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Jack Turner
August 7, 2009
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 2
This proposal outlines a project that builds on Bellah’s civil religion theory (1967)
and subsequent research by Toolin (1983), Cronick (2002), and Menegatos (2007). I
propose using civil religion as the key concept for a content analysis of public remarks
made by George W. Bush and Osama bin Laden after the attacks of 9/11. The proposal
begins with a review of civil religion concepts and related research that examines the
throughout history. The proposal then provides a method for analyzing civil religion
characteristics in Bush and bin Laden’s public discourse in the period after the attacks of
9/11.
George W. Bush’s use of religious terminology, references, and imagery in his speeches
after the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001 ( See Kellner, 2004; D., Lincoln, B.,
2004; McFadden, K., 2004; and Warner, B. ,2008; in Appendix D, p. 28). This academic
and popular interest in one president’s religiosity suggests a robust curiosity and concern
about the use of religion by influential political leaders. This research provides a historic
This content analysis of bin Laden and Bush speeches seeks to objectively
quantify the amount of civil religion terminology in each speaker’s remarks by measuring
the amount and frequency of religious terminology they use. The analysis also looks for
any increase or decrease of this particular language over the course of the speeches
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 3
between Bush and bin Laden’s use of civil religion in their political “Holy war of words”
is revealed, the analysis may provide more evidence that religion mixed with politics
Literature Review
absolute rule of law that protects its people from religious discrimination and power
structures, even though America’s presidents have often used religious discourse in
important public remarks such as their inaugural addresses (Toolin, 1983). Most Middle
Eastern Muslim nations base their system of laws on religious texts such as the Qur’an
and the Hadith and recognize no separation between church, religion, and state
government (Al-Munajjid, M. S., 2009). How then does it come about that President
George W. Bush’s use of religious rhetoric has been repeatedly compared to the religious
uniquely American, referred to as civil religion, will be discussed. Next, more current
research will show the existence of civil religion in the President Bush’s use of religion in
his public speaking. Finally, civil religion terminology will be outlined in order to
produce a content analysis instrument for examining the religious rhetoric displayed in
transcripts of Bush and Osama bin Laden speeches. It is the author’s intention to provide
concrete number to the claims that Bush and bin Laden use the same religious rhetoric.
Sociologist Robert Bellah has offered the first definition of a belief system which
consists of religion combined intrinsically with politics in the United States. He has
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 4
named called this belief system “civil religion.” Bellah says a major function of religious
understanding of how the world works. Civil religion supports the idea that God looks
over the United States of America, and America gratefully serves God in thanks for His
ideology and Christian faith, explains the dialectic relationship inherent in our culture
between freedom, religion and separation of church and state (Bellah, 1967).
According to Toolin, American civil religion is a belief system that draws upon
the religious ideologies and common historical experiences of the American people,
unifying diverse peoples into one group. Civil religion provides a common frame of
reference for interpreting and giving meaning to Americans’ shared existence.” Toolin
religious themes, beginning with George Washington and ending with Ronald Reagan. In
their inaugural addresses, U.S. presidents have commonly made official statements about
how they view the national situation, “frequently citing a culture core or civil religion for
legitimation (Toolin,1983). “
addresses focus on the themes of Exodus, Sacrifice, American Destiny Under God, and
being in a new world where they had a divine mission in the wilderness. Sacrifice is a
theme of showing reverence and gratitude for Americans who have lost their lives or been
American Destiny Under God is a theme of God guiding and protecting America;
its people; and especially the sacred American virtues of freedom, justice, and duty.
Bellah has theorized that the theme of International Example would emerge from the
turmoils of Vietnam and Watergate (1967). Toolin’s 1983 study has revealed that this
theme has existed for generations of presidential inaugural addresses, but usually in
combination with the theme of American Destiny Under God. The following text is a
synopsis of Toolin’s analysis results, which provides examples of each civil religion
Thomas Jefferson (1805) referred to " . . . that Being . . . who led our fathers, as
Israel of old, from their native land and planted them in a country flowing with all the
necessities and comforts of life. ... " Franklin D. Roosevelt (1935) made one fleeting
Sacrifice during time periods around the War of 1812, the Civil War, World War I, and the
Korean War. Warren G. Harding (1921) thanked soldiers wounded in World War I,
expressing “the gratitude of the Republic for their sacrifices in its defense.”
