Part B - PSTN

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Figure B.0.1 Reference model B.1User services and terminals B.2Standards B.3Switching and switch control B. !ransmission techni"ues B.#!run$ and access networ$s B.%Networ$ intelligence and value&added services B.'Signalling B.(Networ$ management B.)*nterwor$ing +etween networ$s B.1,Networ$ -lanning

B.1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

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!he oldest and hitherto largest telecommunications networ$ in existence is the -u+lic switched tele-hone networ$ .PS!N/ which has in excess o0 ',, million su+scri+ers. 1or a long time2 the PS!N was the onl3 +earer networ$ availa+le 0or tele-hon3. !oda32 man3 -eo-le choose the mo+ile tele-hone 0or their calls. 4ther +earer networ$s 0or voice transmission include integrated service digital networ$ .*S5N/2 as3nchronous trans0er mode .6!7/2 0rame rela3 and the *nternet. !he PS!N8s -rimar3 characteristics9 analog access2 3,,&32 ,, :;< circuit&switched du-lex connection< switched +andwidth2 % $+it=s2 or 3,,&32 ,, :; 0or analog exchanges< immo+ilit3 or2 at +est2 ver3 limited mo+ilit3< and man3 0unctions in common with another +earer networ$9 N&*S5N.

See the PS!N re0erence model in Figure B.1.1.

Figure B.1.1 PSTN reference model *n the course o0 its long histor32 which started in 1('%2 the PS!N has undergone a com-lete technical metamor-hosis. >ven 0actors such as networ$ structure and networ$ utilisation have changed radicall3. !he trul3 revolutionar3 changes have come a+out 0rom the 1)%,s onwards & innovations such as data communication2 tele0ax2 -rocessor control techni"ue2 digital voice transmission2 satellite communication2 digital switching2 o-toelectronics2 networ$ intelligence structures and the *nternet. !o 0acilitate 3our understanding o0 the PS!N and the ?culture? that 0ormed toda38s telecommunications2 we will +rie0l3 digress and ste- +ac$ in time to the earl3 1)%,s.

B.1.2 T h e P S

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T N o f t h e 1 9 6 0 s
B.1.2.1 B.1.2.2 B.1.2.3 B.1.2. B.1.2.# B.1.2.% B.1.2.' !erminals !he access networ$ !ele-hone exchanges !he trun$ networ$ Networ$ intelligence and value&added services *nterexchange signalling 4-eration and maintenance

6s -art o0 the re0erence model that is used throughout our +oo$s2 a num+er o0 main elements are included9 terminals2 trans-ort2 access2 switching2 networ$ intelligence and networ$ management. !hese are conce-ts and terms that were seldom2 i0 ever2 used in the 1)%,s. @hile toda38s digitised PS!N is a ?logical? networ$2 utilising the same resources as those used +3 other networ$s2 the PS!N o0 the 1)%,s was certainl3 a -h3sical networ$ & one in which 3ou could touch the selectors in an exchange and the conductors o0 a su+scri+er8s line2 a networ$ in which nothing resem+ling toda38s so0tware existed. >lectronic tu+es were still common-lace in the am-li0iers o0 that da3.

Figure B.1.2 The network of the 1960s B.1.2.1 Terminals Broadl3 s-ea$ing2 dial tele-hones were the onl3 0orm o0 terminal that existed. !he num+er o0 -ulses generated as the dial rotated +ac$ to its initial -osition indicated the digit that was dialled. !he -ulses were then detected +3 the local exchange.

6lthough man3 o0 toda38s tele-hone users 0eel that this 0orm o0 dialling is too slow2 a considera+le num+er o0 these older units are still in o-eration in man3 countries around the world. !he 0irst modems to +e used 0or data transmission were connected to the PS!N during the 1)%,s. Bit rates were low2 generall3 3,, or %,, +it=s. !ele0ax units started to a--ear on the mar$et towards the end o0 the decade. B.1.2.2 The access network !he access networ$ was re0erred to as the local networ$2 local loo- or su+scri+er networ$. !he techni"ue was sim-le9 a co--er wire .or an o-en wire/ connected the su+scri+er to the exchange. !his -art o0 the networ$ o0 the 1)%,s has -roved to +e more com-etitive than other -arts. Ao--er -airs are ideall3 suited to su--l3ing -ower to the tele-hones< the3 also lend themselves to +ase+and transmission o0 voice & no modulation is re"uired as in the case o0 0i+re and radio a--lications. 7oreover2 co--er can +e utilised at higher 0re"uencies than those originall3 intended. !his means that the existing co--er -air can also +e used to access services o0 greater +andwidth in other networ$s. *n the entirel3 analog networ$s that existed +e0ore the introduction o0 -ulse code modulation .PA7/ s3stems2 the attenuation o0 voice signals re-resented a -ro+lem 0or networ$ -lanners. 6ttenuation occurred not onl3 in the local networ$ +ut also in the exchanges and in the two&wire sections o0 the trun$ networ$ .+etween exchanges/. !o solve the attenuation -ro+lem2 o-erators had to install s-ecial lines .conductors o0 greater diameter/ 0or remote su+scri+ers2 which increased the cost o0 the su+scri+er networ$. !oda38s exchanges and trun$ networ$s are normall3 digital and2 hence2 attenuation& 0ree. 5igital transmission is also +eing introduced into the access networ$. 6ll o0 this serves to ma$e the networ$8s co--er sections less ex-ensive and more com-etitive .normall32 ,. &mm diameter wire is used/. B.1.2. Tele!hone e"chan#es

6s mentioned in Aha-ter 3 o0 Bolume 12 a well&develo-ed hierarch3 o0 automatic tele-hone exchanges existed in the 1)%,s alongside exchanges that were manuall3 served. !he hierarchical structure had +een +rought on +3 the high transmission costs o0 that -eriod & -ossi+l3 as much as 1,, times higher -er channel&$ilometre than current costs. !here were two&wire .0or the most -art local exchanges/ and 0our&wire2 analog tele-hone exchanges. .See Bolume 12 Aha-ter ./ Cemote su+scri+er stages did not exist at that time< all 0unctionalit3 resided in the exchanges. !he 0act that there are still a great num+er o0 analog exchanges in o-eration motivates some stud3 o0 the su+Dect. !he lines o0 an analog switching networ$ are galvanicall3 connected together. !he electromechanical selector is the networ$8s most im-ortant com-onent< the s3m+ol

0or this com-onent is commonl3 drawn as shown in Figure B.1. . 6s illustrated2 an incoming line can +e connected to one o0 1, outgoing lines.

Figure B.1. S!m"ol for #n electromech#nic#l selector 6 num+er o0 di00erent switch&t3-es existed2 such as the Strowger switch2 the #,,& line selector2 the cross+ar switch and the matrix switch. *t would ta$e us too long to descri+e these switches in detail. *nstead2 we will stud3 their use in a -rivate +ranch exchange .PBE/ o0 the t3-e used +3 com-anies and hotels. 6nalog PBEs ma$e use o0 a num+er o0 di00erent electromechanical selectors. !he 0irst one is the c#ll finder. !he su+scri+ers8 lines are connected to this selector< 0or exam-le2 1, su+scri+ers to each selector. !he second one is the line selector2 to which the 1, outgoing lines o0 the a0orementioned exam-le can +e connected. Figure B.1.$ illustrates a PBE 0or 1,, extensions. *t consists o0 1, call 0inders2 1, line selectors and 1, grou% selectors. !he 0unction o0 the grou- selector is to select the line selector connected to the called B&num+er. !his exchange allows 1, calls to +e connected simultaneousl3.

Figure B.1.$ PB& with # grou% selector for 100 e'tensions $ethods of controllin# call switchin# in an analo# e"chan#e !he switching o0 calls in analog exchanges can +e controlled in a num+er o0 wa3s. !he most -rimitive o0 these is the ?ste-&+3&ste-? method in which the 6&su+scri+er controls the call set&u- with his dial. @e will review this -rocess in +road outline2 +ecause it re-resents the 0oundation on which toda38s most advanced s3stems have +een develo-ed. Su"scri"er(controlled c#ll set(u%

4ne o0 the su+scri+ers o0 a 1,,&su+scri+er exchange li0ts his handset2 causing the 0ollowing to occur9 6 rela3 activates the call 0inder .A1/2 which immediatel3 starts to search 0or the 6&su+scri+er8s line. !he search is interru-ted when the line has +een identi0ied. 4ther rela3s connect the tone generator2 which sends a dial tone to the 6&su+scri+er. !he 6&su+scri+er starts to dial the digits o0 the num+er to +e called. *n this case2 two digits are su00icient to reach an3 o0 the su+scri+ers. !he 0irst digit s-eci0ies the desired su+scri+er grou-. !he grou- selector .FS/ starts to move 0orward in ste- with the incoming -ulses and sto-s at the line selector connected to the B&su+scri+er. !he next digit o0 the su+scri+er num+er arrives. Now the line selector .GS/ is a00ected +3 the incoming -ulses2 and the B&su+scri+er8s line is selected. Aonnection is esta+lished. 6 ringing signal is sent to the B&su+scri+er2 and a ringing tone is sent to the 6&su+scri+er.

Register(controlled set(u% !he next -hase in the develo-ment o0 switching techni"ue is the connection o0 a register that receives the B&num+er. !his register then controls the remainder o0 the set&u- -rocess through the exchange. )istri"uted control !his is 3et another develo-mental stage9 m#rkers have +een -laced in the exchange. 6 mar$er $ee-s trac$ o0 which selector stage connections are idle and which are occu-ied and thus controls -ath selection through the selector. !he interwor$ing re"uired +etween these slower exchanges and toda38s high&s-eed machines .which re-resent com-letel3 di00erent technologies and levels o0 0unctionalit3/ ma$es it necessar3 0or our modern s3stems to ?simulate? old techni"ues. !he reason 0or this is sim-l3 the high cost o0 u-grading all the old e"ui-ment. .1or more in0ormation a+out the digitisation -rocess2 see Aha-ter 1,./ B.1.2.% The trunk network !ransmission remained analog until the end o0 the 1)%,s. !he trun$ networ$ em-lo3ed +oth 0re"uenc3 division multi-lexing .157/ and ?+ase+and? over -aired ca+le. *n the latter case2 coil loading was o0ten utilised. !his means that lo#ding coils were inserted into the lines at 0ixed intervals .a--roximatel3 ever3 12#,,&22,,, metres/. *n com+ination with the lines8 intrinsic resistance .C/ and the ca-acitance .A/ alwa3s -resent +etween the conductors o0 the -aired ca+le2 the inserted coils 0orm a 0ilter. !his 0ilter reduces attenuation in the u--er -art o0 the voice +and2 there+3 counteracting or entirel3 eliminating the line8s 0re"uenc3&de-endent attenuation in the 0re"uenc3 +and 3,,&32 ,, :;. See Figure B.1.*.

Figure B.1.* +oil(lo#ded %#ired c#"le 157 was the +ac$+one o0 the trun$ networ$s o0 the 1)%,s2 and it too$ a good while +e0ore the new2 digital time division multi-lexing .!57/ s3stems had the same ca-acit3. 6lthough the installation o0 new 157 s3stems is hardl3 li$el32 0re"uenc3 division multi-lexers still exist in toda38s PS!Ns. 7ulti-lexing according to the 157 -rinci-le is -er0ormed as 0ollows9 6 carrier 0re"uenc3 .0c / is modulated with the signal 0rom a voice channel .0re"uenc3 range 01&02/. !he result is a num+er o0 0re"uenc3 +ands 0cHn .02&01/2 where n is 12 32 #2 etc. 4nl3 one o0 the 0re"uenc3 +ands is re"uired .n I 1/. !he remaining +ands are 0iltered out. >ver3 0re"uenc3 +and consists o0 an u--er and a lower side+and. 4nl3 one side+and is transmitted .as a rule2 the lower one/. *0 the carrier 0re"uenc3 is selected such that 0c I 122,,, :;2 then the 157 channel8s 0re"uenc3 range is (2%,,&112',, :;2 +ecause 01 I 3,,2 02 I 32 ,, :;2 0c &01 I 112',, and 0c&02 I (2%,, :;.

!he carrier 0re"uenc3 0c need not +e transmitted .carrier wave su--ression/. *t can +e added in the receiver -rovided that its 0re"uenc3 and -hase are exactl3 correct. 6dding another two channels having carrier 0re"uencies o0 1% and 2, $:; results in a three&channel 157 s3stem as shown in Figure B.1.6.

Figure B.1.6 Three(ch#nnel F), s!stem *!U&! has -u+lished recommendations that s-eci03 ca-acit3 and 0re"uencies 0or 157 s3stems with 122 %,2 3,,2 ),,2 )%,2 22',, and 1,2(,, channels. Aarrier 0re"uencies are +etween %, $:; and Dust under %, 7:;.

157 s3stems can +e used with a num+er o0 di00erent transmission media9 s3mmetrical -aired ca+le2 coaxial ca+le2 radio lin$ and satellite. B.1.2.& Network intelli#ence and 'alue-added ser'ices Networ$ intelligence and value&added services were un$nown conce-ts in the 1)%,s. Nevertheless2 ver3 intelligent switching nodes did exist9 the com+ination o0 the manual tele-hone switch+oards and the o-erators who attended them. .:ere2 and in the historical review in Aha-ter 32 we use the term ?o-erator? in the traditional sense o0 the word9 a -erson who o-erates a tele-hone switch+oard. >lsewhere in our +oo$s2 the modern s3non3m ?tele-honist? is used to avoid con0usion with ?networ$ o-erator?./ Cural o-erators were a+le to $ee- trac$ o0 Dust a+out ever3thing that concerned their su+scri+ers2 so the3 could com-lete relativel3 more calls than the automatic exchanges that existed in those da3s. !hese o-erators could also -rovide ?value&added services?< in other words2 share in0ormation. B.1.2.6 Intere"chan#e si#nallin# 6s a result o0 the low intelligence level o0 the automatic exchanges2 a relativel3 small ?voca+ular3? was re"uired 0or the communication +etween them. *n signalling terms2 the3 made use o0 ver3 limited -rotocols. Signalling usuall3 too$ considera+le time & u- to 1# seconds 0or the set&u- o0 a call in a long&distance networ$. *n addition2 signalling utilised the same lines as voice tra00ic .channel&associated signalling/. >xtra trun$ lines were re"uired2 +ecause u- to 1,J o0 the lines were +us3 carr3ing signalling tra00ic instead o0 voice. B.1.2.( )!eration and maintenance 7aintenance was handled on a local +asis2 and the wor$0orce re"uired 0or a given networ$ volume2 ex-ressed in su+scri+er lines2 was signi0icantl3 larger than that re"uired +3 toda38s centralised 0unctions and so-histicated transmission s3stems with cross&connect 0acilities.

B.1. T h e s e r ' i c e s o f

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* P S T N 2 0 0 0 *
B.1.3.1 B.1.3.2 B.1.3.3 B.1.3. B.1.3.# B.1.3.% B.1.3.' B.1.3.( B.1.3.) !he PS!N +earer service !eleservices 5ata communication over the PS!N 1ax communication over the PS!N 6s3mmetrical services over the PS!N Balue&added services and tele-honist services S-ecial PS!N +usiness services Bideo2 multimedia and telewor$ing over the PS!N 7o+ilit3 in the PS!N

B.1. .1 The PSTN +earer ser'ice !he PS!N has onl3 one +earer service9 ?the PS!N +earer service?. *n terms o0 trans0er2 the networ$ utilises circuit mode and is designed and o-timised 0or voice transmission in the 3,,&32 ,, :; interval. !he +est level o0 trans-arenc3 is -rovided +3 du-lex o-eration< in other words2 voice .as well as other in0ormation/ can +e transmitted simultaneousl3 in +oth directions. !he networ$ o0 the 1)%,s that we have Dust descri+ed is signi0icantl3 di00erent 0rom the PS!N 0re"uentl3 re0erred to in Bolume 1 and exhaustivel3 descri+ed in the 0ollowing. !he most signi0icant di00erence lies in the 0act that current networ$s are digitised2 an ongoing -rocess in the maDorit3 o0 toda38s countries. !he change&over to new techni"ues has had the e00ect o0 ma$ing the PS!N +earer service heterogeneous. 1or a long time2 the networ$s have involved numerous analog&to& digital conversions and man3 generations o0 signalling s3stems. !he result is wide variation in call set&u- time and uneven transmission "ualit3. B.1. .2 Teleser'ices Terminals @e will 0irst ta$e a loo$ at what is connected to the PS!N.

Figure B.1.- Termin#ls connected to the PSTN

Figure B.1.. PB& h#/ing e'tensions #nd lines to the loc#l e'ch#nge 0PSTN1 1rom a -urel3 technical stand-oint2 a PBE is not a terminal. *t has its own terminals .see Figure B.1../ and is o0ten connected to the grou- selector o0 the local exchange and not to its su+scri+er stage. *0 we disregard PBEs and count -a3 -hones among the 0ixed tele-hones2 we arrive at the terminal t3-es shown in Figure B.1.9.

Figure B.1.9 Termin#ls th#t c#n "e connected to the PSTN !he com-uter alternative is -rimaril3 used toda3 when connecting to the *nternet2 where the PS!N serves as a transit networ$ 0or all those who do not have a 0ixed *nternet connection. See Figure B.1.10.

Figure B.1.10 +onnecting # com%uter to the 2nternet o/er the PSTN Since the PS!N inter0ace is analog2 0ax and data tra00ic must +e converted to analog signals in the 0re"uenc3 +and 3,,&32 ,, :; with the hel- o0 a +uilt&in or stand&alone modem .modulator& demodulator/. !3-ical modem construction is illustrated in Figure B.1.11. Stand&alone modems are connected via a connector2 usuall3 com-l3ing with *!U&! Cecommendation B.2 . !he inter0ace -ortion handles the digital ada-tation +etween the modem and the terminal2 and the line unit ada-ts the modem8s analog side to the telecommunications networ$. !he modem unit ada-ts the signal to the PS!N +3 converting in0ormation 0rom digital 0orm to analog 0orm and vice versa. 7odems are e"ui--ed with a diagnostic unit that hel-s chec$ 0or 0aults in the in0ormation transmitted and localise an3 0aults that ma3 arise. 2n m#n! inst#nces3 d#t# com%ression function#lit! is #lso #/#il#"le.

Figure B.1.11 Princi%les of modem construction 5ial&u- modems are also availa+le in the 0orm o0 PA cards .re0erred to earlier as PA7&A*6/ or as -oc$et models. @ith one o0 these cards2 a user can connect -orta+le e"ui-ment to the PS!N. .7odem standards are addressed in Aha-ter 2./ !he most im-ortant teleservices -rovided +3 a PS!N are thus 0ixed tele-hon3< cordless tele-hon32 or ?0ixed tele-hon3 with limited terminal mo+ilit3?< 0ax .via a +uilt&in modem/< and data communication .via modem/.

!he PS!N8s tele-hon3 services will +ecome integrated in -hase 1 o0 the introduction o0 universal -ersonal telecommunication .UP!/. UP! is addressed in detail in Aha-ter % o0 Bolume 1. UP! will not re"uire an3 s-ecial terminals .tele-hones/. B.1. . ,ata communication o'er the PSTN

!he volumes o0 PS!N data and 0ax tra00ic have now +ecome so great as to a00ect PS!N networ$ design. 1or man3 3ears2 the o--osite was true9 5ata communication had to +e on tele-hon38s terms. !ransmission "ualit3 in the PS!N .see Su+section 1.3.1/ varied greatl32 3et the re"uirements 0or low +it error ratio .B>C/ are much more stringent in data communication than in tele-hon3. So it is eas3 to understand wh3 dedicated digital data networ$s develo-ed. @e are s-ea$ing here o0 networ$s such as E.2# and 0rame rela32 or narrow+and *S5N .N&*S5N/ with no 6=5 conversion +etween terminals. Sim-l3 stated2 the PS!N -resents some o+stacles to data tra00ic9 Gong connection set&u- time .using signalling s3stem No. ' solves the -ro+lem/. PS!N echo su--ression is advantageous 0or tele-hon3 +ut must +e disconnected 0or data transmission. Not until recentl3 has transmission "ualit3 ena+led s-eeds o0 1 2 ,,2 2(2(,, or 332%,, +it=s & while at the same time allowing re"uirements 0or low B>C to +e met. !he wides-read installation o0 o-tical 0i+re and modem develo-ments in coding and 0ault correction techni"ues have greatl3 contri+uted to im-rovements in PS!N data transmission ca-a+ilities. !he next ste- in the ongoing develo-ment -rocess is to increase the +it rate to #% $+it=s ?downstream?.

*0 we com+ine a line +it rate o0 33.% $+it=s with a modern com-ression algorithm2 we can now achieve a trans0er rate o0 23, $+it=s. B.1. .% -a" communication o'er the PSTN 1ax is a distri+utive service having onl3 one reci-ient. *t is a service that -rinci-all3 involves unidirectional communication2 along with certain control signalling in the reverse direction. 6n interest in "ro#dc#st has +een ex-ressed 0or a--lications dealing with the distri+ution o0 in0ormation & not least in the case o0 advertising & where one sender distri+utes a 0ax to a large num+er o0 reci-ients. 1ax is neither an interactive nor an isochronous service2 which means that the re"uirements 0or short dela3s are not stringent. 4n the other hand2 "ualit3 is more sensitive to +it errors +ecause the scanned image is coded +e0ore +eing transmitted. Because the PS!N is o-timised 0or the trans0er o0 voice .where short dela3s are more im-ortant than low B>C/2 transmission has +een slow 0rom its ince-tion. 6s a result o0 PS!N8s digitisation2 though2 the s-eed o0 0ax service has increased2 in much the same manner as 0or data communication. B.1. .& .s/mmetrical ser'ices o'er the PSTN

1ax2 0ile trans0er2 +roadcast and *nternet communication are exam-les o0 as3mmetrical services2 which are also & to a great extent & unidirectional. Since the PS!N utilises a relativel3 small -ortion o0 the networ$8s availa+le +andwidth2 +idirectional .s3mmetrical/ connections are nevertheless set u- 0or these services. B.1. .6 0alue-added ser'ices and tele!honist ser'ices !he num+er o0 value&added PS!N services varies 0rom countr3 to countr3. 5istri+uted value&added services are dealt with in Section %.22 and centralised value& added services in Section %.3. !ele-honist services are discussed in Section %.#. B.1. .( S!ecial PSTN +usiness ser'ices Small com-anies ma3 0ind it costl3 to -urchase and run their own PBEs. !oda32 local PS!N exchanges can o00er logical interconnection o0 a num+er o0 su+scri+ers2 as i0 the su+scri+ers had a PBE o0 their own. !his 0unctionalit3 is re0erred to as centrex. See Figure B.1.12.

Figure B.1.12 4 com%#n! using centre' 05/irtu#l PB&51 !he services o0 a centrex grou- resem+le more closel3 the services o0 a PBE than those -rivate su+scri+ers have. 6 com-an3 with several local o00ices naturall3 wishes to +e a+le to connect the di00erent local PBEs .or centrex grou-s/ with one another. !his can +e accom-lished in the PS!N. >ither the com-an3 contracts 0or the use o0 leased lines or utilises networ$ intelligence to create a virtual -rivate networ$ .BPN/. .See Su+section %.%./ B.1. .1 0ideo2 multimedia and teleworkin# o'er the PSTN !he limited +andwidth o0 the networ$ re-resents a +ottlenec$ to the introduction o0 video and multimedia services into the PS!N. Bideo&tele-hon3 is the onl3 multimedia service that has +een o00ered so 0ar2 +ut it has not enDo3ed wides-read acce-tance. !his is -artl3 owing to the lac$ o0 a video-hone standard .the di00erent manu0acturers8 video-hones do not alwa3s o-erate well together/. But standardisation is under wa32 and the ongoing develo-ment o0 data com-ression and modem techni"ues seems to +e arousing new interest in video&tele-hon3. 6s 0or telewor$ing2 the e"ui-ment most commonl3 used has +een a tele-hone2 a 0ax and a com-uter with a modem & all connected to the PS!N2 +ecause this networ$ has the widest coverage. !he PS!N tele-hone will ver3 li$el3 serve its -ur-ose even at tomorrow8s telewor$station. 6side 0rom -roviding ordinar3 tele-hon3 services2 it can

+e used 0or ordering or controlling other services via its $e3-ad or via the use o0 voice recognition. *n addition2 PS!N su+scri+er lines & the -aired ca+le & can +e utilised 0or high&s-eed modems that -rovide the necessar3 +andwidth 0or other services2 such as data communication. B.1. .9 $o+ilit/ in the PSTN 7o+ilit3&related 0unctionalit3 is ver3 im-ortant to the PS!N in maintaining its com-etitive -osition vis&K&vis other networ$ services. !his area o0 the PS!N is re0erred to as cordless communication and is governed +3 standards such as digital enhanced cordless telecommunications .5>A!/. 4ther 0orms o0 mo+ilit3 availa+le in the PS!N are cordless terminal mo+ilit3 and the UP! service .see Bolume 12 Aha-ter %/. ,e'elo!ment Aordless tele-hon3 was originall3 introduced as a means o0 re-lacing the cord +etween the tele-hone set and the handset +3 a radio connection. !he 0irst generation o0 cordless tele-hones was called A!&, .A! standing 0or cordless tele-hon3/. Aa-acit3 and inter0erence -ro+lems resulted in the develo-ment o0 a >uro-ean standard +ased on techni"ues a--lied in the 0ield o0 analog cellular networ$s. !hat standard & 0rom the +eginning o0 the 1)(,s & is re0erred to as A!&1. 6lthough A!&1 contri+uted to an increase in the use o0 cordless tele-hones2 it did not -rovide su00icient mo+ilit3. Su+scri+ers could not move around2 ta$ing their terminals +etween the di00erent radio transmitters .+ase stations/. !wo di00erent standards2 +ased on digital radio inter0aces2 were -resented at the end o0 the 1)(,s. !he 0irst was A!&2< it was develo-ed in Freat Britain and allowed -rivate su+scri+ers to use their terminals 0rom a num+er o0 tele%oints. Aordless tele-hones could +e used 0or outgoing calls at a lower -rice than 0or mo+ile tele-hon3. A!&2 was -rimaril3 considered an alternative to -a3 -hones. !he second s3stem was re0erred to as digital cellular tele-hon3 .5A!/2 also $nown as A!&3. *t addressed the +usiness mar$et and re-resented a standard that allowed the user to move a+out 0reel3 within a limited area .the o00ice/2 handling outgoing and incoming calls. !he next generation2 too2 has a digital radio inter0ace and should +e a+le to 0unction in di00erent environments & at home2 in the o00ice and in ur+an areas. !wo esta+lished standards exist toda39 the >uro-ean 5>A!2 which is descri+ed in more detail in Aha-ter 2 .Section 2.3/2 and the La-anese -ersonal hand3&-hone s3stem .P:S/. Figure B.1.1 illustrates the great ex-ansion occurring in this area2 re-resented +3 a 0orecast o0 the num+er o0 cordless tele-hone users. 5>A! can also +e used 0or cordless access to N&*S5N and FS7.

