Running head: MEDIA MESSAGES

Media Messages and Single Women in China: A Qualitative Content Analysis Jessica Levine Johns Hopkins University

MEDIA MESSAGES Media Messages and Single Women in China: A Qualitative Content Analysis Research Questions RQ1: How do articles published in Chinese Communist Party-sanctioned newspapers stigmatize unmarried Chinese women over the age of 27 years? RQ2: What tone is conveyed in the newspaper articles? RQ3: What perspectives are shared in the newspaper articles? To determine how the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) foments stigmas surrounding

Chinas single females, this study critically examines 25 English-language articles published in online newspapers. In 1949, the CCP founded the All-China Womens Federation to purportedly protect the rights and interests of females from all [Chinese] ethnic groups in all walks of life (About ACWF, n.d., para. 1). In a contradictory move yet supported by the countrys longstanding preference for baby boys, the Womens Federation derogatorily defined leftover women (, sheng n) as unmarried women over the age of 27 years. Bleaker still, the term was added to the official lexicon of Chinas Ministry of Education in 2007 (Fincher, 2012) effectually allowing the media to further gendered stereotypes. This study will accordingly serve as a valuable resource for international feminist organizations and researchers working to halt the CCPs relentless barrage of misogynistic media reports in favor of a sustained, political movement (Fincher, 2013, para. 31) among the women of China. Method Qualitative content analyses entail finding, selecting, appraising (making sense of), and synthesizing data contained in artifacts like newspaper articles, press releases, letters, podcasts, photographs, and brochures (Bowen, 2009, p. 28). Objectivity in appraisal and synthesis cannot, however, be achieved: The researchers personal beliefs and biases inevitably play a role in how

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they interpret the collected quotes, passages, and images. Granted, because this study looks at the explicit and subliminal suppositions of Chinese media in its regard of single females, a qualitative content analysis seemed perfectly suitable. Counterpart quantitative content analyses, as Stacks (2011) explained, can meanwhile be used as observational tool[s] that meet a requirement of social science research, randomly sampling a larger population to count the number of times a particular phenomenon occurs (p. 119). While this process of categorizing, sampling, and coding certainly has its merits, a quantitative content analysis would not sufficiently capture the essence of those personal beliefs and biases fueling the stigmatization of females in China. Artifact Selection This study searched for newspaper articles that (a) were written in English, (b) were posted to China Daily and Xinhua News Agency, two presses sanctioned by the CCP, and (c) stigmatized Chinas single women over the age of 27 years. To the first point, the researcher selected English-language artifacts instead of their Chinese counterparts for the sake of integrity. Poetic wordplay and nuance characterize Chinas written script (A. X. Mina, personal communication, August 16, 2012); and boasting only elementary kanji proficiency, the researcher would have likely misinterpreted her findings. The choice to study only China Daily and Xinhua News Agency articles was, meanwhile, two-fold. First, China Daily is published in English. Often called the Window into China (About China Daily, n.d., para. 3), this daily newspaper is distributed around the world reaching rural Chinese provinces, Ivy League academics, and multinational diplomats in turn (About China Daily, n.d.). Inevitably censored by the state, China Daily then becomes a widely-read vessel of official dogma. Considered the largest news media service in the country,

MEDIA MESSAGES and founded in 1931 to act as the eyes and tongue of the CCP (Malek & Kavoori, 1999, p. 346), Xinhua News Agency offers a similar platform for disseminating prejudices toward unmarried Chinese females. The researcher used purposive sampling to find artifacts via the Womens Federation

website: indeed, the online iteration of the organization that defines and perpetuates a stigma of sheng n. In part, this website serves as an aggregator that pulls articles relevant to the cause of safeguarding those rights and interests of Chinas females (About ACWF, n.d., para. 1). Using the keyword leftover women, the search generated 28,903 results. While this was fruitful, the website did not allow the researcher advanced search options (e.g., date published). Yet, keeping to her inclusion criteria, the researcher scanned only (a) English-language content from China Daily and Xinhua News Agency that (b) explicitly or subliminally cast single Chinese women over the age of 27 years in a negative light. Though an imperfect system, the final sample size was 25 articles. Two sample artifacts can be found in Appendix A. Procedures To guide this data collection process, the researcher first created an analysis sheet (see Appendix B) comprised of several open-ended querieseach, paired with research questions one, two, and three. She selected Haghighats (2005) features of stigmatization to answer RQ1 (see Appendix B, queries one through three), which asks how unmarried Chinese women over the age of 27 years are stigmatized in newspaper articles. Specifically, the researcher utilized social self-interest, which is defined as avoiding association with out-groups (e.g., Would most people be happy to sit next to this woman on a bus?). Then, she used evolutionary self-interest or stigmatization used as a weapon of socio-economic competition (e.g., Would most people be happy if she became the teacher of their children?) (Haghighat, 2005, p. 152). She lastly selected

