CLASS XI

SUBJECT BIOLOGY

UNIT 1

CHAPTER The Living world Biological Classification Plant Kingdom Animal Kingdom Morphology of Flowering Plants Anatomy Of Flowering Plants Structural Organisations in Animals Cell-The Unit of life Biomolecules Cell Cycle & Cell division Transport in plants Mineral Nutrition Photosynthesis in Higher plants Respiration In Plants Plant Growth & Development Digestion & Absorption Breathing & Exchange of Gases Body fluids & Circulation Excretory Products & their Elimination Locomotion & Movement Nuetral Control & Coordination Chemical Coordination & Integration

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6 Reproduction in Organisms Sexual reproduction in Flowering Plants Human reproduction Reproductive Health 7 Principles of Inheritance & Variation Molecular Basis of Inheritance Evolution 8 Human Health & Diseases Strategies for enhancement in food Production Microbes in Human welfare 9 Biotechnology - Principles & Processes Biotechnology & it's Application 10 Organisms & Population Ecosystems Biodiversity & Conservation Environmental Issues

Class XI

Subject Unit Chemistry

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7.4 Oxides of Nitrogen 172 7.5 Nitric Acid 173 7.6 Phosphorus Allotropic Forms 175 7.7 Phosphine 176 7.8 Phosphorus Halides 177 7.9 Oxoacids of Phosphorus 178 7.10 Group 16 Elements 180 7.11 Dioxygen 184 7.12 Simple Oxides 185 7.13 Ozone 185 7.14 Sulphur Allotropic Forms 187 7.15 Sulphur Dioxide 188 7.16 Oxoacids of Sulphur 189 7.17 Sulphuric Acid 189 7.18 Group 17 Elements 192 7.19 Chlorine 197

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Chapter Some Basic Concepts of Chemistry 1 1.1 Importance of Chemistry 1 1.2 Nature of Matter 2 1.3 Properties of Matter and their Measurement 4 1.4 Uncertainty in Measurement 8 1.5 Laws of Chemical Combinations 11 1.6 Daltons Atomic Theory 13 1.7 Atomic and Molecular Masses 13 1.8 Mole concept and Molar Masses 15 1.9 Percentage Composition 15 1.10 Stoichiometry and Stoichiometric Calculations 17 Structure of Atom 26 2.1 Sub-atomic Particles 27 2.2 Atomic Models 29 2.3 Developments Leading to the Bohrs Model of Atom 34 2.4 Bohrs Model for Hydrogen Atom 42 2.5 Towards Quantum Mechanical Model of the Atom 46 2.6 Quantum Mechanical Model of Atom 49 Classification of Elements and Periodicity in Properties 70 3.1 Why do we need to Classify Elements ? 70 3.2 Genesis of Periodic Classification 71 3.3 Modern Periodic Law and the present form of the Periodic Table 75 3.4 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic Number > 100 75 3.5 Electronic Configurations of Elements and the Periodic Table 78 3.6 Electronic Configurations and Types of Elements: 79 s, p, d, f-Blocks 3.7 Periodic Trends in Properties of Elements 82 Chemical Bonding and Molecular Structure 96 4.1 Kssel-Lewis Approach to Chemical Bonding 97 4.2 Ionic or Electrovalent Bond 102 4.3 Bond Parameters 103 4.4 The Valence Shell Electron Pair Repulsion (VSEPR) Theory 108 4.5 Valence Bond Theory 113 4.6 Hybridisation 116 4.7 Molecular Orbital Theory 121 4.8 Bonding in Some Homonuclear Diatomic Molecules 125 4.9 Hydrogen Bonding 127 States of Matter 132 5.1 Intermolecular Forces 133 5.2 Thermal Energy 135 5.3 Intermolecular Forces vs Thermal Interactions 135 5.4 The Gaseous State 135 5.5 The Gas Laws 136 5.6 Ideal Gas Equation 141 5.7 Kinetic Molecular Theory of Gases 143 5.8 Behaviour of real gases: Deviation from Ideal Gas Behaviour 144