Figure B.1.1 )e/elo%ment of cordless tele%hone 3ordless terminal mo+ilit/ 4ne -ossi+ilit3 -resented +3 5>A! is the a+ilit3 to reach several networ$s 0rom a single terminal. 5>A! includes s-eci0ied inter0aces to di00erent networ$s2 and interwor$ing +etween them can +e esta+lished through intelligent networ$ .*N/ 0unctionalit3 and signalling s3stem No. ' .SS'/. 6 5>A! tele-hone used in an o00ice could also +e used at home and -ossi+l3 in limited central cit3 areas 0or cordless terminal mo+ilit3 .A!7/. .See also Aha-ter %./

Figure B.1.1$ +T, ( # single cordless termin#l for se/er#l networks

B.1.% T e r m i n a l s

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B.1. B.1. B.1. B.1. B.1. B.1.

.1 .2 .3 . .# .%

!he tele-hone 6dd&on e"ui-ment Pa3 -hones 1ax terminals Aordless tele-hones Aom+ination terminals

Since the PS!N is the oldest and largest networ$2 a multitude o0 su+scri+er e"ui-ment is availa+le 0or connection9 conventional tele-hones2 text tele-hones 0or the dea0 and s-ecial terminals 0or medical a--lications2 to name +ut a 0ew exam-les. :ere we will onl3 concern ourselves with the most common terminals used +3 residential su+scri+ers and +usinesses 0or the trans0er o0 voice2 data and video via 0ixed and cordless connections. B.1.%.1 The tele!hone *n 1('%2 6lexander Fraham Bell a--lied 0or a -atent 0or the tele-hone. !he 0irst2 sim-le a--lication consisted o0 two +atter3&-owered devices -laced in se-arate rooms and connected +3 one direct line. B3 turning a cran$ to generate a current in one o0 the devices2 the user caused a signal to +u;; in the other device. 4ne da32 Bell8s assistant heard not onl3 that signal +ut also the 0irst words s-o$en over a tele-hone9 ?7r. @atson2 come here< * want 3ou.? !oda32 the tele-hone is -owered +3 the local exchange. !he schematic diagram in Figure B.1.1* illustrates the -rinci-le o0 the standard version o0 the tele-hone. Somewhat sim-li0ied2 it can +e said to consist o0 0our units9 the the the the +ell and a series ca-acitor< hoo$ switch< $e3-ad .or dial/< and s-eech circuit with the receiver and micro-hone.

Figure B.1.1* Schem#tic di#gr#m of # ke!%#d tele%hone The +ell !he +ell is connected via the ca-acitor when the receiver is resting in its cradle .on hoo$/. @hen a call is -laced to the B&su+scri+er2 the +ell is energised via the ca-acitor +3 an alternating voltage .a--roximatel3 ), B2 2# :;/2 -roducing a ringing signal that noti0ies the su+scri+er o0 the incoming call.

The hook switch @hen the 6&su+scri+er li0ts the receiver to -lace a call2 the s-eech circuit and $e3-ad are connected .and the +ell is disconnected/ via the hoo$ 0unction. !his alerts the local exchange that a num+er is a+out to +e dialled9 the B&su+scri+er num+er. @hen the B&su+scri+er li0ts the receiver to answer2 the hoo$ switch disconnects the +ell in his tele-hone and instead connects the s-eech circuit and $e3-ad. Since this closes the su+scri+er line2 current 0rom the local exchange can +e 0ed to the line & an indication that the B&su+scri+er has answered. !he -arties can commence their conversation. The ke/!ad !he $e3-ad o0 a modern tele-hone is connected to a tone generator2 an electronic circuit that translates $e3ed in-uts to tone codes. >ach o0 the digits and each o0 the ?star? .M/ and ?hash? .N/ 0unction $e3s is re-resented +3 a com+ination o0 two tones. !he 0re"uenc3 o0 the oscillators is selected whenever a $e3 is -ressed to generate the dual&tone com+ination uni"ue to the digit or 0unction in "uestion. Figure B.1.16 illustrates the -rinci-le o0 $e3-ad signalling. !he standard is re0erred to as dual&tone multi&0re"uenc3 .5!71/. 5i00erent com+inations o0 the seven 0re"uencies .the tones/ re-resent the 12 s3m+ols 0ound on an ordinar3 $e3-ad tele-hone.

Figure B.1.16 Schem#tic di#gr#m of # ke!%#d #nd its fre6uencies Some modern tele-hones also have a 0unction $e3 mar$ed with an ?C? .register +utton/. *ts 0unction .register recall/ is to generate a single -ulse. .See Aha-ter '2 Su+section '.2.%./ The dial 4lder tele-hones have dials instead o0 $e3-ads. 6lthough still common in man3 countries2 these tele-hones re-resent Dust a 0ew -ercent o0 all tele-hones sold toda3. !he -rinci-le o0 the dialling 0unction is o0 historical interest2 so we will +rie0l3 discuss it.

!he dial creates a -ulse train .signals/ containing in0ormation to the local exchange. !he circuit connecting the exchange and the tele-hone is closed during the entire digit&sending -rocess2 +ut a contact disconnects the s-eech circuit during each -ulse se"uence. .!he -ulses would otherwise +e heard as inter0erence2 as ?clic$s?2 in the receiver./ !he contact connected to the dial consists o0 a toothed wheel and two contact tongues. @hen the dial is released .a0ter +eing wound u-/2 the wheel starts to rotate2 alternatel3 +rea$ing and closing the circuit. >ver3 +rea$ results in a -ulse2 and the num+er o0 -ulses indicates the digit dialled +3 the su+scri+er. >ach o0 the digits 0orms a -ulse train that is detected +3 the local exchange. *nterestingl32 Sweden is the onl3 countr3 that has ;ero as the 0irst digit on the dial. !he dials o0 other countries have ;ero 0ollowing the nine. The s!eech circuit !he -rimar3 0unction o0 the s-eech circuit is to ada-t the sound level o0 incoming voice2 outgoing voice and sidetone. !he circuit com-rises two am-li0ier +loc$s .one 0or am-li03ing the micro-hone current and one 0or 0eeding the receiver/ and a +ridge connection that se-arates voice signals to +e sent to the micro-hone and to the receiver. Since the degree o0 am-li0ication is regulated +3 a control circuit2 transmission and rece-tion distortion can +e $e-t low2 and am-li0ication can +e maintained constant 0or su+scri+er line resistances in the interval ,&),, ohms. Gine im-edance and the sidetone -roduced +3 the caller8s voice are ada-ted +3 the +alance circuit.

Figure B.1.1- S%eech circuit !he s-eech circuit o0 older tele-hones was constructed in a sim-ler 0ashion2 consisting in -rinci-le o0 onl3 a micro-hone .usuall3 a car+on&t3-e micro-hone/ and a d3namic receiver. 7odern s-eech circuits -rovide numerous advantages. Sound&level attenuation over long&distance connections is counteracted +3 line&current&controlled regulation o0 the s-eech circuit am-li0ier. 6ccurate +ridge +alance and s-eech circuit im-edance enhance sidetone characteristics and o-timise the im-edance o0 the a--aratus. !ransmission distortion is negligi+le.

The recei'er *n -rinci-le2 the design o0 the receiver is still +ased on traditional techni"ues. !he current generated +3 the incoming s-eech -asses through an electromagnet that is

constructed around a -ermanent magnet and connected to a mem+rane. !he oscillations2 or movement2 o0 the mem+rane are converted to sound waves that are -erceived +3 the ear.

Figure B.1.1. The recei/er The micro!hone !he old car+on micro-hones are +eing increasingl3 re-laced +3 electret micro-hones. !he material u-on which these new micro-hones are +ased consists o0 a thin -lastic 0ilm2 similar to !e0lon2 that is ex-osed to a strong electrical 0ield. !he 0ilm retains its negative and -ositive charges a0ter the external electrical 0ield is removed & somewhat analogous to the -oles o0 a magnet. !he -rinci-le o0 o-eration o0 the electret micro-hone is illustrated in Figure B.1.19. !he !e0lon 0ilm .electret material/ is stretched over a 0ixed electrode. !he mova+le electrode consists o0 a thin metallic la3er covering the electret material.

Figure B.1.19 7lectret micro%hone *rregularities in the sur0ace o0 the 0ixed electrode cause a num+er o0 small air ga-s to arise +etween the electret and the 0ixed electrode. !he electret micro-hone can there0ore +e said to consist o0 a num+er o0 small -arallel&connected micro-hones. !he electrical 0ield existing in each o0 the air ga-s is generated +3 the electret8s charge. !he movements o0 the mem+rane change the si;e o0 the air ga-s and hence their ca-acitance. !hese ca-acitance variations result in voltage variations that a--ear across the load resistor2 C. B.1.%.2 .dd-on e4ui!ment

6 num+er o0 add&on terminals that -rovide su+scri+ers with added 0unctionalit3 have +een develo-ed over the 3ears. Tele!hone answerin# machines !he tele-hone answering machine has a +uilt&in ta-e recorder which is used +3 the su+scri+er to record an announcement to +e -la3ed +ac$ i0 the call is not answered. 6s a rule2 the caller is also re"uested to leave a message. !he messages can +e stored on a variet3 o0 storage media2 such as standard cassette ta-es2 microcassette ta-es and C67 memor3. 6 common extra 0eature is the time stam-ing o0 incoming calls. !he unit has its own hoo$ 0unction that is normall3 activated 0ollowing a cou-le o0 ringing signals. 60ter a message has +een le0t2 this 0unction automaticall3 +rea$s and indicates ?on hoo$? to the exchange. !he answering 0unction can +e set to activate a0ter a num+er o0 ringing signals. 7ost new tele-hone answering machines can also +e remotel3 controlled 0rom another tele-hone. B3 calling the answering machine2 a su+scri+er can listen to the messages that have +een received and2 i0 he so wishes2 even record a new announcement. !his remote control 0unctionalit3 involves the transmission o0 tones 0rom a $e3-ad tele-hone. @hen using older tele-hone models2 tone signals can +e sent +3 -ressing a small external tone sender against the micro-hone. 6s the -rice o0 com-uter memor3 has 0allen2 it has +ecome common since the mid& 1)),s 0or o-erators to o00er voice mail+ox services< we might call them tele-hone answering machines in the networ$. !he o-eration o0 voice mail+oxes is descri+ed in more detail in Bolume 12 Aha-ter %. 3allin# line identification !resentation Aalling line identi0ication -resentation .AG*P/ ma$es it -ossi+le 0or the -art3 receiving a call to see the tele-hone num+er o0 the calling -art3. 6 user o0 this service re"uires a s-ecial dis-la3 connected to his tele-hone line. !he AG*P service is descri+ed in more detail in Aha-ter %2 Su+section %.2.2. 3all meter located at the su+scri+er 6 su+scri+er who wishes to monitor the cost o0 his calls immediatel3 can have a call meter connected to his tele-hone line. !he su+scri+er meter registers the same num+er o0 unit charged mar$ings as the call meter located in the local exchange2 which re"uires that meter -ulses +e transmitted over the su+scri+er line. !he signalling method is descri+ed in Aha-ter '2 Su+section '.2.3. 7an3 meters are e"ui--ed with two counters9 one showing the total o0 unit charged mar$ings and one that can +e reset 0or each call.

Figure B.1.20 +#ll meter loc#ted with # su"scri"er B.1.%. Pa/ !hones

Pa3 -hones .coin&o-erated and card&o-erated/ are usuall3 owned +3 the o-erator running the networ$. !here are also -rivate com-anies that su--l3 card&o-erated -a3 -hones. >mergenc3 num+ers can +e called 0rom all -a3 -hones 0ree o0 charge. !he same is true 0or 0ault re-orting and2 in some mar$ets2 0or director3 in"uiries. Some o-erators have introduced a service that allows a customer to order a reversed&charge call 0rom a -a3 -hone. *t is also +ecoming increasingl3 common that calls can +e -laced directl3 to -a3 -hones without the assistance o0 a tele-honist. Pa3 -hones re"uire call charging in0ormation to +e transmitted 0rom the local exchange. 3oin-o!erated !a/ !hones Figure B.1.21 is a sim-li0ied illustration o0 a coin&o-erated -a3 -hone. Aoin&o-erated -a3 -hones are +uilt around a micro-rocessor that is -rogrammed to recognise di00erent coins. !he tele-hone also has o-eration and maintenance -rograms that chec$ 0unctionalit3 and register an3 0aults detected. 6 -re-rogrammed tele-hone num+er is used to send scheduled re-orts to the local exchange on the tele-hone8s status2 total amount o0 mone3 collected2 the extent to which the coin +ox is 0ull2 and so 0orth. 6larms are sent to the local exchange i0 certain t3-es o0 0ault are detected or i0 vandalism or the0t is indicated. !he exchange contains a s-ecial line card connected to the -a3 -hone8s su+scri+er line. !his card contains 0unctions that detect calls and the B&answer .hoo$ detection/< generate and receive 12 or 1% $:; -ulses .0or signalling +etween the exchange and the -a3 -hone/< and initiate disconnection in the event o0 a 0ault.

7eter -ulse in0ormation is transmitted2 in the 0orm o0 12 or 1% $:; -ulses2 0rom the charging 0unction located in the local exchange.

Figure B.1.21 Princi%le of # coin(o%er#ted %#! %hone 3ard-o!erated !a/ !hone !he maDorit3 o0 new -a3 -hones installed nowada3s are card&o-erated. !he coin slot has +een re-laced +3 a card reader that reads either credit cards or s-ecial tele-hone cards that are -re-rogrammed 0or a given num+er o0 unit charged mar$ings. @hen using a credit card2 0irst the user draws the card through the reader2 then enters a -ersonal code. 1ollowing the com-letion o0 the call2 the tele-hone dis-la3s the amount that will +e charged to the credit card. Aredit&card calls in the PS!N are normall3 im-lemented with the hel- o0 the *N -lat0orm. .See Bolume 12 Aha-ter %2 Su+section %.2.3./

Figure B.1.22 +onnecting # coin(o%er#ted %#! %hone to the e'ch#nge B.1.%.% -a" terminals !he term ?tele0ax? .in ever3da3 language ?0ax?/ denotes a s3stem 0or transmitting monochrome images +etween two tele0ax terminals. !he term also re0ers to the actual message sent as well as the tele0ax a--aratus. !he document to +e sent is scanned2 -oint +3 -oint2 +3 the 0ax machine. !he resulting in0ormation is coded in accordance with an international standard and2 a0ter com-ression2 transmitted to the receiving 0ax via the 0ax8s +uilt&in modem. !he receiving unit demodulates the signal2

decodes the in0ormation and -roduces a -rintout. Some s3stems also -roduce an ac$nowledgement on the sending 0ax< other s3stems show this ac$nowledgement on a character dis-la3. *mage coding is descri+ed in greater detail in Aha-ter 22 Su+section 2. .2. !he actual terminal contains man3 extra 0unctions that su--lement the +asic service9 a++reviated dialling2 retransmission i0 the receiving 0ax is +us3 and a "ueuing s3stem 0or incoming 0ax messages. 7an3 residential su+scri+ers and small com-anies have terminals that com+ine tele-hone and 0ax 0unctionalit3 .even tele-hone answering 0unctionalit3/ in one and the same unit. 6 0ax terminal can also +e a -ersonal com-uter running one o0 the PA 0ax -rograms availa+le toda3. 1axes are created2 sent and received in the 0orm o0 a 0ile instead o0 on -a-er. !o +e a+le to send a 0ax o0 a document that is onl3 availa+le on -a-er2 a user can attach a scanner to his PA. B.1.%.& 3ordless tele!hones !he 0ollowing is -rimaril3 a stud3 o0 the 5>A! terminal. 6lthough the 0irst&generation cordless tele-hones onl3 o00ered radio communication +etween the handset and the tele-hone set2 the 5>A! terminal has develo-ed into something considera+l3 more intelligent.

Figure B.1.2 )7+T termin#l functions 5>A! terminals contain some s-ecial su+scri+er 0eatures that var3 0or the di00erent manu0acturers2 and a num+er o0 standard 0unctions. 6 $e3-ad2 an antenna and a rechargea+le +atter3 .li$e a mo+ile tele-hone/< +atter3 -ower consum-tion is signi0icantl3 lower in stand&+3 mode than when a call is in -rogress. Boice coding and encr3-tion=decr3-tion that -rovide 0or secure connections o0 the same "ualit3 as that o0 a 0ixed&wire connection. 1unctions that handle signalling to and 0rom the +ase station. 1unctions 0or mo+ile&controlled handover .7A:4/. .See Aha-ter 22 Su+section 2.3.2./

B.1.%.6 3om+ination terminals

*t is -ossi+le toda3 to +uild terminals ca-a+le o0 handling air inter0aces that con0orm +oth to the 5>A! standard and to di00erent cellular s3stems2 such as FS7. !hese terminals are re0erred to as dual&mode tele-hones. @ith the hel- o0 intelligence in the terminal and in the *N -lat0orm2 a user can alwa3s secure a 0orm o0 access that wor$s and -rovides the +est -rice or -er0ormance. !his generall3 means 5>A! access in areas covered +3 A!7 and FS7 access when outside o0 these areas or when moving too "uic$l3 0or 5>A! access< 0or exam-le2 when travelling +3 car.

B.2.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

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7an3 international PS!N recommendations have +een develo-ed during the -ast 3ears2 nota+l3 +3 the *nternational !elecommunication Union & !elecommunications Standardi;ation Sector .*!U&!2 -reviousl3 the AA*!!/. !he3 are not all&inclusive. !raditionall32 the PS!N has also +een the su+Dect o0 national standardisation e00orts in a num+er o0 areas9 signalling2 +oth in an o-erator8s networ$ and to su+scri+ers< the +illing and -ricing o0 services< service o00ering and service -rocedures< and the -h3sical access inter0ace.

!hese local standards have led to a multitude o0 -roduct versions2 so vendors o0 switching e"ui-ment must design their s3stems to allow 0or extensive -arameterisation. Some -arameters can +e set to their de0ault values. Nevertheless2 o-erators and vendors must exchange a good deal o0 in0ormation to ada-t the e"ui-ment 0or deliver3. 1or modern s3stems and networ$s2 li$e FS7 and N&*S5N2 the need 0or -arameterisation is signi0icantl3 less.

B.2.2 I n t e r

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n a t i o n a l s t a n d a r d s
B.2.2.1 *!U&!

B.2.2.1 IT5-T !he *!U&! is the standardisation organisation that has had the greatest in0luence on the develo-ment o0 the PS!N. !he recommendations develo-ed +3 the various Stud3 Frou-s used to +e -u+lished ever3 0ourth 3ear in +oo$ 0orm2 com-rising a considera+le num+er o0 volumes. !he +oo$s had di00erent colours2 recent editions +eing 3ellow .1)(,/2 red .1)( /2 +lue .1)((/ and white .1))2/. !he recommendations were o0 -articularl3 great im-ortance in the area o0 signalling2 where SS' still uses the ex-ressions red2 +lue and white tele-hon3 user -art .!UP/. Nowada3s2 due to extremel3 ra-id develo-ment in telecommunications2 the stud3 grou-s -u+lish their recommendations as soon as the3 are com-lete. .See also Bolume 12 Aha-ter 2./ !he recommendations are su+divided into series designated +3 a letter .0or each o0 the telecommunications areas/ and a num+er. !he most nota+le PS!N series are9 Series 59 Princi-les o0 charging and accounting< Series >9 PS!N2 num+ering and routing2 service "ualit32 networ$ management< Series F9 6nalog and digital transmission s3stems< Series 79 7aintenance< Series 49 7easurement e"ui-ment< Series P9 !ele-hon3 transmission "ualit3< Series O9 Switching2 value&added services2 signalling s3stems Nos. 2 #2 % and '2 C1 and C22 !A6P2 *N< and Series B9 5ata communications over the PS!N.

B.2. , 6 3 T
B.2.3.1 5>A! e"ui-ment B.2.3.2 5>A! 0unctions B.2.3.3 5>A! standards

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5>A! is a standard 0or cordless tele-hon3 that was develo-ed +3 the >uro-ean !elecommunications Standards *nstitute .>!S*/. !he 0irst s3stems +ecame o-erative in 1))2. 5>A! contains a num+er o0 di00erent s-eci0ications and is also descri+ed in other cha-ters o0 Part B. !he 5>A! terminal is descri+ed in Aha-ter 1. 5>A! access 0unctions .+oth 0or PBE and 0or radio in the local loo-2 in the -u+lic networ$/ are descri+ed in Aha-ter #. 6 +rie0 descri-tion o0 A!7 is included in Aha-ter %. A!7 ena+les 5>A! terminals to +e used at wor$2 at home and in 5>A! cells in the central -arts o0 a cit3.

!his cha-ter will deal with the areas covered +3 5>A! and the various recommendations that together constitute 5>A!. Since the standard is not s-eci0icall3 intended 0or the PS!N2 we will also +e addressing other s3stems and networ$s2 such as FS7 and *S5N. B.2. .1 ,63T e4ui!ment 5>A! access involves three +asic units9 the radio switch2 the +ase stations and the terminals. !he radio switch .the common control 0ixed -art/ is res-onsi+le 0or the centralised control o0 the s3stem and is connected to a PBE or local exchange via one or more PA7 lin$s. !hese lin$s can +e either digital or analog2 which means that 5>A! can +e introduced into older networ$s. 6 num+er o0 +ase stations .radio 0ixed -art/ are connected to the radio switch as needed. >ach +ase station covers one cell. !he si;e o0 the cells can var3 0rom Dust under 1,, metres to a 0ew $ilometres. !erminals .cordless -orta+le -art/2 in addition to their 0unctions 0or voice coding and encr3-tion2 contain 0unctions 0or roaming and handover. .See also Su+section 2.3.2 and Aha-ter 1./

Figure B.2.1 )7+T e6ui%ment B.2. .2 ,63T functions !he 0irst a--lication o0 5>A! was the o00ice environment2 where the s3stem was used 0or cordless access to a com-an38s PBE. !his -laced certain s-eci0ic demands on the s3stem. *t is im-ortant to maintain large ca-acit3 with res-ect to the num+er o0 simultaneous calls in relation to area coverage. !he s3stem should allow ex-ansion without re"uiring extensive -lanning. !he radio environment can change "uic$l3 .0or exam-le2 i0 a 0ire door is o-ened or closed/ so ra-id handover is im-ortant.

!o meet these demands2 5>A! contains a 0ew s-eci0ic 0unctions that we will stud3 in more detail. ,/namic channel allocation 6ll +ase stations can utilise all 5>A! 0re"uencies +ut not more than a given num+er simultaneousl3. @hen tra00ic ca-acit3 must +e ex-anded2 the o-erator sim-l3 de-lo3s additional +ase stations. $o+ile-controlled hando'er @ith 7A:42 the terminals are res-onsi+le 0or selecting the +est channel 0or transmission. !he terminal -er0orms measurements on a continuous +asis to determine which channels are distur+ed least +3 channels in adDacent cells. 7A:4 also contains 0unctions 0or determining whether handover should +e executed2 and 0or executing the handover2 during the course o0 a call. B.2. . ,63T standards

>!S* names its standards and recommendations in a num+er o0 di00erent wa3s. !hree t3-es are >!S* technical standard .>!S/2 >!S* technical re-ort .>!C/ and technical +ases 0or regulation .!BC/. !he 5>A! standard consists o0 some 3, -u+lications. !heir contents address the 0ollowing areas9

+asic standards< -u+lic and generic access -ro0iles< 5>A! authentication modules< 5>A! -ro0iles< test s-eci0ications< and rules and regulations.

!wo standards can +e said to 0orm the 0oundation o0 5>A!2 +ecause the3 cover ever3thing re"uired 0or the manu0acture o0 5>A! e"ui-ment9 the 5>A! Aommon *nter0ace .A*/2 >!S 3,, 1'#< and the 5>A! 6--roval !est S-eci0ication2 *&>!S 3,, 1'%.

!he 0irst2 which is usuall3 re0erred to as 5>A! A*2 is a com-lete overview .in nine volumes/ that descri+es all inter0aces2 voice coding2 transmission2 and such. 4ne o0 the volumes deals with the -u+lic access -ro0ile2 P6P2 which descri+es 5>A! access to -u+lic networ$s< 0or exam-le2 cordless access to the PS!N. !he 5>A! 6--roval !est S-eci0ication -rimaril3 addresses radio and voice -arameters. *n addition to the +asic standards2 5>A! contains a smart card that ma$es +illing more secure and -revents 0raud. !he card is re0erred to as the 567 .5>A! authentication module/ and is reminiscent o0 the su+scri+er identit3 module .S*7/ card in the FS7 standard. Interworkin# with other networks 6s alread3 mentioned2 5>A! is not a networ$ itsel0 +ut a standard that deals with accessing other -rivate and -u+lic networ$s. !he inter0ace is +ased on the s-eci0ication o0 -u+lic and generic access -ro0iles which ma$e it -ossi+le to use 5>A! to access networ$s such as the PS!N2 *S5N2 -u+lic land mo+ile networ$ .PG7N/ and E.2#. 6 num+er o0 5>A! -ro0iles have +een descri+ed in addition to P6P9 the the the the generic access -ro0ile .F6P/< 5>A!=FS7 interwor$ing -ro0ile< 5>A!=*S5N interwor$ing -ro0ile< and 5>A! data -ro0iles.

