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>..
ill'!'
III!
John S.Prell
s-^
\v
THE PRINCIPLES
OF
MECHANICS
DESIGNED
BY JAMES WOOD,
DEAN OF ELY, AND
MASTER OF
ST.
D.D.
EIGHTH EDITION.
CAMBRIDGE:
Printed by J. Smith, Printer to the University
SOLD BY
J.
&
J. J.
DEIGHTON,
T.
STEVENSON, AND
R.
NEWBY, CAMBRIDGE
AND
B.
JOHfV iSri^ELL
Engineering
Library
M53 t
CONTENTS.
Page
On
On On
On
On
2
IG
Laws
of
Motion
28 42
84
101
On
On On
On
121
142
165
Appendix.
180
733257
THE PRINCIPLES
OF
MECHANICS
The
different writers,
tially distinct
term Mechanics has at different times, and by been applied to branches of science essen-
It
Later writers, adapting the term to their discoveries, have used it to denote that science which treats of the nature, production, and alteration of motion giving to the former branch, by way of contra-distinction, the name
;
of Statics.
Others,
giving
the
term a
it
still
more comprehensive
None
purpose; the
much
for a treatise which is intended to be an introduction only, to the higher branches of philosophy. Our system of Mechanics will comprise the doctrine
too extensive,
of equilibrium, and so
much
is
SECTION
Art.
senses,
Matter is a substance, the object of our are always united the following properties which in
(1.)
and
inactivity.
(2.)
in three points of
lies
view:
1st.
As simply
between two points, in which case it is called distance. 2d. As implying both length and breadth, wheil it is denominated surface or area. 3d. As comprising three
dimensions, length, breadth, and thickness; in which case
it
may be
It is used
when
it
is
said to be a property
of matter.
tions of matter,
The poris the boundary of extension. from which we receive our ideas of this that is, they have figure. substance, are bounded
(3.),
Figure
(4.)
fills
Solidity
;
space
or,
oc-
DEFINITIONS.
" There
is
no idea which we receive more constantly from Whether we move or rest, in what
feel
something under us
down-
wards; and the bodies which we daily handle make us perceive that, whilst they remain between them, they do by an insurmountable force hinder the approach of the
parts of our hands that press them*.^'
(5.)
all
bodies upon which we can make suitable experiments hence we conclude that it belongs to all matter.
and
(6.)
into parts.
That matter
is
How
be
We
may be reduced
to a very fine
totally
unknown
These and
bounds of our
and
it
seems not
unreasonable to suppose, that this capacity of division is without limit; especially, as we can prove, theoretically,
that any portion of extension
is
and
less
without
end-f*.
II.
Chap.
iv.
t Porro corporum
partes
indivisas in partes
minores ratione distingui posse ex mathematica certum est. Utrum vera partes illae distinctae et nonduin divisas per vires nature dividi et ab invi-
cem
Newt.
DEFINITIONS.
From
take any
the extremities of the line AB, draw AC, BDy and in opposite directions; in
^C
number of
points
E, F, G,
DE,
DF, DG,
and
of points
AB
in different points
may
AB
is
divisible, is indefinite.
also
be proved ex
ahsurdo.
AB
he the
least
portion of a
circular arc;
a circle cutting
because
AB
6
CA and CB in the points a and b ; then, and ab are similar arcs, they are as their radii;
is less
therefore
than
AB;
absurd.
is
a limit.
DEFINITIONS.
It has been
&
supposed by some writers that there are same figure and dimensions, by the different modifications of which different bodies are formed. As no arguments are adduced
certain indivisible particles of matter, of the
in favour of this hypothesis,
we cannot
allow
it
a place
is to rest.
Gravity
is
all
bodies have to
We
is
by
sustained,
it's
pressure
;
and
is
removed,
it
always de-
The weight
is
of a body
like
is
it's
considered as a
standard.
Thus,
a body with
pound, any other body which has the same degree of gravity, or which by it's gravity will produce the same effect, under the same
circumstances,
is
also
called
a pound;
Gravity is not an accidental property of matter, arising from the figure or disposition of the parts of a body ; for then, by changing it's shape, or altering the arrangement of the particles which compose it, the gravitation of the mass would be altered. But we find that no separation of the particles, no change of the structure, which human power can effect, produces any alteration in the weight.
As
gravity
is
of a body, independent of
gravities of all
whole
is
whole
is
Thus, though the weight of the not altered by any division, or new arrangement
parts.
DEFINITIONS.
increase or diminution
Our
tation in
any considerable distance from the surface; it may not, however, be improper to observe that the operation
of this principle
is
much more
extensive.
Every
falls
under our
particles
observation.
The
indeed of
small
not perceived,
it
on account of the
has been found, by
in Scotland,
Maskelyne,
Newton
moon
is
re-
similar to that
by which a body falls to the ground, differing from it only and this in consequence of the greater distance of the moon from the earth's center. The same author
in degree
;
has demonstrated
respective orbits
later writers
that the
same kind; and have shewn, that the minutest irregularities in their motions may be satisfactorily deduced from the
principle of the
by a
known laws
(8.)
of
it's
operation.
Inactivity may be considered in two lights: an inability in matter to change it's state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion: 2d. As that quality by
1st.
As
This
smooth horizontal plane, running together. If the effect were not produced by some power different from gravitation, a drop of oil would run, in the same manner, towards a drop of water ; which is not found to be the case.
DEFINITIONS.
which
is
it
resists
*.
In
vis inertice.
The
planation,
laid
down
as a law of motion
the truth of
which we
That a body
any change in
it's
state of rest, or
constant exuniform rectilinear motion, is of matter particle cannot move the least perience. motion any destroy without some exertion; nor can we
known from
We
Thus, we see, in without perceiving some resistance -[-. in all bodies inherent general, that inertia is a property
with which we are concerned
cases,
;
The
quantity
we
the existence
observation,
|,
of the property,
will readily allow.
own
by
We
know
is
body
altering the
arrangement of
it's
be added to another, the inertia of the whole and if any part be removed, the inertia
increased
lessened.
is
This clearly shews that it exists, independently, in every particle, and that the whole inertia is the aggregate of
all
if s parts.
if to
Hence it follows, from our notion of quantity, that a body with a certain quantity of inertia, another,
a change from rest to uniform rectilinear motion, or a
* That
is,
change in
its
uniform
rectilinear motion.
The term
is
sometimes ap-
when
mechanical advantage,
or disadvantage.
t
no
It
this resistance is
distinct
from and
independent of gravity
effect: as,
because
is
it is
when
a wheel
turned round
axis, or a
body moved
"8
DEFINITIONS.
which has an equal quantity, be added, the whole inertia and that by the repeated addition of Avill be doubled; whole inertia will be increased in the quantities, equal
the same proportion with the
number of
parts.
These properties,
to
be
essential to matter.
Whether they
are, or are
it is
not
impossible
business
concern us to inquire.
is
The
of natural philosophy
been the constitution of nature, but to examine what it and to account for the phaenomena, which fall is in fact
:
it
possesses.
By
stand the
the quantity of matter in a body, we underaggregate of ifs particles, each of which has
inertia.
a certain
degree of
Or,
in
other words,
if
we
same
inertia, the
is
to the
number of such
in the latter*.
number
When we
compare them
give a
consider bodies as
in this
made up of
it
respect,
definite
Now the only properties of matter which admit of exact comparison, and which depend upon the number, and not upon the arrangement of the particles,
*
illius densitate
et
magnitudine conjunctim.
Ejusdem
tudines.
sunt ut magni-
movendum
est conflatura. Puncta vero ea int^ se aequalia censeri debent, non quaB acque sunt parva, sed in quae eadem potentia aequales
exerit effectus.
Ei'i,.
Mech. 139.
DEFINITIONS.
are weight and inertia
either of
made
since,
a given
place,
they
are proportional
each
shew hereafter (Art. 25), it is of little The inertia has consequence which measure we adopt. been fixed upon, because the gravity of a body, though invariable at the same place, is different at different distances from the center of the earth w^hereas, the inertia is always, and under all circumstances, the same.
other, as
shall
;
we
The
density of a
body
is
when equal
equal bulks.
(10.)
By
changing place
relative.
motion we understand the act of a body's and it is of two kinds, absolute and
;
A
is
body
is
when
it
is
actually
transferred
;
from one
point
in
fixed
space
to
another
and to be relatively in motion^ when it's situation changed with respect to the surrounding bodies.
These two kinds of motion evidently coincide when to which the reference is made, happen to be fixed. In other cases, a body relatively in motion,
the bodies,
or relatively at rest,
motion.
if his
tively
may or may not be absolutely in Thus, a spectator standing still on the shore, place be referred to a ship which sails by, is relain motion and the several parts of the vessel are
;
at rest,
with respect to each other, though the whole transferred from one part of space to another.
is
The motion
less.
of a body
is
When
in equal
successive
a body always passes over equal parts of space portions of time, its motion is said
10
to
DEFINITIONS.
be uniform.
When
said to be accelerated
and
to be retarded,
when those
is
said to
be uniformly accelerated or retarded, when the increments or decrements of the spaces, described in equal successive
portions of time, are always equal.
(11.)
The
motion
is
called
velocity
and
it
is
measured by the
The
second;
is
usually one
in
feet.
is
measured
Thus, when v represents a body's velocity, v is the number of feet which the body would uniformly describe in one
second.
If a body's motion
velocity at
any point
is
CoR.
in
1.
If two bodies
move uniformly on
their
the
same
is
line,
opposite directions,
relative velocity
equal to the
sum
space
or recede
equal to the
sum
of the
When
velocities.
the bodies
move
in
the
same
direction,
their
(13.) CoK.
velocity,
2.
When
of
it';s
motion.
DEFINITIONS.
11
in the time
1
then
uniform,
is,
it
ta
proportional
(14.)
CoR.
3.
When
uniform
and
velocities jointly *.
Let V and v be the velocities of two bodies A and B ; and t the times of their motions; S and 5 the spaces described. Also let S' be the space described by B in
the time
T:
Then
S
S'
S'
s
::
V (Art. 11),
t
::
'.
(Art. 18).
Comp.
that
S
is,
::
TV:
tv
Soc TV
then
Ex.
5,
and the
velocities as 2
3
:
S'
::
X 6
::
5.
(15.)
Cor.
4.
Since
S oc TV,
we have
Foc~,
and
S
7' oc -,
Ex.
and
1.
Let
A move
f)
through
feet in 7'';
velocities.
by numbers, there
is
no impropriety
in
The
When
numbers V and v, and the times of their motions in the ratio of the numbers T and t, the spaces described are in the ratio of the numbers TV and tv.
12
DEFINITIONS.
9 :::-:-::
3 7
5
35
27.
to
Ex. 2. Let ^'s velocity be to ^'s velocity as 5 to 4 compare the times in which they will describe 9 and
7 feet respectively.
T
(16.)
ratio
7 9 ;:-:-:: 5
36
35.
CoR.
5.
compounded of the
and
described.
(I7.)
body,
is
The quantity of motion, or momentum of a measured by the velocity and quantity of matter
two bodies be
jointly.
Thus,
represented
the ratio
if
the
quantities of matter in
of their momenta.
(18.)
CoR.
r.
If
M be
the
momentum
of a body,
it''s
since
J/ oc Q T, we have
ex:
-
V
M
;
and
F oc
5,
M
Q
and the
Ex.
matter
?
velocities as 7 to 8,
what
is
Since
oc
M
2.
we have Q
::-:-::
48
35.
(I9.)
CoR.
If
be given,
Qoc
and con-
versely if
-^
il/ is invariable.
DEFTNITIOXS.
(20.)
13
to change, the state
is
called
forces.
it it
When
a force produces
it's
effect instantaneously,
it
is said to be impulsive^.
When
acts incessantly,
force
is
said to be uniform,
in
when
it
always produces
of time;
times
equal
effects
and
are
variable.,
when the
produced
in
equal
unequal.
Forces, which are known to us only by their effects, must be compared by estimating those effects under the same circumstances. Thus, impulsive forces must be measured by the whole effects produced uniform forces, by the effects produced in equal times and variable forces, by the effects which would be produced in equal times, were the forces to become and continue uniform during
;
those times.
The effects produced by the actions of forces are of two kinds, velocity and momentum; and thus we have two methods of comparing them, according as we conceive them to be the causes of velocity or momentum.
velocity uniformly generated
measured by the time, no regard being had to the quantity of matter moved.
(21.)
The
accelerating force
is
in a given
Thus,
if
in
two
be as 6 to
7,
when
as'
may be
said to be instantaneous.
14
DEFINITIONS.
The
is
same place,
invariable
The moving force is measured by (22.) tum uniformly generated in a given time.
If the
to
1
vwmen-
5,
the
momenta thus generated, in two cases, be moving forces are said to be in that ratio.
CoR.
1.
as 14
(23.)
Since the
momentum
is
proportional to
force varies
jointly.
moving
The moving
(Art. 21).
(24.)
given
Cor.
2.
Hence moving
it
force directly,
of matter inversely.
Prop.
(25.)
I.
The
vis inerticB
of a body
is
proportional to ifs
weight.
was observed on a former occasion, is body makes to any change in it's state of rest or uniform rectilinear motion (Art. 8.) and this resistance is manifestly the same in two bodies, if the same force, applied in the same manner, and for the same time, communicate to each of them the same velocity.
inertia,
The
as
in
Let two bodies, A and B, equal in weight, be placed two similar and equal boxes, which are connected by
;
and
if
motion, the gravity can neither accelerate nor retard that motion; the whole resistance therefore to the communication of
motion
in
the system,
arises
15
the
upon the
let
axis,
air-f*.
Now
by
this
velocity generated in
C be added on one side, and let the any given time, in the whole system, additional weight, be observed.
a weight
in the place of
it
Then
same time, generate the same velocity in this system as in the former; and, therefore, the whole resistance to the communication of motion must be the same. Also the inertia of the string and pulley, the friction of the axis, and the air^s resistance, are the same in the two experiments ; consequently, the resistance arising from the inertia of the weights is the same: That is, so long as the weight remains unaltered, whatever be the form or
constitution of the body, the inertia
is
the same.
is
the aggre-
the parts,
is
if
added
;
former quantity,
and in the same manner, the weight be increased in any proportion, by the re-
doubled
is
increased
same proportion.
It
may be
is
given time,
move from
rest or not
the same,
Cor.
is
measured
to
by the
weight.
inertia
is
also proportional
the
8.
t This experiment may be made with great accuracy by means of a machine, invented by Mr. Atwood, for the purpose of examining the motions of bodies when acted upon by constant forces. This machine is described in his well-known treatise on the Redilinmr Motion and
Rotaimn of Bodies,
(p. 299.)