5.9 Liquifaction of Gases 147 5.10 Liquid State 149 Thermodynamics 154 6.1 Thermodynamic State 155 6.2 Applications 158 6.3 Measurement of U and H: Calorimetry 163 6.4 Enthalpy Change, r H of a Reaction 164 6.5 Enthalpies for Different Types of Reactions 170 6.6 Spontaneity 174 6.7 Gibbs Energy Change and Equilibrium 179 Equilibrium 185 7.1 Equilibrium in Physical Processes 186 7.2 Equilibrium in Chemical Processes Dynamic Equilibrium 189 7.3 Law of Chemical Equilibrium and Equilibrium Constant 191 7.4 Homogeneous Equilibria 194 7.5 Heterogeneous equilibria 197 7.6 Applications of Equilibrium Constants 198 7.7 Relationship between Equilibrium Constant K, 201 Reaction Quotient Q and Gibbs Energy G 7.8 Factors Affecting Equilibria 201 7.9 Ionic Equilibrium in Solution 205 7.10 Acids, Bases and Salts 206 7.11 Ionization of Acids and Bases 209 7.12 Buffer Solutions 219 7.13 Solubility Equilibria of Sparingly Soluble Salts 220 Redox Reactions 255 8.1 Classical Idea of Redox Reactions-Oxidation and Reduction Reactions 255 8.2 Redox Reactions in Terms of Electron Transfer Reactions 257 8.3 Oxidation Number 259 8.4 Redox Reactions and Electrode Processes 269 Hydrogen 276 9.1 Position of Hydrogen in the Periodic Table 276 9.2 Dihydrogen, H2 9.3 Preparation of Dihydrogen, H2 9.4 Properties of Dihydrogen 278 9.5 Hydrides 280 9.6 Water 281 9.7 Hydrogen Peroxide (H2O2) 9.8 Heavy Water, (D2O) 9.9 Dihydrogen as a Fuel 286 The s-Block Elements 291 10.1 Group 1 Elements: Alkali Metals 292 10.2 General Characteristics of the Compounds of the Alkali Metals 295 10.3 Anomalous Properties of Lithium 296 10.4 Some Important Compounds of Sodium 296 10.5 Biological Importance of Sodium and Potassium 298

10.6 Group 2 Elements : Alkaline Earth Metals 298 10.7 General Characteristics of Compounds of the Alkaline Earth Metals 301 10.8 Anomalous Behaviour of Beryllium 302 10.9 Some Important Compounds of Calcium 302 10.10 Biological Importance of Magnesium and Calcium 304 The p-Block Elements 307 11.1 Group 13 Elements: The Boron Family 309 11.2 Important Trends and Anomalous Properties of Boron 312 11.3 Some Important Compounds of Boron 312 11.4 Uses of Boron and Aluminium and their Compounds 314 11.5 Group 14 Elements: The Carbon Family 314 11.6 Important Trends and Anomalous Behaviour of Carbon 317 11.7 Allotropes of Carbon 317 11.8 Some Important Compounds of Carbon and Silicon 319 Organic Chemistry Some Basic Principles and Techniques 326 12.1 General Introduction 326 12.2 Tetravalence of Carbon: Shapes of Organic Compounds 327 12.3 Structural Representations of Organic Compounds 328 12.4 Classification of Organic Compounds 331 12.5 Nomenclature of Organic Compounds 332 12.6 Isomerism 340 12.7 Fundamental Concepts in Organic Reaction Mechanism 341 12.8 Methods of Purification of Organic Compounds 348 12.9 Qualitative Analysis of Organic Compounds 354 12.10 Quantitative Analysis 355 Hydrocarbons 365 13.1 Classification 365 13.2 Alkanes 366 13.3 Alkenes 376 13.4 Alkynes 384 13.5 Aromatic Hydrocarbon 388 13.6 Carcinogenicity and Toxicity 395 Environmental Chemistry 398 14.1 Environmental Pollution 398 14.2 Atmospheric Pollution 399 14.3 Water Pollution 406 14.4 Soil Pollution 408 14.5 Industrial Waste 409 14.6 Strategies to control Environmental Pollution 410 14.7 Green Chemistry 410 The Solid State 1 1.1 General Characteristics of Solid State 2 1.2 Amorphous and Crystalline Solids 2 1.3 Classification of Crystalline Solids 4 1.4 Crystal Lattices and Unit Cells 7 1.5 Number of Atoms in a Unit Cell 10