!he 5>A!=FS7 -ro0ile -rovides su+scri+ers with cordless access to a 0ixed FS7 networ$ .0ixed cellular/. !his can +e a solution 0or an o-erator who has a licence 0or a 0ixed networ$ onl3 +ut who ho-es to ac"uire a cellular licence in the 0uture. Su+scri+ers ac"uire a certain amount o0 mo+ilit3 as well as access to the entire range o0 services o00ered +3 the FS7 standard. !he 5>A!=*S5N -ro0ile ma$es 5>A! the 0irst2 and so 0ar the onl32 radio s3stem that is entirel3 trans-arent to *S5N. !he -ro0ile contains two -arts9 one that descri+es the inter0ace +etween the radio station and the exchange2 and one that descri+es the S& inter0ace +etween the cordless networ$ terminal and the user terminal.

!he 5>A! data -ro0iles cover the di00erent categories o0 services having +it rates uto #22 $+it=s2 including isochronous services and 0ax.

B.2.% 3 o d i n # m e t h o d s
B.2. .1 Boice coding in the PS!N B.2. .2 Bideo coding B.2. .3 5ata transmission using modems

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B.2.%.1 0oice codin# in the PSTN -i"ed tele!hon/ 1or man3 decades2 6=5 conversion o0 voice has +een -er0ormed em-lo3ing PA7 coding. .See Bolume 12 Aha-ter 22 Su+section 2.'.2./ !his is -ure am-litude coding that results in a +idirectional connection having a +it rate o0 % $+it=s. ,63T 5>A! voice coding ma$es use o0 ada-tive di00erential -ulse code modulation .65PA7/2 which is descri+ed in *!U&! Cecommendation F.'2%. 65PA7 results in a +it rate o0 32 $+it=s with the same in0ormation .and thus the same "ualit3/ as that resulting 0rom ordinar3 % $+it=s PA7 coding. 65PA72 on the other hand2 cannot manage higher +it rates .such as 2(.( or 33.% $+it=s/ in data transmission using modems. *nstead2 5>A! uses digital radio transmission and the 5>A!=*S5N -ro0ile. B.2.%.2 0ideo codin# !wo video services are availa+le in the PS!N9 0ax and video&tele-hon3. -a"

6 transmitting 0ax machine has 0unctionalit3 that allows it to scan an image. !he in0ormation is then coded2 com-ressed and modulated +e0ore +eing transmitted to the receiving 0ax.

Figure B.2.2 The t#sks %erformed "! # 8rou%

tr#nsmitting f#'

!he 0irst tele0ax standards dealt with analog scanning and were designated Frou- 1 .1)%(/ and Frou- 2 .1)'%/. Frou- 32 the latest 0ax standard 0or PS!N transmission2 was s-eci0ied in 1)(,. Scanning is -er0ormed digitall32 and the in0ormation is then converted to analog signals 0or transmission over the PS!N. Frou.1)( / was s-eci0ied 0or *S5N.

Figure B.2. shows a com-arison o0 the di00erent standards.

Figure B.2. Telef#' st#nd#rds Sc#nning Scanning starts at the u--er le0t&hand corner o0 the -age. !he -age is scanned along hori;ontal lines that are divided into -icture elements .P>Gs/. 6 P>G can +e com-ared to the -ixel o0 a com-uter screen. Frou- 3 0axes have a scanning standard o0 3.(# lines=mm2 giving 121 lines=-age .+oth 6 and US letter -ages are s-eci0ied/. !here are eight P>Gs -er mm2 giving 12'2( P>G=line. !he scanner registers variations in light intensit3 re0lected 0rom the -a-er. >ach P>G is registered as +lac$ .,/ or white .1/.

Figure B.2.$ Norm#l resolution for # 8rou%

f#'

6lthough the values shown are 0or normal resolution2 the standard does allow 0or dou+le resolution2 that is2 222(( lines=-age. !he resolution can +e set on the terminal. +oding *0 all P>Gs are registered as +eing either white or +lac$2 images containing gre3 areas will -ose a -ro+lem. !he P>Gs in an area having a gre3ness o0 )J are coded as +eing white< conse"uentl32 the remaining P>Gs having a gre3ness o0 #1J are coded as +eing +lac$. !his can +e controlled +3 means o0 a method called simul#ted gre! sc#le. 5ithering is used +3 Frou- 3 0axes. !he P>Gs are not com-ared with a 0ixed +oundar3 value o0 #,J gre3ness. Some P>Gs are com-ared with higher values2 some with lower. *0 a given P>G is dar$er than the +oundar3 value with which it is com-ared2 it will +e coded as +lac$< i0 it is lighter2 it will +e coded as white. *n the exam-le o0 an area having )J gre3ness2 )J o0 the P>Gs would +e coded as +lac$ and the remainder as white.

Figure B.2.* The %rinci%le of simul#ted gre! sc#le using dithering +om%ression

*nstead o0 sending long se"uences o0 re-etitive ones and ;eros .re-resenting white and +lac$ P>G values/2 the 0ax com-resses the in0ormation to save time. !he method used is a 0orm o0 varia+le&length coding .BGA/2 re0erred to as modi0ied :u00man. *t is +ased on the statisticall3 most common com+inations o0 a num+er o0 consecutive +lac$ or white P>Gs. Aommon com+inations are coded using 0ew +its2 unusual com+inations using a greater num+er o0 +its. ,odul#tion 1ollowing the com-ression -rocess2 the 0ax has a +it stream to +e transmitted to the receiving 0ax. *n the PS!N2 in0ormation must +e transmitted as analog signals2 the tas$ o0 the 0ax8s +uilt&in modem. !he standard used is a t3-e o0 "uadrature am-litude modulation .O672 see Bolume 12 Aha-ter 2 Su+section . .2/2 such as *!U&! B.2'ter=B.2)2 which contains eight -hase and two am-litude -ositions. *t -rovides a maximum +it rate o0 )2%,, +it=s. :owever2 ca-acit3 has increased since Frou- 3 was introduced. B.1' is a 0ax standard that -rovides u- to 1 . $+it=s. !he B.3 standard2 which was develo-ed 0or data communication2 -rovides the same ca-acit3. .See also Su+section 2. .3./ 1all&+ac$ is alwa3s a--lied2 which means that the sending 0ax starts to transmit using the highest -ossi+le trans0er rate and then slows down i0 there are too man3 errors or i0 the receiving 0ax cannot handle the higher trans0er rate. 0ideo-tele!hon/ !he trans0er o0 a !B image in uncoded 0ormat would re"uire a trans0er rate o0 a--roximatel3 2,, 7+it=s. !o +e a+le to transmit such an amount o0 in0ormation over the PS!N2 we would re"uire a com-ression ratio o0 '2,,, & which is out o0 the "uestion i0 "ualit3 is to +e maintained. 6s -art o0 the video tele-hon3 conce-t2 we would also li$e to transmit voice and images simultaneousl3. But no standard has 3et +een su00icientl3 success0ul to re-resent a +rea$through in this 0ield. >ven so2 video-hones are availa+le in the mar$et2 and ongoing research is aimed at im-roving "ualit3. 7odel coding is a method develo-ed to allow moving -ictures to +e trans0erred using narrow +andwidth. *t is +ased on an understanding o0 the contents o0 an image rather than on the direct scanning and trans0er o0 the image. 1or exam-le2 let8s sa3 that we trans0er an original image o0 the 6&su+scri+er8s 0ace and a--l3 it to a model 0ace at the receiving end. Get8s also assume that we transmit in0ormation as to whether the 6&su+scri+er8s mouth is o-en or closed2 whether or not he or she is smiling2 nodding2 and so 0orth. 7odel coding is reminiscent o0 our manner o0 descri+ing an3thing & in this case2 a 0ace. 5escri-tions such as ?Peter has light hair2 a round 0ace2 large glasses2 and loo$s ha--3? can +e said to transmit a signi0icant amount o0 in0ormation in highl3 com-ressed 0orm. !he 7oving Pictures >x-erts Frou- is a stud3 grou- engaged in the creation o0 a standard 0or moving -ictures & 7P>F & -rimaril3 as a--lied to the video-hone. !he +it rate2 +etween ( and 1% $+it=s2 ma3 0inall3 involve a com+ination o0 di00erent com-ression methods. B.2.%. ,ata transmission usin# modems

5ata tra00ic over ordinar32 0ixed2 analog connections must +e modulated2 +ecause the digital in0ormation must +e converted to an ?audi+le? signal in the 3,,&32 ,, :; 0re"uenc3 range. 5>A!2 on the other hand2 -rovides 32 $+it=s digital transmission to su+scri+ers2 allowing digital connection. $odem standards for the PSTN *!U&! s-eci0ies a num+er o0 di00erent sets o0 modem e"ui-ment 0or data communication over the PS!N. !he o+Dective is to recommend e"ui-ment that is ada-ted to the networ$8s -er0ormance .with res-ect to signalling2 transmission media2 inter0erence2 and so 0orth/ so that data tra00ic will +e carried securel3 without inter0ering with other tra00ic. 6t the same time2 the e"ui-ment should -rovide the highest -ossi+le ca-acit3. 6nother 0undamental consideration o0 the standardisation e00ort is to assure com-ati+ilit3 o0 s3stem -arts -urchased 0rom di00erent vendors. !he 0ollowing rate classes have +een s-eci0ied +3 the *!U&!9

Figure B.2.6 2T9(T modem st#nd#rds

!he inter0ace circuits +etween a terminal and a modem are selected on the +asis o0 Cecommendation B.2 . !he electrical s-eci0ications 0or such circuits are +ased on Cecommendation B.2(2 B.1, or B.11. Networ$ o-erators can also o00er other t3-es o0 modem2 o0 course. Austomers can use even higher +it rates i0 the PS!N in "uestion has the necessar3 ca-acit3 & -rimaril3 a 0unction o0 distance and the "ualit3 o0 the lin$. !he *!U&! s-eci0ies a num+er o0 modems 0or higher s-eeds .in excess o0 ( $+it=s/ to +e used in the 0re"uenc3 range %,&1,( $:;. !he standards 0or these modems are B.3% and B.3'. *t is also customar3 to com+ine modem standards with a com-ression standard that suits the s-eci0ic a--lication .0ax or 0ile trans0er/ to 0urther increase availa+le transmission ca-acit3. B. 2"is and 7NP # are two common com-ression standards. Standards are re"uired 0or error correction as well. >xam-les o0 these standards are B. 22 7NP 2& 2 7NP 1, and G6P7. 5uring call set&u-2 a ?handsha$ing? -rocedure ta$es -lace +etween the calling and the called modems. !he modems exchange in0ormation that is necessar3 0or the -er0ormance o0 com-ression and error correction2 and the +it rate to +e used 0or the transmission is determined. !here are standardised methods that ensure maximum connection ca-acit3 under -revailing networ$ conditions. Some o0 these methods are descri+ed +elow. :ine %ro"ing 6 carrier 0re"uenc3 o0 12',, :; in the North 6merican networ$ -rovides good transmission "ualit3< the corres-onding 0re"uenc3 in >uro-e is 12(,, :;. !his leads to com-romises in international standards. !he +est ca-acit3 is attained +3 a--l3ing the line %ro"ing method2 which does not s-eci03 a 0ixed carrier 0re"uenc3 and +aud rate +ut allows the modem to -ro+e the line during the connection set&u- -hase and select the carrier 0re"uenc3 and +aud rate that give maximum -er0ormance. *n most cases2 an e00icient modem can attain maximum ca-acit3 on the 0irst tr3. Trellis %recoding !he modem contains digital signal -rocessors with high com-uting ca-acit3. !o im-rove securit32 the -rocessors ma$e calculations to -redict the -osition o0 the next modulation -oint in the coding -rocess. !his is re0erred to as trellis %recoding. 4d#%ti/e r#te s!stem 7odern modems contain a 0unction that ma$es it -ossi+le to continuousl3 ada-t the +it rate to a line8s signal&to&noise ratio and the received signal level9 ada-tive rate s3stem .6CS/. 6CS allows the +it rate to +e automaticall3 adDusted either u- or down in ste-s o0 2. $+it=s. ,ata transmission usin# ,63T 5>A! uses digital channels at a +it rate o0 32 $+it=s 0or data transmission2 so no modulation is re"uired. 6 num+er o0 channels can +e com+ined< 0or exam-le2 0ive

channels are used 0or *S5N8s 1 $+it=s +asic rate access. 5ata transmission rates o0 u- to #22 $+it=s can +e achieved +3 com+ining a num+er o0 channels. 6 measure o0 the "ualit3 attained in data transmission with 5>A! is a B>C o0 11,&( in -rotected mode.

B.2.& P S T N a n d I S , N s t a n d a r d i s e d i n t e r f a c e s

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B.2.#.1 *ntroduction B.2.#.2 B #.1 B.2.#.3 B #.2

B.2.&.1 Introduction !he inter0aces +etween PS!N=*S5N exchanges and access nodes have traditionall3 +een -ro-rietar3 ones. !his has a--lied to +oth the commands used and the measurement results o+tained in remote testing o0 su+scri+er lines2 when these tests have +een -er0ormed +3 the local exchange. Processor communication +etween a multi-lexer or concentrator and the main exchange is another exam-le. 6s increasingl3 com-lex electronics and o-tronics are introduced into toda38s access networ$s2 o-erators -erceive a growing need to -rocure access e"ui-ment 0rom inde-endent su--liers. But the e"ui-ment the3 -urchase 0rom di00erent vendors in the mar$et must also connect to their local exchanges. Ceacting to this situation2 >!S* develo-ed the B# inter0ace standard. !hough -rimaril3 a >uro-ean standard2 it is used worldwide. Unli$e -revious -ro-rietar3 inter0aces2 B# does not su--ort the trans0er o0 networ$ management in0ormation +etween the local exchange and the access nodes. !his -resents the situation de-icted in Figure B.2.-.

Figure B.2.- 4 new situ#tion for the network m#n#gement of #ccess nodes !here are two versions o0 the B# standard9 B#.1 and B#.2. !he B#.1 version has +een de0ined 0or the inter0ace +etween a su+scri+er multi-lexer and a local exchange2 while B#.2 is a--lica+le to the inter0ace +etween a concentrator .a remote su+scri+er stage/ and a local exchange. B.2.&.2 0 &.1 !he B#.1 inter0ace can +e used 0or non&concentrated tra00ic +etween a B#.1 multi-lexer and a local exchange2 as shown in Figure B.2...!he multi-lexer2 which

has -orts 0or connecting PS!N and *S5N terminals .2BP5/2 can multi-lex u- to 3, PS!N connections or 1# *S5N +asic rate accesses over a 22, ( $+it=s lin$. !he B# inter0ace includes se-arate channels 0or tra00ic2 signalling .0or the PS!N and *S5N/ and control. 6 lin$ access -rocedure .G6P/ B# -rotocol is used 0or signalling and control in0ormation. !ime slot 1% is selected 0irst2 then time slot 1# and2 i0 re"uired2 time slot 31 as well. 4ther channels are used 0or 0rame alignment .time slot ,/ and 0or tra00ic. See Figure B.2.9.

Figure B.2.. ,ulti%le'er with # ;*.1 interf#ce to the loc#l e'ch#nge

Figure B.2.9 2nform#tion on # ;*.1 link B.2.&. 0 &.2

!he B#.2 inter0ace can +e used 0or concentrated tra00ic +etween the access node and the local exchange. 6 B#.2 concentrator is ca-a+le o0 concentrating PS!N2 *S5N&B6 .+asic rate access/ and *S5N&PC6 .-rimar3 rate access/ tra00ic. 6 sim-ler version2 re0erred to as single

link2 has onl3 one PA7 lin$ +etween the access node and the local exchange. !his is su00icient 0or the concentration o0 tele-hone calls 0rom 2,,&3,, su+scri+ers. 6 multilin$ can handle 2&1% 2 7+it=s lin$s. !he num+er o0 lin$s installed de-ends on the volume o0 tra00ic.

B. .1 I n t r o d u c t i o n
B.3.1.1 :istor3 B.3.1.2 PS!N nodes

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Switching in the PS!N is +ased on circuit&switching techni"ue. !he t3-e o0 tem-orar32 +idirectional connection esta+lished +3 means o0 this techni"ue was originall3 intended exclusivel3 0or the trans0er o0 s-eech .or ?voice? in current terminolog3/. 5uring the long era o0 analog tele-hon32 the -ur-ose o0 interconnecting two su+scri+ers was to esta+lish a -urel3 -h3sical contact +etween their res-ective lines. *n our modern digital switching and transmission2 it is the time slots containing the two su+scri+ers8 eight&+it voice sam-les that are lin$ed together to 0orm a logical connection. Aonse"uentl32 since PA7 coding is standard 0or the 6=5 conversion o0 voice over the PS!N2 a digital exchange sets u- % $+it=s connections. B. .1.1 7istor/ *n 1('(2 the 0irst manual exchange was constructed in Ga Porte2 in the United States. 6t its ince-tion it served 21 su+scri+ers and could connect an3 two o0 them together. 6 ringing signal sounded at the o-erator8s switch+oard when an3 o0 the su+scri+ers turned the cran$ o0 his tele-hone. .See Note in Aha-ter 12 Su+section 1.2.#./ U-on answering the signal2 the o-erator was as$ed to connect the call to one o0 the other su+scri+ers2 which she did manuall3. She also made a note o0 who -laced the call and when it started and sto--ed & notes that made it -ossi+le to charge 0or the call. @e can sa3 that the mar$et 0orces o0 the earl3 1(),s -rom-ted the develo-ment o0 the 0irst automatic tele-hone exchange. *t was called the ?Strowger switch?2 a0ter its originator 6lmon B. Strowger. Strowger was an underta$er 0rom Qansas Ait3 who2 soon a0ter the advent o0 the tele-hone2 0ound himsel0 ex-osed to a serious 0orm o0 un0air com-etition. !he woman who o-erated the manual exchange was the wi0e o0

Strowger8s com-etitor2 and she connected an3one who as$ed to s-ea$ with an underta$er to her hus+and.

Figure B. .1 4 m#nu#l e'ch#nge 7an3 3ears -assed during which electromechanical tele-hone exchanges were develo-ed and im-roved. !he -rimar3 o+Dective was still the same as that o0 the manual exchange9 to detect the 6&su+scri+er8s call attem-t2 to connect him to the correct B&su+scri+er2 and to save data a+out the call 0or the -ur-ose o0 +illing. !he 1)%,s and 1)',s saw the advent o0 tele-hone exchanges that were controlled +3 -rocessors9 stored -rogram control .SPA/ exchanges. 6s a result2 new 0unctions could +e +uilt into the exchanges & o0 +ene0it to su+scri+ers and networ$ o-erators. !hese 0unctions ena+led the introduction o0 new t3-es o0 service and 0acilitated su-ervision2 charging and the gathering o0 statistics. B. .1.2 PSTN nodes PS!N nodes can +e su+divided into three main categories9 local exchanges2 transit exchanges and international exchanges. Gocal exchanges are used 0or the connection o0 su+scri+ers. !ransit exchanges switch tra00ic within and +etween di00erent geogra-hical areas. *nternational exchanges2 and other gatewa3&t3-e exchanges2 switch tra00ic to telecommunications networ$s that +elong to other o-erators. !his cha-ter will -rimaril3 deal with the local exchange. 6mong its 0unctions are the trun$ and signalling 0unctions that are t3-ical o0 the PS!N. Normall32 the PS!N and N&*S5N share the utilisation o0 hardware in the various exchanges .with the exce-tion o0 the su+scri+er stage in the local exchange/. 6 great deal o0 the contents o0 the 0ollowing sections is there0ore a--lica+le to N&*S5N as well. !he ex-ression ?PS!N=*S5N exchanges? is also in common use.

B. .2 . ! r e s e

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n t d a / l o c a l e " c h a n # e
B.3.2.1 B.3.2.2 B.3.2.3 B.3.2. B.3.2.# B.3.2.% Gocal exchange 0unctions @hat is connected to whatR PS!N switching&0unction re"uirements !he su+scri+er stage !he time switch in the su+scri+er stage !he digital grou- switch

!he -rimar3 tas$ o0 the local exchange is to switch calls 0rom the connected su+scri+ers to other su+scri+ers in the same exchange or to some s-eci0ic t3-e o0 e"ui-ment in the exchange< to switch calls +etween the connected su+scri+ers and other -arts o0 the networ$< and to charge 0or local and trun$ calls and the use o0 distri+uted su+scri+er services.

B. .2.1 8ocal e"chan#e functions !he switching -art o0 toda38s local exchanges contains two switching -oints. !he 0irst o0 these is the central grou- switch. !he second is a less com-lex switch in the su+scri+er stage to allow common e"ui-ment to +e located there and to concentrate tra00ic to the central grou- switch. !he su+scri+er stage and the lines to other exchanges are connected to the central grou- switch2 as is other e"ui-ment that should +e connecta+le2 such as signalling terminals. !he set&u- o0 connections is controlled +3 a real&time -rocessor. !his -rocessor also handles charging2 which is closel3 related to the switching 0unction. !he control and

charging 0unctions2 as well as the line inter0ace circuit2 will +e addressed in this cha-ter. 1rom the -oint o0 view o0 tra00ic handling2 the 0unctions o0 a local exchange can +e illustrated as in Figure B. .2.

Figure B. .2 Function#l grou%s of # loc#l e'ch#nge 6 characteristic 0eature o0 modern exchanges is their modular design. !his modularit3 0acilitates ex-ansion o0 ca-acit3 and the addition o0 new 0unctionalit3. Cegardless o0 their location in the networ$2 all exchanges with switching 0acilities include a num+er o0 +asic 0unctions. !his s3stem core contains9 a grou- switch 0or switching 0unctions< a trun$ stage2 including exchange terminal circuits .>!As/ that serve as an inter0ace to the trans-ort networ$< signalling 0unctions 0or communication with other exchanges .using SS'2 0or exam-le/< o-eration and maintenance 0unctions .not used in the connection set&u-hase/< and the control 0unction.

*n addition2 the local exchange contains the 0ollowing 0unctions9 the su+scri+er stage2 whose tas$s include current 0eed o0 the su+scri+er8s line2 6=5 conversion2 concentration in the direction o0 the grou- switch2 signalling to and 0rom the su+scri+er and the control 0unction< su+scri+er service 0unctions2 where distri+uted su--lementar3 services li$e ?call waiting?2 ?call 0orwarding unconditional? and ?automatic call+ac$? are im-lemented .networ$ intelligence la3er 0unctions/< the 0unction 0or the charging o0 calls and services< 0unctions 0or the im-lementation o0 the centrex service .in some cases/< and *nternet access 0unctions .in some cases/.

B. .2.2 9hat is connected to what: 6 local exchange sets u- a connection 0rom one o0 the local su+scri+ers to

another su+scri+er in the same exchange .an internal call/< a PBE2 via a time slot o0 a PA7 lin$ to the PBE< a time slot o0 a PA7 lin$ to another exchange< the *nternet2 via a modem -ool and an access server .see Part : & !he *nternet/< e"ui-ment 0or the -la3&+ac$ o0 recorded announcements .announcement e"ui-ment/< and other e"ui-ment in the exchange.

Signalling e"ui-ment 0or the register signals o0 a channel&associated signalling .A6S/ s3stem is connected to the grou- switch. !his e"ui-ment generates and receives signals in multi&0re"uenc3 com-elled .71A/ signalling and is connected to the time slot that will later +e used +3 the call. Signalling terminals 0or SS' signalling are connected semi&-ermanentl3 to a time slot dedicated to signalling.

Figure B. . 4n e'#m%le of the e6ui%ment connected to the grou% switch 6nnouncement e"ui-ment -la3s recorded announcements and is used in the event o0 a 0ault and in connection with certain su+scri+er services. !he machine is normall3 connected to su+scri+ers in the same exchange to avoid unnecessar3 use o0 resources in the trun$ networ$. !here is also e"ui-ment 0or setting u- connections in which more than two su+scri+ers are involved9 three&-art3 calls2 call waiting2 ex-editing o0 a call in -rogress and +roadcast. *n addition2 there are test instruments and tone generators used +3 o-eration and maintenance -ersonnel. !his e"ui-ment can +e connected to similar e"ui-ment in other exchanges< 0or exam-le2 to test tele-hones and PBEs. B. .2. PSTN switchin#-function re4uirements

Frade o0 service .FoS/ is an im-ortant "ualit3 -arameter in the PS!N. Placing a call during -ea$ -eriods can result in congestion in the su+scri+er stage or on the outgoing line. 5e-ending on the techni"ue used2 grou- switches can also cause congestion during -eriods o0 heav3 tra00ic.

*n recent 3ears2 greater 0ocus has +een attri+uted to FoS due to the increased use o0 the *nternet. *nternet tra00ic has ver3 long holding times in com-arison with tele-hon32 which calls 0or di00erent dimensioning o0 the exchanges. B. .2.% The su+scri+er sta#e !he line inter0ace circuits .G*A/ and a small time switch are the -rimar3 com-onents o0 a su+scri+er stage. See Figure B. .$.

Figure B. .$ Time switch in the su"scri"er st#ge >ver3 su+scri+er is connected to a line inter0ace circuit that -rovides adDustment to the analog voice 0re"uenc3 .B1/ inter0ace 0or su+scri+ers who have traditional 0ixed access. !he G*A is a standardised module em-lo3ed in all Dunctions +etween a 0ixed2 analog su+scri+er8s line and the digital networ$< 0or exam-le2 in the su+scri+er stage or in a multi-lexer. *n old exchanges with an analog su+scri+er stage2 the G*A is located a0ter a ?metallic? switch where it can +e shared +3 several su+scri+ers. 6n G*A includes9 overvoltage -rotection< test e"ui-ment that can +e connected to 0acilitate automatic measurement and trou+leshooting o0 a su+scri+er8s line .test access/< ringing voltage to the tele-hone .alternating current/< tele-hone current su--l3 .direct current/< detection o0 hoo$ state .o00 hoo$ and on hoo$/< detection o0 -ulses generated +3 dial tele-hones< -olarit3 inversion .used in signalling to certain coin&o-erated -a3 -hones and PBEs/< a h3+rid 0or the Dunction +etween two&wire and 0our&wire sections< and an 6=5 converter .that utilises PA7 techni"ue/.

