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INDEX
admittance ...........................4 gamma rays .......................20 phase velocity................ 2, 10 transverse electromagnetic
AM ....................................20 Gauss' law ...........................8 phasor notation.................. 18 waves ................................ 9
Ampere's law.......................8 general math ......................18 plane waves....................... 10 transverse plane................. 17
an parameter.......................15 glossary .............................21 polar notation .................... 18 TV..................................... 20
anisotropic .........................21 grad operator .....................18 power .......................... 12, 18 UHF .................................. 20
attenuation constant.............6 gradient .............................18 network......................15 ULF................................... 20
B magnetic flux density .....8 graphing ............................19 propagation constant ultraviolet.......................... 20
B susceptance .....................4 group velocity......................7 complex .................6, 10 underdamped..................... 21
beta ......................................2 GSM..................................20 quarter-wave section ........... 6 uniform plane waves ........... 9
bn parameter.......................15 H magnetic field .................8 quasi-static .......................... 9 unitary matrix.................... 15
capacitance ..........................4 HF .....................................20 radar .................................. 20 vector differential equation18
carrier ..................................7 high frequency.....................9 rat race............................... 15 velocity of propagation . 2, 10
CDMA...............................20 high frequency resistance ..11 reciprocity ......................... 15 vg group velocity ................ 7
cellular...............................20 hybrid ring.........................15 reflected wave amplitude .. 15 VHF .................................. 20
characteristic admittance .....3 hyperbolic functions..........19 reflection coefficient ..... 3, 10 VLF................................... 20
characteristic impedance .2, 3 impedance ...........................6 relative permittivity........... 12 vp velocity of propagation .. 2
circulator ...........................16 intrinsic ......................10 resistance wave analogies .................. 10
communications frequencies waves.........................10 high frequency ............11 wave equation ............... 2, 17
.........................................20 incident wave amplitude....15 resistivity........................... 12 wave impedance................ 10
complex permittivity ...12, 21 internally matched .............14 scattering matrix.......... 14, 16 wave input impedance....... 11
complex propagation intrinsic impedance ...........10 scattering parameter ... 14, 15, wave number............... 10, 21
constant........................6, 10 isotropic.............................21 16 wavelength .......................... 6
conductivity.......................12 j 18 self-matched ...................... 14 Wheeler's equation............ 14
conductor loss factor .........13 J current density.................8 separation of variables....... 17 X-ray................................. 20
copper cladding .................13 k wave number .................10 series stub............................ 5 Y admittance....................... 4
cosmic rays........................20 k of a dielectric ..................12 sheet resistance.................. 11 y0 characteristic admittance 3
coupling factor...................16 lambda.................................6 SHF ................................... 20 Z0 characteristic impedance 3
D electric flux density ........8 Laplacian ...........................19 shunt stub ............................ 5 α attenuation constant........ 6
dB ......................................16 LF......................................20 signs .................................... 2 αc conductor loss factor ... 13
dBm...................................18 light ...................................20 Sij scattering parameter..... 14 αd dielectric loss factor .... 13
del......................................18 linear .................................21 single-stub tuning................ 5 β phase constant................. 6
dielectric............................21 loss tangent..........................9 skin depth ............................ 7 δ loss tangent ..................... 9
dielectric constant..............12 complex .....................12 SLF ................................... 20 δ skin depth........................ 7
dielectric loss factor...........13 lossless network ................15 Smith chart ...................... 4, 5 ε permittivity.................... 12
dielectric relaxation low frequency......................8 space derivative................. 18 εc complex permittivity.... 12
frequency...........................8 magnetic permeability.......11 spectrum............................ 20 εr relative permittivity...... 12
