2

A-=A [kwu-)ji]

C-=A "encourage# "underneath# "+oring# "painting# "storage house# w [

? [k , ww j ,)i]

A-=A [tji-ea] 0B2 =A-A [y=-=A 0K2 tLag] A=hw [k[,snu-tsau] A A=-=A ,au] [thwu-,wa] =A-A=
w k

C-=A ?[tje-ea] C-=A

M[khw,w-tsau] C-=A M[thw,w-,wa] C-A= M[khw,w-$ag]

/he de.oicing o$ non-high .owe)s is )ess common +ut can occur, again with an A tone and an aspirated onset. /wo e,amp)es are shown in 0B2. =A-C [y-th] "+athing p)ace# A=-C [,sn-,au] ".ery good# Ainguists are di.ided on the ana)ysis o$ .oice)ess sy))a+)es. (ome +e)ie.e that e.ery sy))a+)e must ha.e a .owe) 0*heung 59BH4 =sueh 59BH4 *o)eman 599H, 1CC52. @n this .iew, .oice)ess sy))a+)es either ha.e a .oice)ess .owe), or ha.e a .owe) that o.er)aps with a consonant such that the articu)ation o$ the .owe) is hidden +ehind the articu)ation o$ the consonant 0*o)eman 1CC52. 3t is interesting to note that in *o)eman#s ana)ysis o$ Ger+er, when the .owe) is not heard, it is thought to +e co.ered +y the $o))owing consonant, which cannot +e the case in (*, where there is no $o))owing consonant in .oice)ess sy))a+)es. @ther )inguists +e)ie.e that not a)) sy))a+)es need to ha.e a .owe), or e.en a .oiced sound 0*hao 59HB4 7e)) and 8)med)aoui 59B6, 599H, 1CC34 9amsey 59BK2. @n this .iew, it is not a)ways necessary to assume a .oice)ess or hidden .owe). 3 do not intend to sett)e the dispute here4 instead, 3 descri+e the $acts as phonetica))y accurate)y as possi+)e. /here has not +een much discussion o$ .owe) de.oicing in (*, a )ot )ess than, say, in Napanese. /he reason, 3 suspect, is that .owe) de.oicing is optiona) in (*, pro+a+)y +ecause most (* sy))a+)es are hea.y and tend to retain some stress.

53.6. (

AA<GA8 >89;89

3n sy))a+)e merger, two 0or more2 sy))a+)es merge into one. 3 o$$er some e,amp)es to indicate the kind o$ mergers that occur. %irst, consider the

53.6. ( AA<GA8 >89;89

49

data in 092. 0/one 3 (andhi has +een taken into consideration in the tona) representation.2 A=-A =A
092 [swo-i] =A-=A [tgsu-jau] =A A =A-= [pu ,au i-s'] A-A=-=A [jsu-g^-,su] [swsi] =A [tg au] =A =A-C [pau i-s] A-=A [jsu-gsu] "there$ore# "wi)) 0soon2# "not good meaning 0em+arrassed2# "sometimes#

/he merged sy))a+)es sound )ike one sy))a+)e in that i$ they are p)ayed a)one, they sound the same as a monosy))a+ic word. %or e,amp)e, the merged [s wai] "there$ore# sounds the same as [swai] "age#, the merged [tgau] "wi)) 0soon2# sounds [tgau] "shout#. (ometimes the resu)t o$ a sy))a+)e merger does not Juite sound )ike a sing)e sy))a+)e. %or e,amp)e, consider the cases in 05C2. 05C2
A=-A [khr-i] A=-=A [pu-,wsi] A-A= [wo-msn] =A-= [ta-tga] A-=A [pji-tgau] =A [kh9i] =A [pw3i] A= [wom] =A= [taa] A=A [pjiau]

"can# "can#t +e# "we# "e.ery+ody# "comparati.e)y#

3n the $irst three e,pressions, the resu)t o$ merger seems to +e a sy))a+)e, yet (* has no such sy))a+)es. 3n particu)ar, (* has [k hai] with = tone +ut not with =A tone. (imi)ar)y, (* has no [p wai] or [wom] with any tone. %or the )ast two e,pressions, the resu)t o$ merger sounds somewhat )ike two sy))a+)es, since it has kept +oth o$ the input tones and it is )onger than a sing)e sy))a+)e. on the other hand, the midd)e consonant is comp)ete)y de)eted, so that acoustica))y 0such as on a spectrogram2, the resu)t )ooks )ike a sing)e sy))a+)e 0e,cept it is rather )ong2. it is interesting to ask whether merger can create sy))a+)es that are i))- $ormed, such as those that .io)ate 9hyme-=armony 0see *hapter 32. 3$ it cannot then we ha.e $ound an important conc)usion that merger can on)y create sy))a+)es that are theoretica))y possi+)e.