!he h3+rid 0orms the Dunction +etween two&wire and 0our&wire sections. !he h3+rid is +alanced to the im-edance o0 the su+scri+er8s line to avoid echo. Since the im-edance o0 the line is a00ected +3 changes in weather2 automaticall3 regulated

+alancing e"ui-ment is availa+le nowada3s that +ases its o-eration on scheduled measurement o0 line im-edance. :3+rids are discussed in greater detail in Aha-ter . !he 6=5 converter o-erates in +oth directions. *t includes e"ui-ment 0or analog&to& digital conversion in the direction o0 the su+scri+er stage2 and the corres-onding e"ui-ment 0or digital&to&analog conversion in the o--osite direction. !he result is a PA7 code having a +it rate o0 % $+it=s .(2,,, eight&+it sam-les -er second/ -er voice channel in each direction. .6=5 conversion is dealt with in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 2./

Figure B. .* :ine interf#ce circuit #rchitecture B. .2.& The time switch in the su+scri+er sta#e !he time switch in the su+scri+er stage connects su+scri+ers to common e"ui-ment2 such as digit receivers2 in0ormation tones and test e"ui-ment. !he switch also -er0orms concentration +3 connecting su+scri+ers to time slots in those PA7 lin$s that interconnect the su+scri+er stage and the grou- switch. !he degree o0 concentration & generall3 in the range 1,91 to 391 & is a 0unction o0 the amount o0 tra00ic generated +3 each su+scri+er. Fiven the degree o0 concentration Dust mentioned2 the num+er o0 time slots in the direction o0 the grou- switch is +etween 1,J and 3,J o0 the num+er o0 su+scri+ers. !he great variation is due to the 0act that man3 di00erent su+scri+er categories are connected. !ra00ic will +e low i0 the local exchange is situated in a residential area where the maDorit3 o0 su+scri+ers are -rivate -ersons< this tra00ic level can allow a concentration o0 a+out 1,91. *n an exchange situated in a cit3 +usiness district2 each su+scri+er generates a signi0icantl3 larger tra00ic volume which ma3 re"uire a concentration o0 391. Aontinuous tra00ic measurement indicates whether the num+er o0 lines into the grou- switch is unnecessaril3 large or ina--ro-riatel3 small. !he time switch contains one +us 0or incoming and one +us 0or outgoing time slots. >ach su+scri+er or other connection has a s-eci0ic time slot assigned on the +uses. @hen a su+scri+er ma$es a call2 his time slots contain s-eech sam-les< otherwise the3 are em-t3. !he time switch contains a s-eech store 0or intermediate storage o0 in0ormation 0rom the time slots. !he control 0unction -er0orms an anal3sis and determines the order in which the sam-les are to +e read 0or the desired connections to +e esta+lished. !he corres-onding values are written into a control memor3. *n

this wa32 the su+scri+ers are connected to one another2 to the grou- switch or to other e"ui-ment. B. .2.6 The di#ital #rou! switch 5igital switching s3stems are descri+ed in greater detail in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 3. 6 +rie0 summar3 o0 the o-eration o0 the grou- switch in the PS!N is -rovided here2 along with some comments on -resent develo-ment trends. ;rou! switch !he unit res-onsi+le 0or esta+lishing connections is still re0erred to as the grouswitch. !he -rimar3 tas$ o0 the digital grou- switch is to organise the 0low o0 time slots so that connections can +e esta+lished +etween su+scri+ers or +etween a su+scri+er and the e"ui-ment that is to -rovide a service. !here are two t3-es o0 com-onent in the digital grou- switch9 the time switch and the s-ace switch. !wo 0lows o0 time slots & one 0or each direction & are connected together. 6n exam-le o0 the time&switch&time .!S!/ structure is illustrated in Figure B. .6.

Figure B. .6 The %rinci%le of TST switching 3a!acit/ 5igital grou- switches are used in small exchanges2 located in s-arsel3 -o-ulated areas2 as well as in the largest international exchanges. Not too long ago it was common 0or local exchanges to serve 1,2,,, to 3,2,,, su+scri+ers & occasionall3 onl3 a 0ew thousand. 6n exam-le can +e use0ul. !he grou- switch o0 a local exchange with 1,2,,, su+scri+ers2 a concentration o0 1,912 2,J internal tra00ic and no transit tra00ic should +e ca-a+le o0 setting u- a--roximatel3 ),, simultaneous connections. !here are still some small exchanges2 +ut +ecause o0 recent advances in the develo-ment o0 access and transmission s3stems2 larger local exchanges that serve more than a hundred thousand su+scri+ers are +ecoming more common. Garge grou- switches installed in toda38s PS!Ns manage close on %#2,,, simultaneous connections .using twice as man3 connection -oints/. New re4uirements

Since the grou- switch is Dointl3 used +3 the PS!N and N&*S5N2 toda38s grouswitches must also include 0unctions that allow 0or the set&u- o0 connections consisting o0 more than one time slot2 which is re0erred to as wide+and or nS% $+it=s. Broadcast is a 0unction that a00ects switching2 and its use is on the increase. *t can +e used 0or services li$e ?toda38s weather? or ?stoc$& exchange "uotations?2 to -rovide callers with the correct time or 0or alarm 0unctions. Broadcast2 in this context2 means that a connection is set u- 0rom a single source & announcement e"ui-ment2 0or exam-le & to man3 simultaneous listeners.

B. . T h e c o n t r o l f u n c t i o n

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B.3.3.1 !he control 0unction and the set&u- and release o0 a call

!he set&u- o0 connections in a modern exchange is controlled +3 a real&time -rocessor2 whose tas$s are regulated +3 a -rogram .actuall3 im-lemented as a num+er o0 -rograms/. !he -ur-ose o0 the control 0unction is to detect and anal3se events in the exchange< decide on a--ro-riate actions .select a -rogram/< and ta$e the necessar3 ste-s .0or exam-le2 ordering the connection o0 a call/.

!he control 0unction also ensures that the data needed in the connection set&u-rocess is read and modi0ied as necessar3. !his data includes in0ormation a+out all su+scri+ers and the services the3 use as well as in0ormation stating where all e"ui-ment is connected to the grou- switch.

!he ca-acit3 o0 an exchange and its control 0unction is indicated +3 the num+er o0 call attem-ts that can +e handled -er hour. !his is re0erred to as +us3 hour call attem-ts .B:A6/. Aa-acit3 is not onl3 a 0unction o0 the -rocessor -ower +ut also o0 the t3-e o0 tra00ic. !oda38s most -ower0ul control s3stems2 used in the PS!N2 can handle more than 12,,,2,,, B:A6. 4rdinaril32 -rocessor load is ex-ressed as the total -rocessing time .in milliseconds/ -er call. !his load increases i0 service o00erings are large .and i0 the services are 0re"uentl3 used/ or i0 advanced signalling is re"uired. 1or exam-le2 SS' consumes more -rocessor -ower than A6S signalling. !here are a num+er o0 other 0actors that a00ect -rocessor load and2 hence2 s3stem ca-acit3. .See also Bolume 12 Aha-ter 1,./ B. . .1 The control function and the set-u! and release of a call !o ena+le correct connection2 the -rocessor -er0orms a num+er o0 anal3ses and then ma$es a series o0 decisions. *s this su+scri+er allowed to -lace this callR @here is the call to +e connectedR @hat should the call costR !o illustrate the anal3sis and decision -rocess2 we will stud3 0our -hases o0 the set&u- and release o0 a call. Phase 1< The .-su+scri+er lifts the handset B3 regularl3 scanning all su+scri+ers8 lines to detect call attem-ts2 the exchange8s control s3stem immediatel3 notices that a su+scri+er has li0ted the handset. !o determine whether a dial tone is to +e sent & and to -re-are 0or the rece-tion o0 the B&su+scri+er num+er & the control 0unction -er0orms a num+er o0 tas$s9 6 chec$ is made against the exchange8s su+scri+er data+ase. !o +egin with2 the su+scri+er ma3 +e +arred 0or outgoing calls2 +ut there are also services that a00ect the set&u- o0 the connection. No dial tone is to +e sent i0 the hot line service is activated. *0 ?call 0orwarding unconditional? is activated2 a discontinuous dial tone is normall3 sent to remind the su+scri+er that no incoming calls will +e connected to this tele-hone. 6 memor3 area in the control unit is reserved 0or storing the tele-hone num+er dialled +3 the su+scri+er. 4ther in0ormation retrieved 0rom the su+scri+er data+ase and li$el3 to a00ect the set&u- o0 the connection2 such as the su+scri+er categor32 is also stored in this area. 6 tone receiver 0or 5!71 signalling is connected through the time switch in the su+scri+er stage. 60ter this -rocess has +een concluded2 a dial tone can +e sent.

Figure B. .- 4 su"scri"er h#s lifted the h#ndset Phase 2< The e"chan#e recei'es the B-su+scri+er num+er !he B&su+scri+er num+er is received +3 the tone receiver2 which sends it to the control 0unction. .!he -ulses received 0rom a dial tele-hone are inter-reted +3 the line inter0ace circuit./ !he 0ollowing 0unctions are -er0ormed9 !he control 0unction anal3ses the B&su+scri+er num+er to determine a set o0 -arameters2 the most im-ortant o0 which are9 & where is the call to +e connected .to a local su+scri+er or to another exchange/R & which charging method a--liesR & what will +e the length o0 the num+erR *0 the B&su+scri+er num+er -ertains to a local su+scri+er2 a "uer3 is sent to the su+scri+er data+ase. !his data+ase contains in0ormation stating the line inter0ace circuit to which the su+scri+er is -h3sicall3 connected2 whether the su+scri+er is +arred 0or incoming calls and the services he su+scri+es to. *0 ?call diversion unconditional? or ?call waiting? are activated2 connection set&uwill +e a00ected. *0 the B&su+scri+er num+er -ertains to a su+scri+er o0 another exchange2 then a routing anal3sis must +e -er0ormed. 5e-ending on su+scri+er categor32 alternative routing can +e s-eci0ied in the routing ta+le. !he result o0 the routing anal3sis can +e a00ected +3 the su+scri+er8s categor32 the time o0 da3 and man3 other -arameters. 6 charging anal3sis is -er0ormed. Aharging is normall3 a00ected +3 the su+scri+er8s categor32 time o0 da3 and da3 o0 the wee$ and whether or not itemised +illing is a--lied. 4ne o0 the tari00s that is alread3 registered as exchange data must +e selected 0or +illing 0or the call.

Figure B. .. The B(su"scri"er num"er is #n#l!sed for #n outgoing c#ll !he set&u- o0 the connection is -re-ared a0ter the anal3ses are concluded. 6n outgoing time slot is reserved in the grou- switch2 and2 in the case o0 an outgoing call2 the exchange starts signalling to the next exchange. Signalling ma3 ta$e a -ath di00erent 0rom that ta$en +3 the voice transmission i0 SS' is used. < The e"chan#e sets u! the out#oin# call

Phase

Figure B. .9 4n outgoing c#ll is set u% !he control 0unction will use the result o0 the a0orementioned anal3ses during the concluding -hase o0 the signalling -rocess. Aongestion could have +een encountered

along the -ath2 the B&su+scri+er num+er could have +een vacant or the B&su+scri+er could have +een +us3. :owever2 in most cases the B&su+scri+er is 0ree2 and the exchanges start to send ringing signals. !he connection is set u- 0rom the B&su+scri+er8s exchange & -ossi+l3 via other exchanges & resulting in a signal +eing sent to the 6&su+scri+er8s exchange9 ?B&su+scri+er 0ree?. !he control 0unction orders the grou- switch to reserve a -ath +etween the su+scri+er stage and the selected time slot on the outgoing PA7 lin$. !he control 0unction orders the time switch in the su+scri+er stage to disconnect the 6&su+scri+er 0rom the tone receiver. !he su+scri+er is instead connected to the selected time slot in the direction o0 the grou- switch. 6 connection has now +een esta+lished +etween the two su+scri+ers. !he B&su+scri+er8s exchange sends a ringing signal to the local su+scri+er and a ringing tone to the 6&su+scri+er. !he ringing tone is sent in the reverse direction over the esta+lished connection. !he control 0unction starts to monitor the connection2 -rimaril3 to ena+le the call to +e charged 0or. 6n order is sent to the charging 0unction to initiate charging when the B&su+scri+er li0ts the handset. !he monitoring 0unction is active throughout the call. !he control 0unction initiates disconnection when the call is concluded.

Phase %< The su+scri+ers conclude their con'ersation !he control s3stem continues to scan the su+scri+ers8 lines even during the conversation. *ts tas$ in this -hase is to "uic$l3 detect when either o0 the -arties hangs u- and to initiate action to release the circuit immediatel3 or with a dela32 de-ending on which su+scri+er hangs u- 0irst.

B. .10 Rele#se of # c#ll !he call is normall3 assumed to +e concluded when the 6&su+scri+er hangs u-2 in which case the call is released without an3 noticea+le dela3. No time

su-ervision is activated2 +ecause the 6&su+scri+er normall3 -a3s 0or the call. !he 6&su+scri+er is not to +e -enalised .charged a higher cost/ i02 0or an3 reason2 the B&su+scri+er does not hang u-. *t cannot +e immediatel3 assumed that a call is concluded +ecause the B& su+scri+er hangs u- 0irst9 he ma3 wish to continue the call 0rom another tele-hone. !he exchange will there0ore activate time su-ervision .ordinaril3 ), seconds/ +e0ore initiating release o0 the call. :owever2 the call will +e immediatel3 released i0 the 6&su+scri+er hangs u- at an3 time during this su-ervisor3 -eriod. !he control 0unction8s 0irst action2 a0ter having decided to release the call2 is to order the charging 0unction to terminate call charging. !he control 0unction then orders the disconnection o0 all e"ui-ment that was used 0or the call. !his means that time slots are released and can +e used +3 other calls. Signalling is also -er0ormed to ensure that all exchanges involved in setting u- the call release their e"ui-ment.
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B. .% N e t w o r k h i e r a r c h /
B.3. .1 Aentral and remote su+scri+er stages B.3. .2 6lternative routing B.3. .3 Semi&-ermanent connections

!he di00erent networ$ hierarchies are dealt with exhaustivel3 in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 3. *n the 0ollowing su+sections we will mention some networ$ elements and 0unctions that are relevant to PS!N connection set&u-. B. .%.1 3entral and remote su+scri+er sta#es 6s mentioned earlier2 the trend is towards increasingl3 larger local exchanges. Su+scri+ers are o0ten connected via remote su+scri+er stages which2 0rom a

switching -oint o0 view2 -er0orm exactl3 the same 0unctions as those -er0ormed +3 centrall3 located su+scri+er stages. Signals are sent to the control 0unction in the local exchange2 even in the case o0 a remote su+scri+er stage. .See Aha-ter './ :owever2 a 0unction is ordinaril3 -rovided 0or handling internal calls2 should there +e a +rea$ on the lin$s to the main exchange. @hen these lin$s are down2 in0ormation a+out which services the various su+scri+ers have access to is lost and their use cannot +e charged 0or. !he remote su+scri+er stage is +ecoming an increasingl3 common com-onent in access networ$s. B. .%.2 .lternati'e routin# *n the traditional PS!N exchange hierarch32 tra00ic has +een routed to direct lin$s .high&congestion routes/ and i0 these lin$s have +een +us32 then the next higher level in the hierarch3 .low&congestion routes/ has +een used. .See also Bolume 12 Aha-ter 1,2 Su+section 1,.(.#./ New routing 0unctions are now availa+le than$s to SS' and the !UP -rotocol. 4ne exam-le is the -ossi+ilit3 o0 -reventing rerouting 0urther on in the networ$ and instead tr3ing an alternative route all the wa3 0rom the originating exchange. 6nother exam-le is -lacing su+scri+ers in di00erent categories< emergenc3 services2 0or exam-le2 could have access to a num+er o0 alternative routes or even routes designated 0or their exclusive use. B. .%. Semi-!ermanent connections

6 connection which must not +e congested and which must have good transmission characteristics can +e set u- through the grou- switch using commands. Such connections are re0erred to as semi&-ermanent connections and can utilise di00erent -aths through the exchange hierarch3. Semi&-ermanent connections are used to connect SS' signalling terminals with their dedicated time slots. !hese connections run either 0rom one local exchange to another or to an exchange higher u- the hierarch3 that serves as a signal trans0er -oint .S!P/. Semi&-ermanent connections are also used to create an internal networ$ 0or a com-an3 +3 setting u- leased lines +etween the com-an38s PBEs. Geased lines can also +e handled exclusivel3 +3 the trans-ort networ$. !he transmission "ualit3 o0 modem data connections can +e guaranteed through the use o0 leased lines. 6voiding the time&consuming connection set&u- -hase in data transmission is an added advantage o0 leased lines. Geased lines not onl3 run 0rom one exchange to the next +ut can connect man3 exchanges at di00erent levels in a hierarch3< 0or exam-le2 to lin$ the o00ices o0 a single com-an3 in several di00erent countries.

B.%.1 I n

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t r o d u c t i o n
!he develo-ment o0 transmission techni"ues has +een advanced signi0icantl3 +3 the need to reduce networ$ costs. @e have witnessed an evolution 0rom s3stems em-lo3ing o-en&wire lines to multi-lexed2 analog s3stems using coaxial or radio lin$s2 on to digital 0i+re&o-tic s3stems & +ased on time&division and wavelength& division multi-lexing & with a ca-acit3 o0 tens o0 F+it=s -er 0i+re -air. 6nd then there are satellite s3stems2 the 0irst o0 which were -ut into o-eration as earl3 as 1)%#. !he 0irst commercial o-tical s3stems came on the scene in 1)(,. 1rom the -oint o0 view o0 PS!N transmission "ualit32 this evolutionar3 -rocess has not +een without -ro+lems. 5igitisation resulted in a heterogeneous analog&digital networ$2 and satellite s3stems introduced considera+le dela3s. 6 com-letel3 di00erent as-ect is related to the "uestion9 @hat is the PS!NR !he introduction to Aha-ter 1 -rovides a +rie0 descri-tion o0 ?the PS!N model o0 the 1)%,s?. *n the 1)%,s2 the PS!N was the networ$2 o0 which the transmission com-onents2 in the 0orm o0 ca+les and radio lin$s .em-lo3ing analog transmission/2 were integral -arts. !oda3 we have a variet3 o0 +earer networ$s and a trans-ort networ$ +ased on digital transmission2 which all the +earer networ$s have in common to a great extent. .See Bolume 12 Aha-ter #./ Pure PS!N transmission exists onl3 in the access -art o0 the networ$. @e might 0eel inclined to regard a common transmission networ$ as one large +it trans-orter2 and what the +its actuall3 re-resent as less im-ortant. But that is not the case. 6s a matter o0 0act2 it should even +e -ossi+le to lin$ ever3 individual +it to a -articular service. *s the +it sensitive to errorR !o dela3sR :ow sensitiveR Aan the +it stream +e mani-ulatedR !he onl3 wa3 to avoid having to consider +it&stream transmission "ualit3 is to +uild com-letel3 trans-arent networ$s in which +it errors2 echo2 dela3s and dela3 variations do not occur. But such a networ$ is unrealistic< it would +e too ex-ensive. @e must acce-t the 0act that a +alance has to +e struc$ +etween the "ualit3 re"uirements o0 the various services2 on the one hand2 and networ$ costs on the other. !he 0ollowing section will there0ore shed some light on the cost&saving transmission techni"ues that are used in the PS!N and their im-act on voice and data tra00ic. Oualit3 -arameters are discussed in detail in Bolume 12 Aha-ters and 1,.

B.%.2 3 o s t s a ' i n # t r a n s m i s s i o n t e c h n i 4 u e s

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B. .2.1 !he com+ination o0 tele-hone and analog two&wire B. .2.2 5A7>

!he multi-lexing and modulation techni"ues and other methods generall3 a--lied to use transmission media e00icientl3 were dealt with in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 2 Section . . !hose methods are generall3 a--lica+le. *n the 0ollowing we will discuss some methods closel3 related to tele-hon3 service. @e will 0ocus on the com+ination o0

tele-hone and analog two&wire in the access networ$ and on methods 0or using 0our& wire connections more e00icientl3 +3 allowing -auses in a tele-hone conversation to +e used +3 other calls. B.%.2.1 The com+ination of tele!hone and analo# two-wire *t is less ex-ensive to use two co--er wires instead o0 0our2 +ut it -oses a two0old -ro+lem. @e introduce attenuation that cannot readil3 +e com-ensated through am-li0ication as well as 0re"uenc3&de-endent am-litude distortion9 the higher voice 0re"uencies are attenuated more than the lower ones. !wo&wire s3stems are unsuita+le 0or long&distance networ$s +ecause o0 this attenuation. *n toda38s telecommunications networ$s2 man3 trun$ networ$s are digital and2 hence2 considered to +e attenuation&0ree. !his allows a margin o0 at least 1, dB at each end 0or the attenuation o0 the access networ$ .-rovided that the tele-hones are o0 modern design and have 0re"uenc3 characteristics o--osite to those o0 the co--er -air/. >arlier2 analog two&wire transmission was sometimes used +etween exchanges too2 +ut this techni"ue reduces the allowa+le attenuation o0 the ex-ensive access networ$2 +ecause the total attenuation +etween two su+scri+ers must +e $e-t within de0ined limits. ?Goudness rating? .GC/ re0ers to the total attenuation2 which is com-osed o0 the send loudness rating .SGC/ and the receive loudness rating .CGC/. GC is generall3 s-eci0ied in the transmission -lan.

Figure B.$.1 Two(wire connection "etween su"scri"er #nd e'ch#nge3 four(wire "etween e'ch#nges Nowada3s2 the Dunction +etween two&wire and 0our&wire resides in the local exchange or in a -oint +etween the su+scri+er and the local exchange< that is2 in a remote su+scri+er stage or multi-lexer2 where the signal is converted 0rom an analog to a digital signal. Figure B.$.1 illustrates the -oint o0 transition +etween two&wire and 0our&wire in a local exchange. !he 0igure is a diagrammatic s$etch that also ex-lains wh3 the converter used in this -oint is called a ?h3+rid?. !he h3+rid e"ui-ment is used to se-arate the two voice directions o0 the two&wire connection so that the3 can +e a--lied to the two -airs o0 a 0our&wire connection.

>arlier e"ui-ment was generall3 com-osed o0 two di00erential trans0ormers and a line +alance2 as shown in Figure B.$.2.

Figure B.$.2 <!"rid *0 the im-edance o0 the line +alance2 T+2 is e"ual to the im-edance o0 the line2 then no voice energ3 0rom the incoming wire -air will lea$ over to the outgoing -air. 4n the other hand2 the +alanced h3+rid results in attenuation2 +ecause the incoming -ower is divided into two e"ual -arts. :alving the -ower means an attenuation o0 a--roximatel3 3 dB. !o this must +e added the h3+rid8s own attenuation o0 a--roximatel3 ,.# dB. 1or ever3 h3+rid2 the resultant attenuation is thus a--roximatel3 3.# dB. Nowada3s2 h3+rids are normall3 +uilt with o-erational am-li0iers .4P am-li0iers/. !hese h3+rids are e"ui--ed with a +alance that can +e adDusted automaticall3 when the im-edance o0 the su+scri+er line changes2 owing to changes in the weather or +ecause a su+scri+er has connected new e"ui-ment. B.%.2.2 ,3$6 5ue to the length and ex-ense o0 certain transmission media & 0or exam-le2 su+marine ca+les and satellite connections & technicians have researched the -ossi+ilit3 o0 using voice com-ression to allow man3 more calls to share each connection. 6 variet3 o0 analog methods have +een tested over the 3ears. *n the 1)(,s2 digital circuit multi-lexing e"ui-ment .5A7>/ emerged as the dominant solution. 1or tele-hon3 services2 5A7> -rovides an average com-ression o0 #91. 4ther teleservices cannot tolerate such com-ression2 which is one o0 the reasons wh3 even in toda38s trans-ort networ$ we need to $now which +its deliver a s-eci0ic t3-e o0 service. 5A7>2 descri+ed in *!U&! Cecommendation F.'%32 is not a 0ixed standard9 di00erent manu0acturers have somewhat di00erent solutions. 5A7> e"ui-ment is connected to an international exchange< the inter0ace 0or signalling +etween the 5A7> and the exchange is descri+ed in *!U&! Cecommendation O.#,. 5A7> includes two com-ression 0unctions9 5igital s-eech inter-olation .5S*/2 +ased on the 0act that all su+scri+ers s-ea$ on average 3,J& ,J o0 the time. !his means that com-ression +3 a 0actor o0 2.# is -ossi+le with a relativel3 large num+er o0 lines.

7ore e00ective low&rate encoding .GC>/. 65PA7 .see Aha-ter 22 Su+section 2. .1/ is ordinaril3 used2 -roviding 32 $+it=s 0or ever3 call. 65PA7 is recommended +3 the *!U&!.

5A7> e"ui-ment also contains a 0unction 0or overload handling. *t is re0erred to as varia+le +it rate .BBC/ and allows +its to +e ?stolen? 0rom the voice connections to create new2 tem-orar3 channels. Figure B.$. illustrates the 0unctions included in 5A7> e"ui-ment.

Figure B.$. )+,7 e6ui%ment functions 6 connection can +e routed +etween two international exchanges2 one o0 which uses the North 6merican standard and the other the >uro-ean standard. *n such cases2 the 5A7> e"ui-ment will also -er0orm conversion 0or the PA7 s3stems2 +etween !1 .1.# 7+it=s/ and >1 .2 7+it=s/2 as well as the conversion o0 voice coding +etween the &law and the 6&law. !hese standards are descri+ed in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 22 Su+section 2.'.2. See Figure B.$.$2 which is somewhat sim-li0ied.