Toolin says these themes do not appear separately in the inaugural addresses, but
always together. Earlier references are about the "Almighty Being who rules over the
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 6
Universe; the Great Author of every public and private good; the benign Parent of the
Roosevelt (1933) who said " . . . we humbly ask the blessings of God . . . May He protect
religious references regarding Christians and Christianity, angels, Heaven, Israel, the
Cross and the Star of David, and prayer and the soul, and so on. Toolin reports that about
90 percent the of the inaugural addresses had specific references to God. Multiple
Toolin says that “references to particular people and events in American history”
are also significant to civil religion. According to Toolin, The Constitution is mentioned
“sacred book that guarantees rights and privileges to American citizens” with an
unquestionable authority. The belief reflected is that if Americans follow the Constitution,
they will be protected, safe, and secure: A faith more commonly reserved for the Bible
(1983).
and Osama bin Laden, reflecting on how language is used by these two powerful people
to win support for their points of view and to justify themselves before the world.
Cronick mentions two principles of rhetorical analysis which apply to this investigation
of civil religion. The first is that discourse contains the history of the people who produce
it. Cronick says that most people understand references to ideas, words and metaphors
from within their cultural experience, perhaps unaware of the complex history that has
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 7
developed this understanding. Cronick states, “They can talk about things like vice,
illness, sin, virtue, abstinence, camaraderie, and high-spirited revelry and be understood
The second principle pertaining to civil religion is that people use language to
achieve specific goals. This is the intentional use of language for reasons which are not
always explicit, yet the audience understands the speaker’s meaning. Both Bush and bin
Laden use religious and national, patriotic language and historical allusions in their
public speech. According to Cronick, Bush and bin Laden reveal a great deal about their
intentions as speakers in the texts of their remarks. Cronick also considers the audiences’
participation, stating, “part of the listeners' role in interpreting the speaker's words is to
judge why he or she is saying what he or she says…underlying the whole process is a
basic intentionality. The speaker wishes to accomplish something and his or her listeners
Cronick examines the development of Bush and bin Laden’s discourse and says
each speaker uses the other speakers rhetorical devices in a sort of competition to be
perceived as the most persuasive, most religiously faithful speaker. Cronick’s research
does not focus on objectively identifying and measuring the frequencies of content like
process. That is, I, as interpreter, will have become a participant in a rhetorical event and
will also form part of the analytic process. There can be no claim to objectivity or validity
Menegatos examines Bush’s September 20, 2001 address to a joint session of Congress
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 8
2001. In Menegatos’ perspective, each speaker uses religious discourse to define himself
as leader with a divine mission, establishing his servitude to God’s will as the primary
motivation for his political actions and decisions. Menegatos says Bush and bin Laden
use religion in their public remarks “to construct a reality whereby one was good and
Menegatos says that religion has historically been important to cultural identities
and national borders, and it has provided a justification for murder and war. He states
that people in positions of power use religious beliefs, taking advantage of a powerful
social construction that can be used as a method of mass persuasion. Discourse is social
religious and political communication from a social constructionist lens might help us
prominent in Bush and bin Laden’s speeches, but his main purpose in is to demonstrate
how religion can be used to create conflicting versions of reality and how religion can be
used as a method of persuasion that allows leaders to unite or divide groups of people.
Menegatos refers to Berger and Luckmann’s original social construction of reality theory
as the foundation of his investigation. Their theory proposes that “there is no such thing
as one objective reality, that humans use symbols to create different versions of reality,
Menegatos says Berger and Luckmann make two underlying assumptions about
human nature. First, human beings are inherently unstable and need to create some kind
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 9
order and meaning out of the world around them to continue as a species. Secondly,
human beings are inherently social animals, so they create the stability they need by
Menagotos’ view, religion, and civil religion, can be regarded as a framework for
Menagotos reflects on America’s civil religion and how it gives the nation a
sacred history and a sacred mission for the future. He states that one of the primary
elements of America’s civil religion is the idea of having an obligation (as individuals
and as a nation) to fulfill God’s will, which is a tradition that began with our nation’s
founders and continued through American Protestantism. Menagotos describes the “God
America, and that Americans identify culturally with this standpoint (2007).