directional coupler.............16 square root of j .................. 18
directivity ..........................16
Maxwell's equations ............8 γ complex propagation
MF.....................................20 stripline conductor............. 13 constant ............................. 6
div......................................18 microstrip conductors........13 stub length........................... 5
divergence .........................18 η intrinsic wave impedance
mode number.....................17 susceptance ......................... 4 ........................................ 10
E electric field ....................8 modulated wave ..................7 tan δ..................................... 9
effective permittivity .........13 λ wavelength...................... 6
nabla operator....................18 Taylor series...................... 19
EHF ...................................20 λ/4....................................... 6
network theory ..................14 TE waves........................... 17
electric conductivity ..........12 µ permeability.................. 11
normalize.............................4 telegrapher's equations ........ 2
electric permittivity ...........12 observation port...........14, 16 TEM assumptions ............... 9 ρ reflection coefficient ....... 3
electromagnetic spectrum..20 omega-beta graph ................7 TEM waves ......................... 9 ρν volume charge density... 8
ELF....................................20 overdamped .......................21 thermal speed .................... 12 σ conductivity .................. 12
empirical............................21 parallel plate capacitance.....4 time domain ........................ 8 τ transmission coefficient... 3
envelope ..............................7 PCS ...................................20 time of flight ....................... 3 ∇ del ................................ 18
evanescent ...................17, 21 permeability ......................11 time variable...................... 21 ∇ divergence .................... 18
excitation port..............14, 16 permittivity........................12 time-harmonic ..................... 8 ∇ gradient ........................ 18
Faraday's law.......................8 complex .....................12 TM waves ......................... 17 ∇2 Laplacian .................... 19
Fourier series .......................3 transmission coefficient ...... 3 ∇2 Laplacian .................... 17
effective .....................13
frequency domain ................8 transmission lines................ 2
frequency spectrum ...........20 relative .......................12
phase constant .......2, 6, 8, 10 transverse .......................... 21
SOLVING THE EQUATIONS Ohm's law for right- and left-traveling disturbances:
To solve the equations (i) and (ii) above, we guess that V+ = I + Z 0 V− = − I − Z 0
F ( u ) = F ( z ± vt ) is a solution to the equations. It is found
that the unknown constant v is the wave propagation
velocity.
vp VELOCITY OF PROPAGATION [cm/s]
Vtotal = V+ ( z − vt ) + V− ( v + vt ) where: The velocity of propagation is the speed at which a
wave moves down a transmission line. The velocity
z is the position along the transmission line, where the load
approaches the speed of light but may not exceed the
is at z=0 and the source is at z=-l, with l the length of the
line.
speed of light since this is the maximum speed at
v is the velocity of propagation 1/ LC or ω / β , the speed which information can be transmitted. But vp may
exceed the speed of light mathematically in some
at which the waveform moves down the line; see p 2
calculations.
t is time
1 1 ω
vp = = = where:
LC εµ β
THE COMPLEX WAVE EQUATION
The general solutions of equations (i) and (ii) above L = inductance per unit length [H/cm]
yield the complex wave equations for voltage and C = capacitance per unit length [F/cm]
current. These are applicable when the excitation is ε = permittivity of the material [F/cm]
sinusoidal and the circuit is under steady state µ = permeability of the material [H/cm]
conditions. ω = frequency [radians/second]
β = phase constant
V ( z ) = V + e − jβz + V − e + jβz
Phase Velocity The velocity of propagation of a TEM
I ( z ) = I + e − jβz + I − e + jβz wave may also be referred to as the phase velocity.
The phase velocity of a TEM wave in conducting
V + e − jβz + V − e + jβz
I ( z) = where:
material may be described by:
Z0 ω 2πδ 1
v p = ωδ = =c =c where:
e − jβz e + jβz represent wave propagation in the +z
and k λ0 ε r eff
and –z directions respectively,
δ = skin depth [m]
β = ω LC = ω / v is the phase constant, c = speed of light 2.998 × 108 m/s
Z 0 = L / C is the characteristic impedance of the line. λ0 = wavelength in the material [m]
These equations represent the voltage and current
phasors.
+ VS CL
-
Where the incident voltage is (
V+ = V0 1 − e − t / τ0 ),
2τ1 − t / τ1 2 τ 0 − t / τ0
Vcap = V+ + V− = V0 2 + e − e
τ0 − τ1 τ0 − τ1
V0 = final voltage across the capacitor [V]
t = time [s]
τ0 = time constant of the incident wave, RC [s]
τ1 = time constant effect due to the load, Z0CL [s]
C = capacitance [F]
1.0
.08
.18
d .07 Admittance
(short)
0.