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psychological self-interest or a view that members of out-groups are morally weak (e.g., Do most people think she has become a failure in her life?) (Haghighat, 2005, pp. 150-153). Next, to address RQ2, the researcher chose to measure the positive, negative, or neutral tone of the newspaper articles (see Appendix B, query four). For clarity, she enumerated exemplary convictions (e.g., strong, depressed, or sexually-frustrated) about these single Chinese females. Finally, for RQ3, the researcher designed a query to address the perspectives shared in the newspaper articles (see Appendix B, query five). This considered how the authors and their interviewees (e.g., professors, researchers, and Internet experts) expressed their opinions toward Chinas unattached women. The sole researcher of this study used the analysis sheet to collect data from 25 newspaper articles. Seated in a room with no distractions, she first carefully considered the research questions and their respective queries. The researcher then proceeded to read the articles while taking diligent notes in-text. This process was deliberate, purposeful; she allowed herself to look at trends, patterns, and even figures of speechas Chinese writers do tend to compose in a nuanced style. Afterwards, the researcher answered each query thoroughly and with notable examples. Data Analysis When each analysis sheet question was thoroughly addressed, the researcher began identifying those notable trends, patterns, and figures of speech. She referred to her in-text notes and highlights and made respective additions to her worksheets. Then, importantly, the researcher paired her findings against each research question; this step helped give shape to the following results section. There, each query is juxtaposed with textual evidence that has been sufficiently categorized into themes.

MEDIA MESSAGES Results RQ1: How Do Articles Published in Chinese Communist Party-Sanctioned Newspapers Stigmatize Unmarried Chinese Women Over the Age of 27 Years? Evolutionary self-interest, a weapon of socio-economic competition. Many of the

artifacts about single females relayed parental pressurean urgency for daughters to fulfill their filial obligation to matrimony. For example, one artifact cited a renowned sexologist who explained that parents continue to attach great importance to progeny and establishing a familyto have given birth to a child to carry on the family name. Many would consider the choice to stay single an act of being unfilial. Another article quoted an unmarried woman from Shanghai: Many women who have reached a certain age like me need to make a lot of effort to ward off marriage pressure from our parents, as they keep bringing up the topic. Yet a third artifact described the lengths to which desperate parents looked for husbands on behalf of their unwed daughters. Some, the author wrote, gathered in community parks with posters like billboards to advertise their kids marriageable attributes. Psychological self-interest, a view that members of out-groups are morally weak. The collected articles also classified Chinas single females as selfish. One article, for example, used a passive-aggressive approach to frame leftover ladies unfeeling attitudes towards older generations of women: While they are working hard and pursuing lives that their mothers could only dream of, they suddenly realize that they have become part of a group that men may not want to marry. A second article deemed their pursuit of a career or education over a relationship a sacrifice and a self-promoting forfeit of duty. Finally, a briefing of survey results found that 44% [of female respondents over the age of 30 years] said they would not lower their standards

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just in order to get married and were, therefore, selfishly impatient in their understanding of matrimony. RQ2: What Tone is Conveyed in the Newspaper Articles? The artifacts overwhelmingly cast their subjects into a negative light which speaks to the CCPs attitude towards these females and their single status. Almost as if in blame, one author pitted these women against the countrys steep gender imbalance: People call this group of people who have reached a suitable age for marriage, but still remain single, sheng n or literally leftover women. The phenomenon has become a social concern. Demographic data showsthere will be 30 million to 40 million more men [than women] who are at their right age for marriage by 2020. A second article meanwhile cited the growing popularity of single females as pitiable and comedic characters in films, novels, and television series. In a recent drama, the author explained, the central character goes on blind dates every week, each of which turns into a bizarre experience. Another artifact presumptuously offered its unmarried readers a chance to improve [their] life via an educational institute that helps women understand themselves better. Still another sweepingly described Chinas single females as [near] to their expiry date and accordingly in the grip of depression. RQ3: What Perspectives Are Shared in the Newspaper Articles? Compounding their negative tone, the artifacts in part featured data (e.g., figures, surveys, and analyses) from individuals and organizations with overt biases toward these unmarried Chinese women. For example, one article quoted Dr. Li Songthe founder of match-making website Zhenai. He said most of his male members dont care much about how successful a prospective partner is in her career. Another article discussed the oft mental and physical

MEDIA MESSAGES problems experienced by single females and called on Wang Zhiguo, an expert from competing match-making service Baihe.com. Then, a third artifact based its entire analysis of unmarried women on a survey jointly conducted by the China Association of Marriage and

Family Studies, the Committee of Match-making Service Industries under the China Association of Social Workers, and, indeed, Baihe.com.