6C *=. 1 3 . *@::8*/87 (D88*= <:7 @/=89 73<A8*/(

53.H. D=@:@A@;3*<A D9@*8((8( 3: @/=89 73<A8*/(

/he phono)ogica) processes re.iewed here are those that ha.e attracted considera+)e attention in recent )iterature. /hey do not represent a)) phono)ogica) pro+)ems in *hinese dia)ectsOperhaps on)y a $raction o$ them, since many dia)ects ha.e not +een studied in detai).

53.H.5. Tone sandhi in Wu dialects

/he -u dia)ects, such as (u'hou, -u,i, (hanghai, /ang,i 0/angsic2, :antong, 7anyang, and *hongming, are spoken in the area around (hanghai. <ccording to N. uan 059B92, the de$ining characteristic o$ -u dia)ects is a contrast +etween .oiced and .oice)ess o+struents. =owe.er, the +est- known phono)ogica) process o$ this dia)ect $ami)y is )e$t-dominant tone sandhi 0$ound most)y in northern -u dia)ects2, +y which the initia) sy))a+)e determines the tona) pattern o$ the entire domain. %or i))ustration, consider the (hanghai data in 0552 and 0512, transcri+ed in phonetic sym+o)s, where tona) register is ignored.
0552 =A [se] "three# A= [s'] "$our#

=A A= [pe] [+0] "cup# "p)ate#

0512

=-A [se-pe] "three cups#

=-A [se-+0] "three

p)ates# A-= [s'-pe] "$our cups#

A-= [s'-+0] "$our p)ates#

8,amp)e 0552 shows some monosy))a+ic words in iso)ation. 8,amp)e 0512 gi.es their disy))a+ic com+inations, where the initia) sy))a+)e determines the tone pattern o$ the e,pression, regard)ess o$ the tone o$ the second sy))a+)e. /he -u tone sandhi raises two Juestions4 why do -u dia)ects ha.e such tone sandhi? <nd, what determines the domain o$ tone sandhi? 3n traditiona) )iterature, there has +een no answer to the $irst Juestion +eyond a typo)ogica) c)assi$ication 0 ue-=ashimoto 59BK2. %or the second Juestion, .arious answers ha.e +een proposed, $rom $unctiona) considerations 0e.g. Pennedy 59632 to prosodic categories 0(e)kirk and /. (hen 599C2, +ut .arious pro+)ems remain. < di$$erent proposa) is made in 7uanmu 0599C2, e)a+orated in 7uanmu 05993, 5999a2. 3t is +ased on two o+ser.ationsE northern -u dia)ects ha.e no diphthongs or

53.6. ( AA<GA8 >89;89

65

contrasti.e codas, so a)) their sy))a+)es can +e considered )ight or unspeci$ied $or weight4 and in a)) *hinese dia)ects an unstressed

1 3 .6 . phono)ogica) processes in other dia)ects 61

sy))a+)e )oses its under)ying tone. /he o+ser.ations )ead to the $o))owing ana)ysis. %irst, since sy))a+)es in northern -u dia)ects are )ight, each sy))a+)e cannot $orm a +imoraic $oot +y itse)$ and so it )acks stress, un)ess it occurs in a stressed position, which is the initia) position o$ a domain. /hus, noninitia) sy))a+)es )ose their under)ying tones whi)e initia) sy))a+)es retain their under)ying tones, which determine the pitch pattern o$ the domain. (econd, a tona) domain is a stress domain, or a $oot. /he $oot is determined +y moraic trochee, sy))a+ic trochee, and phrasa) stress assignment a+o.e the word )e.e) 07uanmu 5999a, and *hapter H2. /he same ana)ysis app)ies to non--u dia)ects such as (*. (ince $u)) (* sy))a+)es are hea.y, they each $orm a moraic $oot and ha.e stress, so they each can retain its under)ying tone. /his pre.ents )e$t-dominant tone sandhi $rom occurring across $u)) sy))a+)es. it is interesting to note that southern -u dia)ects ha.e diphthongs 0N. uan 59B92, so they ha.e under)ying)y hea.y sy))a+)es, which can keep their under)ying tones and pre.ent )e$t-dominant tone sandhi. <s e,pected, )e$t-dominant tone sandhi does not acti.e)y occur in southern -u dia)ects.