1.6 Close-Packed Structures 12 1.7 Packing Efficiency 18 1.8 Calculations Involving Unit Cell Dimensions 20 1.9 Imperfections in Solids 22 1.10 Electrical Properties 24 1.11 Magnetic Properties 27 Solutions 33 2.1 Types of Solutions 33 2.2 Expressing Concentration of Solutions 34 2.3 Solubility 37 2.4 Vapour Pressure of Liquid Solutions 41 2.5 Ideal and Non-ideal Solutions 45 2.6 Colligative Properties and Determination of Molar Mass 47 2.7 Abnormal Molar Masses 55 Electrochemistry 63 3.1 Electrochemical Cells 64 3.2 Galvanic Cells 65 3.3 Nernst Equation 68 3.4 Conductance of Electrolytic Solutions 73 3.5 Electrolytic Cells and Electrolysis 83 3.6 Batteries 86 3.7 Fuel Cells 88 3.8 Corrosion 89 Chemical Kinetics 93 4.1 Rate of a Chemical Reaction 94 4.2 Factors Influencing Rate of a Reaction 98 4.3 Integrated Rate Equations 103 4.4 Pseudo First Order Reaction 110 4.5 Temperature Dependence of the Rate of a Reaction 111 4.6 Collision Theory of Chemical Reactions 115 Surface Chemistry 121 5.1 Adsorption 122 5.2 Catalysis 127 5.3 Colloids 134 5.4 Classification of Colloids 134 5.5 Emulsions 143 5.6 Colloids Around Us 143 General Principles and Processes of Isolation of Elements 147 6.1 Occurrence of Metals 148 6.2 Concentration of Ores 148 6.3 Extraction of Crude Metal from Concentrated Ore 150 6.4 Thermodynamic Principles of Metallurgy 151 6.5 Electrochemical Principles of Metallurgy 157 6.6 Oxidation Reduction 158 6.7 Refining 159 6.8 Uses of Aluminium, Copper, Zinc and Iron 162

The p-Block Elements 165 7.1 Group 15 Elements 165 7.2 Dinitrogen 169 7.3 Ammonia 170 7.4 Oxides of Nitrogen 172 7.5 Nitric Acid 173 7.6 Phosphorus Allotropic Forms 175 7.7 Phosphine 176 7.8 Phosphorus Halides 177 7.9 Oxoacids of Phosphorus 178 7.10 Group 16 Elements 180 7.11 Dioxygen 184 7.12 Simple Oxides 185 7.13 Ozone 185 7.14 Sulphur Allotropic Forms 187 7.15 Sulphur Dioxide 188 7.16 Oxoacids of Sulphur 189 7.17 Sulphuric Acid 189 7.18 Group 17 Elements 192 7.19 Chlorine 197 7.20 Hydrogen Chloride 198 7.21 Oxoacids of Halogens 199 7.22 Interhalogen Compounds 200 7.23 Group 18 Elements 202 The d-and f-Block Elements 209 8.1 Position in the Periodic Table 210 8.2 Electronic Configurations of the d-Block Elements 210 8.3 General Properties of the Transition Elements ( d-Block) 212 8.4 Some important Compounds of Transition Elements 224 8.5 The Lanthanoids 227 8.6 The Actinoids 230 8.7 Some Applications of d-and f-Block Elements 232 Coordination Compounds 237 9.1 Werner's Theory of Coordination Compounds 237 9.2 Definition of Some Important Terms Pertaining to 240 Coordination Compounds 9.3 Nomenclature of Coordination Compounds 241 9.4 Isomerism in Coordination Compounds 244 9.5 Bonding in Coordination Compounds 247 9.6 Bonding in Metal Carbonyls 254 9.7 Stability of Coordination Compounds 255 9.8 Importance and Applications of Coordination Compounds 256 Haloalkanes and Haloarenes 281 10.1 Classification 282 10.2 Nomenclature 283 10.3 Nature of CX Bond 285 10.4 Methods of Preparation 286