SECTION
H.
If a body
and if ifi motion, it will continue to move uniformly forward in a right line, till it is acted upon by some
external force.
That a body at rest cannot put itself in motion, we know from constant and universal experience.
That a body
forward
in motion will continue to
till it is
in a right line
acted upon
is
not,
it
must be allowed,
which under
in
equally apparent
ticular, are
par-
uniform and
rectilinear,
we may
first direction,
and
first
velocity,
;
any must
be attributed to the agency of external causes and that there is no tendency in matter itself, either to increase or diminish any motion impressed upon it.
Now
collision,
meets with
17
from sensible masses of matter, are gravity, friction, and and it will appear, by the following experiments, that when these are removed, or due
the resistance of the air
;
allowance
is
made
for their
known
effects,
we
are necessarily
it's
many
obstacles
;
it
meets with,
but
if it
be bowled
continue
motion
if it
will
will
and
and
it's
motion for a
still
longer time.
in proportion as the
and the air's resistance; and two former of these are lessened, the motion becomes more nearly uniform and rectilinear.
friction,
2d.
When
a wheel
is
it's
in
the axis
be placed upon friction wheels, the motion will continue longer ; and if the apparatus be placed under the receiver
of an air pump, and the air be exhausted, the motion will
continue, without visible diminution, for a very long time.
In these instances, gravity, which acts equally on opposite points of the wheel, neither accelerates nor retards
the motion
friction,
and the more care we take to remove the and the resistance of the air, the less is the first
;
If a
body be projected
it
the horizon,
mon
parabola.
This
effect is
18
of gravity, and the motion of projection; and since the effect produced by the former is known, the effect produced
by the
latter
may be
;
determined.
This,
it is
found, would
it
was projected
when we come
sufficiently
to the
doctrine of projectiles.
The
accounted
by the
From
these,
all
and
similar experiments,
we
are led to
conclude that
by external
impediments; and that every increase or diminution of velocity, every deviation from the line of direction, is to be attributed to the agency of such causes.
(28.)
It
may
by considering
panied *.
1st.
We
may sometimes
merely
apparent,
two bodies are absolutely at rest, they are relatively so; and the appearance is the same, when they are moving in the same direction, at the same rate; a relative motion therefore can only arise from an absolute motion, or change of absolute motion, in one or both of We have seen also, in the last article, that the bodies. motion, or change of motion, cannot be produced but by force impressed ; and therefore, if we know that such a cause exists, and acts upon one of the bodies, and not
When
Newt.
19
other, we conclude that the relative motion from a change in the state of rest, or absolute motion of the former; and that with respect to the latter, the effect is merely apparent. Thus, when a person on shipboard observes the coast receding from him, he is convinced that the appearance arises from a motion, or change of motion, in the ship ; upon which a cause, sufficient to produce this effect, acts, namely, the force of the wind or tide.
arises
The precession of the equinoxes arises from a real motion in the earth, and not from any motion in the heavenly bodies; because we know that there is a force impressed upon the earth, which is sufficient to account
for the appearance, 2d. Absolute motion may sometimes be distinguished from apparent motion, by the effects produced.
it
endeavours by
;
it's
direction
if
the
no such tendency.
motion that a body revolving in a circle confrom the center. The effort thus produced is called a centrifugal force ; and as it arises from absolute motion only, whenever it is observed, we
rectilinear
is
real.
this force,
ABC;
then at any
b2
20
point A,
it is
AD,
en-
and
in this direction,
by the
also,
circle,
first
law of motion,
point
it
deavours to proceed;
tangent
in
is
since every
in the
without the
this tendency, to
is
move on
a tendency to recede
will actually
unless
it
is
The
to
following experiment
effect
given by Sir
I.
Newton
shew the
it
that
Let a bucket, partly filled with water, be suspended by a string, and turned round till the string is considerably
twisted; then let the string be suffered to untwist
itself,
and thus communicate a circular motion to the vessel. At first the water remains at rest, and ifs surface is smooth and undisturbed but as it gradually acquires the motion of the bucket, the surface grows concave towards the center, and the water ascends up the sides, thus endeavouring to recede from the axis of motion ; and this
;
effect is
at
length
at rest.
When
by the
friction
is
also diminished
by
when the water is again at rest, Thus we find that the cennot does depend upon the relative, but
it
upon the absolute motion, with which increases, decreases, and disappears.
always begins,
The
be accounted
'
for,
either
to revolve
21
and complete a revolution in twenty-four hours or, the to revolve from west to east, in the same time but the sensible diminution of gravity as we proceed towards the equator, and the oblate figure of the earth, which are the effects of a centrifugal force, prove that the
earth
appearance
is
and
takes
other, the effects are not variable and but subject to general laws. Thus, whatever happens in one instance, will, under the same circumstances, happen again; and when any alteration takes place in the cause, there will be a corresponding and
act
upon each
accidental,
Were
not
cause and effect thus connected with, and related to, each
other,
to lay
down any
;
general rules
experiment could
this
In order to understand the meaning and extent of law of motion, it will be convenient to distinguish
22
it
into
under each
truth.
The same
acts.
will always
in the direction in
which
it
Ex. 1. If a body, in one instance, fall perpendicularly through 16^ feet in a second, and thus acquire a velocity which would carry it, uniformly, through SSifeet in that
time,
it
will always,
The
effect
produced
is
body
begins to
move from
If a
rest or not.
Ex.
will, in
2.
one second, be increased by 32^ ; and if it be projected perpendicularly upwards, it will, in one second, be diminished by that quantity.
Ex.
still
3. If a body be projected obliquely, gravity will produce if s effect in a direction perpendicular to the
and the body, which by it's inactivity would have moved uniformly forward in the line of it's first motion, will, at the end of one second, be found 16^ feet
horizon;
below that
line
communicated
will
be
in-
Ex.
If a
length of which
of gravity
twice as great as
it's
which accelerates
;
it's
motion
is
23
half as great as
it would have been, had the body same time, by the whole force of gravity *.
In estimating the effect of any force, two circumstances are to be attended to First, we must consider what force is actually impressed; for this alone can pro(30.)
:
body.
duce a change in the state of motion or quiescence of a Thus, the effect of a stream upon the floats of a water-wheel is not prodviced by the whole force of the stream, but by that part of it which arises from the excess
it is
velocities.
and and
Secondly,
we must
which we are estimating the effect. Thus, the force of the wind actually impressed upon the sails of a windmill, is not wholly employed in producing the circular motion
and therefore in calculating it's effect, in this must determine what part of the whole force
direction of the motion.
respect,
we
acts in the
shall
satisfactorily
law of motion, are made with Mr. Atwood's machine, mentioned on a former occasion.
Let two weights, each of which
second,
is
represented
by 9 m, balance each
is
generated in one
when a weight
8w, Sm, be
2m
is
added
to either of
them.
Again,
let
the weights
sustained, as before,
and add
is
4m
to
one of them,
the same
it
former instance.
in
is
mass
to
be moved
is
both
cases, viz.
20m
is
manifest that
when
the
moving
momentum
the weights,
generated
it
also doubled,
and,
by
may be shewn,
is
momentum
communicated
24
Cor.
bodies,
by two
Since the effect produced upon each other depends upon their relative velocity, it
will always
eqtial,
and in
opposite
Matter not only perseveres in it's uniform rectilinear motion, but also by
any change.
state
it's
of rest or
inertia resists
Our
so constant
and
appears to be absurd.
pose
Who
can sup-
Thus
we
are assured
by our
senses, that
is
is
to the action.
By
action,
force, which,
according to the definition (Art. 22.), is measured by the momentum which is, or would be generated, in a given
time
;
in
must
be had to experiment.
Take two similar and equal cylindrical pieces of wood, from one of which projects a small steel point; suspend them by equal strings, and let one of them descend through
25
any arc and impinge upon the other at rest; then, by means of the steel point, the two bodies will move on together as one mass, and with a velocity equal to half Thus the momentum, the velocity of the impinging body. which is measured by the quantity of matter and velocity
taken jointly, remains unaltered
as
is
;
or, as
struck, so
the
it
momentum
If the striking
lead,
twice as heavy
is
common velocity
:
impact
:
found to be to the velocity of the impinging body :: 2 3 and because the joint mass after impact quantity of matter in the striking body :: 3 2, the momentum after impact
:
momentum
before
::
x 2
3,
or in a ratio of equality,
made
and care must be taken to obtain a proper measure of the See Sir I. Newton's velocity before and after impact. Scholium to the Laws of Motion.
(33.)
The
is
of actual impact
in opposite directions,
also equal.
When
ensue
;
and
on one
The
effects
way ;
produces
momentum, and
also
Thus
pressures
may be
generate
26
When
attracted ;
to
it is itself
also equally
and
as
much momentum
as
is
thus communicated
one body,
will also
floating
upon
similar
momenta; and when they meet, or are kept asunder by any obstacle, they sustain each other by equal and opposite
pressures.
(34.)
CoR.
whole
vary,
effect
is
of the action in
finite time,
however
it
may
of the reaction;
SCHOLIUM.
'.
(35.) These laws are the simplest principles to which motion can be reduced, and upon them the whole theory
depends. They are not indeed self-evident, nor do they admit of accurate proof by experiment, on account of the
adjusting the instruments, and making the experiments; and on account of the effects of friction, and the air's resistance, which cannot entirely be removed. They are however constantly, and invariably, suggested to our senses, and they agree with experiment as far as experiment can go and the more accurately the experiments are made, and the greater care we take to remove all those impediments which tend to render the
;
Their truth is also established upon a different ground from these general principles innumerable jmrticular conclusion.'i
27
made by
tedious
and
tion,
intricate operations
all,
without excep-
of matter upon each other, or to those cases in which the whole mass may be conceived to be collected in a
point; not to all the effects that
may
eventually be pro-
duced
A
given
it
body may have a rectilinear and rotatory motion The at the same time, and it will retain both.
may be applied at a mechanical advantage or disadvantage, and thus they may produce,
upon the whole, very different momenta: these effects depend upon principles which are not here considered, but which must be attended to in computing such effects.
*
Atwood
p. 358.
SECTION
III
Two lines, which represent the momenta com(37-) municated to the same or equal bodies, will represent the spaces uniformly described by them in equal times; and conversely, the lines which represent the spaces uniformly described by them in equal times, will represent their momenta.
of bodies may be represented by numwas seen Art. 17; but in many cases it will be much more convenient to represent them by lines, because lines will express not only the quantities of the momenta, but also the directions in which they are communicated.
The momenta
bers, as
Any
line
drawn
in the
proper direction
;
may be
taken
to represent one
momentum
that the
momentum
has to the
first.
Let two lines, thus taken, represent the momenta communicated to the same, or equal bodies then since Moc V X Q (Art. 17.), and Q is here given, Moc V; therefore the lines, which represent the momenta, will also
;
THE COMPOSITION,
&C. OF MOTION.
29
represent the velocities, or the spaces uniformly described Again, if the lines represent the spaces in equal times.
they represent
the
and
since
is
given,
VocQVocM;
therefore
Prop. III.
(38.)
Two
describe the
adjacent sides of a parallelogram in a given time, will, when they are communicated at the same instant, cause
it
to describe the
Let a motion be communicated to a body at A, which would cause it to move uniformly from A to B in T" and
,
at
cause
the
to
to
C
in
in
T"
complete
the parallelogram
body
will
D,
scribed
AD
BD
the
which
is
parallel to
AC,
hence,
same time that it would have done, had no motion been communicated to it in the In the same manner, the direction AC, that is in T''.
body
will arrive at
BD,
in the
AB
can neither
make
the
body
30
approach
to,
CD;
therefore, in conse-
quence of the motion in the direction AC, it will arrive at CD in the same time that it would have done, had no motion been communicated in the direction AB, that is Hence it follows that, in consequence of the two in T".
motions, the body will be found both in
at the
will therefore
BD
move
uni-
line,
till
it
is
acted
27-)?
the
body
AD,
To
suppose a plane
ABDC,
also, let
as the deck
AC
in
T";
a body
move uniformly
from
to
B, in the same time. Complete the parallelogram BC, and draw the diagonal AD. Then at the end of T" the body, by its own motion, will arrive at B; also by the
motion of the plane, AB will be brought into the situation. CD, and the point B will coincide with therefore the body will upon the whole, at the end of T", be found in D. In any other time t" let the point A be carried from A to hy the motion of the plane, and the body
from
to
L hy
it's
own motion
gram
case,
ALNM,
since
and join
at
AN%
the end of
be found
in A^;
and
AC,
AB
are
uniform,
AC
AM
::
::
AB
AL
(Art. 13.);
; ;
RESOLUTION OF MOTION.
that
is,
31
common
26. vi.)
angle
LAM,
JD
(Euc.
body
at the
t" will
be found
in the
in the diagonal
AD.
It will also
move uniformly
::
diagonal;
for,
:
AMN, ACD,
or the spaces
we have
AD
AN
1.
::
AC
AM
t,
CoK.
The
Cor.
2.
AB, BD,
taken in order, represent the spaces over which two uniform motions would, separately, carry a body in a given time
when
communicated
will
at the
same instant
to the
body
at
A,
it
AD,
For, if the parallelogram be completed, the same motion, which would carry a body uniformly from to D, would, if communicated at A, carry it in the same manner
BC
from A to C; and in consequence of this motion, and of the motion in the direction AB, the body would uniformly describe the diagonal AD, which is the third side of the
triangle
(42.)
ABD.
CoR.
3.
if
the lines
AB,
E
BC, CD, DE,
taken in order, represent the spaces over
32
which any uniform motions would, separately, carry a body, in a given time, these motions, when communicated at the
same instant, will cause the body to describe the line AE which completes the figure, in that time and the motion in this line will be uniform.
;
(43.)
Cor.
4.
If
AD
be
to
arise from the two uniform velocities AB, AC, or AB, BD; and if one of them, AB, be by any means taken away, the velocity remaining will be represented by JC
or
BD.
(44.)
Def.
forces,
force
it
is
said to be equivalent to
any
number of
when
will,
produce jointly,
Prop. IV.
If the adjacent sides of a parallelogram repreand directions of two forces, acting at the same time upon a body, the diagonal ivill represent one equivalent to them both.
(45.)
Let AB,
it
AC
momenta communicated
to
those
directions
(Art. 22.),
it would uniformly describe in equal times Complete the parallelogram CB, and draw the diagonal JZ); then, by the last proposition, AD is the space uniformly described in the same time, when the two
spaces which
(Art. 37).
RESOLUTION OF MOTION.
33
motions are communicated to the body at the same instant; and since AB, AC, and AD, represent the spaces uniformly
described by the same body, in equal times, they represent the momenta, and therefore the forces acting in those directions
;
that
is,
the forces
J5, AC*,
is
by AD.