Figure B.$.$ 7'#m%le of #n intern#tion#l connection using )+,7 e6ui%ment

B.%. $ a

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n a # i n # e c h o
B. .3.1 !he echo -ro+lem B. .3.2 5ata transmission & -ro+lems and solutions

!he cost savings descri+ed in the -receding section also have draw+ac$s. !he most serious di00iculties are echo and data transmission -ro+lems. B.%. .1 The echo !ro+lem >choes during a tele-hone conversation are extremel3 irritating. !he 0act that one8s own s-eech returns a0ter a 0ew hundred milliseconds ma$es it di00icult to s-ea$ in a normal rh3thm. !he -henomenon o0 echo is caused +3 im+alance in the h3+rid that handles the transition +etween the two&wire and 0our&wire circuits. Previousl32 echo was noticea+le onl3 over long satellite connections where the distance causes long -ro-agation time. 4ne8s own s-eech +ounces +ac$ in the other su+scri+er8s h3+rid and is then returned. !he -ro+lem has increased during the -ast 3ears2 +ecause even digital tele-hones .0or exam-le FS7/ contain voice coders that re"uire a certain amount o0 time to -er0orm their tas$s. !hese distracting echo -ro+lems can +e ex-erienced when we are s-ea$ing on a FS7 tele-hone with a su+scri+er who has an ordinar3 0ixed tele-hone. !he echo e00ect can +e counteracted +3 care0ull3 +alancing the h3+rid e"ui-ment. *0 this is not su00icient2 the e00ects can +e reduced with the hel- o0 a device to limit the echo. !here are two t3-es9 echo su--ressors and echo cancellers. 6cho su!!ressors 6 networ$ echo su--ressor .N>S/ consists o0 a controlla+le transmission gate .C/ in the send direction and a controlla+le attenuator .6/ in the receive direction. !he e"ui-ment is controlled +3 a logic circuit .G/. !he 0unction o0 the echo su--ressor is +ased on the 0act that onl3 one -erson s-ea$s at a time. !he logic circuit detects the signal level o0 +oth the receive and send lines. @hen the receive line is "uiet2 the signal on the send line is allowed to -ass. @hen a signal is -resent on the receive line and the send line is "uiet2 the send direction is cut o00 +3 the transmission gate. No echo can then lea$ 0rom the send line to the receive line via the h3+rid.

Figure B.$.* Network echo su%%ressors in coo%er#tion !he logic circuit can detect the -resence o0 concurrent energ3 in +oth directions and can -revent the s3stem 0rom +loc$ing tra00ic i0 +oth su+scri+ers s-ea$ at the same time. !he echo su--ressor is set so that the transmission gate allows the signal on the send line to -ass2 whereas a +alanced attenuator is connected in the receive direction. 6cho canceller 6 networ$ echo canceller .N>A/ consists o0 a su+traction circuit .-ositioned in the send direction/ that su+tracts 0rom the received signal a calculated re-lica o0 the signal8s echo. !he echo canceller is o0ten augmented +3 a cli--ing circuit that +loc$s signals +elow a certain2 low level. !his eliminates an3 wea$ echo remaining a0ter su+traction.

Figure B.$.6 Network echo c#nceller !he echo canceller is more e00ective than the echo su--ressor2 +ut +oth can +e used together in man3 a--lications +ecause the3 are com-lementar3. 6cho canceller !ools !he echo canceller is normall3 located in international exchanges or in the national transit exchanges o0 countries having long distances +etween inha+ited areas. >arlier2 the3 were alwa3s +uilt into e"ui-ment that handled the PA7 connection2 that is2 the exchange terminal circuit .>!A/. Nowada3s2 there is a more 0lexi+le solution9 a -ool o0 echo cancellers activated when needed. !his solutions -ermits a selective use o0 the cancellers2 which ma$es them economicall3 via+le in lower&ran$ed exchanges.

Figure B.$.- 7cho c#nceller %ool @hen an echo canceller is re"uired2 it is connected to the incoming and outgoing trun$ lines via the grou- switch. B.%. .2 ,ata transmission - !ro+lems and solutions 6cho su!!ressors >cho su--ressors should not +e used in data transmission. !he echo su--ressor results in cli--ing and sudden am-litude 0luctuations which inter0ere with data tra00ic and ma$e du-lex transmission o0 data im-ossi+le. >cho cancellers can cause +it errors in their mani-ulation o0 the +it stream. Unli$e *S5N2 the PS!N cannot use su+scri+er signalling to demand di00erent t3-es o0 transmission 0or di00erent t3-es o0 service. !o ena+le echo cancellers to +e disconnected in data transmission2 modems are e"ui--ed with a tone generator in the voice +and .usuall3 221,, :;/. @hen an echo canceller detects such a tone2 it deactivates itsel0 0or the entire call. !he modem then handles the echo e00ects. !he tra00ic control 0unctions o0 the exchange are used when echo cancellers are to +e disconnected on a -ermanent +asis. *n 0ax tra00ic2 echo cancellers are less o0 a -ro+lem and need not +e disconnected. ,3$6 5ata and 0ax tra00ic cannot tolerate the com-ression -er0ormed in 5A7> e"ui-ment. 7oreover2 the PS!N8s trans-ort networ$ is integrated with that o0 *S5N. 5A7> e"ui-ment must there0ore include ca-a+ilit3 to handle di00erent t3-es o0 tra00ic in di00erent wa3s9 Boice connections are -ut through +oth com-ression 0unctions. Boice&+and data2 that is2 modem&coded in0ormation on a PA7 connection2 never goes through voice inter-olation +ut in some cases is com-ressed using 65PA7. !he 65PA7 techni"ue wor$s well 0or voice&+and data u- to .(

$+it=s. Oualit3 degrades 0or +it rates o0 ).% $+it=s and higher2 +ecause 65PA7 cannot code the discontinuous shi0ts in level that occur at -hase shi0ts. :ence2 data rates o0 ).% $+it=s and higher have a dedicated channel 0or the entire -ath. % $+it=s data channels 0rom *S5N alwa3s have a dedicated channel 0or the entire -ath.

Figure B.$.. )+,7 tr#ffic h#ndling !he 5A7> receives in0ormation a+out which t3-e o0 tra00ic is carried +3 each channel 0rom the exchange. !his signalling is re0erred to as "e#rer ser/ice selection. *t onl3 o-erates together with the *S5N user -art .*SUP/ -rotocol2 which is one reason wh3 *SUP is o0ten also used 0or PS!N signalling. Transmission 4ualit/ and connection set-u! !he PS!N has no error&detection or data&retransmission 0unctionalit3. *n the event o0 a transmission error2 it is the end&user8s .the modem8s or the com-uter8s/ tas$ to detect this error and to re"uest retransmission. 6nother -ro+lem is uneven transmission "ualit3. 1rom a "ualit3 -oint o0 view2 the two&wire section o0 the PS!N .over co--er -airs/ is a wea$ lin$ in a connection. !rans0er rates must +e ada-ted to the line "ualit3 to limit the B>C to an acce-ta+le level. 7odern modems are e"ui--ed with a line -ro+ing 0unction which -er0orms this ada-tation in a d3namic 0ashion. .See Su+section 2. .3./ 6n additional di00icult3 is the long connection set&u- time that the PS!N re"uires 0or data&communication a--lications. 6s mentioned earlier2 leased lines are a means o0 avoiding the connection set&u- -hase2 +ut the3 are still a relativel3 ex-ensive solution. 5es-ite these disadvantages2 data .nota+l3 the *nternet/ and 0ax tra00ic are increasing ra-idl3 in the PS!N. !his is the result o0 several PS!N enhancements9 shorter connection set&u- time2 than$s to SS' signalling< lower B>C2 due to the increased use o0 0i+re in the trun$ networ$< and +etter e"ui--ed access networ$s2 in which the use o0 0i+re is on the increase.

*n addition2 trends in modem develo-ment are -romising. !raditional 0re"uenc3&shi0t and -hase&shi0t modulation are +eing re-laced +3 O67&t3-e am-litude&shi0t and -hase&shi0t modulation. !hese methods are descri+ed in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 2 Su+section . .2. 7odem standards are discussed in Aha-ter 2 o0 this Part.

Figure B.$.9 -resents a com-arison o0 a num+er o0 versions o0 O679

Figure B.$.9 =4, /ersions for the PSTN

B.&.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

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@hen tele-hon3 was in its in0anc32 there was not much di00erence +etween the lines that connected a su+scri+er to the switch+oard o-erator and those that lin$ed the o-erators together. !oda32 trun$ and access networ$s are +uilt more or less se-aratel32 although the trans-ort techni"ue used in the trun$ networ$ is +ecoming increasingl3 common in the access networ$ as well.

B.&.2 T h e t r u n k n

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e t w o r k
!he traditional co--er trun$ networ$ in the PS!N has graduall3 +een su--lemented +3 radio lin$s2 satellite s3stems and o-tical 0i+re. !he $e3 issue has +een to achieve high ca-acit3 to economise on ex-ensive ca+le. !oda38s trun$ networ$s include the P5:2 S5: and S4N>! multi-lexing hierarchies. Since the trun$ networ$ is o0ten shared +3 man3 +earer networ$s2 we descri+ed it in Bolume 12 Aha-ter #. !3-ical connections +etween exchanges and trun$s are descri+ed in Aha-ter ' o0 this Part.

B.&. T h e a c c e s s n e t w o r k
B.#.3.1 B.#.3.2 B.#.3.3 B.#.3. B.#.3.#

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5igital transmission in the metallic access networ$ 1ull&service networ$s >xam-les o0 access solutions Pair gain Cadio access in the PS!N

Su+scri+ers can +e connected to a local exchange in di00erent wa3s. !he su+scri+er stage can +e im-lemented centrall3 or remotel32 and the transmission medium can +e 0ixed or wireless. 6s a rule2 the su+scri+er cannot tell one medium 0rom the other2 at least not when he is using the +asic tele-hon3 service. :owever2 the availa+ilit3 o0 services can de-end on the access method used. Some old access methods ma3 result in a transmission "ualit3 that does not meet the re"uirements o0 modern2

high&s-eed modems. 4ther methods can add value to existing services & a certain degree o0 mo+ilit32 0or exam-le.

Figure B.*.1 Su"scri"er lines connected to # PSTN loc#l e'ch#nge !wo main categories o0 su+scri+ers are connected to the PS!N. 4ne o0 these categories consists o0 ordinar3 one&line su+scri+ers who can have several tele-hones connected to their line. !he3 have one channel 0or the transmission o0 a 3,,&32 ,, :; analog signal and 0or su+scri+er signalling. !he other categor3 consists o0 +usiness su+scri+ers who have PBEs e"ui--ed with several channels. !he terminals 0or connection to the PS!N include ordinar3 tele-hones2 cordless tele-hones2 -a3 -hones2 0ax machines and modems 0or data communication. .See Aha-ter 1 0or a detailed descri-tion o0 terminals./ B.&. .1 ,i#ital transmission in the metallic access network Gi$e the trun$ networ$2 the access networ$ is -la3ing an increasingl3 im-ortant role as a common resource 0or several +earer networ$s. *ncreased digitisation .see Figure B.*.2/ and a common PS!N=*S5N con0iguration are two nota+le trends. 6n exam-le o0 a mixed networ$ structure is shown in Figure B.*.2.

Figure B.*.2 76ui%ment in the #ccess network !he remote su+scri+er stage is a $e3 com-onent o0 this networ$ structure. !he access networ$ has +een the last +astion o0 analog technolog3 to hold out against the onrush o0 digitisation. !here is nothing sur-rising a+out that< a0ter all2 tele-hones generate an analog signal. !raditionall32 we have used a metallic access networ$ consisting o0 -aired co--er ca+les2 run 0rom the exchange in thic$ +undles and then +ranched at cross&connection and distri+ution -oints. .See also Bolume 12 Aha-ter #./ @hen the PS!N was digitised2 6=5 conversion o0 voice was o0ten -er0ormed in the local exchange. !oda32 de-lo3ing the digitising 0unction in distri+ution -oints in the metallic access networ$ is +ecoming "uite common. :owever2 the trend is towards -er0orming 6=5 conversion in the su+scri+er8s terminal2 and this arrangement has alread3 +een acce-ted as a standard solution 0or PBEs. !he 6=5 0unction resides in the su+scri+er terminal in modern wireless tele-hon3 too.

Figure B.*. Remote su"scri"er st#ge ( "#sic design #nd connection !he 6=5 -oint in the networ$ must have electronic e"ui-ment 0or multi-lexing and=or concentration o0 the digital signals. !his re"uires a suita+le environment and a 0unction 0or su-ervising the 6=5 -oint. !he environment is ordinaril3 im-lemented as a ca+inet or container s3stem that includes e"ui-ment 0or -ower su--l3 and cooling. B.&. .2 -ull-ser'ice networks 5igitisation has resulted in a tendenc3 to use di00erent media in the access networ$ much more e00ectivel3 than originall3 -lanned. !he 0ollowing are exam-les o0 this tendenc3. Ao--er -airs can +e used at ver3 high 0re"uencies over moderate distances. Aoaxial ca+le 0or ca+le !B can also +e used 0or interactive services2 such as video&on&demand2 *nternet access and tele-hon3. ?1i+re to the home? .1!!:/ o00ers an ?unlimited? num+er o0 new 0acilities. !he use o0 radio access is +eing extended2 ena+ling 2 7+it=s connections.

*n a 0ull&service networ$ o0 this t3-e2 the PS!N will +e Dust one o0 man3 +earer services +etween su+scri+ers and switching nodes. 6nother t3-e o0 integration +etween the PS!N and other networ$s ta$es -lace near the switching nodes2 where o-tical S5: rings are introduced. .See Bolume 12 Aha-ter #2 Section #.12./ B.&. . 6"am!les of access solutions

*n Bolume 12 Aha-ter #2 we descri+e a num+er o0 access solutions. *n this su+section2 we will descri+e some o0 them in more detail and discuss other solutions. 7ost o0 the solutions are PS!N&oriented +ut could also suit other networ$s2 such as *S5N. B.&. .% Pair #ain

6s the transmission "ualit3 o0 the -aired ca+le has im-roved2 new methods that allow several su+scri+ers to share a single -h3sical line have +een develo-ed. !he use o0 such a method is re0erred to as %#ir g#in3 +ecause ca-acit3 is gained through the -aired&ca+le arrangement. Since the access networ$ re-resents the largest single investment in the PS!N2 its -otential 0or economising is enormous. !oda38s technolog3 allows at least 12 su+scri+ers to share a single line. !he distance 0rom the exchange to a su+scri+er can +e #&2# $ilometres2 de-ending on the t3-e o0 tra00ic generated. !oda38s -air&gain s3stems use digital transmission and can serve a mix o0 su+scri+ers in the PS!N and *S5N. !he transmission "ualit3 is su00icientl3 high to allow tra00ic 0rom 0ax machines and high&s-eed modems. Since the s3stems are digital2 6=5 conversion ta$es -lace near or at the su+scri+er8s. Sometimes 65PA7 coding is used 0or the PS!N8s analog connections2 which gives 32 $+it=s 0or each su+scri+er< % $+it=s is necessar3 0or 0ax machines and high&s-eed modems to achieve 0ull ca-acit3. .See also the descri-tion o0 voice coding in Aha-ter 2 Su+section 2. .1./ Figure B.*.$ illustrates an access networ$ +ased on -air&gain techni"ue.

Figure B.*.$ 7'#m%le of #n #ccess network "#sed on # %#ir(g#in s!stem 6 line code .2B1O2 0or exam-le/ is used 0or digital transmission. !he line can still +e used 0or 0unctions such as -ower su--l3 to su+scri+ers and 0or sending meter -ulses to -a3 -hones. B.&. .& =adio access in the PSTN

*n some cases2 radio access in the PS!N is -re0era+le to co--er access. !his rule alwa3s a--lies to the connection o0 su+scri+ers in s-arsel3 -o-ulated areas and sometimes to the connection o0 digital e"ui-ment2 such as su+scri+er stages or PBEs. Cadio access can also +e used when im-lementing wireless tele-hon3 in the PS!N. *n 0act2 +ecause it ta$es less time to install2 radio access can +e used to "uic$l3 ex-and a networ$ when man3 su+scri+ers are waiting to get connections. 6 newl3 esta+lished o-erator in the access networ$ o0ten -re0ers radio access2 since he does not $now exactl3 which residents will sign u- 0or his services nor the locations o0 the geogra-hical access -oints. Point-to-multi!oint !here are several radio&+ased solutions 0or the connection o0 single su+scri+ers in s-arsel3 -o-ulated areas. @e +egin +3 descri+ing a solution called -oint&to& multi-oint .P7P/. 6nalog or digital radio e"ui-ment 0or transmission and rece-tion is installed in or near the su+scri+er8s home. !he tele-hone is connected to the radio e"ui-ment2 and a local -ower source is used .instead o0 -ower +eing 0ed 0rom the exchange/. Cadio s3stems o0 this t3-e are used in large countries with thinl3 -o-ulated regions2 such as Aanada2 6ustralia and Sweden. !he s3stems are -articularl3 well&suited 0or installation in develo-ing countries with low tele-hone densit3 .-erha-s onl3 one tele-hone 0or ever3 1,, inha+itants/.

Figure B.*.* P,P s!stem for s%#rsel! %o%ul#ted #re#s 6 P7P s3stem consists o0 three -arts9 a central unit< an omnidirectional radio transmitter< and a num+er o0 outstations.

Aommon 0re"uenc3 ranges are 1.3&2.' F:; and 1,.# F:;. !he use o0 re-eater stations gives a coverage o0 a+out ',, $ilometres. .6 re-eater station is an ?extra? antenna which receives and 0orwards signals./ !he outstation is continuousl3 -olled to chec$ whether an3 su+scri+ers are read3 to send a message< i0 so2 the su+scri+er

is allocated a radio channel. !he ratio o0 su+scri+ers to outstations is usuall3 % to 12 and the num+er o0 su+scri+ers -er outstation ma3 var3 0rom one to roughl3 3,& ,. !oda38s modern s3stems can handle digital su+scri+er lines and set u- internal calls. !he3 have also +uilt&in o-eration and maintenance s3stems. Satellite s/stems in the access network Naturall32 satellite s3stems -rovide even +etter area coverage than P7P s3stems. Satellites are used 0or access in Dungles2 archi-elagoes2 and the li$e. =adio in the local loo! 6n o-erator can also use radio e"ui-ment +ased on the -rinci-les o0 cellular networ$ tra00ic .such as N7! or FS7/ or wireless tele-hon3 .such as 5>A!/ to connect ordinar3 PS!N su+scri+ers to a local exchange. !he radio&in&the&local&loo- .CGG/ solution -rovides a re-lacement 0or 0ixed -aired co--er ca+le. 6ccess -rocedures used in cellular s3stems are dealt with in P#rt ) ( P:,N2 and 5>A! access is descri+ed in Section #. . CGG o00ers several advantages. !he networ$ o-erator need not +uild an extensive in0rastructure +e0ore starting to connect su+scri+ers. 6nd even i0 radio access im-lies more ex-ensive su+scri+er terminals2 the in0low o0 revenues will +e s-eeded u-. !his is attractive to new o-erators who have +een granted a licence 0or o-eration in the 0ixed tele-hone networ$. *0 the o-erator wishes to have wide +ase&station coverage2 cellular s3stems will +e the +est choice. Note2 however2 that a num+er o0 0actors ma3 0avour the use o0 5>A!9 5>A! e"ui-ment is chea-er. Networ$ -lanning is sim-ler +ecause no 0re"uenc3 -lanning is necessar3. Aa-acit3 is readil3 ex-anded +3 adding new +ase stations and adDusting the cell si;es. 5>A! ca-acit3 -er channel is greater than in toda38s digital cellular s3stems .32 $+it=s/. 6ll 0re"uencies 0or cellular networ$s ma3 alread3 have +een allocated. !he PS!N and *S5N can share a common access networ$ +ecause transmission is digital.

*n terms o0 switching2 radio e"ui-ment -er0orms the 0unctions o0 a su+scri+er multi-lexer. Cadio e"ui-ment has an inter0ace .in which 6=5 conversion is -er0ormed/ to the local exchange2 +ut the local exchange ta$es 0ull res-onsi+ilit3 0or the su+scri+er data+ase and the switching and charging 0unctions. *n -ractice2 the su+scri+er will not +e aware o0 an3 changes. :e has his radio e"ui-ment and its antenna in his home2 and although -ower is not su--lied 0rom the exchange2 he still -erceives the arrangement as a normal tele-hone su+scri-tion. :owever2 radio access can also o00er su+scri+ers an extra service in the 0orm o0 some mo+ilit3< 0or instance2 within the coverage area o0 the nearest mast.

Figure B.*.6 R#dio in the loc#l loo% *0 5>A! is used 0or the air inter0ace2 di00erent 5>A! accesses can also +e com+ined2 allowing the su+scri+er to use the same wireless tele-hone at wor$ and in the home. !his is called cordless terminal mo+ilit3 and is descri+ed in Aha-ter 2. -i"ed cellular 6n o-erator who is licensed to o-erate a 0ixed -u+lic tele-hone networ$ can also o-t to con0igure it using the nodes that we normall3 0ind in the PG7N. !his means that su+scri+ers are connected to a mo+ile switching centre .7SA/ rather than an ?ordinar3? local exchange. :owever2 this method & re0erred to as fi'ed cellul#r ( will not -rovide the same degree o0 mo+ilit3 as a mo+ile tele-hone in the PG7N. 1rom the o-erator8s -oint o0 view2 the 0ixed cellular o-tion means +eing a+le to commence o-erations more "uic$l3 while 0acilitating the 0uture construction o0 a PG7N. *0 the o-erator alread3 has a PG7N2 he will +e a+le to o00er his su+scri+ers the same set o0 services in +oth networ$s. *n addition2 new services and new e"ui-ment introduced in one o0 the networ$s can +e used in the other networ$ as well.

B.&.% , 6 3 T

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!he 5>A! standard is descri+ed in Aha-ter 2. :ere we will stud3 the actual access -rocedure. 5>A! has +een allocated the 12((,&12),, 7:; 0re"uenc3 range2 which in turn is divided into 1, 0re"uencies. >ach 0re"uenc3 is in turn divided into 2 time slots according to a method called time&division multi-le access .!576/. Unli$e cellular s3stems2 a 5>A! connection does not occu-3 two di00erent 0re"uencies. *nstead2 the 0irst 12 time slots are used 0or sending in0ormation 0rom the +ase station to the terminal2 while the remaining 12 time slots are used in the o--osite direction2 a method called time&division du-lex .!55/. *n other words2 ever3 0re"uenc3 can handle 12 calls in du-lex mode2 which gives a total o0 12, channels in the 5>A! s3stem. 6ll the channels have a +it rate o0 32 $+it=s in +oth directions 0or su+scri+er tra00ic.

>ach time slot is divided into 0ields2 as shown in Figure B.*.-. !he 0irst 0ield is used 0or s3nchronisation< the second 0or identi0ication2 control and signalling .control channel/< the third 0or actual tra00ic .voice or data/< the 0ourth 0or a chec$sum 0or detecting transmission errors. !he time slots are se-arated +3 short ga-s in which no in0ormation is transmitted. !he -ur-ose o0 this arrangement is to -revent the time slots 0rom overla--ing due to di00erences in the distance +etween the +ase station and the terminals connected.

Figure B.*.- The T),4>T)) fr#me for )7+T

B.6.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

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!he introduction o0 com-uter&controlled tele-hone exchanges was an incentive 0or o-erators to create new2 com-letel3 di00erent su+scri+er services in the networ$. !he -rime driving 0orce during the 1)',s and 1)(,s was not to meet su+scri+er re"uirements +ut to ena+le o-erators .mono-olistic telecommunications administrations/ to ma$e more mone3 on the existing networ$. Neither mar$eting nor the esta+lishment o0 a com-an3 image was high on the agenda in those da3s. !oda3 it is much easier 0or an o-erator to create a distinctive image 0or himsel0 and to increase revenue. Some services are charged 0or2 others are 0ree. 7an3 o0 the 0ree services hel- to increase the num+er o0 success0ul calls2 which in turn generates revenue. Networ$ o-erators also sell services to other service -roviders2 who can either charge their customers & the end&users & or o00er services 0ree o0 charge.

!he new services have given the PS!N a 0ace&li0t. 5es-ite extensive investments in other2 more so-histicated technolog32 the develo-ment o0 services in the PS!N will alwa3s have to- -riorit3 +ecause o0 the large num+er o0 su+scri+ers that are connected to this networ$.

B.6.2 , i s t r i + u t e d s u ! ! l e m e n t a r / s e r ' i c e s
B.%.2.1 *ntroduction B.%.2.2 PS!N services B.%.2.3 Standardisation

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B.6.2.1 Introduction 5istri+uted su--lementar3 services are im-lemented in the local exchanges o0 the networ$. !his de-lo3ment has +een chosen mainl3 +ecause the services are 0re"uentl3 used and +ecause man3 o0 them were introduced long +e0ore the technolog3 0or centralised su--lementar3 services .*N technolog3/ was develo-ed. B.6.2.2 PSTN ser'ices !he 0ollowing list shows some common services o00ered +3 the PS!N. )o not distur" Aalls are connected to a recorded message or tone in0ormation. ?#ke(u%>reminder ser/ice !he su+scri+er enters on his $e3-ad tele-hone the hour at which he wants to +e called. !he tele-hone exchange calls him at that hour and connects him to a recorded message. +#ll forw#rding !his service reroutes incoming calls to another num+er. !he su+scri+er enters the 0orwarding num+er .also called the A&num+er/ on his $e3-ad tele-hone and is then charged the cost 0or the additional call -ath. !he caller -a3s onl3 0or the call to the original num+er. Aalls can +e 0orwarded to an3 num+er in the PS!N2 PG7N and *S5N. Aall 0orwarding is availa+le in di00erent variants. ?Aall 0orwarding unconditional? means that all incoming calls are to +e 0orwarded. !he su+scri+er can also choose ?call 0orwarding on no re-l3? or ?call 0orwarding on +us3?. 6 recent variant called ?selective call 0orwarding? means acce-ting calls 0rom one or more -redetermined num+ers and 0orwarding all other calls. +#ll"#ck 0com%letion of c#ll to # "us! su"scri"er1 *0 the called su+scri+er is +us32 the caller can order the call+ac$ service2 which means that he is "ueued 0or connection to the +us3 num+er. @hen the num+er +ecomes 0ree2 the caller will receive a signal and when he li0ts the handset2 his tele-hone will automaticall3 ma$e a new call attem-t. 6 variant o0 this service orders call+ac$ i0 the called su+scri+er does not answer. *n this case2 the next time the called su+scri+er uses his tele-hone and re-laces the handset2 the calling su+scri+er8s local exchange will ma$e a new call attem-t. :#st num"er redi#l !he last num+er dialled is stored in the local exchange and can +e redialled +3 means o0 a sim-le code. Ser/ices for old PB&s 6 small2 sim-le PBE that has no services o0 its own can +e e"ui--ed with s-ecial t3-es o0 call 0orwarding. Remote control of ser/ices 6 su+scri+er can use a tele-hone other than his own to order services such as call 0orwarding 0or calls made to his home tele-hone. =ueuing of c#lls Simultaneous calls & mainl3 to com-anies2 government authorities and institutions & can +e "ueued. Three(%#rt! conference !hree -arties can communicate with each other over the same connection. *0

such a con0erence connection is ordered through a tele-honist2 more than three -arties can -artici-ate. 4""re/i#ted di#lling Su+scri+ers can enter a list o0 a++reviated num+ers in the local exchange. !his service is -ractical 0or a com-an3 whose PBE has no 0unction 0or internal a++reviated num+ers. +#ll w#iting 6 s-ecial signal is generated during a call in -rogress to indicate that a third -art3 is tr3ing to reach 3ou. !his caller receives an ordinar3 ringing tone. Uou can terminate the ongoing call and answer the new one or continue the ongoing call2 in which case the new caller will receive a +us3 tone a0ter several signals. Uou can also alternate +etween the two calls. +#lling line identific#tion %resent#tion 0+:2P1 6lso called ?caller *5?2 this service allows a called -art3 to see the tele-hone num+er o0 an incoming call on a dis-la3 connected to the tele-hone line. !he local exchange is $e-t u-dated on which su+scri+ers have signed u- 0or this service. +#lling line identific#tion restriction 0+:2R1 !his service allows a su+scri+er to order the s3stem not to dis-la3 his num+er. AG*C can +e activated on a -ermanent or tem-orar3 +asis. Gegislation in most countries sti-ulates that the service must +e o00ered in com+ination with AG*P. <ot line !his service allows the su+scri+er to +e automaticall3 connected to a -rogrammed num+er merel3 +3 li0ting the handset. !wo variants are availa+le9 !he num+er is called directl3 or a0ter a 0ew seconds. !he dela3 ena+les the su+scri+er to call a num+er other than the -rogrammed one. ,#licious(c#ll tr#cing Su+scri+ers who are su+Dected to harassment over the -hone can order tracing o0 all incoming calls2 which means that the caller is identi0ied. Some old signalling s3stems ma3 limit the use o0 this service +ecause the3 lac$ 0unctions 0or trans0erring the 6&num+er to other exchanges. *n that case2 clearing can +e dela3ed so as to ena+le manual tracing. B#rring ser/ices Aertain t3-es o0 outgoing call can +e +arred in di00erent wa3s2 0or exam-le2 +3 trun$ discrimination. *t is also -ossi+le to +ar s-eci0ied num+ers .such as -remium rate num+ers/ or to de0ine o-en num+ers and +ar the rest. :owever2 as 3et no service exists that +ars certain t3-es o0 incoming call. !o e00ect such call screening2 the su+scri+er has to use the AG*P service or selective call 0orwarding. Standardisation

B.6.2.