2.0
.19
.06
Series-stub: Select d Y= ∞
5
.05
.2
so that the admittance Z0 Z0 ZL
.074 λ
.21
.04
Z looking toward the
.22
03
load from a distance d 5.0
2 .
is of the form Z0 + jX.
.23
.01 .0
Z0
Then the stub
1.0
0.5
0.1
susceptance is chosen
5
0
as -jX, resulting in a Open
Admittance
.49
or
matched condition. short (open)
Y=0
.48
5.
0
.28
.47
.324 λ
.29
.46
.45
.3
2.0
.31
0.5
.44
.32
.43
.33
1.0
.42 .34
Shorted stub of .41 .35
length .324 λ
.4 .36 .37 .38 .39
matches an
admittance
of 1-j.5
Zin Z0 Z0
RL =
2
δω ω
2
1
vg = = 1 − c2 where:
δβ LCP ω
L = inductance per unit length [H/cm]
CP = capacitance per unit length [F/cm]
ε = permittivity of the material [F/cm]
µ = permeability of the material, dielectric constant [H/cm]
ωc = carrier frequency [radians/second]
ω = modulating frequency [radians/second]
β = phase constant
Also, since β may be given as a function of ω, remember
−1
dβ
vg =
dω
ωµσ ωµσ
we get α= , β= or γ=
1
(1 + j )
2 2 δ
α = attenuation constant, the real part of the complex
propagation constant, describes the loss
β = phase constant, the complex part of the complex
propagation constant
σ = (sigma) conductivity [Siemens/cm]
δ = skin depth [cm]
So the wave is attenuating at the same rate that it is
propagating.
Z L + Z 0 tanh ( γl ) η L + η0 tanh ( γl )
Z in = Z 0 ηin = η0
Z 0 + Z L tanh ( γl ) η0 + ηL tanh ( γl )
metal vacuum
w
η0 ηL
t
l
ηin
l
It's resistance is R= Ω.
Note that a transmission line model is used here because it
wt σ is analogous to a wave traveling in a medium. The "load" is
the element most remote in the direction of propagation.
η L + η0 tanh (γl )
If the length is equal to the width, this reduces to
ηin = η0 Ω.
η0 + η L tanh (γl )
The input impedance is
1
R= Ω.
tσ
In this example, l is the thickness of a metal sheet. If the
And this is sheet resistance. metal thickness is much greater than the skin depth, then
1
tanh (λl ) = tanh (1 + j )l = tanh [(big number )(1 + j )] ≈ 1
δ
HIGH FREQUENCY RESISTANCE [Ω] If l is much less than the skin depth δ, then
1
tanh (λl ) = tanh (1 + j )l = tanh [(small number )(1 + j )]
When a conductor carries current at high frequency,
the electric field penetrates the outer surface only δ
about 1 skin depth so that current travels near the
= (same small number )(1 + j ) = (1 + j )
l
surface of the conductor. Since the entire cross-
section is not utilized, this affects the resistance of the δ
conductor.
w µ MAGNETIC PERMEABILITY [H/m]
Cross-section
of a conductor The relative increase or decrease in the resultant
showing current t δ magnetic field inside a material compared with the
flow near the surface: magnetizing field in which the given material is
located. The product of the permeability constant and
the relative permeability of the material.
1 ωµ 0 1
R≈ = µ = µ 0µ r where µ = 4π×10-7 H/m
σδ ( perimeter ) 2σ 2w + 2t 0
COPPER CLADDING
L = Z0 ε 0µ 0 = C total ( Z 0 ) L C air = ε 0µ 0
air 2
( )
2 4
Power flow into any port is shown as 1 2
P= a −b
2
3
a function of a- and b-parameters.
2 The signal splits upon entering the network and half travels
The ratio of the input power at port 2 around each side. A signal entering at port 1 and exiting at
j to the output power at port I can Pin j aj 1 port 4 travels ¾ of a wavelength along each side, so the
be written as a function of a- and = 2
= 2 signals are in phase and additive. From port 1 to port 3 the
b-parameters or the S-parameter.
Pout i bj Sij signal travels one wavelength along one side and ½
wavelength along the other, arriving a port 3 out of phase
and thus canceling. From port 1 to port 2 the paths are ¼
and 5/4 wavelengths respectively, thus they are in phase
RECIPROCITY and additive.