AD is said to be com-
Cor.
l.
forces,
For a force represented by BD, acting at A, will produce the same effect that the force AC, which is equal to it and in the same direction, will produce ; and AB, AC, are
equivalent to
to
AD
2.
therefore
AB,
BD are
also equivalent
AD.
(47.)
Cor.
If any lines
taken
and directions of
forces
* In this, and
lines,
many
forces
which they
represent.
34
communicated at tlie same time to a body at A, the line AE, which completes the figure, will represent a force equivalent to them all.
BC are equivalent to AC also, AC^ AB, BC, CD, are equivalent to AD in the same manner AD, DE, that is, AB, BC, CD, and DE, are equivalent to AE.
For the two AB,
that
is,
%
CD,
(48.) Cor. 3. Let AB and AC represent the quantities and directions of two forces, join BC and draw AE bisecting
it
in
E, then
will 2
AE
both.
For,
if
AD, which
is
represents a force
AB
and AC,
equal to
2AE.
act
Cor. 4. If the angle at which two given forces (49.) be diminished, the compound force is increased.
Let AB,
AC
complete the
A,^r
parallelogram
ABDC
AD,
this
RESOLUTION OF MOTION.
represents the
35
compound
AE
two
be taken equal to
forces,
then
AF
AEFC,
angle
is
represents
is
the
compound
force
BAC
EAC, ACD
than
is less
ACF
the
= AB =,CD supplement of the latter; also, CF therefore in the two triangles ACD, ACF, the sides AC, CD are respectively equal to AC, CF, and the Z ACD is less than the z ACF; consequently is less than
= AE
AD
AF
(Euc.
24.
i.).
(50.)
effect
Cor.
5.
Two
when they
act in the
same
direction,
;
and the
least
when they
case,
for, in
the former
the diagonal
AF
sides
(51.)
Two
body
at rest,
For
senting the
compound
Cor.
7.
force, vanishes.
(52.)
lost
;
is
BD
(Art. 45.),
by
AD;
by composition produce the force represented and the two sides AB, BD, of a triangle, are
AD.
Prop. V.
(53.)
If a body, at
rest,
be acted
upon
at the
same
and
direction by the three sides of a triangle, taken in order, it will remain at rest.
c 2
36
A
directions of three forces acting at the
a body at
then since
;
AB
and
and
BC
AC
and
(Art. 46.)
AB,
BC
CA
are equivalent to
AC
but AC and CA, which are equal and in opposite directions, keep the body at rest ; therefore AB, BC, and
CA
CA,
will also
at rest.
Prop. VI.
(54.) If a body be kept at rest by three forces, and two of them be represented in quantity and direction by two sides AB, BC*, of a triangle, the third side, taken
and
direction of the
AB,
BC
AB,
BC
are equivalent to
AC,
by JC;
therefore
CA
act in the
are in
Cor. If three forces keep a body at rest, they same plane ; because the three sides of a triangle the same plane (Euc. 2. xi.).
Prop. VII. If a body be kept at rest by three forces, acting same time, any three lines, which are in the directions of these forces, and form a tria^igle, will repre(56.)
it
upon
at the
sent them.
HESOLUTION OF MOTION.
I^et three forces, acting in the directions
37
at rest;
then
AB, AC,
AD
are in the
same plane (Art. 55.). In AB take any pointy B, and through B draw BI parallel to AC, meeting DA produced in /; then will AB, Bl, and IA represent the three forces.
For
AB
direction, if
BI
in the direction
it;
AC
or BI, let
BF
be taken to represent
join
AF;
AB,
is
i.
BF
FA
FA
11.
in the
direction
AD, which
is
impossible
(Euc.
Cor.);
therefore
BI
Any
and forming a
of the triangle
three forces.
(57.)
forces,
ABI, and
sines
CoR. 1. If a body be kept at rest by three any two of them are to each other inversely as the of the angles which the lines of their directions make
Let
ABI be
::
AB
::
BI
sin.
:
sin.
CAD
sin.
::
sin.
lAC
sin.
BAI
38
(58.)
upon
at the
same time by a triangle taken in order, and any two of them be to each other inversely as the sines of the angles which their directions
make with
at rest.
body
will
remain
For, in this case, the forces will be proportional to the triangle, and consequently they will
Prop. VIII.
(59.)
lines be
If a body be kept at
and
drawn
they act, forming a triangle, the sides of this triangle will represent the quantities of the forces.
act
Let AB, BC, CA be the directions in which the forces and let them form the triangle ABC then the lines
;
Draw
the perpendiculars
DH,
triangle
GHI
then since the four angles of the quadrilateral figure are equal to four right angles, and the angles at
are right angles, the remaining angles
ADHF D and F
are
DHF, DAF
equal to two right angles, or to the two angles DHF, is equal to the angle consequently, the angle ;
DHG
DAF
IHG.
angles
it
ABC, BCA
RESOLUTION OF MOTION.
therefore the triangles
39
ABC
and
GHI
are equiangular;
Cor.
to the lines
If the lines
DH,
Prop. IX.
(60.)
tity
If any number of forces, represented in quandirection by the sides of a polygon, taken in order,
and
act at the
rest,
it
at rest.
DE,
;
and
EA
is,
then since
equivalent to
AE
(Art. 47.)
AB, BC, CD and DE are AB, BC, CD, DE, and EA,
;
are equivalent to
AE and EA
that
body
at rest.
Prop. X.
(61.)
If any number of
lines,
and
body at
rest,
form a polygon.
CD
and
a body at rest (Fig. Art. 47.); then the point If not, join
AE,
then
AE, which
E coincides
A, and the
lines
form
when
the forces
40
Prop. XI.
(62.)
single force
may
be resolved into
any number
of forces.
Since the single force
AB,
BD,
into,
may be conceived to be made up of, or resolved The force AD may therefore the two, AB, BD.
it
be resolved into as many pairs of forces as there can be upon AD, or parallelograms about it. Also AB, or BD, may be resolved into two; and, by
triangles described
may
Cor.
l.
AD, and
(64.)
AB
BD
Cor.
2.
If the force
AD
two,
AB
be wholly
lost,
effective part of
AD is represented
3.
in quantity
and direction
hy BD.
(65.)
Cor.
quantity of force
is
by
AD is resolved into the two AB, BD which are greater than AD (Euc. 20.
i.).
RESOLUTION OF MOTION.
41
Prop. XII.
(66.)
The
effects
AC
which
is
AP,
AQ. AP.
parallel to
AQ
and
CE
parallel to
AB
is
AD,
AD is in the direction AP, and DB in the direction AQ; m the same manner, BC is equivalent to the two BE, EC the former of which is in the direction BD or QA, and the latter in the direction EC or AP therefore
DB
of which
AB, BC, when estimated in the directions AP, AQ, are equivalent to AD, EC, DB, and BE; or, AD, DP, DB and BE, because EC is equal to DP and since
the forces
;
DB and BE are in opposite directions, the part EB of the force DB destroyed by BE consequently, the forces are equivalent to AP, DE, or AP, PC Also AC, when esis
;
PC;
AQ
is equivalent to AP, therefore the effective forces in the directions AP, are the same, whether we estimate and BC, in
AB
those directions, or
AC, which
is
equivalent to them.
(67.)
Cor.
it,
When AP
and
coincides with
AC,
;
coincides with
EC
also
coincides with
E.
In this case
the forces
DB,
BE
and thus,
SECTION
IV.
The
nation of which,
constructed.
all
six in
number,
the
the
wedge
neces-
when any
are
either
and conseor
they
without weight,
that
They
no allowance
effects
of adhesion.
When
ON THE LEVER.
(69.)
in
Def.
The Lever
is
called
the fulcrum,
or center of motion.
ON THE LEVER.
43
properties of the lever cannot be deduced immediately from the propositions laid down in the last section, because the forces acting upon the lever are not
The
always supposed to be the case in the composition and resolution of forces; they may however be derived from the following principles,
applied at a point, which
is
If two weights balance each other upon a straight lever, the pressure upon the fulcrum is equal
Ax.
1.
to the
sum
lever
*.
be supported
the pressure
Ax.
3.
Equal
forces,
edotremities
of equal arms of a lever, ewert the same to turn the lever round.
PRor. XIII.
(71
.)
fulcrum,
be the
and B be two equal weights, acting perpenBisect the lever FB, whose fulcrum is F. upon dicularly fulanother and at E suppose make CE=CF; AB in C; crum to be placed.
Let
The
effect
consideration, unless
is
44
ON THE LEVER.
Then
by
since the two weights A and B are supported and F, and these fulcrums are similarly situated
ON THE LEVER.
45
Case
l.
When
the fulcrum.
Let X and y be the two weights, and let them be formed AB^ which is every where of the same
Bisect
AB
in
AB into two and the weights will be respectively x and ?/; bisect AD of AD and in E and in F\ then since AD and keep the lever at rest, they will keep it at rest when they are coland F (Art. 72.) that is, c^, when placed lected at at Ey will balance y^ when placed at i^; and x y :: AD
itself
(Art. 72.).
:
Divide
y,
parts in
D,
so that
AD
DB
::
oo
DB DB
DB
::
::
2CF 2CE
:
::
CF
CE.
same
side
Case
2.
When
^
;
and and
B
let
::
BC AC;
:
other,
as appears
sufficient
by the former
Now
suppose a
power
sum
of
the weights
and B, to be applied
at C,
in a direction
O B
power supply the place of the fulcrum (Art. 70. Ax. 1.); also, a fulcrum placed at A^ or B, and sustaining a weight A, or B, will supply the place of the body there, and the equilibrium will remain. Let B be the center of
(J
46
ON THE LEVER.
motion; then we have a straight lever whose center of motion is B, and the two forces A and A + B, acting
perpendicularly upon
it
:
at
::
the points
and C, sustain
B
:
BC
::
AC;
therefore^
(74.)
A+B
BC
BA.
Cor.
1.
will
balance
effort to
turn the
will
round
will
be
destroyed.
(75.)
is
CoR.
2.
Since
::
BC AC
:
when
there
is
AC = BxBC.
the
power and weight act on and keep each other in equilibrio, the weight sustained by the fulcrum is equal to the difference between the power and the weight.
Cor.
side
3.
When
the
same
of the fulcrum,
(77)
Cor.
4.
In the
common
balance,
the arms of
In
arm
is
is
thereis
which
suspended at
arm,
pro-
sustains at the
CoR. 5. If the same body be weighed at the (78.) two ends of a false balance, it"'s true weight is a mean proportional between the apparent weights.
ON THE LEVER.
Call
47
the
true
when
it is
suspended at
then a
48
ON THE
Prop.
(81.)
LF.VER.
XV.
lever,
keep
at rest,
as the perpendiculars
to the directions
drawn from
1. Let two forces, A and B, act perpendicuupon the arms CA, CB, of the lever ACB whose fulcrum is C, and keep each other at rest. Produce BC
Case
larly
D
r
to
D, and make
CD = CA
A
it
to
move
be supsup:
CA,
or
CD
;
(Art. 70.
is
Ax.
:
and on the
an equilibrium,
::
CB
in
CD
(Art. 74.)
therefore
A B
the
CB
CA,
Case
2.
When
directions
AD, BH,
N
which
Take
and BH, to represent the forces ; draw and right angles to those directions; also draw perpendicular, and parallel to AC, and complete the
at
AD
CM
CN
AF
DF
ON THE LEVER.
parallelogram GF'^
#
AD
is
equivalent to
the two
AF, AGy
of which,
AG
Let
be resolved, in the same manner, into the two Bt, in the of which BI is perpendicular to, and will have no effect direction of the arm CB% then
BH
BK
BK
BK
in causing, or preventing
about
any angular motion in the lever and since the lever is kept at rest, AF and BI^ which produce this effect, and act perpendicularly upon
or
AF BI CB AFxCA = BIx
:
::
CA, CB.
Also
ADF, ACM,
::
:
in the
therefore
and
(82.)
AD
::
Cor.
1.
Let a body
IK
upon
the directions
ACB;
join
as a lever
ACB,
CM, CN,
50
OK THE LEVER.
when
:
A:
::
CN CM^.
of the force A,
at
(83.)
CoE.
2.
is
The
is
effort
to turn
the
lever round,
the same,
direction
MD
Cor.
it
applied;
CM
_,__
(84.)
3.
CA
;
CM
m
.
::
rad.
sin.
CAM,
CM =
CN
CA
X
X
sin.
;
CAM
CBN
;
and
the
same
manner.
an
rad.
CB
sin.
therefore,
when
there is
rad.
equilibrium,
power
at
A
::
weight at
rad.
rad.
CB
X
4.
sin.
CBN CA
:
sin.
CAM.
(85.)
CoR.
If the lever
ACB
U
tB
H
directions
AD, BH,
parallel,
C^Ji'=sin.
A B CBH.
:
::
BC AC;
i
because,
Hence
also,
AxACB/
BC.
ON THE LEVER.
(86.)
51
Cor.
5.
If
upon a
straight lever in
two weights balance each other any one position, they will balance
;
(870
^^^'
^-
^^ ^ ^^"' balanced in a
common
pair
of scales, press upwards by means of a rod, against any point in the beam, except that from which the scale is
suspended, he will preponderate.
Let the action upwards take place at D, then the scale, by the reaction downwards, will be brought into the situation iE; and the effect will be the same as if DA, AE, DE^ perpendicular to constituted one mass ; that is, drawing
EF
CA
produced, as
is
if
(Art. 83.);
from J,
CF CA
:
(Art. 80.)
(88.)
CoR.
Let
AD
52
is to
ON THE LEVER.
be moved by a force acting in the direction CE ; join CA, draw CD perpendicular to the horizon, and from A draw AG, AF, at right angles to CE, CD. Then CA
considered as a lever whose center of motion
the direction in which the weight acts, and
is
may be
A,
CD
CE
is
the
power
is
applied
and there
:
an
::
the weight
AF
AG.
given,
Supposing the wheel, the weight, and the obstacle the power is the least when AG is the greatest;
is,
that
when
CE
8.
is
perpendicular to
CA,
or parallel to
the tangent at A.
Let two forces acting in the directions ACB, keep each other till they meet in P; in equilibrio; produce DA and join CP, and draw CL parallel to PB ; then will PL, LC
(89.)
Cor.
HB
PC
the pressure
upon the
fulcrum.
For,
if
PC
:
CPM, CPN,
::
or
sin.
CPL,
and
PL
LC
sin.
PCL
may
LPC
CN CM;
:
therefore
PL, LC,
be supposed to be applied at
by
the reaction of
the fulcrum
consequently,
CP
and direction of that reaction (Art. the pressure upon the fulcrum.