10.5 Physical Properties 289 10.6 Chemical Reactions 291 10.7 Polyhalogen Compounds 308 Alcohols, Phenols and Ethers 315 11.1 Classification 316 11.2 Nomenclature 317 11.3 Structures of Functional Groups 320 11.4 Alcohols and Phenols 321 11.5 Some Commercially Important Alcohols 336 11.6 Ethers 337 Aldehydes, Ketones and Carboxylic Acids 349 12.1 Nomenclature and Structure of Carbonyl Group 350 12.2 Preparation of Aldehydes and Ketones 353 12.3 Physical Properties 357 12.4 Chemical Reactions 358 12.5 Uses of Aldehydes and Ketones 365 12.6 Nomenclature and Structure of Carboxyl Group 366 12.7 Methods of Preparation of Carboxylic Acids 367 12.8 Physical Properties 371 12.9 Chemical Reactions 371 12.10 Uses of Carboxylic Acids 376 Amines 381 13.1 Structure of Amines 381 13.2 Classification 382 13.3 Nomenclature 382 13.4 Preparation of Amines 384 13.5 Physical Properties 387 13.6 Chemical Reactions 388 13.7 Method of Preparation of Diazonium Salts 396 13.8 Physical Properties 397 13.9 Chemical Reactions 397 13.10 Importance of Diazonium Salts in Synthesis of Aromatic Compounds398 Biomolecules 403 14.1 Carbohydrates 403 14.2 Proteins 412 14.3 Enzymes 417 14.4 Vitamins 417 14.5 Nucleic Acids 419 Polymers 425 15.1 Classification of Polymers 426 15.2 Types of Polymerisation 428 15.3 Molecular Mass of Polymers 435 15.4 Biodegradable Polymers 435 15.5 Polymers of Commercial Importance 436 Chemistry in Everyday Life 439 16.1 Drugs and their Classification 439 16.2 Drug-Target Interaction 440

16.3 Therapeutic Action of Different Classes of Drugs 443 16.4 Chemicals in Food 449 16.5 Cleansing Agents 450

Class XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI

Subject Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics

Unit

5 XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics

XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI

Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics

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XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XI XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII

Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics

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2 XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics

XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII

Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics

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XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII XII

Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics Physics

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Chapter PHYSICAL WORLD 1.1 What is physics ? 1 1.2 Scope and excitement of physics 2 1.3 Physics, technology and society 5 1.4 Fundamental forces in nature 6 1.5 Nature of physical laws 10 UNITS AND MEASUREMENTS 2.1 Introduction 16 2.2 The international system of units 16 2.3 Measurement of length 18 2.4 Measurement of mass 21 2.5 Measurement of time 22 2.6 Accuracy, precision of instruments and errors in measurement 22 2.7 Significant figures 27 2.8 Dimensions of physical quantities 31 2.9 Dimensional formulae and dimensional equations 31 2.10 Dimensional analysis and its applications 32 MOTION IN A STRAIGHT LINE 3.1 Introduction 39 3.2 Position, path length and displacement 39 3.3 Average velocity and average speed 42 3.4 Instantaneous velocity and speed 43 3.5 Acceleration 45 3.6 Kinematic equations for uniformly accelerated motion 47 3.7 Relative velocity 51 MOTION IN A PLANE 4.1 Introduction 65 4.2 Scalars and vectors 65 4.3 Multiplication of vectors by real numbers 67 4.4 Addition and subtraction of vectors graphical method 67 4.5 Resolution of vectors 69 4.6 Vector addition analytical method 71 4.7 Motion in a plane 72 4.8 Motion in a plane with constant acceleration 75 4.9 Relative velocity in two dimensions 76 4.10 Projectile motion 77 4.11 Uniform circular motion 79 LAWS OF MOTION 5.1 Introduction 89 5.2 Aristotles fallacy 90 5.3 The law of inertia 90 5.4 Newtons first law of motion 91 5.5 Newtons second law of motion 93 5.6 Newtons third law of motion 96 5.7 Conservation of momentum 98

5.8 Equilibrium of a particle 99 5.9 Common forces in mechanics 100 5.10 Circular motion 104 5.11 Solving problems in mechanics 105 WORK, ENERGY AND POWER 6.1 Introduction 114 6.2 Notions of work and kinetic energy : The work-energy theorem 116 6.3 Work 116 6.4 Kinetic energy 117 6.5 Work done by a variable force 118 6.6 The work-energy theorem for a variable force 119 6.7 The concept of potential energy 120 6.8 The conservation of mechanical energy 121 6.9 The potential energy of a spring 123 6.10 Various forms of energy : the law of conservation of energy 126 6.11 Power 128 6.12 Collisions 129 SYSTEM OF PARTICLES AND ROTATIONAL MOTION 7.1 Introduction 141 7.2 Centre of mass 144 7.3 Motion of centre of mass 148 7.4 Linear momentum of a system of particles 149 7.5 Vector product of two vectors 150 7.6 Angular velocity and its relation with linear velocity 152 7.7 Torque and angular momentum 154 7.8 Equilibrium of a rigid body 158 7.9 Moment of inertia 163 7.10 Theorems of perpendicular and parallel axes 164 7.11 Kinematics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 167 7.12 Dynamics of rotational motion about a fixed axis 169 7.13 Angular momentum in case of rotations about a fixed axis 171 7.14 Rolling motion 173 GRAVITATION 8.1 Introduction 183 8.2 Keplers laws 184 8.3 Universal law of gravitation 185 8.4 The gravitational constant 189 8.5 Acceleration due to gravity of the earth 189 8.6 Acceleration due to gravity below and above the surface of earth 190 8.7 Gravitational potential energy 191 8.8 Escape speed 193 8.9 Earth satellite 194 8.10 Energy of an orbiting satellite 195 8.11 Geostationary and polar satellites 196 8.12 Weightlessness 197 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF SOLIDS