53.H.1. Tone sandhi in Min dialects

/he >in dia)ects are spoken in %ujian pro.ince and /aiwan. /he most interesting phono)ogica) pro+)em is that each $u)) sy))a+)e has two )e,ica) tones. @ne can +e ca))ed $ina) tone, which is used when the sy))a+)e occurs in iso)ation or when it is the )ast $u)) sy))a+)e in a domain. /he other can +e ca))ed non$ina) tone, which is used in non$ina) positions. %or e,amp)e, the Iiamen dia)ect 0a)so ca))ed /aiwanese2 has se.en tona) categories, so there are se.en $ina) and se.en non-$ina) tones 0some o$ which are identica)2, shown in 0532. /he transcription is +ased on N. uan 059B9E 144-62, using the digit system o$ *hao 0593C2 0see *hapter 5C2.
0532 %ina) :on$ina) /5 66 33 /1 14 33 /3 65 66 /4 55 65 /6 33 11 /H 31 6 /K 6 5

/he tone o$ a sy))a+)e when it is spoken in iso)ation is ca))ed the citation tone. 3n traditiona) )iterature, the citation tone is usua))y seen as the +asic tone. (ince the $ina) tone in >in dia)ects is the same as the citation tone, some peop)e consider the non$ina) tone to +e deri.ed, or the sandhi tone 0e.g. *hen 59BK, 1CCC2. <nd since the $ina) tone remains unchanged 0$rom the citation tone2 and the non$ina) tones change, >in dia)ects are said to ha.e right-dominant tone sandhi. @n the other hand, some )inguists argue that non$ina) tones in >in are +asic and $ina) tones are deri.ed 0e.g. -oo 59H94 >. =ashimoto 59B14 /ing 59B12. (ome )inguists ha.e e,p)ored whether there is a systematic re)ation +etween $ina)

53.K. /<3-<:8(8 <**8:/87 (/<:7<97 *=3:8(8

63

tones and non$ina) tones in >in 0e.g. -. -ang 59HK4 *hen 59BK4 /say 599C, 59952, +ut the re)ation is pro+a+)y a matter o$ historica) residue. ue-=ashimoto 059BHE 5HK2 made an interesting o+ser.ation. (he pointed out that non-$ina) tones in >in dia)ects are )arge)y consistent with the genera)i'ation o$ .oice)ess-high and .oiced)ow, that is to say, sy))a+)es whose onsets are historica))y .oice)ess ha.e higher tones and sy))a+)es whose onsets are historica))y .oiced ha.e )ower tones 0see *hapter 5C2. 3n contrast, $ina) tones o$ten .io)ate the genera)i'ation. 3t is possi+)e, there$ore, that what happened to >in dia)ects is a tona) re.ersa) on the $ina) sy))a+)e 0what ue-=ashimoto ca))s tona) $)ip-$)op2. /he issue o$ more interest, and o$ a more comp)e, nature, is how to determine a tona) domain, that is, where to use the $ina) tone and where to use the no n$ina) tone 0see 9. *heng 59HB, 59K34 N. Ain 59944 *hen 59BK, 1CCC2. <ccording to *hen 059BK, 1CCC2, the domains are sensiti.e primari)y to syntactic +oundaries, +ut a)so to .arious other $actors, such as phono)ogica) rhythm, recitation sty)e, idioms, and the syntactic notion o$ )e,ica) go.ernment.

53.H.3. /one sandhi in /ianjin

3nterest in /ianjin tone sandhi was sparked +y an artic)e +y I. Ai and Aiu 059B62. >any discussions soon $o))owed 0$or a re.iew, see *hen 1CCCE ch. 3 and >a 1CC62. /ianjin has three tone-sandhi ru)es. /he resu)t o$ one ru)e can create a condition $or another. 3n other words, the ru)es can interact with each other. /he cha))enge is to determine how they interact, and whether the ru)es app)y )e$t-to-right, right-to-)e$t, or cyc)ica))y, especia))y in )ong e,pressions.

53.H.4. 9hyme changes

@ne case o$ rhyme change is the [&]-su$$i, in (* 0*hapter 92. (ome other dia)ects, too, ha.e +een reported to ha.e a$$i,-triggered rhyme changes, which may sur$ace as either one or two sy))a+)es. < )ot o$ data can +e $ound in the journa) Zhongguo Yuwen. %or some ana)yses, see . Ain 059B9E ch. 3, 59932, 7uanmu 0599CE ch. 32, and =. -ang 05999E ch. 92.