PC
represents
ON THE LEVER
53
Prop. XVI.
In a co7nhination of straight levers, AB, CD, (90.) whose centers of motion are E and F, */ they act perpendicularly upon each other, and the directions in which the power and weight are applied he also perpendicular to the
armsy there
is
an equilibrium when P
::
EB
C
FD
EA X
FC.
the weight at B, or
::
EB
PI
5_
wd
B
C
EA
at
therefore,
W EB X FD
::
the weight at
:
D FD FC
::
:
EA x FC
By
of motion,
we
have, as
::
5#!
ON THE LEVER.
Prop. XVII.
(92.)
Any
from
The
weights Ay B,
D, and E, F,
C,
if
A
r,
AC
t,
CF
let
the weights
s,
D; then A x AC = rxXC; BxBC = sxXC; DxDC = txXC, (Art. 85.); or, AxAC + BxBC + DxDC = (r ^rs + t) x XC. In
placed at
X,
balance respectively, A, B^
A-
55
W
when placed
and
port
at rest, at
^
E, keep
the lever at rest
;
then w^ien
W sustains P,
and
;
P when
since
placed at
therefore
E W x AC = PxDC + P x EC = Px DE;
AC and P are invariable. Woe ED; the graduamust therefore begin from E; and if P, when placed at P, support a weight of one pound at A, take FG, GD, &c. equal to each other, and to EF, and when P is placed at G it will support two pounds ; when at D it will supand
tion
cylinder
AB
moveable about
axis
CD, and
a circle
EF
CD
plane.
passes
through
center,
and
is
perpendicular to
it's
56
The power
raised
is
is
axle in a plane at
Prop. XVIII.
(96.)
axle,
when
There is an equilibrium upon the wheel and the power is to the weight, as the radius of
The
axis,
the radii of the wheel and which the power and weight acts; then the machine becomes a lever ACS, whose center of motion is C and since the radii CA, CB, are at right angles :: CB CA (Art. 82.). to AP and BW, we have P:
let
;
CA, CB, be
(97) Cor. l. If the power act in the direction Ap, draw CE perpendicular to Ap, and there will be an equilibrium when
:.
CB CE
I
(Art. 82.).
5^
by
resolving
The same
the power
parallel to
it.
conclusion
may
also be obtained
AC, and
the other
(98.)
Cor.
2.
If
2R
by which the power and weight act, there will be an equi:: CB + R CA-V R, since the power librium when P and weight must be supposed to be applied in the axes of
:
the ropes.
The
ratio of the
power
;
for if
terms of a ratio of
{Alg. Art. 162.).
(99.)
Cor.
3.
EOD,
draw
ED
perpendicular to
CD;
there
an equilibrium when
::
axle
ED.
Cor. 4. In a combination of wheels and axles, (100.) where the circumference of the first axle is applied to the circumference of the second wheel, by means of a string, or by tooth and pinion, and the second axle to the third wheel, &c. there is an equilibrium when P :: the product of the radii of all the axles the product of the
:
When the power and weight act in and on opposite sides of the axis, the pressure upon the axis is equal to their sum; and when they act on the same side, to their difference. In other
(101.)
Cor.
5.
parallel directions,
may be
estimated
by Art.
89.
58
ON THE PULLEY.
ON THE PULLEY.
(102.)
Def.
Pulley
is
about
is
it's
which a groove
flexible chain.
The
pulley
is
as the center of
motion
is
fixed or moveable.
Prop.
(103.)
iibriumy
XIX.
an
equiequal.
to each other,
In
when
act
Let a power and weight P, IF, equal by means of a perfectly flexible rope
PDW,
which
ADB
is
exerted at
D
is
in the direction
DAP,
weight
by the power, an
in
equal force
exerted by
forces
will
the
the direction
DBW\
these
therefore
equilibrio.
is
an equilibrium, the
CoR. 2. The proposition is true in whatever direction the power is applied the only alteration made, by changing
;
ON THE PULLEY.
it"'s
59
Prop.
XX.
In the single moveable pulley, whose strings (104.) are parallel^ the power is to the weight as 1 to 2^.
string fixed at
E,
B;
the weight
is
annexed
to
power
is
applied
at
P.
Then
EA, BA
and
the weight.
therefore
AB P
\
sustains,
P
:
sus-
::
2.
Prop.
(105.)
XXI.
In general^ in
to the weighty
power
as radius to twice the cosine of the angle which either string makes with the direction
is
In this and
the
arc supposed to
be in equilibrio.
60
Let produce
ON THE PULLEY.
he the direction in which the weight acts; it meets in C, from A draw at right angles to AC, meeting BC in D; then if CD be
AW
BD
till
AW
AD
DB, CA
will
it
which
is
effective in
AD
will
CE;
also, the
two strings
conse-
::
CD
2AC
::
rad.
2 cos.
DCA.
(106.)
Cor.
l.
and
B be
sure
is
the pressure
:
upon
the pres-
2 cos.
DCA.
the strings are parallel,
the
it's
(IO7.)
CoR.
2.
When
:
angle
DCA
vanishes, and
power
the pressure
2.
ON THE PULLEY.
Prop.
61
XXII.
In a system where the same string passes (108.) round any number of pulleys^ and the parts of it between
the pulleys
are parallel,
::
the
number of
every point
be at
rest,
an equal weight;
whence
it
62
ON THE PULLEY.
weight
therefore,
::
.:
n.
CoR. If two systems of this kind be comand n strings, respectively, there are which bined, mn. w \ blocks, P lower at the
(109.)
in
:
-.
Prop. XXIII.
In a system where each pulley hangs by a :: 1 separate string, and the strings are parallel, P that power of 2 whose index is the number of moveable
(110.)
:
pulleys.
In
this
EF a
J?,
and
is
fixed at
E;
ON THE PULLEY.
another string
pulley C, and
is
is
63
fixed at
fixed at
F%
Then, by Art.
104,
when
there
is
an equilibrium,
64
Then,
the string
if
ON THE PUI.LET.
A^ or the
P be the power, the weight sustained by DA is P; also the pressure downwards upon weight which the string AB sustains, is SiP
therefore
(Art. 107.);
the
string
EB
is
sustains
2P;
&c.
PH-2P + 4P+&C.
Hence,
::
-f
2 -f 4
-f-
&c. io
n terms
::
2'^
(114.)
Cor.
1.
sustained at
(115.)
H.
Cor.
2.
When
is
not parallel,
upon the center of the pulley :: rad. 2 cos. of the angle made by the string with the direction in which the weight acts (Art. 106.). Also, by the resolution of forces, the power in each case, or pressure upon the former pulley,
s ;
to the weight
it
sustains
::
rad.
cos. of the
angle
made
by the
acts.
string
with
the
direction
in
XXV.
^smooth plane,
Case
the plane,
1.
When
it's
the
is
body
acts perpendicularly
upon
force
since there is
it's
or to alter
direction.
Case
is
2.
When
parallel,
it's force into two, one and the other perpendicular, to the plane; the former of these can produce no effect upon the plane, because there is nothing to oppose it in the direction in which it acts (See Art. 29.) ; and the latter is wholly
effective
(by the
is in
first
case)
that
is,
by the force
(11 7.)
Cor.
The
is
in a di-
rection perpendicular to
Prop.
(118.)
is
XXVI.
sustained 7(pon a plane which
:
When
:
a body
is
::
inclination
the
power makes
Let
a perpendicular
plane.
to it;
a plane inclined
66
P draw from C and PC perpendicular to BA, meeting BC in C; draw CV perpendicular to BC, meeting PF in F*. Then the body P is kept at rest by three forces which act upon
by a power acting
PV.
From
it
at
the power,
in
the direction
PV;
gravity,
the
direction
VC
CP
;
by the
::
:
three lines
::
PV,
:
VC, and
sin.
CP
W::
(Art. 56.)
oiP
PV VC
VPC;
8. vi.),
:
and in the
the angles
sin.
similar
triangles
(Euc.
fore
ABC
VPC.
coincides CoR. 1. When (119.) the power acts parallel to the plane,
PV
with
::
PA,
:
or
::
PA AC
AC AB.
:
(120.)
Cor.
2.
When PV
coincides with
Pv, or the
:
power
:
::
Pv
vC
::
AC
the
CB
Pv C, ABC
are similar.
to
parallel
CV,
CoR.
sin.
4.
Since
W
sin.
::
sin.
ABC
and
sin.
we have
Px
VPC =
are in the
Wx
ABC;
if
VPC, W, and
55.
ON THE TNCLTNED
Pt.ANEi
the
sine
of
the
ABC
be invariable,
P oc
sin.
VPC
1
therefore
sin.
is
the least,
greatest;
when
that
the
least,
or
VPC
the
is,
sin.
VPC
PF
sin.
coincides with
when PA.
that
Also,
is,
indefinitely great
when
VPC
vanishes
CoE.
is
5.
If
oc
sin.
sin.
VPC;
therefore
VPC
PA.
Also,
W vanishes
with PC.
6.
PV
coincides with
vanishes, or
VPC
PV coincides
(124.)
::
CoR.
:
The power
::
the pressure
:
::
PV PC
:
sin.
PCV
sin.
PVC
sin.
ABC
::
sin.
PVC
::
(125.)
plane, the
CoR. power
7.
:
When
the pressure
PA PC
:
AC BC
:
:
(126.)
base, the
parallel to the
AC AB.
and when
Cor. 9. P X sin. PFC = the press. X sin. ^5C; P and the z ABC are given, the pressure ocsin, PVC; therefore the pressure will be the greatest
(I27.)
when
PV
is
(128.)
in
Cor.
When
two
order,
forces
which are sustained by a third, the remaining side, taken in the same order, will represent the quantity and Hence, if we supdirection of the third force (Art. 54.). pose PF to revolve round P, when it falls between Pj?, which is parallel to VC, and PE, the direction of gravity remaining unaltered, the direction of the reaction must be changed, or the body must be supposed to be sustained against the under surface of the plane. When it falls between PE and ,vP produced, the direction of the power
E 2
G8
ON THE WEDGE.
must be changed. And when it falls between vP produced, and PC, the directions of both the power and reaction must Be different from what they were supposed to be in the proof of the proposition; that is, the body must be sustained against the under surface of the plane, by a force which acts in the direction VP.
(129.)
Cor.
11.
If the weights P,
IF, sustain
each
altitude
CD, by means
is
of a string
PC IV
:
W
a,
::
AC
BC
is
the same
and
calling this
power
P
x
::
AC
CD
CB.
CB.
(Art. II9.);
W::
comp.
W::
CD AC
ON THE WEDGE.
(130.)
solid generated
to itself,
Def. a Wedge is a triangular prism; or a by the motion of a plane triangle parallel upon a straight line which passes through one
*.
of
it's
angular points
* See also
Euc. B.
XL
Def. 13.
ON THE WEDGE.
Knives, swords, coulters,
this kind.
nails, &c. are
69
instruments of
The wedge
the section of
sides,
is
is
it,
made by
a plane perpendicular to
it's
an
Prop.
(131.)
XXVII.
isosceles
If two equal forces act upon the sides of an wedge at equal angles of inclination^ and a force act perpendicularly upon the hack, they will keep the wedge at rest, when the force upon the hack is to the sum of the forces upon the sides, as the product of the sine of half the vertical angle of the wedge and the sine
of the angle at which the directions of the forces are inclined to the sides, to the square of radius.
Let
AVB
made by
a plane perpendicular to
sides
draw
VC
perpendicular
to
sides;
AB', DC, dC, in the directions of the forces upon the and CE, Ce, at right angles to ^F, 57; join Ee, F. meeting CV
Then,
in the triangles
VCA, VCB.,
VCB, VBC, and and the z CVA= z CVB. both, AC=CB, triangles. ^Ci>, BCd, the angles DAC, CD A,
respectively equal to
70
ON THE WEDGE.
AC = BC;
it
there-
DC = dC.
CE=Ce,
Ee
is
that
and
AE = Be;
since
hence the
of the triangle
therefore
A VB,
also,
E
is
and
parallel to
^
'
dicular to
CF;
vi.), or perpen-
common
\/
V
Z.
have
EF=eF
(Euc.
47. i.)
Now
I\
since
DC
and
c/
1^
resolve
DC
into two,
DE, ECy
of which
DE
is
produces
effective
no
effect
Avhich
or force
resolve
to
the
back,
and
two,
to
it,
EF^
the
which is the only force which opposes the power. In the same manner it appears that eF, FC, are the only effective parts of dC, of which FC opposes the power, and ejP is counteracted by the equal and opposite force hence if 9,CF represent the power, the wedge will be kept at pest * that is, when the force upon the back the sum of the resistances upon the sides :: 2C-F DC-\-dC :: 9.CF 2DC :: CF DC; ami
EF
.,
Comp.
CF CE CE DC CF DC
:
::
sin.
sin. sin.
::
CEF CDE
rad.
rad.
::
sin.
CVE
:
rad.
::
CF^xsin.
CDE
(rad.)^.
(132.)
Coil.
1.
The
DE,
2.
Cor.
upon the
sides of the
wedge,
P
::
the
sum
of the resistances
:
sin.
CVE
x rad.
(rad.)-
sin.
CVE
rad.
::
AC
AV.
must meet
in a pointy otherwise
The
a rotatory
to the
wedge.
ON THE WEDGE.
(134.)
71
Cor.
3.
CDE=
/.CVE, and
:
the
sum
of the resistances
::
(sin.
CVE)^
(rad.)-
::
(135.)
Cor.
sin. sin.
4.
When
the back,
sistances
::
CDJ = sin.
:
CJV, and
:
the
::
sum of the
:
re-
::
(rad.)"
CAxCV AV^
CEx AV*
(136.)
it
AV
::
CE
AV.
sition
Cor. 5. In the demonstration of the propohas been supposed that the sides of the wedge
if on account of the friction, or by any other means, the resistances are wholly effective, join Dd, which will cut CF at right angles in y, and
resolve
DC, dC
into
of which
the
Dy
and
dy
destroy
each other,
:
2yC
sin.
sustains
power.
the
:
sum
of the resistances
DC
Ee
::
CDy
or
DCA
rad.
(I37.)
the forces,
If
cut
DC
and
dC
effective,
DC, dC,
smooth surfaces,
will
sustain
the
By
similar triangles,
therefore
CE CA CEXAV=^CAX
:
:;
CV AV;
:
CF>
72
(138.)
OX THE WEDGE.
Cor. 7If from any point P in the side AV, be drawn, and the resistance upon the side be repreit,
PC
sented by
as before
;
the effect
will
be the same
PE
which
is ineffective.