MEDIA MESSAGES References About ACWF. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.women.org.cn About China Daily. (n.d.). Retrieved from http://www.chinadaily.com.cn Bowen, G. (2009). Document analysis as a qualitative research method. Qualitative Research Journal, 9(2), 27-40. doi: 0.3316/QRJ0902027 Fincher, L. H. (2012, October 11). Chinas leftover women. The New York Times. Retrieved from http://www.nytimes.com Fincher, L. H. (2013). Womens rights at risk. Dissent Magazine. Retrieved from http://www.dissentmagazine.org Haghighat, R. (2005). The development of an instrument to measure stigmatization: factor analysis and origin of stigmatization. The European Journal of Psychiatry, 19(3), 144154. doi: 10.4321/S0213-61632005000300002 Malek, A. & Kavoori, A. (1999). The global dynamics of news: studies in international news coverage and news agenda. New York, NY: Greenwood Publishing Group. Marriage a headache for 41% single women in China: Survey. (2010). Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved from http://www.womenofchina.cn Stacks, D. W. (2011). Primer of public relations research (2nd ed.). New York, NY: The Guilford Press. To be single or not? Its your choice. (n.d.). CRIENGLISH.com. Retrieved from http://www.womenofchina.cn

Wang, Y. (Ed.). (2011, Nov. 11). Chinas leftover women unite this Singles Day. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved from http://www.womenofchina.cn Wang, Y. (Ed.). (2011, Nov. 23). Find a mate in 90 days. China Daily. Retrieved from

MEDIA MESSAGES http://www.womenofchina.cn Yang, Z. (Ed.). (2011, Feb. 12). Single life warmed over for 'leftover' men and women. China Daily. Retrieved from http://www.womenofchina.cn Yang, Z. (Ed.). (2011, April 26). Exploring the life of leftover women. China Daily. Retrieved from http://www.womenofchina.cn

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MEDIA MESSAGES Appendix A

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Chinas leftover women unite this Singles Day In China, where marriage at a young age has long been the norm, women who remain unattached in their prime often find themselves under pressure to seek a husband. However, for 30-year-old Zhou Xin, a website editor from Zhengzhou city in north China,there is no hurry. On Singles' Day, which falls on Friday, a large lonely hearts party with the theme of "casting off the single status on Singles' Day" will be organized in the city's downtown area, but that does not appeal to Zhou. "I think most of the people attending that kind of party are just there to amuse themselves instead of looking for a serious relationship. I prefer to let things happen naturally and I would like to wait for my Mr Right with patience," says Zhou. "My parents used to set me up with people, and I was forced to go on blind dates many times, but none of them worked out," Zhou continues, adding that she is actually at ease with single life right now. "Though I feel some pressure, I see no harm with being single. I would rather stay unattached than end up married to a man I don't really love," she explains. Zhou is not alone. Experts say there is a growing number of single women in China who are learning to embrace single life, and the "leftover women" phenomenon can be seen as a reflection of Chinese women ascending in social status. DEMOGRAPHIC PARADOX In recent years, Chinese media has been buzzing with stories about urban single woman like Zhou, so-called "shengnu" which translates to "leftover women." The All-China Women's Federation defines the leftover women as single women above the age of 27. The Chinese Ministry of Education included the term in its official lexicon in 2007. In a survey of 30,000 men, more than 90 percent said women should marry before 27 to avoid becoming unwanted, according to a survey conducted by the All-China Women's Federation. In a country where the sex ratio at birth has increasingly skewed toward men since the 1980s, the situation may seem to favor women. Numbers from the National Bureau of Statistics shows that China's sex ratio of male to female at birth was 118.06 to 100 in 2010. However, the country's long-held tradition of marriage hypergamy, a practice in which women pair off with men of equal or higher income, education and age, means that the most highly educated women often end up without partners, explains Li Yinhe, a renowned sexologist with the Chinese Social Sciences Academy.