1 ∂ Ez ∂ Hz
(1) & (5) E y = − −γ + jωµ
CIRCULATOR γ + ω µε
2 2
∂y ∂x
1 This makes it look like if Ez and Hz are zero, then Hx, Hy, Ex,
The circulator is a 3-port l
and Ey are all zero. But since ∞ × 0 ≠ 0 , we could have
network that can be β+ 2 non-zero result for the TEM wave if
used to prevent
γ 2 = −ω2µε ⇒ γ = jω µε . This should look familiar.
reflection at the antenna β−
from returning to the l l
source.
3
Port 3 is terminated internally by a matched load. With a
source at 1 and a load at 2, any power reflected at the load
is absorbed by the load resistance at port 3. A 3-port
network cannot be both lossless and reciprocal, so the
circulator is not reciprocal.
Schematically, the The circulator is lossless
circulator may be depicted but is not reciprocal. The
like this: scattering matrix looks like
this:
0 0 1
1 0 0
0 1 0
Ez = A sin ( k x x ) e −γz
We substitute this into the previous equation and divide by
X·Y·Z to get:
1 d 2 X 1 d 2Y 1 d 2 Z A = amplitude [V]
+ + = −ω
1 2
2
3µε mπ
1
X424
dx3 Y dy
2 2
123
2
123
Z dz a constant kx = The magnetic field must be zero at the plate
−kx
2 2
−k y2 − kz d
boundaries. This value provides that characteristic.
Since X, Y, and Z are independent variables, the only way [cm-1]
the sum of these 3 expressions can equal a constant is if all x = position; perpendicular distance from one plate. [cm]
3 expressions are constants. d = plate separation [cm]
1 d 2Z d 2Z γ = propagation constant
= − ⇒ = − Zk z
2 2
So we are letting 2
k z 2 z = position along the direction of propagation [cm]
Z dz dz m = mode number; an integer greater than or equal to 1
A solution could be Z = e −γz
γ = −ω2µε + ( kx )
2
2 − γz 2 −γz
γe = −k z e −k z = γ
2 2
so that and
Notice than when ( kx ) 2 ≥ ω2µε , the quantity under the
Solutions for X and Y are found
square root sign will be positive and γ will be purely real. In
1 d2X
= −k x ⇒ X = A sin ( k x x ) + B cos ( k x x ) this circumstance, the wave is said to be evanescent. The
2
Y dy 2 purely imaginary.
x
The magnitude of Ez is related
k x + k y − γ = ω µε m =1
2 2 2 2
giving us the general solution to its position between the
plates and the mode number m =2
For a particular solution we need to specify initial conditions d
m. Note that for m = 2 that
and boundary conditions. For some reason, initial
conditions are not an issue. The unknowns are kx, ky, A, B, d = λ. Ez
-max +max
C, D. The boundary conditions are
∂ H tan
Etan = 0 =0
∂n
Etan = the electric field tangential to a conducting surface
Htan = the magnetic field tangential to a conducting surface
n = I don't know
∂ Dx ∂ Dy ∂ Dz
div D = ∇ ⋅ D = + + =ρ
∂x ∂y ∂z
D = electric flux density vector D = εE [C/m2]
ρ = source charge density [C/m3]
∂2 Φ ∂2 Φ ∂2 Φ
∇ 2F = + +
∂ x2 ∂ y 2 ∂ z 2
Φ = electric potential [V]
GRAPHING TERMINOLOGY
With x being the horizontal axis and y the vertical, we have
a graph of y versus x or y as a function of x. The x-axis
represents the independent variable and the y-axis
represents the dependent variable, so that when a graph
is used to illustrate data, the data of regular interval (often
this is time) is plotted on the x-axis and the corresponding
data is dependent on those values and is plotted on the y-
axis.
HYPERBOLIC FUNCTIONS
j sin θ = sinh ( jθ )
j cos θ = cosh ( jθ )
j tan θ = tanh ( jθ )
TAYLOR SERIES
1
1+ x ≈ 1+ x , x = 1
2
1
≈ 1 + x 2 + x4 + x6 + L , x < 1
1− x 2
1
≈ 1m x , x = 1
1± x