53.H.6. Language games

Aanguage games re$er to disguised )anguages. /hey can +e used either +y chi)dren or +y adu)ts. /he most common *hinese )anguage games are %an- Jie )anguages, in which a sy))a+)e is $irst copied into two, then the onset o$ one o$ them is modi$ied, and $ina))y the rhyme o$ the other is modi$ied 0see *hapter 4 $or some e,amp)es2. <n ear)y study o$ %anJie )anguages is *hao 059352. %orma) studies inc)ude ip 059B12, Gao 0599CH2, and 7uanmu 0599C2. /he ana)ysis o$ )anguage games has imp)ications $or sy))a+)e structure and the $eature composition o$ sounds, inc)uding

64 *=. 1 3 . *@::8*/87 (D88*= <:7 @/=89 73<A8*/(

the status o$ the prenuc)ear g)ideE is it in the rhyme, in the onset, in +oth, or in neither.

53.K. /<3-<:8(8 <**8:/87 (/<:7<97 *=3:8(8

<s mentioned in *hapter 5, most speakers o$ (* do not ha.e a per$ect accentOthe accent o$ a Geijing speaker, or that o$ a news reader on a nationa) /F or radio station. 3t is there$ore o$ten easy to identi$y $rom which region a person comes +y his or her accent. 3n this section 3 discuss one accent in some detai)Othe accent o$ /aiwanese speakers o$ (*. /he purpose is to gi.e a picture o$ what )inguistic $actors, especia))y phono)ogica) ones, are in.o).ed in an accent. /he data are $rom 7uanmu et al. 0599B2. /aiwanese accented (* 0/-(*2 is )oose)y de$ined as the (* spoken +y peop)e 0a2 who grew up in /aiwan and 0+2 whose $irst dia)ect is /aiwanese 0(outhern >in2. @$ course, not e.eryone who grew up in /aiwan and whose $irst dia)ect is /aiwanese has such an accent. =owe.er, there are some $eatures that are shared +y most /aiwanese speakers o$ (*, which make the accent rather distincti.e. 3 wi)) discuss the accent $rom $i.e aspectsE )e,icon, stress, tone, segmenta) di$$erences, and consonant reduction and sy))a+)e merger.

53.K.5. Lexicon
*ertain e,pressions are characteristic o$ /aiwanese speakers o$ (*. (ome are shown in 0542. 0542 0a2 3nterjection [,o] or [ho], indicating $riend)iness 0+2 /he redup)icated A-A= $orm $or kinship terms =A A-A= [pa] ^ [pa-pa] "dad# = A-A= [ma] ^ [ma-ma] "mom# 0c2 -ords with di$$erent tones $rom (* =-A= [tQ?au-ewe] 0d 2 8ng)ish .oca+u)ary "teaching# 0the tone in (* is =A-A=2

/he interjection in 054a2 is not used in (*, +ut some /aiwanese speakers use it a )ot, scattered $reJuent)y throughout a con.ersation. 3t wou)d +e interesting to $ind out which )ocations are possi+)e sites $or [,o], a)though it appears to occur at phrase

53.K. /<3-<:8(8 <**8:/87 (/<:7<97 *=3:8(8

66

+oundaries. /he redup)icated $orm in 054H2 is another $eature o$ /aiwanese accented (*. /he words in 054c2 a)so occur in (*, +ut with di$$erent tones. %ina))y, /aiwanese speakers o$ten mi, in 8ng)ish words when they speak (*. 3n contrast, speakers $rom the >ain)and use 8ng)ish words a )ot )ess, at )east unti) Juite recent)y. /his seems to +e a re$)ection o$ how much contact there is with western cu)ture. %or e,amp)e, =ong Pong *hinese has a .ery high percentage o$ 8ng)ish words. (ome 8ng)ish words are +eginning to enter (*, especia))y in the speech o$ young peop)e, such as [si-ti] "*7#, [thi-.i] "/F#, [khu] "coo)#, and [Jau] "show#.

53.K.1. Stress
3n (*, de-stressing is Juite common 0see a+o.e2. 3n /aiwanese accented (* 0/-(*2, de-stressing occurs )ess $reJuent)y. (ome e,amp)es are shown in 0562.
/-(* A=-= [mjan-,wa] =-=A [tsm-tau] A=-= [ewe-ssg] (* A=-C [mjan-,wa] =-C [t>-to] =-C [?we-p ]

"cotton# "know# "student#

(ince de-stressing is accompanied +y tone )oss, it is Juite o+.ious to the ear. Gesides stress, there are segmenta) di$$erences +etween /-(* and (* in 0562, to +e discussed +e)ow.

53.K.3. Tone
< major characteristic o$ /-(* is the use o$ A at a phrase +oundary $or what is A= or = in (*. (ome e,amp)es are shown in 05H2.