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MORE AUTONOMY Some experts see leftover women as a triumph of feminism. Zhu Fuqiang, a professor from Zhongshan University in Guangdong province, says the phenomenon is partly due to Chinese women's newly achieved freedom of choice in marriage, which is a result of the improvement of women's economic status. Zhu says, in the traditional agrarian culture, women relied on their husband for a living. However, in the modern society, the fairer sex have won more independence both economically and socially. "Women have access to higher education and many have been given the chance to compete with men in the work place, and they do not need to attach their livelihood and happiness to men," Zhu says. The leftover women can be seen as a reflection of the rise of individualism and gender equality in Chinese society, Zhu adds. Wang Mingmei, a researcher with Jiangxi Social Sciences Academy, says, Chinese women are becoming ever more aware of their rights, including the right to choose in terms of love and marriage. "It takes courage and a strong character to challenge the old social law," Wang says. "The fact that more and more women would stay single at a marriageable age is a sign of their emancipation and social development." Experts also note the rise of individualism reflected by leftover women is often at odds with traditional Chinese values that put heavy emphasis on marriage and family. In a culture like China's, where mainstream society continues to attach great importance to progeny and establishing family, most people would expect women to marry early, and more importantly, to have given birth to a child to carry on the family name, Li Yinhe says. "Many Chinese people, especially the elderly, would consider the choice to stay single an act of being unfilial," she explains. "Those who see single life as bliss are in a small minority and most single women are looking for an end to their single lives." Li believes that there will be a growing tolerance toward leftover women in Chinese society and women will be more comfortable with being unattached. "Pluralism is the trend of social development," she goes on. "I hope that there will be a day people are allowed to live their life the way they want without others picking on them. At that time, being single will not be seen as an issue any more." Wang, Y. (Ed.). (2011, Nov. 11). Chinas leftover women unite this Singles Day. Xinhua News Agency. Retrieved from http://www.womenofchina.cn

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Single life warmed over for 'leftover' men and women More than 70 percent of urban Chinese singles getting nearer to their "expiry date" for marriage are in the grip of depression, according to China's first survey of their mental health. "Many women who have reached a certain age like me need to make a lot of effort to ward off marriage pressure from our parents, as they keep bringing up the topic," said a 29-year-old woman surnamed Qi in Shanghai. Qi, who has a good job in a foreign-invested enterprise, said she has seen an increased incidence of depression among the unmarried people around her. "I admit that I want a husband, but I won't get married only for marriage's sake," she said. These "leftover" men and women, as they are called in Chinese, are defined by the All-China Women's Federation as single women above the age of 27 and single men older than 30. The legal age for marriage is 20 for women and 22 for men. The survey, which gathered information from more than 160,000 questionnaires, said only 25 percent of those women and men are satisfied with their current single lives. About 22 percent of them frequently feel lonely and 30 percent suffer from negative emotions like anxiety, weariness and frustration. It also attributes the poor psychological and physical health of leftover men and women to sexual repression, misunderstandings of marriage, an excessive nightlife, delaying childbirth and pressures from parents and society. Leftover women and men face greater risks of mental and physical problems, said Han Xiaohong, president of Beijing-based Ciming Health Checkup Management Group, which carried out the survey with the Chinese Medical Doctor Association. According to the survey, 21.6 percent of the leftover women and men are subject to long-term sexual repression, while only 17.6 percent have regular sex partners. Visiting prostitutes and having multiple sex partners have become two main causes of sexually transmitted diseases, such as AIDS. "The government should invest money to hold more matchmaking activities for these leftover people," said Wang Zhiguo, an expert with the marriage research center of baihe.com, one of the most popular matchmaking websites in China. "For leftover people, they should also give themselves positive psychological suggestions, and enjoy their single lives before the right people appear," Wang added. Yang, Z. (Ed.). (2011, Feb. 12). Single life warmed over for 'leftover' men and women. China Daily. Retrieved from http://www.womenofchina.cn

MEDIA MESSAGES Appendix B Analysis Sheet Recommended instructions: with examples, thoroughly answer the following questions while

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reading the selected newspaper articles. It may be helpful to take notes in-text to identify themes and patterns. 1. How do the newspaper articles stigmatize unmarried Chinese women over the age of 27 years in terms of social self-interest (e.g., Would most people be happy to sit next to this woman on a bus?)? 2. How do the newspaper articles stigmatize unmarried Chinese women over the age of 27 years in terms of evolutionary self-interest (e.g., Would most people be happy if she became the teacher of their children?)? 3. How do the newspaper articles stigmatize unmarried Chinese women over the age of 27 years in terms of psychological self-interest (e.g., Do most people think she has become a failure in her life?)? 4. What is the overall tone of each newspaper article: positive, negative, or neutral? That is, how does the newspaper article positively portray unmarried Chinese women over the age of 27 years (e.g., as a strong, individual character)? Or, conversely, how does it negatively portray these unattached females (e.g., as anxious, depressed, sexuallyfrustrated)? 5. What perspectives and insights are shared in each newspaper article? How do the authors and their interviewees (e.g., professors, researchers, and Internet experts) express them?