9.1 Introduction 231 9.2 Elastic behaviour of solids 232 9.3 Stress and strain 232 9.4 Hookes law 234 9.5 Stress-strain curve 234 9.6 Elastic moduli 235 9.7 Applications of elastic behaviour of materials 240 MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS 10.1 Introduction 246 10.2 Pressure 246 10.3 Streamline flow 253 10.4 Bernoullis principle 254 10.5 Viscosity 258 10.6 Reynolds number 260 10.7 Surface tension 261 THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER 11.1 Introduction 274 11.2 Temperature and heat 274 11.3 Measurement of temperature 275 11.4 Ideal-gas equation and absolute temperature 275 11.5 Thermal expansion 276 11.6 Specific heat capacity 280 11.7 Calorimetry 281 11.8 Change of state 282 11.9 Heat transfer 286 11.10 Newtons law of cooling 290 THERMODYNAMICS 12.1 Introduction 298 12.2 Thermal equilibrium 299 12.3 Zeroth law of thermodynamics 300 12.4 Heat, internal energy and work 300 12.5 First law of thermodynamics 302 12.6 Specific heat capacity 303 12.7 Thermodynamic state variables and equation of state 304 12.8 Thermodynamic processes 305 12.9 Heat engines 308 12.10 Refrigerators and heat pumps 308 12.11 Second law of thermodynamics 309 12.12 Reversible and irreversible processes 310 12.13 Carnot engine 311 KINETIC THEORY 13.1 Introduction 318 13.2 Molecular nature of matter 318 13.3 Behaviour of gases 320 13.4 Kinetic theory of an ideal gas 323 13.5 Law of equipartition of energy 327 13.6 Specific heat capacity 328

13.7 Mean free path 330 OSCILLATIONS 14.1 Introduction 336 14.2 Periodic and oscilatory motions 337 14.3 Simple harmonic motion 339 14.4 Simple harmonic motion and uniform circular motion 341 14.5 Velocity and acceleration in simple harmonic motion 343 14.6 Force law for simple harmonic motion 344 14.7 Energy in simple harmonic motion 345 14.8 Some systems executing Simple Harmonic Motion 347 14.9 Damped simple harmonic motion 350 14.10 Forced oscillations and resonance 352 WAVES 15.1 Introduction 363 15.2 Transverse and longitudinal waves 365 15.3 Displacement relation in a progressive wave 366 15.4 The speed of a travelling wave 369 15.5 The principle of superposition of waves 372 15.6 Reflection of waves 374 15.7 Beats 378 15.8 Doppler effect 380 ELECTRIC CHARGES AND FIELDS 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Electric Charges 1 1.3 Conductors and Insulators 5 1.4 Charging by Induction 6 1.5 Basic Properties of Electric Charge 8 1.6 Coulombs Law 10 1.7 Forces between Multiple Charges 15 1.8 Electric Field 18 1.9 Electric Field Lines 23 1.10 Electric Flux 25 1.11 Electric Dipole 27 1.12 Dipole in a Uniform External Field 31 1.13 Continuous Charge Distribution 32 1.14 Gausss Law 33 1.15 Application of Gausss Law 37 ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE 2.1 Introduction 51 2.2 Electrostatic Potential 53 2.3 Potential due to a Point Charge 54 2.4 Potential due to an Electric Dipole 55 2.5 Potential due to a System of Charges 57 2.6 Equipotential Surfaces 60 2.7 Potential Energy of a System of Charges 61 2.8 Potential Energy in an External Field 64