Menagotos says Muslims are similar to Americans in the way they combine
religion and politics. Their sacred religious document, the Qu’ran, has given them a
historical mission as well. Mohammed’s message to his people has been to build a just
community in which all members, even the most weak and vulnerable, are treated with
absolute respect. Menagotos says, “The experience of building such a society and living
in it would give them intimations of the divine, because they would be living in
(God) in all of its affairs, and that means the performance of state affairs is bound up
intrinsically with sacred duties. Muslims also believe it is God’s will for them to spread
the sacred blessings of Islamic faith to the world. With virtually no separation between
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 10
their church, faith, and state, Muslim communities can realize a cohesive unity of
Menagatos explains that Bush and bin Laden create a simplified, uncomplicated,
version of the conflict between America and Islam for their audiences. They relate the
Menagatos says that after the attacks of 9 / 11Bush alerted Americans to their destiny
and calling from God when he said, “Tonight we are a country awakened to danger and
According to Menagatos, Bush then rationalizes the 9/11 attacks and his “war on
terror” in terms of civil religion. For, according to Bush, God had allowed us to fulfill our
divine mission: “The advance of human freedom, the great achievement of our time and
the great hope of every time, now depends on us…” Here, the sacred order of civil
religion helps Bush unite and reassure a nation feeling wounded and helpless from a
terrorist attack on God’s Land. However, it also mobilized our country into two
According to Menegatos, bin Laden did much the same. Bin Laden’s taped
statement was broadcast on Al Jazeera television two and a half weeks after Bush’s first
major address to congress and the nation. Like the “Land of Milk and Honey” referenced
`because places like Mecca, Medina and Palestine hold historical and religious
significance for all Muslims. In asserting that “God has blessed a group of vanguard
Muslims… to destroy America,” bin Laden claimed that it is Muslims who are God’s
chosen people with a mission. Destroying America is part of that mission, so bin Laden
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 11
thanks God for the opportunity to serve Him: “Here is America struck by God Almighty
…its greatest buildings are destroyed. Grace and gratitude to God (2007).”
Bush and bin Laden have used their religious rhetoric to unify their people.
Menegatos says, “This is the crux of religion’s power. Religion helps us make sense of
the world around us, which can be a good thing. But when that sense-making requires
supposedly seek.“ Basically, Menegatos is arguing that religion has the power to stabilize
human society, or destabilize it. How happy this makes you depends on what side you are
on (2007).
Methods
This proposal seeks to find quantitative evidence showing that George W. Bush
and Osama bin Laden have used language that mirrors Bellah’s characteristics of civil
religion. The research of Bellah (1967) and Toolin (1983) provides a basis for defining
civil religion themes and language. Cronick (2002) and Menegatos’ (2007) studies
provide current language for defining civil religion as it appears in the speeches of Bush
and bin Laden. The civil religion themes have been coded for use in a content analysis of
public remarks by Bush and bin Laden. A detailed guidebook has been compiled
highlighting the current language Cronick (2002) and Menegatos’ (2007) studies. The
guidebook is for training coders and for use as a reference when coder agreement is in
question.