*n >uro-e2 >!S* is wor$ing on the standardisation o0 all services in the networ$. !he -ur-ose o0 this wor$ is to determine which services should +e o00ered and to s-eci03 the relevant -rocedures 0or access and control. Un0ortunatel32 -rogress has +een slower than ex-ected. 7an3 o0 the services have +een introduced in several countries2 +ut local ada-tations a+ound2 and some services have +een develo-ed 0or use in a s-eci0ic mar$et. !his has created -ro+lems 0or the manu0acturers o0 telecommunications s3stems and & to some extent & even 0or su+scri+ers. Ser'ice codes

Service codes are used to access and control services via the tele-hone. >!S* has chosen the code 21 .M21M/ 0or ?call 0orwarding unconditional?2 to name one exam-le. *t has also +een agreed that M is used at the +eginning o0 a -rocedure 0or starting or activating a service< N is used at the +eginning o0 a -rocedure 0or disconnecting or deactivating a service< MN is used at the +eginning o0 a -rocedure 0or in"uiries a+out a service< M is used as a -unctuation mar$ in a -rocedure< and N is used to end a -rocedure.
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B.6. 3 e n t r a l i s e d s u ! ! l e m e n t a r / s e r ' i c e

s a n d ' a l u e a d d e d s e r ' i c e s
B.%.3.1 B.%.3.2 B.%.3.3 B.%.3. *N services PS!N&s-eci0ic value&added services Boice and 0ax mail+oxes Aontrolling the services

B.6. .1 IN ser'ices !he range o0 su--lementar3 services has ex-anded considera+l3 as a result o0 the introduction o0 *N services in the PS!N. !he term ?centralised networ$ intelligence? is also used in this context. *N services are availa+le to all su+scri+ers2 including those connected to old exchanges. !o +e a+le to choose among di00erent service o-tions2 all a su+scri+er needs is a $e3-ad tele-hone. Some *N services without o-tions are also availa+le to su+scri+ers with dial tele-hones. Free%hone .the called su+scri+er -a3s 0or the call/ is an exam-le o0 an *N service used mainl3 +3 com-anies.

6nother exam-le is uni/ers#l #ccess num"er9 6 multisite com-an3 is assigned the same access num+er 0or all its +ranch o00ices nationwide. Num"er %ort#"ilit!2 which can also +e im-lemented as a distri+uted service2 is +ecoming increasingl3 im-ortant. 1ull num+er -orta+ilit3 means that the su+scri+er can change o-erators< move within a geogra-hical area2 0or exam-le2 a cit32 or region< or change 0rom one +earer service to another .0or exam-le2 0rom the PS!N to *S5N/

without having to change tele-hone num+ers. B.6. .2 PSTN-s!ecific 'alue-added ser'ices @e -rovide a detailed descri-tion o0 a num+er o0 value&added services in the PS!N in Bolume 12 Aha-ter %2 Section %.3. B.6. . 0oice and fa" mail+o"es

!he answering machine service is 0re"uentl3 used in the 0ixed networ$2 whereas it has -roved im-ractical to connect an answering machine with tele-hones used in the PG7N. 1or this reason2 mo+ile&networ$ o-erators have introduced ?voice mail+oxes?. !he o-erator has a large2 central answering machine to which su+scri+ers can connect as re"uired. Services such as ?call 0orwarding on no re-l3? can +e used to connect the voice mail+ox. Similar s3stems 0or storing 0axes are also availa+le. Boice mail+oxes o00er more services than an ordinar3 answering machine2 and the cost is o0ten ver3 low. !he success o0 this t3-e o0 service in mo+ile networ$s has resulted in PS!N o-erators also o00ering it. Aom+inations with UP! can create 0lexi+le services 0or users who are alwa3s on the move. !his reduces the need 0or user e"ui-ment in the 0orm o0 answering machines and 0axes2 +ecause these 0acilities are -rovided +3 the PS!N in0rastructure. 7oreover2 a 0ax mail+ox o00ers additional advantages. !he su+scri+er can 0etch 0axes received at an3 time and have them -rinted out on the nearest 0ax machine. Boice and 0ax mail+oxes can also +e com+ined with di00erent t3-es o0 retrieval service .such as -aging and automatic calling/ to in0orm the su+scri+er that messages have +een received. !he voice mail+ox service is increasingl3 +eing o00ered in develo-ing countries. Private -ersons or 0amilies su+scri+ing to this service need not have a tele-hone su+scri-tion o0 their own +ut can nevertheless $ee- in touch with a relative who is wor$ing elsewhere2 -erha-s in a 0ar&awa3 countr3. B.6. .% 3ontrollin# the ser'ices *n the PS!N2 the su+scri+er and the networ$ can communicate in several wa3s9 voice mode2 tone signals or -ulses. !he su+scri+er uses his own voice and the tone $e3s .or dial/ on his tele-hone. !he networ$ is e"ui--ed with announcement e"ui-ment to send recorded messages and tone senders 0or tone signals.

Figure B.6.1 Tones #nd /oice mess#ges control the ser/ices !his restricts the user inter0ace 0or services9 *n0ormation to the user is given in the 0orm o0 voice messages. 6nd i0 a user receives an excess o0 in0ormation2 he might not remem+er all o0 it. *n such a case2 the service is not user&0riendl3. !his -ro+lem has +een solved through ?menus?. 6 menu 0irst -rom-ts a user to -ress a $e3 to select the service he wants to use2 a0ter which he is o00ered additional o-tions. 6 limited amount o0 in0ormation in each ?+ranch? ma$es it easier 0or the user to remem+er the alternatives availa+le.

Figure B.6.2 ,enu o%tions in # user(ser/ice di#logue 7an3 s3stems allow users to -ress their o-tion +e0ore the voice message ends. *n this wa32 0re"uent users o0 a service do not have to listen to messages the3 $now +3 heart. !he most modern t3-e o0 control utilises a 0unction called s-eech recognition. 1or exam-le2 i0 3ou sa3 the word ?connect? a0ter the director3 in"uir3 service has given 3ou a su+scri+er8s num+er2 the s3stem will automaticall3 connect 3ou to that num+er.

B.6.% S e r ' i c e i n

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t e r a c t i o n
6 -ro+lem 0acing toda38s PS!N o-erators is that the networ$ was not originall3 designed 0or the wide range o0 services now availa+le. !here is a ris$ that2 in certain situations2 two or more services will interact in a "uite unex-ected manner. !his -henomenon is re0erred to as service interaction .S*/. 6ssume that two services have +een activated 0or a su+scri+er9 ?call 0orwarding on +us3? and ?call waiting?. :ow is the exchange to handle a call attem-t to this su+scri+er i0 he is alread3 engaged in a callR Since the two services contradict each other2 the3 cannot +e executed at the same time.

Figure B.6. +#ll forw#rding or c#ll w#iting@ !o avoid this -ro+lem2 the networ$ o-erator must decide which o0 the two services should have -riorit3. 6nother exam-le9 Aall 0orwarding ma3 create loo-s in the networ$ and cause it to +e totall3 +loc$ed. Get8s assume that 6 has ordered his calls to +e 0orwarded to B2 who lives in another town2 and that B has 0orwarded his calls to 6. *0 there were no control 0unctions and no restrictions2 a call could +e set u- +ac$ and 0orth +etween 6 and B and sei;e all lines +etween the two towns.

Figure B.6.$ 4ll lines "etween two towns #re seiAed 6s countermeasures against this $ind o0 technical hitch2 the o-erator can install a +arring 0unction in the exchange and -rovide the signalling s3stem with s-ecial mechanisms. Both variants are used in toda38s PS!N. !he num+er o0 -ossi+le service com+inations increases ex-onentiall3 as more services are added. !here0ore2 it is di00icult to -redict whether service interaction +etween distri+uted and centralised services is lia+le to occur. >ven i0 onl3 distri+uted su--lementar3 services are involved2 testing all -ossi+le cases is no eas3 tas$.

B.6.& ) ! e r a t o r s > t e l e ! h o n i s t s

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e r ' i c e s
B.%.#.1 !raditional tele-honist services in the PS!N B.%.#.2 New tele-honist services

B.6.&.1 Traditional tele!honist ser'ices in the PSTN !he PS!N has a long tradition o0 tele-honist&handled services. Not so long ago we could not ma$e an international call without the assistance o0 a tele-honist. Aonnecting a -erson&to&-erson call is still a common service -rovided +3 tele-honists. 4ther traditional tele-honist services are9 4"sent(su"scri"er ser/ice !he tele-honist answers calls to an a+sent su+scri+er. +#ll "ooking !he tele-honist connects a call to the desired num+er at the desired time. Person(to(%erson c#ll !he tele-honist ensures that the caller is connected to the -erson he wants to communicate with. Seri#l c#ll !he su+scri+er can as$ the tele-honist to set u- several calls. Tele%hone conference !he tele-honist can set u- a con0erence connection with u- to 3, -artici-ants. )irector! en6uiries ser/ice 7odernised versions o0 this service include recorded messages and s-eech recognition.

B.6.&.2 New tele!honist ser'ices Cecentl32 more and more o-erators have realised how im-ortant tele-honist services are in a world o0 ever&increasing automation. 7an3 callers hang u- when the3 hear an answering&machine message & the3 want to communicate with a human +eing. !hus2 -ersonal answering services are suita+le 0or small +usinesses that cannot a00ord to em-lo3 a tele-honist.

B.6.6 B u s i n e

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s s s e r ' i c e s
B.%.%.1 B.%.%.2 B.%.%.3 B.%.%. B.%.%.# B.%.%.% B.%.%.' Aentrex !ele-hone tra00ic +etween +usiness units Birtual -rivate networ$s 7a$e calls a+road & -a3 when 3ou get home Cemote access to PBE networ$s 7o+ilit3 im-lemented in PBEs @ide area -aging

B.6.6.1 3entre" Networ$ o-erators use the centrex service to simulate a PBE +3 means o0 so0tware installed in the local exchange. !his service was develo-ed in the US +ut is now used in man3 other countries. !he 0ollowing 0eatures ma$e it attractive to small and medium&si;ed +usinesses9 !he customer need not invest in a PBE o0 his own2 nor does he have to +ear the cost o0 o-eration and maintenance. !he o-erator is solel3 res-onsi+le 0or -roviding the necessar3 com-etence as 0ar as exchange 0unctions are concerned. !he customer has access to new services without having to u-grade an existing PBE or +u3 a new one.

Figure B.6.* +entre' stre#mlines "usiness communic#tions

!he customer has a se-arate num+ering -lan 0or internal communication. 6s in an ordinar3 PBE2 a s-ecial num+er .0or exam-le2 ,/ must +e dialled 0or outgoing calls. Aentrex grou-s at di00erent sites can +e interconnected2 in which case s-ecial extension num+ers are used 0or inter&grou- tra00ic. Since switching ta$es -lace in the ordinar3 -u+lic networ$2 the centrex 0unction translates the extension num+er into the actual su+scri+er num+er.

Figure B.6.6 +entre' in two towns 6lthough centrex cannot match the 0eatures o0 the most advanced PBEs2 it o00ers man3 o0 the services -rovided +3 ordinar3 PBEs. >xam-les include9 call -ic$&u-2 which means that an incoming call to a s-eci0ic extension can +e answered +3 another extension< di00erent ringing&signal characteristics to indicate whether a call is internal or dialled 0rom the -u+lic networ$< di00erent ?call waiting? signals to indicate di00erent origins< tele-honist services within the centrex grou- .such as ex-editing a call in -rogress2 trans0erring a call in -rogress and con0erence calls/< de0ining the tele-hone that is to serve as tele-honist2 and changing this de0inition +3 commands or according to a schedule< ena+ling the o-erator to gather statistics 0rom a com-an3 .0or instance2 the ratio o0 internal calls to external2 and the extent to which di00erent services are utilised/< call+ac$ on +us32 and call+ac$ on no answer< and trans0er o0 calls to another extension in the com-an3.

B.6.6.2 Tele!hone traffic +etween +usiness units !ra00ic +etween +usiness units re0ers to communication +etween di00erent o00ices connected to PBEs or to centrex grou-s. !hree +asic tele-hon3 solutions are availa+le9 leased lines< virtual -rivate networ$s .BPN/< and the -u+lic networ$ .the PS!N2 *S5N/.

*n -ea$&tra00ic situations2 the simultaneous use o0 all three solutions might +e the most economical wa3 o0 communicating2 while leased lines are +etter suited 0or low tra00ic2 +ecause charging is +ased on a 0ixed rate.

1or a long time2 leasing lines in the PS!N was the onl3 o-tion 0or a multisite com-an3 that needed to use the -u+lic networ$ 0or internal tele-hone and data tra00ic. Geased lines are still widel3 em-lo3ed2 and although the3 are not de0ined as an *N service the3 lend themselves well to use in com+ination with the *N&+ased BPN service. !he o-erator reserves ca-acit3 in the transmission networ$ and leases this ca-acit3 to customers. 6 circuit can +e run through the exchanges2 or the grou- switch o0 the exchange can set u- a -ermanent connection +etween the in-ut channel and the out-ut channel. Austomers are usuall3 o00ered analog lines and digital n B % $+it=s and 2 7+it=s lines. Some o-erators can o00er higher rates 0rom s-eci0ic -arts o0 the networ$.

Figure B.6.- :e#sed line running through the PSTN of # countr! !here are arguments 0or and against leased lines9 4d/#nt#ges !ransmission "ualit3 is -redicta+le. !he -rice is low -rovided the customer ma$es e00icient use o0 the service. 6vaila+ilit3 is high. )is#d/#nt#ges Setting u- a leased line through the networ$ can ta$e wee$s. !he -rice will +e high i0 the service is underutilised. Gine ca-acit3 is restricted. 0irtual !ri'ate networks

B.6.6.

@e descri+e the BPN service2 which is an alternative or a com-lement to leased lines2 in Bolume 12 Aha-ter %2 Su+section %.2.3. Being +ased on *N2 a BPN is a much more 0lexi+le solution that -ermits more ra-id introduction. *t can also -rovide the com-an3 and the o-erator with valua+le statistics showing2 0or exam-le2 the extent to which services are utilised. @hether or not the BPN service is attractive to com-anies de-ends on the -rice2 +ut the ris$ o0 congestion ma3 also +e a decisive 0actor.

B.6.6.% $ake calls a+road - !a/ when /ou #et home 1or a cou-le o0 3ears now2 several international telecom o-erators have +een o00ering services that ma$e it easier to -hone 0rom a+road. !his a--lies to charging routines as well as to the trou+lesome international -re0ixes. !o use this service2 the su+scri+er calls his home networ$2 states his identit3 and a -ersonal code and dials the num+er he wishes to reach. !he connection is set u- and charged 0or in the home networ$2 and the su+scri+er receives a +ill on which all calls are s-eci0ied. :e will thus +e saved the trou+le o0 using coins or having to -a3 high hotel tari00s. 1or this -ur-ose2 most o-erators have assigned a 1ree-hone num+er to the service in all countries where that t3-e o0 num+er has +een introduced.

Figure B.6.. +#lls m#de #"ro#d #re ch#rged on the tele%hone "ill #t home 6s an alternative2 a user can call a tele-honist in the home countr3 and as$ 0or helsetting u- a connection. !his will wor$ in the same wa3 as the service we have Dust descri+ed & onl3 with that little extra human touch. B.6.6.& =emote access to PB? networks Garge com-anies with extensive -rivate networ$s can use a variant o0 the service descri+ed in the -revious su+section. 6n em-lo3ee calls the com-an38s -rivate networ$ 0rom outside and identi0ies himsel0 +3 dialling a code. 60ter the code has +een received and veri0ied2 the user receives a new dial tone and can ma$e calls within the com-an38s networ$ as i0 he were directl3 connected to it. Both international a++reviated num+ers and the com-an38s leased lines can +e used. !his service is vulnera+le 0rom the -oint o0 view o0 securit3. *0 num+ers and codes get into the wrong hands2 the3 can +e used 0or unauthorised long&distance calls2 resulting in congestion o0 tra00ic as the com-an38s lines are sei;ed. B.6.6.6 $o+ilit/ im!lemented in PB?s 6 data+ase that $ee-s a constant chec$ on ever3 em-lo3ee8s wherea+outs can +e used to route calls to the right address2 regardless o0 whether an em-lo3ee is in his summer cottage2 at the wheel or in the o00ice. !his can +e seen as a variant o0 UP! exce-t that the com-an38s PBE serves as the +ase. Aonse"uentl32 com-anies without a PBE cannot access the service +ut will use UP! in the PS!N.

B.6.6.( 9ide area !a#in# !he wide area -aging .@6P/ service is +ecoming increasingl3 -o-ular. *t is descri+ed in detail in Bolume 12 Aha-ter %. @6P is a networ$ in its own right +ut man3 users sign u- 0or a com+ined @6P and PS!N su+scri-tion. !his means that the3 can use one o0 the ?call 0orwarding? variants to have their calls connected to the -aging receiver.

B.(.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

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*nteracting networ$ elements communicate +3 means o0 signalling. 7an3 generations o0 terminals .es-eciall3 tele-hones/ and tele-hone exchanges2 with var3ing intelligence and communication ca-a+ilit32 have +een designed over the 3ears. .See our descri-tion o0 the situation in the 1)%,s in Aha-ter 12 Section 1.2./ !o all these generations o0 technolog3 must +e added the diversit3 in the area o0 standardisation2 with a large num+er o0 local variants. Alearl32 there0ore2 we cannot -resent even a 0raction o0 the ?histor3 o0 signalling? in this cha-ter. @hat we c#n do2 on the other hand2 is declare that the current trend is towards international harmonisation. !hree $e3 0actors have +een driving this develo-ment9 0irst2 networ$ o-erators want to +e a+le to choose among several su--liers< second2 there is a need 0or short ?time to mar$et?< and third2 di00erent networ$ o-erators need to coo-erate in di00erent roles. 4n the whole2 signalling has develo-ed into -ure data communication +etween the -rocessors o0 the interacting networ$ elements. .:umans are still trusted to serve as -rocessors 0or ordinar3 tele-hones./ !o ma$e it easier to understand the im-ortance o0 signalling2 and its main -rinci-les2 we will 0irst descri+e signalling +etween a su+scri+er and his local exchange and then go on to descri+e signalling +etween exchanges.

!he third case & signalling +etween exchanges and networ$ intelligence nodes & is dealt with in Bolume 12 Aha-ter '2 Section '.(. !he associated signalling +etween su+scri+ers and the local exchange is descri+ed in the 0ollowing.

B.(.2 S u + s c r i + e r s i # n a l l i n #
B.'.2.1 B.'.2.2 B.'.2.3 B.'.2. B.'.2.# B.'.2.% B.'.2.' B.'.2.( B.'.2.)

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Signalling to and 0rom the su+scri+er Signalling 0or calling line identi0ication -resentation 7eter&-ulse signalling Signalling +etween a multi-lexer and the local exchange Signalling +etween an CSS and a local exchange Su+scri+er signalling 0or su--lementar3 services Su+scri+er signalling 0or value&added services Su+scri+er signalling 0or *N services Su+scri+er signalling 0or 0ax

B.(.2.1 Si#nallin# to and from the su+scri+er !o start a tele-hone call2 the 6&su+scri+er li0ts the handset. 6s a result2 the hoo$ switch o0 the tele-hone closes the circuit2 thus ena+ling the local exchange to detect the call attem-t as a direct current on the su+scri+er line.

Figure B.-.1 Su"scri"er sign#lling for # tele%hone c#ll 60ter ma$ing certain chec$s and -re-arations2 the local exchange acts on the call +3 sending a dial tone to the 6&su+scri+er2 who can now continue the set&u- -rocedure +3 dialling the B&su+scri+er8s num+er. *0 a $e3-ad tele-hone is used2 the B&su+scri+er8s num+er is trans0erred in the 0orm o0 5!71 tones generated +3 the caller8s tele-hone. !he 5!71 receiver o0 the local exchange translates the received signals into internal signals that are 0orwarded to the control s3stem. 60ter a connection has +een set u- to the B&su+scri+er8s exchange2 this exchange sends a ringing tone to the 6&su+scri+er and a ringing signal to the B&su+scri+er .-rovided2 o0 course2 that the B&su+scri+er8s tele-hone is 0ree/. *0 B answers2 the two -arties can start communicating. !o avoid sei;ing more e"ui-ment than necessar32 other in0ormation tones & +us32 congestion and interce-tion & are sent to the 6& su+scri+er 0rom his own exchange. !he signalling e"ui-ment also has a tone sender that sends 5!71 signals to the su+scri+ers< 0or exam-le2 i0 the B&su+scri+er uses the AG*P service. *n other words2 the su+scri+er connection carries hoo$&state in0ormation2 5!71 signals2 in0ormation tones2 ringing signals and the actual tra00ic .voice2 0ax or data/. B.(.2.2 Si#nallin# for callin# line identification !resentation 6 s-ecial dis-la3 is connected to su+scri+er lines that use the AG*P service. !he 6& su+scri+er8s num+er is sent 0rom the local exchange +e0ore the ringing signal. !he signalling -rotocol 0or num+er trans0er is usuall3 a com+ination o0 5!71 and -ole reversal. Be0ore the 0irst ringing signal is sent2 the B&su+scri+er8s AG*P 0unction is

activated +3 the local exchange reversing the -olarit3 0or the 5A 0eed on the su+scri+er line. !hen the 6&num+er is sent in the 0orm o0 5!71 signals to the B& su+scri+er8s dis-la32 where it is dis-la3ed and stored in memor3. 4nl3 then is the ringing signal sent to the B&su+scri+er. Phase&shi0t signalling is another method used 0or AG*P. 6s 3et2 no common standard has +een de0ined 0or signalling to terminals that use this service. B.(.2. $eter-!ulse si#nallin#

!he local exchange sends meter -ulses to call meters installed at the su+scri+er and to -a3 -hones. Get8s stud3 the call meter as an exam-le. !he exchange has se-arate e"ui-ment 0or -ulse sending. >ver3 unit charged mar$ing recorded +3 the exchange results in the generation o0 an outgoing -ulse. !he su+scri+er lines re-resent one o0 the conductors2 while the other is earth. !he su+scri+er terminal has similar e"ui-ment 0or receiving the -ulses2 which & a0ter recti0ication & activate a counter. !he older #, :; -ulse rate is usuall3 re-laced +3 the method illustrated in Figure B.-.22 which is +ased on sending 12 $:; or 1% $:; -ulses2 that is2 a+ove the voice +and. .No common standard is availa+le./ !he same -rinci-le .using the same 0re"uencies/ a--lies to signalling +etween an exchange and a -a3 -hone.

Figure B.-.2 B#sic meter(%ulse tr#nsfer B.(.2.% Si#nallin# +etween a multi!le"er and the local e"chan#e 6 2 7+it=s lin$ .*!U&! Cecommendation F.',3/ is used 0or transmission +etween the su+scri+er multi-lexer and the local exchange. 6 s-ecial signalling time slot .usuall3 time slot No. 1%/ and the voice time slot o0 each su+scri+er are used 0or su+scri+er signalling.