2.9 Electrostatics of Conductors 67 2.10 Dielectrics and Polarisation 71 2.11 Capacitors and Capacitance 73 2.12 The Parallel Plate Capacitor 74 2.13 Effect of Dielectric on Capacitance 75 2.15 Energy Stored in a Capacitor 80 2.16 Van de Graaff Generator 83 CURRENT ELECTRICITY 3.1 Introduction 93 3.2 Electric Current 93 3.3 Electric Currents in Conductors 94 3.4 Ohms law 95 3.5 Drift of Electrons and the Origin of Resistivity 97 3.6 Limitations of Ohms Law 101 3.7 Resistivity of various Materials 101 3.8 Temperature Dependence of Resistivity 103 3.9 Electrical Energy, Power 105 3.10 Combination of Resistors Series and Parallel 107 3.11 Cells, emf, Internal Resistance 110 3.12 Cells in Series and in Parallel 113 3.13 Kirchhoffs Laws 115 3.14 Wheatstone Bridge 118 3.15 Meter Bridge 120 3.16 Potentiometer 122 MOVING CHARGES AND MAGNETISM 4.1 Introduction 132 4.2 Magnetic Force 133 4.3 Motion in a Magnetic Field 137 4.4 Motion in Combined Electric and Magnetic Fields 140 4.5 Magnetic Field due to a Current Element, Biot-Savart Law 143 4.6 Magnetic Field on the Axis of a Circular Current Loop 145 4.7 Amperes Circuital Law 147 4.8 The Solenoid and the Toroid 150 4.9 Force between Two Parallel Currents, the Ampere 154 4.10 Torque on Current Loop, Magnetic Dipole 157 4.11 The Moving Coil Galvanometer 163 MAGNETISM AND MATTER 5.1 Introduction 173 5.2 The Bar Magnet 174 5.4 The Earths Magnetism 185 5.5 Magnetisation and Magnetic Intensity 189 5.6 Magnetic Properties of Materials 191 5.7 Permanent Magnets and Electromagnets 195 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION 6.1 Introduction 204 6.2 The Experiments of Faraday and Henry 205 6.3 Magnetic Flux 206

6.4 Faradays Law of Induction 207 6.5 Lenzs Law and Conservation of Energy 210 6.6 Motional Electromotive Force 212 6.7 Energy Consideration: A Quantitative Study 215 6.8 Eddy Currents 218 6.9 Inductance 219 6.10 AC Generator 224 ALTERNATING CURRENT 7.1 Introduction 233 7.2 AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor 234 7.3 Representation of AC Current and Voltage by Rotating Vectors Phasors 237 7.4 AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor 237 7.5 AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor 241 7.6 AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit 244 7.7 Power in AC Circuit: The Power Factor 252 7.8 LC Oscillations 255 7.9 Transformers 259 ELECTROMAGNETIC WAVES 8.1 Introduction 269 8.2 Displacement Current 270 8.3 Electromagnetic Waves 274 8.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum 280 8.4 Electromagnetic Spectrum 280 RAY OPTICS AND OPTICAL INSTRUMENTS 9.1 Introduction 309 9.2 Reflection of Light by Spherical Mirrors 310 9.3 Refraction 316 9.4 Total Internal Reflection 319 9.5 Refraction at Spherical Surfaces and by Lenses 323 9.6 Refraction through a Prism 330 9.7 Dispersion by a Prism 332 9.8 Some Natural Phenomena due to Sunlight 333 9.9 Optical Instruments 335 WAVE OPTICS 10.1 Introduction 351 10.2 Huygens Principle 353 10.3 Refraction and reflection of plane waves using Huygens Principle 355 10.4 Coherent and Incoherent Addition of Waves 360 10.5 Interference of Light Waves and Youngs Experiment 362 10.6 Diffraction 367 10.7 Polarisation 376 DUAL NATURE OF RADIATION AND MATTER 11.1 Introduction 386 11.2 Electron Emission 387 11.3 Photoelectric Effect 388 11.4 Experimental Study of Photoelectric Effect 389