(139.)
resistance
and pC, greater or less than dC, represent the resistance on the other, the wedge cannot be kept at rest by a power acting upon the back because, on this supposition, the forces which are parallel to the back are unequal.
side,
;
Cor. on one
8.
If
DC
be taken to represent
the
This Proposition and it's Corollaries have been deduced from the actual resolution of the forces, for the purpose of shewing what parts are lost, or destroyed by their opposition
to each other
;
concisely
and
easily obtained
from Art.
142.
Prop.
(140.)
XXVIII.
acting perpendicularly
When
three
forces,
upon
the sides of
equilibrio,
Let GI, HI, DI, the directions of the forces, meet keep each other at rest, they are
proportional to the three sides of a triangle which are respectively perpendicular to those directions (Art. 59.); that is, to the three sides of the wedge.
ON THE SCREW.
(141.)
^3
direction,
passing-
Cor.
l.
If the
lines
of
through the points of impact, do not meet in a point, the wedo-e will have a rotatory motion communicated to it; and this motion will be round the center of gravity of the
wedge.
(See Art. 184.)
(142.)
CoR.
2.
When
not perpendicular to the sides, the effective parts must be found, and there will be an equilibrium when those parts
are to each other as the sides of the wedge.
ON THE SCREW,
(143.)
Def.
The Screw
is
mechanical
power,
which may
manner
Let a
base
solid
ABC be
BC is equal to the circumference of the solid cylinder; apply the triangle to the convex surface of this cylinder, in such a manner, that the base BC may coincide, with the
will circumference of the base of the cylinder, and form a spiral thread on it's surface. By applying to the
BA
cylinder,
ABC,
in succession, sinjilar and equal to manner, that their bases may be parallel and supposing to BC, the spiral thread may be continued this thread to have thickness, or the cylinder to be pro-
triangles,
in such a
tuberant where
it falls,
,S
in
c
two contiguou>s
threadt^.
74
ON THE SCREW.
measured in a direction parallel to the axis of the cylinder, AC. Again, let the triangles be applied in the same manner to the concave surface of the hollow cylinder, and where the thread falls let a groove be made, and the internal screw will be formed. The two screws being thus
is
the
common
axis.
by a lever perpendicular to that axis; and a motion will be produced in the direction of the axis, by means of the
spiral thread.
Prop.
(144.)
XXIX.
the screw,
When
there is
an equilibrium upon
to the aocis
:
::
Let
BCD
made by
a plane perpendicular to
axis,
is
CE a part
sustained
;
of the spiral
then
CE
is
is
the distance
ON THE SCREW.
75
BCD. BCD,
Call
F the
at
in the plane
and
in the direction
CI
perpendicular to
AC,
will
W,
upon
CE
by a power
: :
acting parallel to
::
it's
::
the height
the
BCD.
Now,
power
is
to act at C, let
a power
act perpendicularly at G,
GCA, whose
center of motion
effect at
that
::
F
:
BCD
the
fore these
two proportions.
:
F P
comp.
W
F
BCD
BCD
:
FGH
FGH.
W
Coil.
is
1. In the proof of this Proposition the supposed to be sustained at one point C of the spiral thread if we suppose it to be dispersed over the whole thread, then, by the Proposition, the power at
(145.)
whole weight
G
::
that part
the circumference
of the circle
FGH;
therefore the
:
the
76
weights,
or
ON THE SCREW.
the
:
whole weight,
::
the
distance
between
two threads
Art. 183.).
(146.)
FGH {Alg.
Cor.
2,
a given weight, depends upon the distance between two threads and the circumference FGH^ if these remain unaltered,
the power
is
the
same,
is
supposed to be sustained at C, or
thread nearer
to,
upon the
(I47.)
the properties of
Law
momenta of the power and weight are and consequently, that the power x the velocity of the power = the weight x the velocity of the weight or the power's velocity the weight's velocity :: the weight the power.
equal
;
;
:
Though
it
this conclusion
is
attempted to be proved
Third
Law
immediately upon another (Art. 36.). It may however be deduced from the foregoing Propositions and as it is, in many cases, the simplest method of estimating the power of a machine, it may not be improper to estabhsh it's truth.
;
at-
power or weight in the direction in which it acts. 2dly, We must estimate that part only of the power or weight which is
1st,
We
velocity of the
effective.
Law
in
These two considerations are suggested by the Second of Motion, according to which motion is communicated the direction of the force impressed, and is proportional
to that force.
77
Prop.
(148.)
XXX.
a body in any one direction
The
BP.
velocity of
to
AB
being given,
any other
direction
BP, by means
;
= PA;
join
AO
then
to
the approach of
P OB is P. ^ow
may be
considered
as evanescent,
will
direction
BP
the angles at
and
are equal
and
they
are
right
angles,
triangle
angle at
direction
because the three angles of the equal to two right angles, and the
therefore, the space described in the
is
or
BP,
determined by drawing
AO
per-
pendicular to OP.
xy, which
X,
parallel to
OP, be
required, produce
AO
to
and from
B
is
draw
if
By
figure
OByoB
a parallelogram, and
OB = aiy
the space
required.
Also,
AB
be
AB
:
OB
::
rad.
:
cos.
in the direction
AB
AB
BP
::
OB
(Art. 11.).
78
XXXI.
(149.) If a 'power and weight sustain each other on any machine, and the whole he put in motion, the velocity the of the power the velocity of the weight :: the weight
:
:
power.
Case
let
1.
In
the lever
ACB, let a power and weight, AD, BH, sustain each other, and
the center C,
the machine be
AC a,,
Join Aa^
Bb; draw
at right
::
CM,
MD;
:
angles to
NB
z
jL
Aj?
By
(Art. 148.).
Now
Axa,
z
MCA,
(Euc.
z
are similar;
32. i.)
;
because
xAC =
AMC',
x
AMC +
MCA
aAC=
therefore,
AwAa^
angles;
angles at
M and
MCA
are right
consequently, the
Ax also, in the sim. A^ AC a, BCb, A a and in the sim. A^ Bhy, BCN, Bb by composition, Ax
or the power's
vel.
:
Aa
::
the weight
the
power (Art.
81.).
79
Case
2*
In
the wheel
and
axle^ if the
power be made
wheel
with an uniform motion, the weight will be uniformly raised through a space equal to the circumference of the
axle; hence, the power's velocity
the circumference of the wheel
axle
::
: :
::
::
the weight
Case
1
3.
In
uniformly raised
velocity
inch, the
it's
power
action
::
will
;
uniformly describe
the power.
the weight
Case
inch, each
of the strings
(Art. 104.).
is
shortened
inch,
:
Case
5.
In
80
if the
lower block
W\
1
velocity
::
P.
In
this
D,
&c.
that if in the
solid block
Hence
it
follows,
A, the
grooves A, C, E, &c. be cut, whose radii are 1,3, 5, &c. and in the block B, the grooves B, D, F, &c. whose radii
are 2, 4, 6, &c. and a string be passed round these grooves
as in the
annexed figure
pose of so
many
distinct pulleys,
in each,
it,
removed and B.
two centers of
Case 6. In the system of pulleys described in Art. 110, each succeeding pulley moves twice as fast as the preceding
therefore,
Ws velocity
Cs
B''s
CTs velocity
::
velocity velocity
^'s velocity
P''s
::
2
2
velocity
::
&c.
i^s velocity
::
2x2x2x&c.
W.
7-
Case
raised
1
In
the system.
Art. 113,
if
1
the weight be
inch,
B
-f
1
will
descend
;
pulley
A
1
inches
in the
the next
4
::
2x(2-|-l)+l
:
or
+ + 1 + 2 +
2
Ws
velocity
&c.
::
P.
Case
to
8.
inclined plane
Let a body be uniformly raised along the BA from B to P, by a power acting parallel
PV; upon
BP describe
a semi-circle
BOP,
cutting
BC
81
M;
produce
VP
to 0, join
in
Then
are
since
the
angles
BOP, BMP,
right
angles,
OP and
MP are
z
because
POM
29.
i.),
::
::
:
PBM
tri:
=z
PCV, and
0PM = I PVC
are similar,
:
(Euc.
the
angles
POM, PVC
and
OP
MP
VC
PV,
the weight
118.).
Case
9.
In
to
wC
is
DC
perpendicular
CD
produced; then
the
^^^^ ^^ wedge be
to V,
CO
is
(Art. 148.)
hence, the
::
power's velocity
:
CV
CO
::
Cx
CF
the resistance
the power.
82^
Case
10.
hi
the screw,
whilst the
power uniformly
FGH (Art.
144.),
the weight
is
Ws
velocity
::
FGH
the
W
:
P.
powers,
any combination of the R, R S, &c. be the power and weight in each case, when there brium then,
11.
Case
In
mechanical
ratios of the
is
lei
W,
an equili-
P^s velocity
Ws velocity
i?'s
*S"s
::
W
R
S
W\
R\
comp.
velocity
velocity
velocity
::
W
R
P.
velocity
::
&c.
P\
velocity
*S"s
velocity
::
SCHOLIUM.
(150.)
three kinds,
It
common
they act
the forces,
on the same
as
the
stock-knife,
shears
oars, &c.
is
The
proportion between
when
there
the
sum of
difference
in the latter; and consequently, the friction upon the center of motion, cceteris paribus, is greater in
SCHOLIUM.
(151.)
ferred
to
83
The
the lever,
it's
power for, the adhesion of the pulley which takes place at the circumference of the pulley, will overcome the friction at the center of motion both because it acts at a mechanical advantage, and because the surface in contact is greater in the former
;
case
than in the latter; and the friction depends, not only upon the weight sustained, but also upon the quantity of surface in contact: Thus, in practice, the rope and
pulley
move on
(152.)
and
it's
power, notwithstanding the friction, is the theory leads us to expect; the reason is, the effect is produced by impact, and the momentum thus generated
is
much
greater than
incomparably greater than the effect of pressure, in Mr. Eckhard, a very ingenious mechanic, the same time. by combining it with the wheel and axle, has constructed
a machine, the power of which, considering
it's
simplicity,
is
much
F2
SECTION
V,
Def.
The
is
or system of bodies,
that point
or system, acted
balance
(154.)
Hence
it
which
body, or system,
(155.)
itself
will
be supported in
if
all positions.
Conversely,
a body,
or
system,
balance
upon
is
gravity
moved
parallel to itself
till it passes through the center of gravity, then we have increased both the quantity of matter on one side of the line or plane, and if s distance from the line or plane, and diminished both, on the other side; hence, if the
body balanced
it
itself in
all
all positions^
consequently,
the center of
is
gravity
is
That there
is
be shewn hereafter.
85
it
Cor.
By
reasoning
in
cannot have
Prop.
XXXIL
Let A^ B, C, D, &c. be the particles; and suppose J, B, connected by the inflexible line AB without weight *;
D
in jG,
divide
AB
into
two parts
:
so that
::
BE
let
EA,
or comp.
A+B
B
in
::
AB
E, or
EA;
if
then will
(Art. S6.)
E be
be supported
all
positions
E
E
be
and B supported also the pressure upon the point in all positions is equal to the sum of the weights A and B (Art. 70. Ax. 1,). Join EC, and take J + 5 C :: CF FE, or A-^B-\-C and C will C :: EC FE then if F be supported, be supported, that is, A, j&, and C, will be supported, in and the pressure upon F will all positions of the system In the same be the sum of the weights. A, B, and manner, join FD, and divide it into two parts in G, so
supported on the
;
line
CE,
then are
that
::
A+B+C
:
D
that
::
DG
G
FG,
or
A-\-B + C + D
all
D
po-
FD
FG, and
sitions
upon
is
.system.
The
particles
must be supposed
to
could not act upon each other, so as to balance upon any point.
86
(158.)
ON THE CENTER
CoK.
1.
From
this Proposition
it
appears that
Cor.
2.
to
will
be be
156.).
in a system, to
CoR. 3. The effect of any number of particle}^ produce or destroy an equilibrium, is the
in
same,
their
common
If A, B, C, &c. be bodies of finite (161.) CoR. 4. magnitudes, G, the center of gravity of the system, may be found by supposing the bodies collected in their respective centers of gravity.
If the bodies A, B, C, &c. be in(162.) CoR. 5. creased or diminished in a given ratio, the same point
will
points
relative,
(163.)
CoR.
6.
B, C,
Z>,
they will sustain each other upon the point point is still called the center of gravity,
particles are not acted
G; and
though
this
the
upon by the
force of gravity.
force applied at the center of gravity (164.) CoR. 7. of a body cannot produce a rotatory motion in it. For every particle resists, by it's inertia, the communication
of motion, and in a direction opposite to that in which these the force applied tends to communicate the motion
;
resistances, therefore,
rections,
and they
OF GRAVITY.
8?
Prop.
(165.)
XXXIII.
To find
The
center
which are equal to each other and unimiddle point. For, there are equal weights on each side, equally distant from the middle point, which will sustain each other, in all positions, upon
particles of matter
formly dispersed,
is it's
Prop.
(166.)
XXXIV.
To find
gram.
Let
AB
of a parallelogram; bisect
AO, AT,
D
in
and
D; draw
A_
3
AI, AO, cutting each
KL, DE,
other in
figure.
respectively, parallel to
this point
if
C; For
is
made
up of
and
lines parallel to
bisected
by the
line
DE
AI, any one of these, as KL, is (since AC, CI, are parallelograms,
consequently, each
therefore,
KC=^AD DI^CL);
figure will
DE
DE,
there-
When we
it
we suppose
over
it.
to
88
ON THE CENTER
In
the same
manner
is
it
of the figure
section of the
in
of gravity
the inter-
two
lines,
Prop.
XXXV.
(167)
Let
^^ ^^^
ABC
form
of a triangle; bisect
AB, AC^
in 2), ^; join
CD^ BE,
is
of the triangle.
to
CA, of which
Bee, are
Suppose the triangle to be made up of lines parallel let cea be one; then since the triangles
similar,
BEC,
BEA, Bea,
by composition,
and
BE EC EA BE EA EC
: :
::
Be
ea
::
Be;
ec;
::
ea
line
EA = EC, therefore ea = ec; and consequently, the ac will balance itself in all positions upon BE. For the same reason, every other line parallel to AC will balance itself, in all positions, upon BE, or the whole theretriangle will balance itself in all positions upon BE
;
is
in that line.
In the
same manner
it
may
OF GRAVITY.
of gravity
is
89
it
in the line
CD
therefore
is
in
G,
the
intersection of the
two
lines
BE, CD.
(168.)
Cor.
The
is
distance of
from
is
two-thirds
of the line
BE.
Join ED-.,
parallel to
then since
AD = DB,
;
and
AE = EC, ED
the triangles
BC
:
(Euc.