Figure B.-. Sign#lling "etween multi%le'er #nd loc#l e'ch#nge *n the direction o0 the local exchange2 the signalling time slot is used to in0orm the local exchange a+out the hoo$ state .o00 hoo$ or on hoo$/ o0 the connected su+scri+ers. *t is also used 0or trans0er o0 the B&num+er i0 the su+scri+er has a dial tele-hone. *n this case2 the digits are sent on the analog su+scri+er line in the 0orm o0 -ulses .timed +rea$s in the 5A 0eed/. *n the su+scri+er multi-lexer2 ever3 digit is translated into a +inar3 code which is trans0erred in the signalling time slot. 1or -a3 -hones .coin&o-erated or card&o-erated/2 the signalling time slot is also used 0or sending charging in0ormation. *n the direction o0 the su+scri+er2 the signalling time slot is used 0or ordering the su+scri+er multi-lexer to generate and send a ringing signal to the called su+scri+er or to trans0er -ulses 0or -rivate call meters. *n man3 cases2 the signalling time slot has also +een used 0or the trans0er o0 internal o-eration and maintenance in0ormation +etween the multi-lexer and the local exchange. No international standards exist 0or this t3-e o0 in0ormation2 ma$ing it di00icult 0or o-erators to +u3 e"ui-ment 0rom di00erent su--liers. !he new >!S* B#.1 standard 0or the inter0ace +etween the su+scri+er multi-lexer and the su+scri+er stage also covers signalling and does not allow an3 o-eration and maintenance in0ormation in the signalling time slot. B#.1 .which corres-onds to the US standard !C,,(/ is descri+ed in Aha-ter 2. !he voice time slot is used 0or trans0erring address in0ormation .the B&num+er or su--lementar3 services/ directl3 to the local exchange i0 the su+scri+er has a $e3-ad tele-hone with 5!71 signalling. *n other words2 the address in0ormation is detected +3 the local exchange. *n0ormation tones .dial tone2 +us3 tone and the li$e/ are also generated in the local exchange and sent in the voice time slot. 6 su+scri+er multi-lexer can also +e ada-ted to +e a+le to connect analog PBEs. Su+section '.3. deals with PBE signalling. B.(.2.& Si#nallin# +etween an =SS and a local e"chan#e Signalling +etween a remote su+scri+er stage and a local exchange can +e com-ared to internal signalling +etween a su+scri+er stage in the local exchange and the -rocessor s3stem o0 that exchange. !hus2 internal signalling .so0tware signalling/ is

used 0or all communication related to events that occur or measures that are ta$en in the su+scri+er stage. Signalling +etween a remote su+scri+er stage and a local exchange can +e +ased on di00erent signalling conce-ts. SS' is a t3-ical exam-le. 6 time slot in a 2 7+it=s connection is reserved 0or this signalling. >ven the address in0ormation .the B& num+er/ is trans0erred in the time slot 0or signalling & not in the time slot 0or the voice connection2 as in signalling 0rom a multi-lexer. >!S* standard B#.2 0or the inter0ace +etween a remote su+scri+er stage and the connection to the local exchange includes signalling. 6s with B#.12 no o-eration and maintenance in0ormation is allowed in the inter0ace. B#.2 .which corres-onds to the US standard !C3,3/ is descri+ed in Aha-ter 2. B.(.2.6 Su+scri+er si#nallin# for su!!lementar/ ser'ices Su--lementar3 services2 such as a++reviated dialling2 call 0orwarding and call+ac$2 are availa+le to su+scri+ers connected to digital local exchanges. !he su+scri+er usuall3 activates these services +3 li0ting the handset and then -ressing a ?star& digits&hash? com+ination. 6lso2 the register +utton .C/ is used2 0or exam-le2 when alternating +etween calls and 0or three&-art3 calls. !he s3stem usuall3 con0irms the execution o0 a service +3 sending a tone or a recorded message. !his means that a su--lementar3 service is activated +3 direct 5!71 signalling +etween the su+scri+er and the local exchange. Pressing the register +utton results in a short +rea$. !he e"ui-ment o0 the line inter0ace circuit that senses the hoo$ state also receives this signal. B.(.2.( Su+scri+er si#nallin# for 'alue-added ser'ices !he tele-hone is an extremel3 e00icient tool 0or a su+scri+er who wishes to send a message to a com-uter .calling in sic$2 0or exam-le/ or ma$e a 0inancial transaction. !he PS!N treats such services as an3 other tele-hone connection9 *t sets u- the connection a0ter the su+scri+er has dialled the num+er o0 the service. @hen the call is answered .+3 announcement e"ui-ment connected to the com-uter handling the service/2 direct contact with the com-uter is esta+lished. !he announcement e"ui-ment -rom-ts the su+scri+er to state2 0or exam-le2 a -ersonal identit3 num+er and other in0ormation. !he $e3-ad tele-hone8s 5!71 signalling is the tool used 0or trans0erring in0ormation 0rom the su+scri+er directl3 to the com-uter over the esta+lished connection. 6nother t3-ical exam-le o0 a value&added service is tele+an$ing2 which allows us to ma$e +an$ transactions +3 means o0 a $e3-ad tele-hone. @hen we have esta+lished contact with the +an$ +3 dialling a -redetermined num+er2 announcement e"ui-ment tells us what transactions are availa+le and which +uttons to -ress 0or accessing them. !hen we ma$e our transactions +3 using the $e3-ad o0 the tele-hone. @e communicate directl3 with the +an$8s com-uter +3 exchanging 5!71 signals over the esta+lished tele-hone connection.

Services o0 this t3-e are usuall3 classi0ied as value&added services +ecause the3 are not -rovided +3 the PS!N and do not 0all under the heading o0 voice transmission. !he3 are rather a 0orm o0 tele-hone&o-erated2 sim-le data communication. B.(.2.1 Su+scri+er si#nallin# for IN ser'ices 6s 0ar as su+scri+er signalling is concerned2 access to *N services is regarded as regular call set&u- o-erations. 6 $e3-ad tele-hone with 5!71 signalling is used. 6lso2 voice recognition is +eing develo-ed and should grow. .See also Aha-ter %2 Su+section %.3.2./ B.(.2.9 Su+scri+er si#nallin# for fa" !o 0ax a document we dial the B&su+scri+er8s num+er in the usual manner. !he num+er is tem-oraril3 stored in the memor3 o0 the 0ax machine and shown on a dis-la3. *0 the num+er is correct2 we -ress the S>N5 +utton to trans0er the num+er +3 5!71 signalling to the local exchange. !he set&u- -rocedure along the -ath to the B&su+scri+er8s line is exactl3 the same as 0or an ordinar3 tele-hone call. @hen the called 0ax machine answers2 the two machines exchange a num+er o0 -arameters .resolution and so 0orth/ and then determine the trans0er rate. !his -rocedure2 called ?handsha$ing?2 is -er0ormed +3 the modems o0 the two 0ax machines. 6 0ax machine o0 the Frou- 3 t3-e can have a +uilt&in modem +ased on the B.2) standard and & to +e a+le to co-e with -oor transmission "ualit3 & a modem +ased on B.2' ter with automatic +it&rate ada-tation. @ith this e"ui-ment2 the trans0er rate will +e u- to )%,, +it=s< -oor transmission "ualit3 can reduce that 0igure to (,, or 2 ,, +it=s. :igh&s-eed Frou- 3 0ax machines are also availa+le. 5uring the handsha$ing -hase2 the "ualit3 o0 the connection is chec$ed2 and the highest -ossi+le trans0er rate is selected. Such a 0ax machine also has a modem o0 the B.21 t3-e .3,, +it=s/ 0or use during the initial handsha$ing -hase. *0 the B&su+scri+er8s 0ax is engaged2 a +us3 tone is sent to the 6&su+scri+er8s 0ax. 7ost machines are e"ui--ed with a 0unction that redials the num+er at regular intervals until contact is esta+lished. 4ne -age is transmitted at a time2 with the receiving machine ac$nowledging each -age. !ransmission can +e interru-ted +3 serious transmission errors< 0or exam-le2 i0 the receiving machine 0ails to ac$nowledge a -age. !he transmission is terminated +3 the receiving machine when it ac$nowledges recei-t o0 the last -age. Both su+scri+ers8 0axes are then disconnected2 and the connection is cleared as 0or a normal tele-hone conversation.

Figure B.-.$ Su"scri"er sign#lling for # f#' connection

B.(. I n t e r e " c h a n

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# e s i # n a l l i n # i n t h e P S T N
B.'.3.1 B.'.3.2 B.'.3.3 B.'.3. >xchange e"ui-ment Ahannel&associated signalling Aommon channel signalling with SS' Signalling +etween a PBE and a local exchange

*0 more than one local exchange is involved in setting u- a connection or in activating a su--lementar3 service2 these exchanges must interchange in0ormation. Several hundred s3stems 0or interexchange signalling are availa+le. 7ost o0 them were develo-ed 0or national use onl32 whereas a 0ew have +een acce-ted and de0ined +3 the *!U&! or 6NS* as standardised signalling s3stems. 3hannel-associated si#nallin# 7ost o0 the s3stems 0or interexchange signalling are +ased on the -rinci-le o0 channel&associated signalling .A6S/. .See Bolume 12 Aha-ter './ Signalling s3stems No. #2 C1 and C2 are exam-les o0 A6S. A6S is divided into line signalling and register signalling. !his division is also re0lected +3 se-arate signalling 0unctions in the exchange.

Gine signalling handles the exchange o0 in0ormation showing the line state o0 the trun$s +etween two exchanges2 such as sei;ure2 answer2 clear 0orward and clear +ac$. !his routine in0ormation is used in the same wa3 0or all connections. Cegister signalling handles the exchange o0 routing in0ormation .B&num+er2 6& categor32 B&status2 and the li$e/ and is thus uni"ue to each call. 3ommon channel si#nallin# !he most modern 0orm o0 interexchange signalling on circuit&switched connections is common channel signalling .AAS/. SS-3 which "elongs to this c#tegor!3 is %redomin#nt in modern digit#l networks. 0See ;olume 13 +h#%ter -.1 AAS re"uires a se-arate signalling networ$< that is2 the signals have a +earer service o0 their own. Because the signalling networ$ executes this +earer service2 it can +e accessed +3 users other than the PS!N. 4ther t3-ical users are *S5N and the PG7N. !he networ$ is descri+ed in P#rt 7 ( The sign#lling network. Information interchan#e 6ll signalling s3stems2 regardless o0 t3-e2 transmit three main categories o0 in0ormation +etween exchanges9 in0ormation 0or set&u-2 su-ervision and clearing< service&related in0ormation .such as call 0orwarding and call+ac$2 as well as charging/< and in0ormation showing change in status .such as congestion in the switching e"ui-ment o0 neigh+ouring exchanges or in the transmission networ$/.

B.(. .1 6"chan#e e4ui!ment !here are three main t3-es o0 interexchange signalling9 analog connections .trun$ circuits/ using A6S< digital connections using A6S< and digital connections using AAS.

A6S is mostl3 used 0or connecting analog exchanges still in the networ$. .nalo# trunk circuits *n old&t3-e networ$s2 a trun$ circuit could +e sei;ed 0rom one direction onl3 .one& wa3 sei;ure/. @ith the introduction o0 +etter signalling methods2 the trun$ circuits could +e treated as two&wa3 circuits allowing sei;ure 0rom +oth directions. *n Figure B.-.*3exchange 6 and exchange B are interconnected +3 three trun$ circuits. !run$ circuit 1 is intended 0or sei;ure 0rom 6 to B2 trun$ circuit 2 0or sei;ure 0rom B to 62 and trun$ circuit 3 can +e sei;ed in either direction.

Figure B.-.* SeiAure of #n#log trunk circuits !he signalling e"ui-ment in the exchanges is re0erred to as outgoing trun$ circuit2 incoming trun$ circuit and +oth&wa3 trun$ circuit2 as shown in Figure B.-.* . ,i#ital connections @e will now add two digital -aths +etween the exchanges in Figure B.-.6. !he 0irst one is a 32&channel PA7 s3stem with A6S. !ime slot 1% is used 0or the line signalling o0 the 3, voice channels. Aode senders and code receivers are connected to send and receive register signals. !he second one2 too2 is a 32&channel PA7 s3stem +ut with AAS. Signalling and tra00ic need not use the same -ath +ut2 in this case2 a dedicated time slot on the same PA7 lin$ is used. !his signalling is handled +3 a signalling terminal in each exchange which is alwa3s connected to the dedicated time slot. !he PA7 s3stems are connected +3 means o0 a -rinted +oard assem+l3 called exchange terminal circuit .>!A/.

Figure B.-.6 shows a line unit with all these com-onents 0or signalling on analog as well as digital circuits.

B.-.6 :ine unit with different t!%es of termin#tion B.(. .2 3hannel-associated si#nallin# 8ine si#nallin# !ra00ic in time slots 1&1# and 1'&31 in a 2 7+it=s PA7 circuit uses time slot 1% 0or line signalling. !wo voice time slots at a time can send line signals in time slot 1%. !he use o0 time slot 1% is shared +3 the tra00ic time slots in a 1%&0rame continuous se"uence .one multi0rame/. *n the 0irst 0rame2 time slot 1% is used to indicate the +eginning o0 a new multi0rame .multi0rame alignment/. !hus2 1# 0rames will +e needed to allow all voice time slots to send line signals. Aonse"uentl32 ever3 voice channel has 2 $+it=s 0or the transmission o0 signalling in0ormation. .>ach time slot corres-onds to % $+it=s. 4ne time slot in ever3 1% 0rames gives % =1% I $+it=s. !wo channels at a time share the signalling s-ace o0 a time slot2 which gives $+it=s = 2 I 2 $+it=s 0or each channel./

Figure B.-.- :ine sign#lling in time slot 16

Note that line signalling 0or 1.# 7+it=s PA7 circuits .2 &channel s3stems/ is designed di00erentl3. 4n these circuits2 the least signi0icant +it o0 each voice time slot o0 ever3 six 0rames is used 0or line signalling. *n other words2 these s3stems have no s-ecial time slot 0or line signalling. !he trans0er rate in digital transmission is reduced to #% $+it=s2 since onl3 seven o0 the eight +its are relia+le .'=( C % I #%/. :owever2 the least signi0icant +it in ever3 six 0rames has no e00ect on the -erceived voice "ualit3 in a normal tele-hone conversation. =e#ister si#nallin# Cegister signals can +e transmitted in di00erent wa3s2 +ut the most common method is +ased on multi&0re"uenc3 signalling2 in which two out o02 sa32 six 0re"uencies are com+ined to 0orm 1# di00erent signals re-resenting digits or categories. !he exchange e"ui-ment 0or this s3stem is code senders and code receivers. !he conce-t2 which was originall3 intended 0or analog exchanges and networ$s2 has +een develo-ed into a digital version 0or use in networ$s with digital exchanges and digital transmission. !he register signals are sent and received +3 the code senders and code receivers in the time slots reserved 0or each call. !he code senders and code receivers constitute a common resource in an exchange2 which means that the3 are connected in a given voice time slot onl3 during the register&signalling -hase. !his corres-onds to an average holding time o0 two to 0our seconds -er connection. !he holding time will de-end on three 0actors9 how 0ast the su+scri+er dials the num+er2 the num+er o0 digits +eing dialled and whether the e"ui-ment is used as a code sender or code receiver.

Figure B.-.. +4S for # trunk c#ll 6 common register signalling s3stem is 71A C22 a standard de0ined +3 the *!U&!. 7ulti&0re"uenc3 com-elled .71A/ signalling involves the sender re"uesting an ac$nowledgement 0rom the receiver +e0ore it sto-s sending one -air o0 tones and starts sending the next -air. !he receiver sends its ac$nowledgement a0ter it has received the -air o0 tones 0or 2,, ms. !his means that the method allows a maximum o0 0ive digits to +e sent -er second. B.(. . 3ommon channel si#nallin# with SS(

*n SS'2 the -rotocol called !UP .corres-onding to la3ers &' in the 4S* model/ contains all the signals re"uired to handle tele-hone connections in the national networ$. !oda32 these connections in the PS!N can also +e handled +3 *SUP. !he -rotocols communicate with tra00ic&anal3sing and tra00ic&handling -rograms in the exchange2 which initiate and receive the necessar3 signals. !he -rotocols also communicate with the message trans0er -art .7!P/ in SS'. 7!P carries the signalling -ac$ets and is res-onsi+le 0or error&0ree trans0er o0 signal messages +etween two exchanges. 7!P is descri+ed in P#rt 7 ( The sign#lling network. 3all set-u! +ased on the tele!hon/ user !art

@hen the 6&su+scri+er has li0ted the handset2 received a dial tone and started dialling2 a B&num+er anal3sis is initiated in the local exchange. *0 the anal3sis shows that the call is to +e connected to another exchange2 an outgoing trun$ circuit is selected. Figure B.-.9 illustrates the -rocedure2 assuming SS' is used in the trun$ networ$. !he -rocess +egins with the initial address message .*67/2 which usuall3 contains the com-lete B&num+er2 the 6&su+scri+er8s categor3 and the identit3 o0 the voice channel to +e used. *n0ormation needed 0or the control o0 echo su--ressors is also included. !he receiving exchange res-onds +3 sending an address com-lete message2 when the B&su+scri+er has +een identi0ied and can receive the incoming call. *0 the B&su+scri+er has a 0ree line and answers the call2 an answer charge message is sent to the 6&su+scri+er8s exchange2 which starts the charging -rocess. 6 connection has now +een set u-2 and the su+scri+ers can start communicating. *0 the 6&su+scri+er re-laces the handset2 a clear 0orward signal initiates clearing o0 the connection2 ac$nowledged +3 the release guard signal.

Figure B.-.9 SS- sign#lling for # trunk c#ll "etween two e'ch#nges 0T9P1

*0 the B&su+scri+er re-laces the handset 0irst2 a line signal & clear +ac$ & is sent +ac$wards through the networ$. !his signal starts time su-ervision in the charging exchange .usuall3 68s local exchange/. !he su-ervisor3 -eriod is normall3 ), seconds2 allowing the B&su+scri+er to change tele-hones or connect the current one to another Dac$. @hen the su-ervisor3 -eriod ex-ires2 the connection is cleared. *0 the 6&su+scri+er also re-laces his handset within ), seconds2 the connection is cleared immediatel3. B.(. .% Si#nallin# +etween a PB? and a local e"chan#e 7an3 di00erent signalling s3stems are used +etween PBEs and local exchanges. !his is +ecause a PBE can +e either analog or digital and -rovide an3thing 0rom +asic to ver3 so-histicated 0unctions and services. 6 PBE is connected to a -u+lic local exchange +3 outgoing and incoming circuits. *ncoming circuits are o0ten re"uired to -ermit direct dialling&in2 which means a su+scri+er can dial a PBE extension num+er 0rom the -u+lic networ$ and +e connected directl3 without the assistance o0 a tele-honist. 1rom the 0unctional -oint o0 view & and not least with regard to signalling & a PBE can there0ore +e com-ared to a small local exchange. 4rdinaril32 a PBE and its local exchange communicate through some 0orm o0 interexchange signalling. 71A&C2 is one o0 the signalling s3stems em-lo3ed. 1or analog PBEs o0 an older t3-e2 5!71 or decadic -ulsing can also +e used. 4ther -rotocols 0or signalling +etween PBEs are digital -rivate networ$ signalling s3stem No. 1 and the O&-oint signalling s3stem. SS' can serve as a +earer o0 these signalling -rotocols through the -u+lic networ$. 47A .o-eration and maintenance centre/< and N7A .networ$ management centre/.
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B.1.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

6 large -ortion o0 PS!N e"ui-ment .such as transmission e"ui-ment2 the signalling networ$ and the *N -lat0orm/ is shared +3 the PS!N and other networ$s. !he PS!N2 too2 can ma$e use o0 the two telecommunications management networ$ .!7N/ and sim-le networ$ management -rotocol .SN7P/ standards 0or centralised o-eration and maintenance. But there are also PS!N&s-eci0ic entities9 the su+scri+er data+ase2 the charging 0unctions and the 0unctions that handle switching within the exchange and through the networ$. 6 t3-ical networ$ architecture with centralised o-eration and maintenance is shown in Figure B...1. !he 0ollowing a++reviations are used in the 0igure9 4SS .o-erations su--ort s3stem/< 47A .o-eration and maintenance centre/< and N7A .networ$ management centre/.

Figure B...1 +entr#lised o%er#tion #nd m#inten#nce in the PSTN

B.1.2 ) ! e r a t i o n

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a n d m a i n t e n a n c e f u n c t i o n s
B.(.2.1 B.(.2.2 B.(.2.3 B.(.2. 4-erational 0unctions 7aintenance 0unctions Aontrol s3stem 0unctions 1unctions 0or networ$ su-ervision

6 general descri-tion o0 o-eration and maintenance .4V7/ 0unctions is given in Bolume 12 Aha-ter (. PS!N exchanges contain a num+er o0 0unctions aimed at 0acilitating 4V7 wor$. >xam-les include e"ui-ment 0or line measurement .test access/ and e"ui-ment 0or rearranging connections .distri+ution 0rames/. !he com-uterised control s3stem o0 a modern exchange is connected to an in-ut=out-ut .*=4/ inter0ace 0or communication with 4V7 -ersonnel. !erminals are connected to the *=4 s3stem to allow command&initiated execution o0 4V7 0unctions. 6ll o-erations that can +e -er0ormed 0rom these local terminals can also +e remotel3 controlled 0rom s-ecial 47As2 which are connected to the *=4 s3stem o0 the exchange via a data networ$2 such as E.2#.

B...2 +onnecting # termin#l for o%er#tion #nd m#inten#nce B.1.2.1 )!erational functions 4-erational 0unctions can +e divided into two categories9 0unctions 0or gathering statistics and administrative 0unctions. Statistical data are re"uired when -lanning a networ$. !he3 answer a num+er o0 "uestions2 such as9 1rom where and to whom do su+scri+ers callR @hat are the holding times 0or di00erent t3-es o0 e"ui-mentR @hat -ercentage o0 the tra00ic on a given circuit will encounter congestionR :ow man3 calls are involved in an *N serviceR @hat *N services are -o-ularR

6dministration is a collective term 0or 0unctions that ena+le the networ$ o-erator to add2 change or remove data. !he3 also allow an o-erator to order -rintouts showing the current state o09 the su"scri"er d#t#"#se where the o-erator can add or remove su+scri+ers2 change the availa+ilit3 o0 services2 introduce restriction classes and alter su+scri+er categories< trunk circuits #nd sign#lling where the o-erator can connect or disconnect PA7 lin$s2 alter signalling s3stems and add signalling e"ui-ment< grou% switch #nd switch control where the o-erator can add or remove num+er series2 alter routing alternatives and set u- leased lines< and 2N ser/iceswhere the o-erator can alter existing services and introduce new ones2 add new users2 alter menus and messages2 and so 0orth.

Needless to sa32 the networ$ o-erator must +e a+le to ma$e modi0ications while the networ$ is in service and without inter0ering with tra00ic. !his is im-ortant in the PS!N2 +ecause the networ$ is circuit&switched and carries isochronous services that are sensitive to inter0erence. B.1.2.2 $aintenance functions

!he introduction o0 SPA exchanges allowed o-erators to automate man3 maintenance 0unctions. *n most cases2 the networ$ o-erator sets limit values 0or su-ervisor3 0unctions9 an isolated 0ault that does not distur+ tra00ic need not trigger an alarm2 +ut -ersonnel are alerted i0 things get worse. 6larms are usuall3 divided into di00erent urgenc3 classes. Programs are -rovided 0or trou+leshooting2 0ault diagnosis and2 -ossi+l32 0ault correction. :ardware 0aults are isolated2 and 0ault3 units are ta$en out o0 o-eration.

Figure B... Su%er/ision of su"scri"er lines #nd trunk circuits Bital 0unctions are alwa3s +ac$ed u- +3 some 0orm o0 redundanc3. 1or exam-le2 the hardware o0 the grou- switch can +e du-licated. *n other cases2 such as SS' signalling2 alternative routes can +e -rovided. Su-ervision o0 su+scri+er lines and trun$ circuits are im-ortant maintenance 0unctions. S-ecial su-ervisor3 e"ui-ment is -rovided 0or international trun$ circuits +ecause the3 extend long distances2 some via su+marine ca+le or satellite lin$. Figure B... illustrates a 0ew su-ervisor3 0unctions. !est e"ui-ment connected to the exchanges is also used in su-ervision. B3 assigning such e"ui-ment a B&num+er2 maintenance -ersonnel can call it 0rom other -arts o0 the countr3 to test the networ$8s in&service -er0ormance and transmission "ualit3. B.1.2. 3ontrol s/stem functions

*n certain circumstances2 the control s3stem must have access to s-ecial 4V7 0unctions9 6 0ault in the control s3stem must not cause a sto--age in the exchange. !his is -revented +3 the o-erator -roviding hardware redundanc32 se-arate

control s3stems 0or diagnostics in serious situations2 +ac$u- 0unctions 0or so0tware and other contingenc3 measures. !he control s3stem must never get overloaded. 1unctions that limit the total -rocessor load when it a--roaches 1,,J are availa+le. *n such a situation2 some su+scri+ers ma3 not receive a dial tone when the3 li0t the handset. 6 s3stem 0or setting -riorities is mandator3. @hen serious 0aults occur2 essential 0unctions must have higher -riorit3 than tra00ic 0unctions. *n normal o-eration2 tra00ic must ta$e -riorit3 over statistics collection. *t must +e -ossi+le to correct 0aults and u-grade -rograms and data during o-eration. !his re"uirement can +e satis0ied +3 hardware redundanc3. *n a distri+uted s3stem other -rocessors will ta$e over. *n the case o0 a central& -rocessor s3stem2 the -rocessors can +e du-licated2 so that the two central -rocessors wor$ in -arallel. 6nother solution is an o-erating s3stem which -ermits the simultaneous use o0 two versions o0 the same -rogram and which has 0unctions 0or -hasing out the old version a0ter the new one has ta$en over all o-erational 0unctions.

B.1.2.% -unctions for network su!er'ision !he state o0 the home exchange is not the onl3 o+Dect o0 su-ervision. !ra00ic originating in the exchange must also +e su-ervised to -ermit detection and correction o0 0aults in other nodes. Several -arameters are measured9 num+er o0 call attem-ts .sei;ures/ -er voice channel and hour< the -ercentage o0 tra00ic that meets with congestion2 in the home exchange or 0urther along the switching -ath< and the ratio o0 the num+er o0 call attem-ts to the num+er o0 answers.