11.5 Photoelectric Effect and Wave Theory of Light 393 11.6 Einsteins Photoelectric Equation: Energy Quantum of Radiation 393 11.7 Particle Nature of Light: The Photon 395 11.8 Wave Nature of Matter 398 11.9 Davisson and Germer Experiment 403 ATOMS 12.1 Introduction 414 12.2 Alpha-particle Scattering and Rutherfords Nuclear Model of Atom 415 12.3 Atomic Spectra 420 12.4 Bohr Model of the Hydrogen Atom 422 12.5 The Line Spectra of the Hydrogen Atom 428 12.6 DE Broglies Explanation of Bohrs Second Postulate of Quantisation 430 NUCLEI 13.1 Introduction 438 13.2 Atomic Masses and Composition of Nucleus 438 13.3 Size of the Nucleus 441 13.4 Mass-Energy and Nuclear Binding Energy 442 13.5 Nuclear Force 445 13.6 Radioactivity 446 13.7 Nuclear Energy 451 SEMICONDUCTOR ELECTRONICS: MATERIALS, DEVICES AND SIMPLE CIRCUITS 14.1 Introduction 467 14.2 Classification of Metals, Conductors and Semiconductors 468 14.3 Intrinsic Semiconductor 472 14.4 Extrinsic Semiconductor 474 14.5 p-n Junction 478 14.6 Semiconductor diode 479 14.7 Application of Junction Diode as a Rectifier 483 14.8 Special Purpose p-n Junction Diodes 485 14.9 Junction Transistor 490 14.10 Digital Electronics and Logic Gates 501 14.11 Integrated Circuits 505 COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS 15.1 Introduction 513 15.2 Elements of a Communication System 513 15.3 Basic Terminology Used in Electronic Communication Systems 515 15.4 Bandwidth of Signals 517 15.5 Bandwidth of Transmission Medium 518 15.6 Propagation of Electromagnetic Waves 519 15.8 Amplitude Modulation 524 15.9 Production of Amplitude Modulated Wave 525 15.10 Detection of Amplitude Modulated Wave 526

Class XI

Subject Unit Mathematics

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13 13.1 Introduction 531 13.2 Conditional Probability 531 13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability 540 13.4 Independent Events 542 13.5 Bayes' Theorem 548 13.6 Random Variables and its Probability Distributions 557 13.7 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution 572

Chapter Sets 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Sets and their Representations 1 1.3 The Empty Set 5 1.4 Finite and Infinite Sets 6 1.5 Equal Sets 7 1.6 Subsets 9 1.7 Power Set 12 1.8 Universal Set 12 1.9 Venn Diagrams 13 1.10 Operations on Sets 14 1.11 Complement of a Set 18 1.12 Practical Problems on Union and Intersection of Two Sets 21 Relations and Functions 30 2.1 Introduction 30 2.2 Cartesian Product of Sets 30 2.3 Relations 34 2.4 Functions 36 Trigonometric Functions 49 3.1 Introduction 49 3.2 Angles 49 3.3 Trigonometric Functions 55 3.4 Trigonometric Functions of Sum and Difference of Two Angles 63 3.5 Trigonometric Equations 74 Principle of Mathematical Induction 86 4.1 Introduction 86 4.2 Motivation 87 4.3 The Principle of Mathematical Induction 88 NCERT Complex Numbers and Quadratic Equations 97 5.1 Introduction 97 5.2 Complex Numbers 97 5.3 Algebra of Complex Numbers 98 5.4 The Modulus and the Conjugate of a Complex Number 102 5.5 Argand Plane and Polar Representation 104 5.6 Quadratic Equations 108 Linear Inequalities 116 6.1 Introduction 116 6.2 Inequalities 116 6.3 Algebraic Solutions of Linear Inequalities in One Variable and their Graphical Representation 118 6.4 Graphical Solution of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables 123 6.5 Solution of System of Linear Inequalities in Two Variables 127 Permutations and Combinations 134 7.1 Introduction 134 7.2 Fundamental Principle of Counting 134 7.3 Permutations 138

7.4 Combinations 148 Binomial Theorem 160 8.1 Introduction 160 8.2 Binomial Theorem for Positive Integral Indices 160 8.3 General and Middle Terms 167 Sequences and Series 177 9.1 Introduction 177 9.2 Sequences 177 9.3 Series 179 9.4 Arithmetic Progression (A.P.) 181 9.5 Geometric Progression (G.P.) 186 9.6 Relationship Between A.M. and G.M. 191 9.7 Sum to n terms of Special Series 194 Straight Lines 203 10.1 Introduction 203 10.2 Slope of a Line 204 10.3 Various Forms of the Equation of a Line 212 10.4 General Equation of a Line 220 10.5 Distance of a Point From a Line 225 NCERT Conic Sections 236 11.1 Introduction 236 11.2 Sections of a Cone 236 11.3 Circle 239 11.4 Parabola 242 11.5 Ellipse 247 11.6 Hyperbola 255 Introduction to Three Dimensional Geometry 268 12.1 Introduction 268 12.2 Coordinate Axes and Coordinate Planes in 3 D space 12.3 Coordinates of a Point in Space 269 12.4 Distance between Two Points 271 12.5 Section Formula 273 Limits and Derivatives 281 13.1 Introduction 281 13.2 Intuitive Idea of Derivatives 281 13.3 Limits 284 13.4 Limits of Trigonometric Functions 298 13.5 Derivatives 303 Mathematical Reasoning 321 14.1 Introduction 321 14.2 Statements 321 14.3 New Statements from Old 324 14.4 Special Words/Phrases 329 14.5 Implications 335 14.6 Validating Statements 339 Statistics 347 15.1 Introduction 347