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 12
Further, the Islamic Question and Answer website (Al-Munajjid, M. S., 2009),
Lincoln’s Holy Terrors: Thinking about Religion after September 11 (2002), and
Watanabe’s 2001 article have provided Muslim religious references equivalent to civil
religion references. This current terminology has also been included in the trainers
guidebook. Because some loss in translation can be expected, coder training with a
person fluent with Muslim terminology is planned, and one coder should also be fluent
The sample for this content analysis is based on a census of transcripts of taped
remarks made by Osama bin Laden and broadcast after the attacks of 9/11. Transcripts of
official public remarks by George W. Bush about terrorism make up the other half of the
sample. The transcripts are chosen in a post 9/11 chronological order because the
literature indicates that Bush and bin Laden have used dynamic religious terminology in
Bush’s September 20, 2001 speech is used as a starting point for measuring the
number and frequency of civil religion references and terminology. There are only six
transcripts available of bin Laden’s broadcasted remarks after the attacks on September
11, 2001. The census is limited to six transcripts from each speaker in order to maintain
Transcripts of Bush and bin Laden’s post 9/11 remarks have been
downloaded from various news and research websites, including CNN, ABC News, USA
Today, the SITE Intelligence Group, and High Beam Research. It has been decided that
Bush’s remarks concerning terrorism will be the most equitable text to make a
comparison with bin Laden’s transcripts. Also, transcripts have been chosen to be as close
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 13
in civil religion terms over time. The transcripts date from September 20, 2001 (Bush) to
The variables this content analysis is concerned with are the four themes of civil
religion created by Bellah in 1967 and researched by Toolin in 1983. The themes are
Exodus, Sacrifice, American Destiny Under God, and International Example. The coding
unit used to examine the transcripts for the themes is one sentence. It is believed that
coding each transcript by the sentence for civil religion themes will produce the best
measurement of content. The size of the sample is also small enough for this operation to
successful content analysis, it may be necessary to spend more time clarifying some
terminology with the coders. In fact, even though every attempt has been made to
categorize and define coding units to be mutually exclusive and exhaustive, some coding
deletion and some addition of emerging values is expected. This process will strengthen
The coding instrument for the analysis is delineated into sections for recording
and America’s Destiny Under God and International Example combined (see Appendix
A, p.19). The last two themes commonly occur together (Toolin, 1983), but the categories
equivalents are listed to make clear coding possible, so Islam’s Destiny Under God is
themes and what language to scrutinize. For this purpose, a guidebook for the coders has
been compiled that gives detailed descriptions of each theme, historical references from
Toolin’s 1983 study of inaugural addresses, and current examples from Bush and bin
Laden transcripts (See Appendix B p. 22 and 24). Again, in order to get the best analysis
possible, coders and trainers are expected to have in-depth discussions about the themes
Two coders are necessary to conduct the content analysis. As noted, one of them
should be fluent with Muslim religious terminology in order to define Muslim terms
equitable to civil religion terms. One trainer fluent with Muslim religious references is
also desirable. The coders and trainers (the author and a person fluent in Muslim religion)
will spend time training that is adequate to attain a reliability score of .70 using
Krippendorf’s alpha.
Five practice sessions will be held using random pages from Bush and bin Laden
transcripts. This will help with classifying the coding units and finding agreement
between the coders. After ten training sessions and appropriate time for discussion, the
coders and trainers will decide whether more training is needed , or if it is advisable to
conduct a pre-test.
If the coders and trainers agree to conduct the pre-test, each coder will receive
half of a Bush transcript and half of a bin Laden transcript from the actual sample. If
coder results from the pre-test show a coder reliability of .70 using Krippendorf’s alpha,
the full content analysis may proceed. If sufficient reliability is not achieved, more
training will be necessary before moving on to the actual coding. Coder reliability will be
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 15
checked again after the first transcripts are coded, and again after the third coded to
Results from the finished content analysis will be entered onto a Microsoft Excel
worksheet so it can be transferred into SPSS software. Variables entered into the SPSS
package will be the four themes of civil religion, plus the combination of America’s
Destiny Under God / International Example. Because they are virtually the same term,
the researcher will code Islamic Destiny Under God in the same categories columns
where America’s Destiny Under God is used. Scoring will not be unaffected by this
procedure.
references to civil religion can be calculated. Each speeches data will be individually
entered from an Excel worksheet. After the twelve coding results are entered, the totals
can be analyzed for increase or decrease of terminology over time, ands so on.
Conclusion
How we define ourselves also defines the way we communicate. Bush and bin
Laden define themselves in their discourse as pious men following a sacred duty. Bush
has been described by critics as being convinced that he is called by God to do His
Devine work, which is to spread Democracy and the American Way to all of mankind
(Lincoln, B., 2004). To the author, Bush and bin Laden’s certainty of their divine mission
for themselves and their people sounds more like an earthbound, human creation than a
spiritual quest emanating from the infinite wisdom of a higher form of consciousness.