!he o-erator sets limit values 0or the -arameters used2 and the s3stem ta$es action as soon as a limit value is exceeded .or not reached/. 6 high -ercentage o0 congestion or a low -ercentage o0 answers indicates the -resence o0 -ro+lems in the networ$ .such as a +ro$en PA7 lin$ or an overloaded exchange/. 6lerting the maintenance -ersonnel and waiting 0or them to alter the routing ta+les manuall3 in ever3 exchange would ta$e at least a cou-le o0 minutes. *nstead2 the o-erator -rograms alternative routing ta+les 0rom the +eginning2 thus allowing the exchange to activate them automaticall3 in a 0ew seconds. !ime slot , in the PA7 0rame is used 0or 0rame alignment and one other tas$9 to conve3 in0ormation relating to the status o0 the nodes and other networ$ management data. !he time slot is used alternatel3 & that is2 in ever3 other 0rame & 0or 0rame alignment and 4V7 in0ormation.

Figure B...$ 2nform#tion in time slot 0

B.9.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

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1or a long time2 the PS!N was the onl3 telecommunications networ$. 6s time went +32 other networ$s were added2 mainl3 +ecause the PS!N8s #"ilities were not #de6u#te to the dem#nds for 6u#lit!3 c#%#cit! #nd function#lit!. !his has led to a growing need 0or interwor$ing +etween networ$s. 6ctuall32 several 0actors have contri+uted to ma$ing it a $e3 issue9 !he PS!N is o-timised 0or voice connections and su--lementar3 tele-hon3 services. !he new networ$s that have +een develo-ed interact with the PS!N and sometimes even use it as a trans-ort networ$. 6s a result o0 recent deregulation2 most mar$ets are served +3 several o-erators.
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B.9.2 I n t e r w o r k i n # + e t

w e e n o ! e r a t o r s
B.).2.1 6ccounting

7an3 countries are now in the middle o0 a -rocess aimed at li+eralising their PS!Ns. !he traditional o-erators have owned all -arts o0 the existing access networ$ .dominated +3 -aired ca+le/ and the trans-ort networ$. Some o0 these mono-olies have +een s-lit into a networ$ o-erator and a service -rovider. *n the US2 which has a long histor3 o0 li+eralisation2 the -ower0ul 6!V! was s-lit u+ecause its mono-ol3 -osition violated the Un0air Aom-etition 6ct. !oda32 several com-anies o-erate trans-ort networ$s in the US2 and su+scri+er service is divided into regions. !his situation necessitates the esta+lishment o0 general rules and standards 0or -h3sical inter0aces and signalling and 0or handling emergenc3 calls and the li$e. *n man3 countries2 three o00icial +odies are involved in li+eralisation9 a -ostal and telecommunications authorit3< an anti&trust agenc3< and a government authorit3 0or allocating 0re"uencies.

6nother area that re"uires interwor$ing +etween networ$s is interconnection o0 -rivate and -u+lic networ$s2 +rie0l3 descri+ed in Aha-ter #2 !run$ and access networ$s2 and in Aha-ter '2 Signalling. Uet another area concerns the interconnection o0 networ$s that a--l3 di00erent standards< 0or instance2 North 6merican and >uro-ean networ$s. .See Aha-ter #./ B.9.2.1 .ccountin# 6ccounting means +alancing di00erent o-erators8 revenue and ex-ense 0lows. !he accounting 0unction has long +een used in international tra00ic +ut is now also re"uired at the national level. 6ccounts are settled with the hel- o0 counters which record the 0ollowing data 0or ever3 destination9

num+er o0 calls< total duration o0 calls< and total num+er o0 charging -ulses.

!he reading o0 counters and accounting vis&K&vis other administrations ta$e -lace at regular2 agreed intervals. *n Bolume 12 Aha-ter )2 we discuss some o0 the -ro+lems that ma3 arise when entering into such agreements. 6cce-ted standards govern the traditional settlement o0 accounts +etween international o-erators.

Figure B.9.1 Settlement of #ccounts in intern#tion#l tr#ffic

B.9. T r a f f i c + e t w e e n + e a r

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e r n e t w o r k s
B.).3.1 !ele-hon3 B.).3.2 1ax and data tra00ic

B.9. .1 Tele!hon/ Boice tra00ic can +e coded in di00erent wa3s in di00erent networ$s. :ere we will use FS7 to exem-li03 a mo+ile networ$ with digital access. Boice coding in FS7 gives 13 $+it=s .or hal0 that 0igure/2 which must +e converted into % $+it=s to allow switching in the PS!N. !he FS7 networ$ -er0orms this code conversion. *n *S5N2 voice tra00ic is usuall3 coded in the same wa3 as in the PS!N. B.9. .2 -a" and data traffic *n the handsha$ing -rocedure in 0ax tra00ic2 the sending and receiving terminals agree on a maximum common +it rate. *S5N has larger ca-acit32 and PG7N standards usuall3 have smaller ca-acit3 than that -rovided 0or 0ax communication in the PS!N. But it is the tas$ o0 the terminals & not the networ$ & to ma$e the necessar3 adDustments. *n data tra00ic2 di00erent t3-es o0 interconnection can +e used. !he PS!N su+scri+er uses a modem that -rovides a certain ca-acit3 on a line that is either dialled u- or leased. !hen2 dedicated PA7 lin$s interconnect the PS!N and the data networ$. *0 the data networ$ is -ac$et&switched2 an ada-ting 0unction in the 0orm o0 a -ac$et assem+l3=disassem+l3 will +e installed at the connection -oint o0 that networ$. :ence2 as 0or 0ax tra00ic the PS!N does not -er0orm an3 adDustment 0or data tra00ic. Not sur-risingl32 *nternet access via the PS!N is a remar$a+le growth area 0or this t3-e o0 interwor$ing. *ndividuals and small +usinesses can +u3 their su+scri-tions through a com-an3 that has a server connected to the *nternet. !he com-an3 has a modem -ool that connects incoming calls to this *nternet server. !he ca-acit3 o0 a connection de-ends on the modem ca-acit3 at the su+scri+er and in the modem -ool. 6s long as a su+scri+er is connected to the *nternet via his tele-hone line2 an3 incoming call attem-t will result in a +us3 tone. 4ne wa3 o0 solving this -ro+lem is to connect conversion e"ui-ment through the grou- switch2 which a--lies FS7 coding

o0 the voice tra00ic. 6 com-uter with micro-hone2 louds-ea$er and the necessar3 so0tware can then +e used as a tele-hone while the modem is connected to the *nternet. !he tele-hone connection is digital and uses onl3 13 $+it=s o0 the total modem ca-acit3. !his solution is also treated in P#rt < ( The 2nternet.

B.9.% I n t e # r a t i o n w i t h I S , N a n d t h e P 8 $ N

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1rom the outset2 the *S5N standard was designed to allow this networ$ to +e -h3sicall3 +ased on the PS!N. PG7N standards 0orm the +asis o0 se-arate networ$s2 +ut some areas are common to mo+ile networ$s and the PS!N. !his means that the

networ$s can no longer +e regarded as com-letel3 monolithic. !he 0ollowing areas su--ort integration o0 the PS!N2 *S5N and PG7N9 Sign#lling & signalling s3stem No. ' .SS'/ is used with the common +earer called 7!P< Tr#ns%ort & the trun$ circuits are o0ten multi-lexed to 0orm a common s3stem .P5:2 S5:=S4N>!/ which carries tra00ic 0rom di00erent networ$s on the same -h3sical circuit< Num"ering & the num+er series o0 networ$s that -rovide tele-hon3 services are coordinated< Ser/ices & the *N -lat0orm can +e used to -rovide su+scri+ers with the same services in all three networ$s< and 4ccess & the 5>A! standard 0or wireless tele-hon3 can +e used in networ$s that su--ort tele-hone tra00ic< a su+scri+er can have a terminal that 0unctions in di00erent networ$s +3 means o0 the A!7 service.

B.10.1 I n t r o d u c t i o n

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*0 the PS!N is to survive in the long term2 it must have an ade"uate +ase o0 services. !oda32 -ros-ects seem rather +right2 es-eciall3 in countries with digitised networ$s. 6lthough ?0ixed tele-hon3? is 0acing tough com-etition 0rom mo+ile tele-hon32 we must remem+er that mo+ilit3 can also +e introduced in the PS!N to a certain extent .5>A!2 UP!2 A!7/. !ele-hon32 as a service2 has never +een +etter. Ouic$ set&u- and excellent voice "ualit3 are -ro-erties unmatched +3 mo+ile s3stems. Fraduall3 increasing modem rates 0avour 0ax and data transmission2 es-eciall3 *nternet access. !he PS!N can also -rovide man3 su--lementar3 services< 0or exam-le2 through *N. :owever2 there is one -ro+lem9 Frowth o0 *nternet tra00ic is a -ositive 0actor as long as the volume is small com-ared with tele-hon3 tra00ic. *n the 0uture2 though2 the situation will +e reversed as the PS!N +ecomes overloaded +ecause o0 longer holding times. 6 tele-hone su+scri+er uses his terminal during a 0raction o0 a 2 &hour -eriod2 whereas an *nternet sur0er8s holding time can +e #&1, times longer. 7oreover2 as we have alread3 mentioned2 it is im-ossi+le to contact the sur0er +3 -hone while he is connected unless s-ecial e"ui-ment is introduced.

!he 0ollowing descri-tion o0 networ$ -lanning 0or the PS!N roughl3 coincides with the -resentation in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 1,2 exce-t 0or some -oints that are s-eci0ic to the PS!N9 digitising< networ$ architecture< 0undamental technical -lans< and dimensioning.

*n the 0ollowing we will also discuss some issues that the PS!N has in common with other networ$s2 such as N&*S5N9 location o0 su--lementar3 services< new o-erators8 networ$ architecture< networ$ e"ui-ment< and o-erational 0unctions.
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B.10.2 N e t w o r k a r c h i t e c t u r e
B.1,.2.1 5igitisation B.1,.2.2 >xchange hierarch3 B.1,.2.3 7etro-olitan area networ$s

B.10.2.1 ,i#itisation

4nl3 a 0ew countries in the world have 0ull3 digitised tele-hone networ$s2 +ut develo-ment is accelerating +ecause o0 the ever&increasing cost o0 maintaining analog circuits and exchanges. 6nother 0actor that s-eeds u- the digitisation -rocess is the growing -ro-ortion o0 *nternet tra00ic in the PS!N. B.10.2.2 6"chan#e hierarch/ *n addition to setting u- calls +etween its own su+scri+ers2 the local exchange esta+lishes long&distance connections u-wards through the exchange hierarch3. Normall32 the local exchange also handles the charging o0 calls. !he next higher level is the transit exchange2 and the to- level is the international exchange. 6 traditional six&level hierarch32 as recommended +3 the AA*!! .the *!U&!8s -redecessor/2 is descri+ed in Aha-ter 3 o0 Bolume 1. !oda38s networ$ ca-acit3 in terms o0 transmission and exchange -er0ormance is considera+l3 larger than 3esterda38s. *n addition2 networ$ management s3stems contain more so-histicated 0unctions2 thus 0lattening the PS!N8s architecture. 6 modern networ$ can resem+le the one shown in Figure B.10.13 with onl3 a 0ew hierarchical levels and modern transmission +etween the local exchange and the remote su+scri+er stages.

Figure B.10.1 PSTN with # fl#tter e'ch#nge hier#rch! B.10.2. $etro!olitan area networks

!he architecture o0 a metro-olitan area networ$ .76N/ can +e +ased on three models9 a networ$ with direct routes2 with tandem exchanges or with a com+ination o0 direct routes and tandem exchanges.

!andem exchanges set u- calls +etween the local exchanges o0 a de0ined geogra-hical region2 such as a metro-olitan area. !he3 are o0ten +uilt in -airs to -rovide the necessar3 redundanc3. Such a networ$ ma3 also have direct routes +etween the local exchanges. *n ver3 +ig cities2 networ$ o-erators ma3 have to install man3 interconnected exchanges. 6 +ig cit3 can also +e divided into several tandem areas. !andem and transit 0unctions can +e integrated in the same exchange2 -rovided the exchange has su00icient ca-acit3. *0 se-arate exchanges are used2 there can +e routes +etween tandem and transit exchanges. !hese routes are onl3 used as stand& +3 -aths in case o0 mal0unctions in the normal connections +etween a local exchange and the transit level.

Figure B.10.2 T#ndem %#ir in # metro%olit#n #re#

B.10. u n d a m e n t a l t

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e c h n i c a l ! l a n s
B.1,.3.1 6lternative routing B.1,.3.2 Gocation o0 su--lementar3 services B.1,.3.3 Networ$ architecture 0or new o-erators

*n Bolume 12 Aha-ter 1,2 we descri+e the 0undamental technical -lans that 0orm the +asis o0 networ$ -lanning. !he re"uirements s-eci0ications used in the -urchase o0 e"ui-ment are also +ased on these -lans. Some o0 the -lans are a--lica+le to several networ$s2 while others are more or less networ$&s-eci0ic. !he num"ering %l#n is normall3 common to the PS!N and *S5N. 6s a rule2 the PG7N is accessed using a s-ecial code. !he tr#nsmission %l#n is common to the PS!N and several other networ$s. .:owever2 this does not a--l3 in countries where man3 analog exchanges are still in use./ !he routing %l#n is largel3 common to the PS!N and *S5N. !he sign#lling %l#n is PS!N&s-eci0ic as 0ar as old&t3-e signalling s3stems are concerned. *t is common to the PS!N and *S5N2 in man3 res-ects2 when SS' is used. !he s!nchronis#tion %l#n is common to interconnected digital networ$s. !he ch#rging %l#n is uni"ue to the PS!N or coordinated with the *S5N. :owever2 it can +e coordinated to include a PG7N i0 +oth networ$s are run +3 the same o-erator. !he network m#n#gement %l#n is uni"ue to the PS!N or coordinated with *S5N. Service "ualit3 re"uirements de-end on the amount o0 0ax and data tra00ic. 4V7 wor$ can +e coordinated with that 0or other networ$s. !he fre6uenc! %l#n is common to all networ$s which use radio 0or transmission in the trun$ or access networ$.

B.10. .1 .lternati'e routin# Basic routing theor3 is discussed in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 1,. !he di00erent t3-es o0 tra00ic in the PS!N & tele-hon32 0ax tra00ic and data tra00ic & ma$e di00erent demands on transmission "ualit3. Aonse"uentl32 the3 are sometimes

routed over di00erent -aths in the networ$. Figure B.10. shows three -ossi+le -aths 0rom exchange 6 to exchange B. !ra00ic on one o0 these -aths -asses an analog exchange. !he su+scri+ers im-lied in our exam-le can +e divided into di00erent categories. !he result o0 the B&num+er anal3sis indicates routing which uses the su+scri+er categor3 to determine the a--ro-riate alternative routing.

Figure B.10. 4ltern#ti/e routing 1or su+scri+ers +elonging to the ?tele-hon3? categor32 the direct -ath to B is the 0irst&choice route. *0 congestion is encountered on that route2 the tra00ic is distri+uted +etween the -aths that -ass through exchanges E and U< 0or exam-le2 each o0 these -aths will carr3 #,J o0 the tra00ic. !he direct -ath to B is the 0irst&choice route even 0or su+scri+ers in the ?0ax? or ?com-uter? categor3. *0 congestion is encountered on that route2 the route through U is selected. But the route to exchange E is never selected 0or these categories2 +ecause analog transmission on the route means in0erior "ualit3.

,/namic routin# 53namic routing is a more advanced routing 0unction. !his means that the exchange learns 0rom its mista$es2 so to s-ea$. *0 a high&usage route .direct connection/ is availa+le2 it is alwa3s selected 0irst. *0 congestion is encountered on that route2 the last success0ul alternative is selected.

Figure B.10.$ )!n#mic routing 1or exam-le2 6 tele-hone call 0rom 6 to B meets congestion on the direct -ath. !he exchange selects the route to P2 +ut this route is also congested2 +ecause exchange P is overloaded. Selection o0 the route to O results in a success0ul set&u- attem-t. !he next time a call meets congestion on the direct route +etween 6 and B2 the s3stem ?remem+ers? the -ath through O +eing o-en last time and selects that route 0irst. *n this wa32 the s3stem avoids ma$ing an unsuccess0ul attem-t to switch the call through P2 i0 it is still congested. >ven more advanced 0unctions 0or d3namic routing are on the drawing +oard. *n such a conce-t2 each networ$ node records in0ormation a+out the load in other nodes and can ta$e this circumstance into account when selecting a route. B.10. .2 8ocation of su!!lementar/ ser'ices 7ost 0unctions in digital exchanges are im-lemented in so0tware2 +ecause so0tware is chea- when mass&-roduced. 1unctions which & 0or reasons o0 econom3 & used to +e -laced high u- in the networ$ hierarch3 so that the3 could +e shared +3 a large num+er o0 su+scri+ers have +een moved down to the local exchange level. >ven rarel3 used exclusive 0unctions can +e moved downwards through the hierarch3 without +ecoming costl3. 6t the same time2 the *N -lat0orm has +een develo-ed with a view to allowing centralisation o0 services with large amounts o0 data. !his -lat0orm also ma$es it -ossi+le to o00er all t3-es o0 service to su+scri+ers who are still connected to old&t3-e analog exchanges. Su--lementar3 services are normall3 im-lemented as 0ollows9 Gocal de-lo3ment9 Sim-le services that onl3 concern individual su+scri+ers .call 0orwarding2 wa$e&u- service2 call waiting/ and services that generate tra00ic -ea$s .such as televoting/. Aentral de-lo3ment9 Services that re"uire 0lexi+ilit3 .0re"uent modi0ication/ or large amounts o0 data .such as 1ree-hone/< services that interconnect

di00erent networ$s .such as BPN/< and services that re"uire so-histicated e"ui-ment .such as s-eech recognition/. B.10. . Network architecture for new o!erators

@e have got used to seeing new mo+ile&networ$ o-erators on the scene2 +ut the deregulation o0 mar$ets has also attracted new o-erators o0 0ixed networ$s. 6 new o-erator8s networ$ -lanning di00ers 0rom that o0 an ?old? one. !he existing networ$ +elongs to the com-etitor2 and interwor$ing and shared use o0 e"ui-ment are usuall3 regulated +3 an inde-endent government authorit3. !he new o-erator +uilds his networ$ around his own switching e"ui-ment2 which includes a su+scri+er data+ase and charging 0unctions. *t is also common 0or new o-erators to have their own networ$ management s3stems2 even i0 such s3stems can +e leased. *m-ortant "uestions in networ$ -lanning are9 :ow should the su+scri+ers +e connectedR :ow should trans-ort +e arrangedR

Figure B.10.* shows an exam-le o0 a networ$ run +3 a new o-erator whose o-erations cover two towns. @e will now ta$e a closer loo$ at the wa3 access and trans-ort -ro+lems have +een solved.

Figure B.10.* 7'#m%le of # new o%er#torDs PSTN 3onnection of su+scri+ers Basicall32 su+scri+ers can +e connected in two di00erent wa3s9 +3 installing a se-arate access networ$ or +3 using dial&u- connections. Se-arate access networ$s are mainl3 intended 0or com-anies and usuall3 consist o0 one or more PA7 s3stems2 installed +etween the com-anies8 PBEs2 and a switching node which +elongs to the o-erator. 40 course2 the o-erator can install his own 0i+re& o-tic or co--er circuits2 +ut the "uic$est method in most cases will +e to use either radio lin$s or existing networ$ e"ui-ment & leased 0rom local authorities2 -ower utilities2 ca+le&!B o-erators or the li$e. B3 using high&ca-acit3 multi-lexers2 the o-erator can also extend his networ$ to areas where he has not 3et esta+lished switching nodes. Cadio access will +e the most -ro0ita+le solution i0 the o-erator +uilds an access networ$ 0or connecting residential su+scri+ers. !he time won and the -ossi+ilit3 o0 connecting su+scri+ers without $nowing in advance their exact location will com-ensate 0or the higher connection cost -er su+scri+er .com-ared with -aired ca+le/. !he other alternative o-en to the o-erator & dial&u- access & means that su+scri+ers are connected to a local exchange in the -revious mono-ol3 networ$ and that a s-ecial num+er 0or access to the new o-erator has +een de0ined. @hen the su+scri+er dials this access num+er2 a connection is set u-2 and a new dial tone is generated. 6s a rule2 the new o-erator8s switching node must have *N 0unctionalit3 to handle this -rocedure. 6ccess codes2 num+er series and the distri+ution o0 revenue are regulated +3 an inde-endent government authorit3. Trans!ort networks @e now turn to a +rie0 examination o0 the trans-ort networ$ in the context o0 new o-erators8 networ$ -lanning. New o-erators can choose +etween circuits o0 their own and leased ca-acit3 in an existing networ$. *0 the 0ormer mono-ol3 agenc3 still owns the trans-ort networ$2 rules can +e esta+lished to govern how ca-acit3 should +e made availa+le to new o-erators and how much it should cost. Cailwa3 com-anies2 -ower utilities and !B com-anies also lease ca-acit3 in their transmission networ$s to new o-erators. *0 a 0i+re&o-tic networ$ is used 0or transmission2 man3 new o-erators install S5: e"ui-ment to connect their nodes to the trans-ort networ$. !he3 might also need that t3-e o0 e"ui-ment 0or the access networ$2 i0 it covers considera+le distances. 7an3 new o-erators 0ocus their resources on international tra00ic. 6 new o-erator can o-t to enter into agreements with one or more ?colleagues? in other countries to +e allowed to connect his networ$ to theirs. *n this wa32 he will not have to share the revenue 0rom international tra00ic with com-etitors in the home mar$et.

B.10.% , i

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m e n s i o n i n #
B.1,. .1 !ra00ic&carr3ing e"ui-ment B.1,. .2 Aommon e"ui-ment

!he 0undamental -rinci-les o0 tele-hone networ$ dimensioning are dealt with in Bolume 12 Aha-ter 1,. !he3 are +ased on the tra00ic theor3 develo-ed +3 the 5anish mathematician 6.Q. >rlang at the +eginning o0 this centur3. 4-erators can use this theor3 when estimating the amount o0 e"ui-ment re"uired to o00er su+scri+ers a certain service level2 -rovided the3 $now the tra00ic demand. !he dimensioning o0 e"ui-ment is +ased on two di00erent -rinci-les. 6 su+scri+er either meets congestion i0 all e"ui-ment is occu-ied .loss s3stem/ or is "ueued 0or the necessar3 resources to +ecome availa+le .dela3 s3stem/. >"ui-ment that has +een dimensioned as a loss s3stem is active 0or almost the whole o0 the call. *t is also re0erred to as tr#ffic(c#rr!ing e6ui%ment. >"ui-ment that has +een dimensioned as a dela3 s3stem is active onl3 0or a short time .usuall3 during the set&u- -hase/ and is then released to +e used 0or other calls. !his e"ui-ment is re0erred to as common e6ui%ment.

Get us 0irst ta$e another loo$ at the e"ui-ment o0 a local exchange and the s3stems that are used to -er0orm the di00erent 0unctions.

Figure B.10.6 Functions of # loc#l e'ch#nge B.10.%.1 Traffic-carr/in# e4ui!ment !he term ?tra00ic&carr3ing e"ui-ment? re0ers to exchange e"ui-ment that 0unctions as a loss s3stem2 as ex-lained a+ove. *t includes9 lin$s 0rom the su+scri+er stage to the grou- switch< lin$s 0rom other exchanges< announcement e"ui-ment< e"ui-ment 0or multi-art3 calls and +roadcast 0unctions< and switching e"ui-ment .the grou- switch and the time switch o0 the su+scri+er stage/.

B.10.%.2 3ommon e4ui!ment !he 0ollowing exchange e"ui-ment is onl3 used during a short -art o0 each call2 which means that it 0unctions as a dela3 s3stem9 tone receivers 0or 5!71 signalling to and 0rom su+scri+ers< code senders and code receivers 0or register signalling .A6S/ to and 0rom other exchanges< signalling terminals 0or SS'< e"ui-ment 0or signalling to and 0rom PBEs< and the control s3stem .-rocessors/.
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B.10.& ) ! e r a t i o n a l f u n c t i o n s

B.1,.#.1 Power su--l3 B.1,.#.2 Aooling B.1,.#.3 >xternal alarms

4ther im-ortant 0actors that a00ect the service level are the dimensioning o0 the control s3stem .-rocessor ca-acit3/2 whether or not the s3stem has +uilt&in redundanc3 and whether the need 0or s-are -arts is satis0ied. *n addition2 the o-erator8s -lanning must include the -rocesses 0or -ower su--l3 and cooling2 as well as an alarm s3stem designed to warn o0 an3 events outside the exchange that ma3 a00ect its o-eration. B.10.&.1 Power su!!l/ !he PS!N o-erates on electricit32 so it needs some 0orm o0 -ower su--l3. !he tele-hone sets connected to the exchange must +e -owered. !he exchange e"ui-ment as well as the e"ui-ment +etween exchange and su+scri+er .multi-lexers and remote su+scri+er stages/ must +e -owered.

!he exchange is connected to the -ower mains. Cecti0iers and trans0ormers convert 6A -ower to 5A -ower and chec$ that the right voltage is a--lied. !o +e a+le to co-e with a mains outage2 all exchanges have some 0orm o0 +ac$u- -ower. !his e"ui-ment o0ten consists o0 a set o0 accumulators which receive tric$le charge 0rom the recti0iers. *n man3 cases2 the o-erator also has diesel&-owered2 stand&+3 electric generators2 de-ending on the a--lica+le re"uirements 0or sa0e o-eration and the relia+ilit3 o0 the mains. B.10.&.2 3oolin# !he need 0or cooling increases in ste- with the miniaturisation o0 exchange com-onents2 +ecause as com-onents +ecome more com-act2 more heat is generated -er unit o0 volume. Printed circuit +oards must +e -laced so that the heat generated does not exceed the ca-acit3 o0 the cooling e"ui-ment. @hile water tan$s or air& conditioners were su00icient 0or cooling the air in -revious s3stems2 some o0 toda38s ca+inets are e"ui--ed with +uilt&in 0ans. B.10.&. 6"ternal alarms

Aonditions and events outside the networ$ ma3 a00ect networ$ o-eration2 so exchange installations contain an alarm s3stem 0or external e"ui-ment. !he e"ui-ment that can +e connected to the alarm s3stem includes9 -ower su--l3 e"ui-ment< cooling e"ui-ment .tem-erature alarms/< alarms indicating extreme humidit3 or 0looding< alarms indicating earth"ua$es and other natural disasters< and +urglar alarms on doors and windows.

6ll these alarms can +e handled +3 the exchange itsel0 and sent to 4V7 -ersonnel over the regular 4V7 networ$.