2. xi.)
therefore,
AED, ACB,
are similar,
::
and
hence,
CB CB
CA
/>
ED EA
:
CA CGB, EGD,
:
::
EA
:
::
1.
are similar,
hence,
BG BG ^G
Ci5
GjE
GE ED; CB jE:/)
:
BE
3.
Prop.
XXXVI.
any
recti-
(169)
To Jlnd
linear figure.
Let
ABCDE
proposed figure.
ABC, ACD,
be collected
their
;
ADE,
in
may be found by
(Art. iGo.),
then
if
the
triangles
respective
centers of gravity
common
center of gravity
may be found
as in Prop. 32.
D
that
is,
C
:
join
ab and take db
ad
::
the triangle
ABC
the
90
triangle
ON THE CENTER
triangles
sum
is
of
ADC, and d is the center of gravity of the ABC, ACD. Join dc, and take ce ed the triangles ABC, ACD the triangle AED,
: :
two
the
::
and
Prop.
(I70.)
XXXVII.
any number
Tojind
Let A, B, C, D, be the bodies, collected in their reS any point in the straight
;
SAD
the
center of gravity
of
all
the bodies.
Then
upon O,
A
X
B_0
X
C
x
AO + B
that
is,
BO = C
X
CO + D
-\-
DO
(Art. 92.)
(SO-SA)
{SO -SB)
;
= Cx (SC-SO) +Dx
hence, by mult, and transposition,
(SD - SO)
SO-\-Bx SO + Cx SO-\-DxSO
therefore,
= Ax SA + BxSB + CxSC-\-DxSD;
SO =
AxSA + BxSB + Cx SC + D x SD
A+B+C+D
(I7I) CoR. If any of the bodies lie the other way from S, their distances must be reckoned negative ; and if SO be negative, the distance SO must be measured from S in that direction which, in the calculation, was supposed
to be negative.
OF (IKAVIT^.
91
Prop.
(I72.)
XXXVIII.
from
the
product of the sum of all the bodies multiplied by the perpendicular distance of their common
equal
to the
in
;
their
PQ
6.
draw
take
A a,
Bb, Cc,
at
right angles to
PQ, and
join
consequently,
(Euc.
xi.);
AB, and
t>
if^
ON THE CENTER
J
that
xEe-\is,
Again, join
then
draw
EC, and take CG GE A i- B C, G is the center of gravity of the bodies A, B, C; Gg perpendicular to PQ and it may be shewn,
::
:
as before, that
or
Gg.
The same
of bodies.
/-i^ox (1/3.)
may be extended
to
any number
r^
Cor.
1.
TT Hence
G^=
r.
AxAa-\-BxBh-\-CxCc
.
,
if a plane be drawn parallel to PQ, and at the distance from it, the center of gravity of the system lies somewhere in this plane. In the same manner two other planes may be found, in each of which the center of gravity lies, and the point where the three planes cut each other, is the
and
Gg
(174.)
Cor.
2.
lie
on the other
(I75.)
their
CoR.
3.
Wherever
from the plane remain the same, the distance of their common center of gravity from the plane w^ill remain the same.
respective
perpendicular
(I76.)
CoR.
4.
and
let
perpendiculars,
Let the bodies lie in the same plane, A a, Bb, Cc, Gg, be drawn to any
^'^
x Aa-\-
Bx
and
Bb-\-
X Cc
J+B+C
,).
(177-)
plane, and
Con.
If
OF GRAVITY.
the center of gravity, then
93
For
XXXIX.
to the
parts
of a system, ifs center of gravity will move in the satne manner that a body, equal to the sum of the hodies in the
system, would move, were
the
to
it
communicated
in the system,
and the
;
join
BC, and
take
BT TC
:
::
C
::
B;
:
join
AT, and
take
or
TE EA TE TA
: :
::
A A
B + C,
A+B^C,
A
would
then will
>
/
cause
it
to
move from
;
to
;
in
GT",
and
at
let
the
body be stopped
take
join
:
Tx
Tx
TF
::
A-{-B-\-C,
9^
then
ON THE CENTER
is
when they
are at
.v,
B, C; join
EF;
::
since
TE
TJ
-\-
-h
::
TF
Tx,
EF
is
parallel to
triangles
therefore
Ax
is
::
A + B + C.
A
Hence
to
tT,
if
one body
in the
moved from
to
which
point
may be
EF
parallel to
Ax^
and take
EF
Ax
::
A-\B^C.
\
Next let a momentum be communicated to B, which would cause it to move from B io y va. T" at y let the body be stopped then, according to the rule above laid down, draw FG parallel to By^ and take
;
FG
and
By
V.
'.
J+^ + C,
it
will
they are at x^ y^ C.
be the center of gravity of the bodies when In the same manner, let a momento
tum be communicated to C, which would cause in T'\ and at !s let the body be move from C to
;$?
stop-
ped
draw
GH parallel GH C:^
:
to
::
-{-
-b
C,
then
is
when they
of being
are at
.j?,
If
now
the momenta,
instead
communicated separately, be communicated at the same instant to the bodies, at the end of T'' they will be found in x, y, %, respectively therefore, at the end of T'\
;
their
common
let
H.
Cy and
let
Now
be a body equal to
to A,
A +B -t
to
it
the
that
;
was before
then since
same direction
EF
the
is
parallel to
body
E will
Ax, move
;
EF
is
in the direction in
which
of motion
OF GRAVITY.
95
communicated to
reciprocally
and
E
:
proportional
their
quantities
::
of
matter
J's velocity
A+B+C
by
EF Ax; therefore, EF and Aoe are spaces described E and A in equal times (Art. 11.), or E will describe In the same manner FG the space EF in T". the space which the body E will describe in T", if the momentum,
is
;
it and T", if the momentum before communicated to C, be communicated to it ; join EH; and when the motions are communicated at the same
GH
the space
it
will describe in
instant to E,
it
it
will describe
EH in
Hence
follows, that
communicated
common
body and the center of gravity are in the same point at the end of T" and T may represent any time therefore, they are always in the same point.
;
The same
the
demonstration
may be
applied, whatever be
number of bodies
(I79.)
in the system.
CoR.
1.
move
uni-
formly in right
lines,
the
remain at
if
rest, or move uniformly in a right line. For momenta communicated to the several parts of the system be communicated to a body, equal to the sum of
the
will either
(180.)
Cor.
2.
it be put in motion, the center of gravity of the weights will neither ascend nor descend. For the momenta of the weights, in a direction perpendicular to the horizon, are equal and opposite (Art. 149.);
communicated
it
to a
body equal
to
the
sum of
common
center of
gravity, they
96
(181.)
ON THE CENTER
Cor.
3. is
The motion
not affected
or
quiescence
of
the
by the mutual action of For action and a system upon each other. the parts of equal and in opposite directions, and equal reaction are and opposite momenta communicated to a body, equal to
center of gravity
the
sum of
it's
motion or quiescence.
(182.)
CoR.
4.
to
is
commu-
the same,
CoR.
5.
If
particles of matter.
A, B, C,
Z),
common
(Art.
181.);
therefore,
center.
(184.)
to a
Cor.
it
6.
body, and
be then
itself,
move
freely,
the axis of
center of gravity
has no rotation.
Prop.
(185.)
XL.
and a
to
If a body be placed upon an horizontal plane, ifs center of gravity perpendicular that plane, the body will be sustained, or 7iot, according
liiie
drawn from
ivithifi
OF GRAVITY
97
Let ABDC represent the body, G it's center of gravity; draw GE perpendicular to the horizon join CG^ and with
;
the radius
CG
HGF
then the
body cannot
fall
_B
GF.
of gravity applied at
present
it
;
GE
to re-
draw E.v perpendicular to CG then the force GE is equivalent to the two G.37, a^E, of which Gw cannot move the body either in the direction GF or and when E falls within the base, cvE acts at G in the
GH
direction
GH;
GF,
the
body cannot
that
fall
it
over at
may be shewn
cannot
fall
When
,vE acts
the perpendicular
GE
falls
in the direction
GF, and
since there
no force
move
in that
body
will fall.
(186.)
that if a
lateral
CoR. 1. In the same manner it may be shewn, body be placed upon an inclined plane, and the motion be prevented by friction, the body will be
it's
98 Ex.
Let
ON rHK CENTER
ABCD
draw
GE perpendicular
;
to
CD, and
GFH perpendicular
the Z
or
to
the horizon
SR T,
than
For
if
FRH be greater
is less
RFH,
GFE,
FGE
is
EF
is
greater than
EG,
or
EC,
(187) CoR. 2. The higher the center of gravity of a body is, ccsteris paribus, the more easily it is overturned.
The same
keeps
it
construction being
made
as in the Proposition,
body
steady upon
it
it's
::
base, or opposes
:
ployed to overturn
GE xE
::
GC
-
as
CE;
CE
and the whole weight of the body are given, the force
{Jig. Art. 206.);
GC
increases,
that
is,
GE
increases,
the
force which keeps the body steady decreases, or the more easily will the body be overturned.
(188.)
CoR.
S.
When CE
GC,
the
Thus
OF GRAVITY.
it
99
is
extremely
difficult
to balance a
Prop. XLI.
(189.)
which
is
If a body he suspended by any point, it will till the ceyiter of gravity is in the line drawn through that point, perpendicular to the
horizon.
Let
ABC;
G
*S',
it's
center of gravity
join
SG
and produce
to
it
through
and G, draw
is
RST,
and
it
GH,
perpendiculars to the
the particles
G;
take
GH
HI
and draw
is
force
is
GH
IH
sustained
is
and
by the reaction at the point of suspension employed in moving the center of gravity
in
a direction perpendicular to
the angle
SG
till
IH
vanishes
that
is,
IGH,
or
GST,
G 2
vanishes, or
SG
coincides
with
RT.
100
Cor. Hence it follows, that if a body be sus(190.) pended successively by different points, and perpendiculars to the horizon be drawn through the point of suspension, and passing through the body, the center of gravity will lie in each of these perpendiculars, and consequently, in
the point of their intersection.
SECTION
VI.
Def.
Hardness, which
is
found
in different
component
whose parts cannot be separated, or moved one amongst another by any finite force.
(192.)
Def.
The tendency
is
called elas-
That body
said to be
more
elastic
than another,
which recovers it's figure with the greater force, supposing By a perfectly elastic the compressing force the same. body we mean one which recovers it's figure with a force equal to that which was employed in compressing it.
from
be brought gently into contact with an unstained ball, by the latter will be very small, since two
made
;
to
be enlarged
hence
it is
manifest,
afterwards recovered
it's
spherical figure.
Almost
all
bodies
with which we are acquainted are elastic in a greater or less degree; but none perfectly so. In steel balls, the
force of elasticity
is
to the
compressing force as 5
to 9
in
102
glass, as 15 to l6;
ticity
ON THE COLLISION
though
in all cases,
of the
(193.)
direct,
The impact
centers
of two bodies
is
said to
be
of gravity move
and
in
upon each
by
gravity,
Prop. XLII.
(194.)
direct,
jJ^rfectly
Since there
is
line of direction,
and B be the two bodies, moving in the and let A overtake B; then will A continue to accelerate B's motion, and B will continue to retard ^'s, till their velocities are equal, at which time they will cease and since there is no force to to act upon each other separate them, they will move on together, and their common velocity, by the First Law of Motion, will be uniform. When they move in opposite directions, if their forces be equal, they will rest after impact; if ^'s force be greater than B''s, the whole velocity of B will be destroyed, and ^'s not being destroyed, A will communicate velocity to B, and B by it's reaction will retard A, till they move on together,
pact*.
Let
same
direction,
The momenta
these
momenta,
therefore,
body
through the
OF BODIES.
103
Prop.
(195.)
direct,
XLIIL
their
the whole
common momentum
velocity
may
he
found by dividing
the quantities of
sum of
matter.
Let
in
and
Aa + Bb
before
is
the whole
that
direction,
impact.
is
When
opposite directions,
Aa Bb
the whole
mo-
moves.
In the former
of A,
is
diminished, so
increased
is
by
the
therefore
Aa + Bb
momentum
after impact.
In the
latter case, it
Aa
;
move
of B, must be destroyed
and therefore ^'s momentum must be diminished by the quantity Bb (Art. 32.). Thus, when the bodies begin to move in the same direction, Aa Bb is their whole momentum; and as much momentum as is afterwards communicated to B, so much is lost by A; therefore Aa Bb is equal to the whole
momentum
If
after impact.
less
A a be
momentum
will
after impact,
or,
be
Bb Aa;
the direction
A\
motion,
Aa Bb.
then (A
Let V be the common velocity after impact; -\- B) X is the whole momentum consequently,
ii
{A^B)x
v=:
Aa ~ -f Bb.
and
v.
^A-Y
^ B
104
ON THE COLLISION
the bodies
In which expression, the positive sign is to be used when move in the same direction before impact, and
in opposite directions.
(196.)
Cor.
In
When
the bodies
move
in
opposite
momenta, they
will
remain at rest
this case
Ja Bb = 0;
therefore v
= 0.
Cor. 2. If J56 be greater than A a, v is This shews that the bodies will move in the direction of B^s motion, which was supposed, in the proposition, to be negative.
(197-)
negative.
Prop.
(198.)
bodies
XLIV.
In the direct impact of two perfectly hard and B, estimating the effects in the direction
:
A :: the relative velocity of the of A's motion^ A + B B :: 4- B And gained by B. velocity the two bodies A. lost by velocity the velocity their relative
:
The same
move
in the
;
(Art. 12.)
is
same direction, a b is their relative velocity and u, their common velocity after impact,
(Art. 195.); therefore, the velocity ^mec^ by
J?,
-{-
B
V
or
b=
:
Aa + Bb A-h B
a
AaAb -
. ;
A+B
hence,
A^B
Also, a
::
b
or
Aa-^Bb
hence
- A-\'B
-\-
Ba-Bb
,
A+B
,
.
^:
is
by
A
t
::
by A.
-{
When
is
the bodies
move
in
opposite directions, a
their
relative
velocity
(Art. J2.);
and v
Aa-Bb
j
,
OF BODIES.
(Art. 195.);
also,
105
to
the velocity
communicated
is
upon
+ ^'
Aa-Bh
Q^*
p +^^
Aa-\-Ab
;
that
IS,
therefore,
A + B:A::a-\-b:
by B.
The
lost velocity ^
111.^
by ^
-r
is
a
:
Aa-Bh -
A+B
or
Ba + Bb A+B
therefore,
B B
:
::
-\-
hy A.
Ex.
velocities
Let the weights of A and B be 10 and 6*; their 12 and 8, respectively; then, when they move
direction,
in the
same
10
6"
10
6'
::
126
::
j^
velocity gained
by B; and 10 +
12
= 2^, ^=
:
the
1^,
by A.