From Menegatos’ point of view, however, bin Laden and Bush may have created a world
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 16
in which they must believe in fulfilling their divine missions or they will lose their souls
This analysis attempts to answer the question: Are bush and Bin Laden really
saying what Cronick and Menagatos claim they are saying, and does it equate to Bellah’s
their interpretations with a content analysis can shed light on the accuracy of the
Bush and bin Laden in an objective way may also reveal persuasive themes and language
that they have affectively used without engaging our critical awareness.
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 17
References
Bellah, R.N. (1967). Civil religion in America Daedalus, 96.1, (Winter, 1967) 1-21.
http://www.jstor.org.mutex.gmu.edu/stable/20027022.
Cronick, K. (2002). The Discourse of President George W. Bush and Osama bin Laden:
qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/viewArticle/836/1816.
Lincoln, B (2002). The Rhetoric of Bush and Bin Laden. Excerpt from Holy Terrors:
Thinking about Religion after September 11. Retrieved August 3, 2009 from
http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190152.
Lincoln, B. (2004).Words matter: How Bush speaks in religious code. The Boston Globe,
globe/editorial_opinion/oped/articles/2004/09/12/words_matter/.
Maney, K. (2001). Bin Laden's messages could be hiding in plain sight. USA Today.
tech/columnist/2001/12/19maney.htm.
Menegatos, L.( 2007). Using religious discourse to construct reality: How George W.
Bush and Osama bin Laden united and divided nations. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the NCA 93rd Annual Convention, TBA, Chicago, IL Online
com/meta/p193434_index.html.
Toolin, C. (1983). American Civil Religion from 1789 to 1981: A content analysis of
Watanabe, T. (2001) Interpreting Islam: War and peace. The Los Angeles Times. Oct. 5,
side/1074255.html.
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 19
Appendix A
STUDY INSTRUMENT
Coder’s Name_____________________
Date_____________________________
bin Laden #1 #2 #3 #4 #5 #6
Exodus_______
Sacrifice______
America’s Destiny Under God ______
Islam’s Destiny Under God ______
International Example______
CODING
Coding unit: Each sentence of speech.
Code each sentence for civil religion terms and references.
For each characteristic record number of times the unit occurs in the transcript.
6.How frequently does George Bush use the civil religion theme of Exodus?
Bush Transcript
Total units Exodus ___
Total sentences analyzed ___
Ratio Sacrifice / Total sentences ____
7.How frequently does bin Laden use the civil religion theme of Exodus?
8.How frequently does George Bush use the civil religion theme of Sacrifice?
Bush Transcript
Total units Sacrifice ___
Total sentences analyzed ___
Ratio Sacrifice / Total sentences ____
9.How frequently does bin Laden use the civil religion theme of Sacrifice?
10.How frequently does George Bush use the civil religion theme of American Destiny
Under God?
Bush Transcript
Total units American Destiny ___
Total sentences analyzed ___
Ratio Sacrifice / Total sentences ____
11.How frequently does bin Laden use the civil religion theme of Islamic Destiny Under
God?
bin Laden Transcript
Total units Islamic Destiny ___
Total sentences analyzed ___
Ratio Sacrifice / Total sentences ____
12. How frequently does George Bush use the civil religion theme of International
Example?
Bush Transcript
Total units International Example ___
Total sentences analyzed ___
Ratio Sacrifice / Total sentences ____
13. How frequently does bin Laden use the civil religion theme of International
Example?
bin Laden Transcript
Total units International Example ___
Total sentences analyzed ___
Ratio Sacrifice / Total sentences____
Record total references for each speech. Add total of all speeches and record.
Appendix B
Thomas Jefferson (1805) referred to " . . . that Being . . . who led our fathers, as
Israel of old, from their native land and planted them in a country flowing with all the
necessities and comforts of life. ... " Franklin D. Roosevelt (1935) made one fleeting
allusion, in "Shall we call this the promised land?"
Earlier references are about the "Almighty Being who rules over the Universe; the Great
Author of every public and private good; the benign Parent of the Human Race" by
George Washington in 1789.
Later references include Franklin D. Roosevelt (1933) who said " . . . we humbly ask the
blessings of God . . . May He protect each and every one of us.