15.2 Measures of Dispersion 349 15.3 Range 349 15.4 Mean Deviation 349 15.5 Variance and Standard Deviation 361 15.6 Analysis of Frequency Distributions Probability 383 16.1 Introduction 383 16.2 Random Experiments 384 16.3 Event 387 16.4 Axiomatic Approach to Probability 394 Relations and Functions 1 1.1 Introduction 1 1.2 Types of Relations 2 1.3 Types of Functions 7 1.4 Composition of Functions and Invertible Function 12 1.5 Binary Operations 19 Inverse Trigonometric Functions 33 2.1 Introduction 33 2.2 Basic Concepts 33 2.3 Properties of Inverse Trigonometric Functions 42 Matrices 56 3.1 Introduction 56 3.2 Matrix 56 3.3 Types of Matrices 61 3.4 Operations on Matrices 65 3.5 Transpose of a Matrix 83 3.6 Symmetric and Skew Symmetric Matrices 85 3.7 Elementary Operation (Transformation) of a Matrix 90 3.8 Invertible Matrices 91 Determinants 103 4.1 Introduction 103 4.2 Determinant 103 4.3 Properties of Determinants 109 4.4 Area of a Triangle 121 4.5 Minors and Cofactors 123 4.6 Adjoint and Inverse of a Matrix 126 4.7 Applications of Determinants and Matrices 133 Introduction 147 5.2 Continuity 147 5.3 Differentiability 161 5.4 Exponential and Logarithmic Functions 170 5.5 Logarithmic Differentiation 174 5.6 Derivatives of Functions in Parametric Forms 179 5.7 Second Order Derivative 181 5.8 Mean Value Theorem 184 Application of Derivatives 194

6.1 Introduction 194 6.2 Rate of Change of Quantities 194 6.3 Increasing and Decreasing Functions 199 6.4 Tangents and Normals 206 6.5 Approximations 213 6.6 Maxima and Minima 216 Integrals 287 7.1 Introduction 288 7.2 Integration as an Inverse Process of Differentiation 288 7.3 Methods of Integration 300 7.4 Integrals of some Particular Functions 307 7.5 Integration by Partial Fractions 316 7.6 Integration by Parts 323 7.7 Definite Integral 331 7.8 Fundamental Theorem of Calculus 334 7.9 Evaluation of Definite Integrals by Substitution 338 7.10 Some Properties of Definite Integrals 341 Application of Integrals 359 8.1 Introduction 359 8.2 Area under Simple Curves 359 8.3 Area between Two Curves 366 Differential Equations 379 9.1 Introduction 379 9.2 Basic Concepts 379 9.3 General and Particular Solutions of a 383 Differential Equation 9.4 Formation of a Differential Equation whose General Solution is Given385 9.5 Methods of Solving First order, First Degree 391 Differential Equations Vector Algebra 424 10.1 Introduction 424 10.2 Some Basic Concepts 424 10.3 Types of Vectors 427 10.4 Addition of Vectors 429 10.6 Product of Two Vectors 441 Three Dimensional Geometry 463 11.1 Introduction 463 11.2 Direction Cosines and Direction Ratios of a Line 463 11.3 Equation of a Line in Space 468 11.4 Angle between Two Lines 471 11.5 Shortest Distance between Two Lines 473 11.6 Plane 479 11.7 Coplanarity of Two Lines 487 11.8 Angle between Two Planes 488 11.9 Distance of a Point from a Plane 490 11.10 Angle between a Line and a Plane 492 Linear Programming 504

12.1 Introduction 504 12.2 Linear Programming Problem and its Mathematical Formulation 505 12.3 Different Types of Linear Programming Problems 514 Probability 531 13.1 Introduction 531 13.2 Conditional Probability 531 13.3 Multiplication Theorem on Probability 540 13.4 Independent Events 542 13.5 Bayes' Theorem 548 13.6 Random Variables and its Probability Distributions 557 13.7 Bernoulli Trials and Binomial Distribution 572