When
they
move
;
in opposite directions,
12
8 is their
relative velocity
and 10
+6
10
::
12
^=
12i, the
Also,
velocity gained
since
it
by B had a velocity
4^
12
in
:
the direction
of A's motion.
velocity lost
Again, 10
+6
+ 8 ^^ =
7!, the
by ^.
CoR.
1.
(I99.)
by A,
are unaltered.
(200.)
cities,
CoR.
2.
Hence
it
gained by B, and lost by A, are the same, whether at rest, both bodies are in motion, or A impinges upon with a velocity equal to their relative velocity in the former
case.
106
(201.)
ON THE COLLISION
Cor.
3.
the
momentum communicated
the
same,
whether
impinges upon Bj or
upon J.
;
then when
,
impinges
upon B, A
-r
::
Ar
B
::
by
B B
therefore
ABr
is
the
momentum
gained by B.
When
impinges upon A,
-{-
Br
r
:
the velocity
gained by
therefore
is
ABr
is
the
momentum
gained
by
which
also the
momentum
gained by
on the
former supposition.
Prop.
(202.)
velocity
XLV.
are perfectly
elastic,
When
the
bodies
the
struck.,
and
Let
and
be the bodies
their
and
act
to
if they were perfectly hard thev upon each other, and move on
first
same effect is produced, that is, the same velocity is gained and lost, as if the bodies were perfectly hard. But, during this period, the bodies are compressed by the stroke, and since they are, by the supposition, perfectly elastic, the force with which each will recover it's former shape is equal to that with which it was compressed therefore, each body will receive another impulse from the elasticityequal to the former or B will gain, and A lose, upon the whole, twice as great a velocity as if both bodies had
;
;
been
pei'fectly hard.
OF BODIES,
(203.)
107
applied to
Prop.
(204.)
bodies
XLVI.
elastic
In the and B,
:
direct
A+B
::
before impact
in the direction
relative velocity
:
of A's motion
,v
the velocity
gained by B, and y the velocity lost by Ay when both bodies are perfectly hard; then 2w is the velocity gained
by B, and
2t/
;
by A, when they
are
perfectly elastic
and
:
A^B
A-^-B hj B.
Again,
'.
A
2A
:.
r r
m (Art.
198.)
therefore,
::
.:
-[-
B
2B
::
r
r
A-\-B
Ex.
direction,
::
by A.
velocities 7
Let the weights of the bodies be 5 and 4, their and 5; then, when they move in the same
5+4
10
::
5
:
=
is
by
therefore
:
5+2-,
::
or 7 g
+4 therefore 7
Also, 5
z=
8
7
1
5 ^ =
2
by A;
When
:
+4
10
::
+5
it
120
Also, since
it's is
had a
after
velocity
in
the
opposite
direction,
velocity
13^5,
or 8^.
Again,
since
will
it
+4
::
^=
had a velocity
move
108
(205.)
velocities.
ON THE COLLISIOX
CoK.
1.
For, in
lost
by A, are
then,
Let a and
when
is
velocity
or ,
b,
is
and a
is B''s
(a b),
or
^""s
move
in opposite
directions,
b,
or a,
velocity,
and
(a + 6),
di-
or
6,
is A'^s
(206.)
rections
CoR.
If the bodies
move
in
opposite
mentum
of each will be destroyed during the compression, and an equal one generated by elasticity in the opposite
direction;
(207.)
after
CoR.
is
3.
The
to
relative
impact
equal
their relative
velocity
before
impact.
impact;
A
Let a and b be the velocities of the bodies before p and q their velocities after; then a b = qp.
:
A+B 2Ax(ab) 11 ^ p gamed by B therefore q = b-\A+B 2B X (a-b) Also A + B a- b 2B A+B the velocity lost by A 2Bx{a-b) therefore jj = a A+B (2A + 2B) x(a-b) and q p = b - a A+B = b a ^ 2a 2b = a b.
1
^ T^ For, A + B
2A
::
a-b
2A
:
X (a
_1___I
b)
the
velocity ^
::
{-
OF BODIES.
109
in opposite directions,
When
the bodies
is
and
move
the sign of h
Cor. 4. The sum of the products of each (208.) body, multiplied by the square of it's velocity, is the same before and after impact.
The
therefore
z=:
x (q
-\-
b)
or
therefore
-\-
If any of the quantities, 6, ja, q^ be negative, it's square will be positive, and therefore the conclusion will not be altered.
(209.)
CoR.
5.
If there be a
row of equal
elastic
bodies, A^ 5, C,
Z),
municated to A^ and thence to jB, C, -D, &c. they will all remain at rest after the impact, except the last, which will move off with a velocity equal to that with which the first
moved.
For
that
is,
A A
and
will
remain at
at
and
it
move on with
^'s
velocity.
may be shewn
that all
after impact,
except the
which
will
move
communicated
to ^.
(210.)
Cor.
all
6.
they will
move
direction of the
first
motion,
and the velocity communicated to each succeeding body will be greater than that which was communicated to the
precedhig.
110
For,
ON
I'HK
roLLISTOX
velocity before impact
-\-
B
by
9.B
;
::
A\
the
velocity lost
it's
and since 2 jB is less than A-\- B^ A whole velocity therefore it will move
;
on
after
:
first
motion.
:
Also,
A+B
::
A^
the velocity
and since 2 A is greater than A + B^ the velocity gained by 5 is greater than ^'s velocity before In the same manner it may be shewn that 5, impact. C, D, &c. will move on in the direction of the first motion and that the velocity communicated to each will be greater than that which was communicated to the preceding body.
gained by
;
(211.)
Coil.
all
7.
they will
velocity
less
communicated
B B
is
greater than
A
it
-\-
therefore,
in the
loses
more than
it^s
whole velocity, or
is less
is
will
move
contrary direction.
Also, 2 J
less
impact.
In the same manner it may be shewn that B, C, D, &c. will be reflected ; and that the velocity communicated to each will be less than that which was com-
Cor.
8.
The
when
velocity thus
communicated from
through
to C,
is
A, C, and less than the other, exceeds the velocity wbich would be communicated immediately from A to
Let a represent
A''s
velocity
then
,
A
and
.
-\-
2A
::
~
2
Ad
-\-
the velocity of
B;
_ _ ^ B + C:,B::j^:j^x-^^,
2Aa
2Aa
2B
B
::
to C.
Again,
-\-
2A
2Aa A -h C
OF BODIES.
the
velocity
Ill
communicated
immediately from
to
C.
Hence it follows, that the velocity communicated to C, by means of B, is greater than that which would be communicated to
it
immediately,
if
2Aa A+B
that
is,
2B -
B+C
^ ^ be greater than
2Aa A+
>^
C
^
if
^+C
be greater than
( -^
+ ^)
(B + C)
9.B
or 2 v4
+ 2r
greater than
-\-
C+B
-\
-\
AC B
.
or
AC B
Suppose
A = B + ,r, C B + y\
then A-{-C
= 9.B-\-x-\-y,
-\-
and
AC ^ B~ + BoG-{-By B+~=B+ ^^
therefore, the velocity
is
xy ^ l=2B
to
+ .v + y+^i
means of
it
wy
communicated
C by
J5,
without B,
if
9.B
-\-
-\-y
^ ^;
which
will
ocy is negative,
is,
or
when x
than one
and y have
that
when
is less
(213.)
gression,
CoR.
g.
geometrical progression
whose common
ratio is r,
::
first
the
(l-\-ry-^
* The velocity comnmnicated from A through B to when A, B, and C, are in j^eoraetrical progression.
C, is a
maximum
Ex. 11.)
112
ON THE (Or.LISTOX
Let A, Jr, Ar-, Ar', &c. be the bodies; , h, c, d, &c. them ; then
A
1
-\-
Ar
r r r
:
9.A 2
2
::
a
a
b
c
:
b,
or
+
+ +
::
::
2
b
::
::
kc.
c
:
therefore a
sition,
b
:
d,
:
&c.
Also,
by compolast.
(l+r)^"^
Con.
2""^
::
(214.)
10.
If the
number of mean
proportionals,
and X, be increased
to
A''s
communicated
to
will
approximate
the
ratio
of
A^
1^ A
as ifs limit.
Let A^ 5, C, Z), x JT be the bodies ; , 6, c, d, velocities communicated to them. Then since the number of bodies interposed between A and is increased
the
X
:
let
+ ^ = jB
then
sr
:
2^ +
or
2^
..a
::
-\
* and
J+
::
.J1lV%
^/~A
::
^^
:
J~A'.
* Since B-\- -2
(^
:
+ |)%\4^
::
A'
+ Az + ^
"
A^
::
J^^+^
is
.-
'-'-
A, the ratio of
(^+5)
^^ when z
continually
A, and consequently,
^+
\/B
\/A
as
it's
OF BODIES.
113
h h
therefore,
^J B
fj^
y/ B
''
inthesamemanncr,
^C
^'D
&c.
::
^~C
::
comp. /y/jf
^y J
is
::
w.
Cor.
The
conclusion
the
interif
the
be evanescent.
Prop.
(215.)
bodies
XLVII.
in the direct impact of two imperfectly elastic and B, if the compressing force he to the force
::
of
elasticity
m, then A impact
+B
:
(l+m)xA
::
their
And
A+B
:
(l
+ m)
B B
impact
by A, in that direction.
By reasoning,
gained by
as in Art. 202,
it
and the velocity lost by J, during the compression, are the same as if the bodies were perfectly hard; and the velocity communicated by the elasticity is 1. to the velocity communicated by the compression :: m
:
w the
velocity
gained by B^ and y the velocity lost by A, during the compression ; then (l -^m) x oe is the velocity gained by
By and
{l -\-m)
xy
Now
A+B
and
::
r
r
.T
(Art. IpS.),
-\-
::
114
therefore,
ON THE COLLISION
A+B
(l-\-m)xA
::
(\-^m)x
w,
hjB;
:
and
J+B
(l+w)x5
::
(l+m)xy,
(216.)
:
CoR.
1.
The
m.
impact,
Let a and b be the velocities of the two bodies before p and q their velocities after then
;
A-^B
(l+m)x^
by
::
a-b
^^
j^^
(a
'
therefore, q
= b-\-
(\
-^m)x A X
b)
X {a -
A+B
(1+ m) X
jB
b)
in the
same manner, p = a^
hence, q
p = b^a-\fe -j-
(1
+ m)
J + -S)
X (a b)
A^B
i.
or 6
a+a-
m X (a 6),
e.
mx
(a
6),
is
and a b
mx(a b)
::
m.
When
of b
is
the bodies
move
negative.
Cor. 2. Hence it appears that if the velocities (217.) of the bodies before and after impact be known, the elastic
force
is
known.
OF BODIES.
(218.)
115
Cor.
3.
If
impinge upon
at rest,
:
will
remain at
rest after
impact when
loses
it's
::
I.
In
this case
:
whole velocity,
:
and A-\-B
(l
therefore
^m)xB a the A B = (l + m) x B,
::
velocity lost
by A;
-{-
and
AmB;
I.
consequently,
::
Cor. 4. The momentum communicated (219.) same, whether A impinges upon B, or upon A,
is
the
if
the
be the same. This is the case when the bodies are perfectly hard (Art. 201.); and the effect produced in elastic bodies is in a given ratio to that which is produced when the bodies are perfectly hard.
relative velocity
Prop.
XLVIII.
When a perfectly hard body impinges obliquely (220.) on a perfectly hard and immoveable plane AB, in the direction CD, after impact it will move along the plane, and the velocity before impact the velocity after :: radius
:
CDA.
motion of the body before
Take
CD
to represent the
impact
Then
draw CE parallel, and DE perpendicular to AB. CD may be resolved into the two CE, ED, (Art. 43.),
;
of which
ED
is
immoveable,
Art. Il6.).
motion will be wholly destroyed, (See The other motion CE, which is employed in
this
h2
116
ON THE COLLISION
by the impact and consequently, there being no force to separate the body and the plane, the body will move along
;
the plane
that
it
and
it
will describe
DB = CE in the
;
same time
described
CD
before impact
::
radius
sin.
CDE
radius
cos.
z
:
CD CE CD A.
:
(221.)
Cor.
The
::
the differ-
ence between the velocity before and the velocity after, that
is,
radius
rad.
cos. z
CDA
::
rad.
CDA.
Prop.
(222.)
XLIX.
perfectly hard
CD,
it
If a perfectly elastic body impinge upon a and immoveable plane AB, in the direction will be reflected from it in the direction DF, which
makes, with
DB,
the angle
BDF
equal
to the
angle
ADC.
body
Let
CD represent
A
perpendicular to AB make and and join DF. Then the whole motion may be resolved into the two CE, ED, of which CE is employed in carrying the body parallel to the plane, and must therecarries the body in fore remain after the impact ; and the direction ED, perpendicular to the plane; and since the plane is immoveable, this motion will be destroyed during the compression, and an equal motion will be generated in the opposite direction by the force of elasticity.
draw
CF
parallel,
DE
EF=CE,
ED
OF BODIES.
117
has two body at the point from D uniformly it carry motions, one of which would viz. time, same in the to F, to Ey and the other from E
Hence
it
it
described
CD
will,
therefore, describe
DF
in that time
is
CDE, EDF, CE
z
equal to
is
EF,
ED
is
CED
equal to the
hence, the
CoR.
1.
Since
uniformly described in equal times, before and after the impact, the velocity of the body after reflection is equal
to its velocity before incidence.
(224.)
elastic,
CoR.
2.
:
take
DE
Doo
::
the
draw xf parallel and equal to EF, join F/, Df\ then the two motions which the body has are represented by Dx, ^'^Z*? and the body will at describe Z>/, after reflection, in the same time that it
force of elasticity;
described
CD
before
incidence;
therefore,
the velocity
before incidence
::
::
DF Df
:
::
sin.
DfF,
::
or
sin.
of
it's
supplement
CD Df EDf
:
sin.
DFf,
or
sin.
FDE
sin.
EDf:
sin.
EDC.
Here we suppose the coirmon surface of the body and plane, to remain parallel to AB, in which case there is
to accelerate or retard the
no cause
motion
CE
118
ox THE COLLISION
Prop. L.
(225.)
Having given
moving in the same plane, their velocities, and the directions in which they move, to find the plane which touches them both at the point of impact.