Ulysses S. Grant (1869) said, " ... that our own great Republic is destined to be the
guiding star to all others";
Harry S. Truman (1949) stated that "The peoples of the earth . . . look to the United States
as never before for goodwill, strength, and leadership."
DUTY
"I was summoned by my country . . . the magnitude and difficulty of the trust to, which
the voice of my country called, being sufficient to awaken in the wisest and most
experienced of her citizens a. distrustful scrutiny into his qualifications
Duty as a sacred trust: Grover Cleveland (1885) said the citizens " . . . have committed to
one of their fellow citizens a supreme and sacred trust, and he here consecrates himself to
their service."
CIVIL RELIGION AND BUSH 23
FREEDOM
Freedom was usually used to refer to civil liberties as God given rights that we have in our
possession and that we must protect, and, if possible, extend. An example is William Henry
Harrison (1841) refers to the civil and religious freedom as "Gifts of civil and religious
freedom" that God has blessed us with.” Woodrow Wilson (1917) stated that " . . . we
wished nothing for ourselves that we were not ready to demand for all mankind-fair
dealing, justice, the freedom to live and to be at ease against organized wrong."
References to the United states/America in religious terms, such as the “Land of Milk and
Honey,” national/historic figures referenced or revered as religious figures such as
“Abraham Lincoln's death being symbolic of the death of Jesus.”
Christians and Christianity, angels, Heaven, Israel, the Cross and the Star of David, and
prayer and the soul
Prayer, inauguration day be made a day of prayer, direct quotes from bible.
References to the Constitution as the revered instrument [that] enumerates the powers and
prescribes the duties, declares the purposes to which these and the whole action of the
Government should be and sacredly devoted . . . it has to an extent far beyond the
ordinary lot of humanity secured the freedom and happiness of this people.
Sources
Bellah, R.N. (1967). Civil religion in America Daedalus, 96.1, (Winter, 1967) 1-21.
http://www.jstor.org.mutex.gmu.edu/stable/20027022.
Toolin, C. (1983). American Civil Religion from 1789 to 1981: A content analysis of
presidential inaugural addresses. Review of Religious Research, 25.1. Retrieved July 22,
Appendix B
EXODUS
Refer to Historical Themes. Not as evident in modern era, decisions on this may change.
SACRIFICE
Personal sacrifices in defense of our republic.
victims of terror
hard work
America will redeem itself and the called to defend, symbol of prosperity,
world by following God’s plan. America we will come together,
will protect and spread freedom and
justice throughout His Creation.
With God’s protection and guidance, all who believe, believe in progress, war
America will prosper and realize its on terror, human freedom, advance of
destiny: Protecting and spreading human freedom ,
freedom and justice throughout His our nation depends on us, the world
Creation. depends on us
we will not tire / falter / fail, murderous our response, our freedom… vision of
ideology, our military, our war on terror, the world
Sources
Cronick, K. (2002). The Discourse of President George W. Bush and Osama bin Laden:
qualitative-research.net/index.php/fqs/article/viewArticle/836/1816.
Lincoln, B (2002). The Rhetoric of Bush and Bin Laden. Excerpt from Holy
Terrors: Thinking about Religion after September 11. Retrieved August 3, 2009
from http://fathom.lib.uchicago.edu/1/777777190152/
Menegatos, L.( 2007). Using religious discourse to construct reality: How George W.
Bush and Osama bin Laden united and divided nations. Paper presented at the
annual meeting of the NCA 93rd Annual Convention, TBA, Chicago, IL Online
Appendix C
6) November 1, 2007
President George W. Bush delivers remarks at the heritage foundation on terrorism.
HighBeam Research: http://www.highbeam.com/doc/1P1- 145595855.html.
Appendix C
Appendix D
The Boston Globe, September 12, 2004. Retrieved July 16, 2009 from http://
www.boston.com/news/globe/editorial_opinion/oped/ articles/2004/09/12/
words_matter?mode=PF.
McFadden, K. (2004) The Jesus Factor’ and George W. Bush. The Seattle Times. April
com/archive/?date=20040429&slug=kay29.
Define the Need for War. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the APSA