Let AE,
the bodies
BE,
and
move ; and let and be spaces uniformly described by them in the same time; complete the parallelogram ABKE; join KD, and with the center
AE
BD
radii of the
two
join
bodies,
a circular
arc cutting
KD
in
H;
EH,
and
EHMR.
is
Then
and
if
RC
will
drawn through
perpendicular to
-
MR,
Since MH is parallel to AE or BK, the triangles DMH, DBK, are similar, and BK BD MH MD or AE BD RE MD; therefore AE BD AR BM (Euc. 19. V.) and since AE and BD are spaces described in the same time by the uniform motions of A and B, AR
:
::
::
::
and
BM,
will
be described
in the
same time
OF BODIES.
119
is
in
R, the
center of the
body
is in
M, and
the
distance
MR = HE = the
Also,
sum
when they
arrive at those
which joins their centers will pass through the point of contact; and LC will be a tangent to them both.
MR
Pkop. LI.
(226.)
Having given
matter,
and
be the plane which touches the bodies at the produce AB, which joins the centers of ; the bodies, indefinitely both ways; through the centers A and B, draw EAF, GBH, parallel to LN, let CA, DB,
Let
LN
point of impact
resolve
two CI, IA *, of which CI is parallel, and perpendicular to LN', also resolve into two, parallel to LN, and KB perpendicular to it. Then CA and the angle CAI, which the direction of A\ motion
CA IA
into the
DB
DK
120
and lA are known; in the same manner, and KB Now CI, DK, which are parallel to the plane are known. jLiV, will not be affected by the impact; and lA, KBy which are perpendicular to it, are the velocities with which the bodies impinge directly upon each other, and their effects may be calculated by Prop. 44, when the bodies are perfectly hard and by Prop. 47, when they are elastic. Let AR and BS be the velocities of the bodies after impact, thus determined; take AF=CI, and BH=iDK\ complete the parallelograms RF, and draw the dia;
DK
SH
APy BQ; then the bodies will describe the AP, BQ, after impact, and in the same time that
gonals
describe
lines
they
SECTION
VII
ON THE
ACCELERATED
or
RETARDED
BY UNIFORM FORCES.
Prop. LII.
(227.)
If a
uniform force^
the velocity
communicated
to
it
is pro-,
The
this
accelerating
force
is
uniformly generated in
case,
the force
by the supposition
and since a body, by the first law of motion, retains the increments of velocity thus communicated to it, if, in the time t, the velocity a be
in equal times (Art. 20.)
;
mt
the velocity
is
ma
is
generated;
By
force, in this
moved, unless
it
be expressly mentioned.
supposed
to coincide
122
ON THE RECTILINEAR
Prop. LIII.
(228.) If bodies he impelled in right lines by different uniform forces, the velocities generated in any times are
and times
jointly.
and / be the forces, T and t the times of their and v the velocities generated; also, let oo be the velocity generated by the force / in the time T then,
Let
action,
V
X
comp.
(Alg. Art. 195.).
X
V V
::
::
F T
f
t
::
FT
ft; that
the velocities
Ex.
If a force,
represented
by unity,
generate a
velocity represented
by
what
generate in
:
seconds
::
we have 1x1
FT
2m
2mFT,-
(229.)
CoR.
Since Foe
V FT, Toe-
Prop. LIV.
(230.)
If a
body'^s
The force impressed is the same, by the supposition, whether the body move in the direction of the force, or
in the opposite direction
;
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
in the
123
former case,
is
Cor.
is
l.
uniform force
action.
(232.)
CoR.
2.
The
velocities destroyed
by
different
Prop. LV.
(233.)
and move
that velocity is
destroyed,
the
The
velocity generated in
same force (Art. 230.) ; two cases, are equal ; also, if equal times be taken, from the beginning of the motion in the former case, and from the end of the motion in the latter, the velocities Since then the whole times at those instants are equal. of motion are equal, and also the velocities at all corresponding points of time, the whole spaces described are
in the
any time, is equal to the same time by the action of the hence, the whole times of motion,
equal.
Prop. LVI.
If a body be moved from a state of rest by an uniform force, the space described, reckoning from the beginning of the motion, varies as the square of the time, or as the square of the last ac(234.)
the
action of
quired velocity.
124
ON THE RECTILINEAR
Take
draw
AB
at
BC
right angles to
I)
AB, and
let
BC
represent
\v
M
N
from the
L,
AC; divide the time AB AD, DE, EF, FG, &c. and points D, E, F, G, &c. draw DK, EL, FM, parallel to BC, meeting AC in the points K,
;
DX, EW,
have
ABC, ADK, we
AB AD
:
BC DK;
:
and
since
BC
city acquired in
the time
AB,
DK
city acquired in
the time
AD
(Art. 227.)
in the
same
EL, FM, GN, &c. represent the Now, velocities generated in the times AE, AF, AG, &c. if the body move with the uniform velocity DK, during the time AD, and with the uniform velocities EL, FM, GN, &c. during the times DE, EF, FG, &c. respectively, the spaces described may properly be represented by the therefore, rectangles DX, EW, FV, GT, &c. (Art. l6.)
manner
it
appears, that
the whole
space described,
on
this supposition,
will
be
represented
by the sum of the rectangles, or by the triangle ABC, together with the sum of the triangles AXK, KWL,
LVM, MTN,
triangles are
their altitudes
&c. that
is,
equal to
the
ABC,
respect to
AD, DE, EF, FG, &c. be diminished AB, and the rectangle BQ, is
diminished without
or
ABC;
ABC -\-^BQ
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
approaches
described
to
125
ABC
as
is
it's
limit
tlierefore,
when
the
represented
triangle
ABC.
any other time AG, reckoning from the beginning of the motion, is represented, on the same scale, by the area of the triangle AGN; and these
space described in
triangles being similar,
The
the
AB
AG
::
AB'^
AG'.
Also,
the times
AB
AG
Ex.
::
BC'
GN'.
state
(235.)
If a
feet in the
second of time,
it
Qm, l6m,
mT^feet,
(236.)
in the 2,3,4/,
T first
is
seconds.
Cor.
1.
The
acquired
BD;
then,
it
appears from
AB,
reckoning from the beginning of the motion the space described in the time IB with the uniform velocity
BC
::
the triangle BQ. Also, the space described in the time IB, with the uniform velocity the space
:
ABC
BC
126
ON THE RECTILINEAll
AB,
::
BD; and by compounding two proportions, we have the space described in the time AB, when the body^s motion is accelerated from the space described in the same time a state of rest with the last acquired velocity continued uniform :: the
IB
:
AB
(Art. 13.)
BQ
these
triangle
ABC
the rectangle
BD
::
2*.
is
The space described in the time (237.) CoR. 2. represented by the area GBCN; or, if be drawn
GB
NM
GB, by the rectangle GM together with the Now, GM represents the space which a body would describe in the time GB, with the uniform
parallel to
triangle
NMC
GN;
velocity
NMC,
GB;
is
which
is
similar
to the triangle
ABC,
moved from
a state of rest,
thus,
by the
the space
when a body
projected in the
it
would
velocity con-
would have been moved from a state of same time, by the action of the force.
(238.)
in
the
CoR.
3.
If a
body be projected
till
in a direction
the velocity
destroyed.
it
amounts
to this
BQ, represents the space uniformly described, with the velocity BC, in the time BI, on the same scale that the triangle ABC represents the space through which the body is drawn, by the action of the uniform force, in the time AB; and also, on the same
scale
The
that
DB
AB, with
the velocity
is
BC;
when
from rest for the time AB, and when the velocity BC remains uniform for the same time, are represented, on the same scale, by the triangle ABC and the rectangle BD.
accelerated
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
the
127
by BA, by the area ABC
whole time of
its
motion
is
represented
(Art. 230.),
(Art. 233.).
BG
is
repre-
on the same
scale,
by the rectangle
or
BL
it
CNM.
Thus
appears,
in the time
BG,
is
body would have been moved from a state of rest, the same time, by the action of the uniform force.
Prop. LVII.
(239.)
When
bodies are
and
and
s
last
Let
and
#;
T
9.S
V and
spaces
2S
and
are the
which would be described in the times and t, with the uniform velocities V and v (Art. 236.) ; and the spaces described with uniform velocities are proportional to the times and velocities jointly (Art. 14.)
hence,
2S
or A^
that
is,
2s
s
::
TV
TV
tv,
::
SocTV
Cor. and the
(240.)
directly,
128
ON THE RECTILINEAR
Prop. LVIII.
(241.)
The spaces
described, reckoning
from
the be-
ginning of the motions, vary also as the forces and squares of the times ; or as the squares of the velocities directly
and
In general,
228.)
;
So^TV
(Art. 239.);
{Alg.
and
VocFT
;
(Art.
Art. 203.)
therefore,
therefore,
TFoc4\ F
and
consequently,
S oc
1.
V-
(242.)
CoR.
If
be given,
SgcF;
that
is,
the
are proportional to
those
forces.
jr-
(243.)
(Alg.
Cor.
;
2.
Since
is,
^oc, F
the
we have V" oc
FS
Art. 203.)
that
squares
of the velocities
to the forces
and spaces
(244.)
CoR.
3.
If
be given, aS'oc^;-
(245.)
CoR.
4.
When
spaces
by uniform
forces,
and move
their
whole velocities
as
are destroyed,
the
described vary
the forces
first
and squares of the times; or, as the squares of the velocities directly and the forces inversely.
For, the time in which any velocity
equal to the time in which
it
is
destroyed,
is
would be generated by the the spaces described, on supposition the latter case is moved from a state
MOTIONS OF BODIES,
f
rest,
129
same expresrepresent
therefore, the
times,
and
also
till
velocities,
in
accelerated motions,
them
when
move
their
whole
Thus, when equal bodies are made to impinge upon banks of earth, sand, &c. where the retarding forces are invariable, the depths to which they sink, or the whole
spaces described, are as the squares of the
first velocities
first
velocities directly
and the
spaces inversely.
Prop. LIX.
If a body be moved from, a state of rest by the action of an uniform force, the spaces described in equal successive portions of time, reckoned from the beginning of the motion, are as the odd numbers 1, 3, 5, 7,
(246.)
9, &c.
If
time,
described in the
first
portion of
first
two
be
therefore,
4m m,
or
3m,
will
the
space described in
will
Also,
be the space described in the first three portions --4 m, or 5 m, will be the
Thus
the spaces
are
portions
as the
of time,
m, 3m,
1,
5 m,
7,
odd numbers
3,
5,
9,
(247.)
CoR.
When
a.
body
is
retarded
by an
in-
variable force,
odd numbers
1,
3,
5,
7,
9?
&c.
I
130
ON THE llECTILINEAR
For, when a body moves
till
it's
whole motion
is
de-
stroyed
by an uniform
any
equal to that which would be described in the corresponding time, were the body moved from a state of
time
is
rest
Prop.
LX.
(248.)
The
an uniform
perpendicular
equally.
force of gravity, at any given place, is force, which ahvays acts in a direction
to
the horizon,
and
will,
by
it's
same place, bend the same spring in the same degree; it will also fall through the same space in the same time, if therefore, the force the resistance of the air be removed Also, all bodies which fall freely of gravity is uniform.
;
by
this force,
and, in an exhausted receiver, they all fall through the same space in the same time; consequently, gravity acts
in a direction perpendicular to the horizon (Art. 29.),
and
It is found by experiments made on the descent of heavy bodies, and on the oscillations of bodies in small circular arcs (Art. 302.), that every body which falls freely in vacuo by the force of gravity, descends from rest through
l6^
feet in
This
fact
descent of bodies
when they
are accelerated
by the
force
when they
are retarded
by
may he
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
1st.
131
When
a body
falls
by the
;
velocity acquired in
it
any time, as T'\ is such as would carry where m^=lQ^. uniformly over 2m feet in l''
Since a body falls l6^ feet in l", it acquires a velocity which would carry it uniformly through 32| feet in l" (Art. 236.); and when a body is accelerated by a given
invariable force, the velocity generated
is
::
proportional to
32^
:
T"
32|
T, the
is
T"
that
is,
feet such as would carry the body uniformly over 32^ in l". Let V be the velocity acquired, and m=l6^, then
F=2mT.
2d.
The
T\ m T^ feet.
:
reckoned from
234.)
therefore, 1"
T^
::
mT~,
That
falls 9w^,
is,
S m T".
Ex.
1.
In S" a body
or 9 x l6^
= 144|: feet.
= 4,^ feet.
Ex.
2.
In ^' a body
falls
or l6^ x
3d.
The
is
4m
feet.
V-
v.
'.
S,
m\d
S=
Ex.
feet.
If a body
fall
from
rest
till
it
has acquired a
.20x20
as
:;
64
'
132
ox THE RECTILINEAR
From
the
three
preceding expressions,
2mT'^
S = 7nT-;
and
S=
4<m
V"
in
which a body
will fall
90 feet
S = mT% T-=-,
and
-; T=\/ m
in
this
case
T= y
_
=2.36 seconds,
nearly.
16 12
Also, *S'=
V-
therefore,
4>m
V=2^mS; ^
,
in this case,
second, nearly.
rest
If a body
fall
from
by the
force of gravity,
are
the numbers
3,
2^,
5,
7,
&c.
4*''
fallen
through in the
5
3^
l6j^,
X l6^
feet,
respectively.
till
it''s
body,
is
projected upwards,
move
whole velocity
de-
1,
3,
5,
7,
&c. taken in an
Thus,
if
3^, 4*^
seconds, are
7 X l6^, 5 X 16^, 3 X
5th.
l6j^,
16^
feet,
respectively.
If a body begin to
move
would carry the body, together with the space through which it would fall by the force of gravity in that time (Art. 237.)equal to the space through which the
first
velocity
Ex. If a body be projected perpendicularly downwards, with a velocity of 20 feet per second, to find the space
described in 4".
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
133
first
The
velocity, is
4 X 20, or 80 feet
and the space fallen through in 4", by the action of gravity, is l6^ x l6, or 257^ feet; therefore, the whole space described is 80 + 257y, or 337 j feet.
6th.
If a
any time is equal to would move with the first velocity continued uniform, diminished by the space through which it would fall by the action of gravity in that time
the height to which
will ascend in
it
(Art. 238.).
Ex.
feet
I.
To what
?
height will
body
rise
in 3'\
if
per second
The
the
the
first
body would
feet.
by the
16^x9,
144;|,
300
or 155^
Ex.
2.
place at
The
first
fallen
through in
16^ x 36, or 579 feet ; therefore the distance of the body from the point of projection, at the end
the same time
of 6",
is
480
579,
or
will
Prop.
(249.)
LXI.
accelerates or retards a body's
is to
ifs length.
134 Let
horizon,
ON THE EECTILINEAR
parallel to the
the place of a
draw DE parallel to AB, body upon it. From the point and take DE to represent the force of gravity; from E draw EF perpendicular to AC Then the whole force
DE
is
DF, FE,
of which
FE
is
is
supported
by
DF,
by the
plane,
is
wholly employed in
body
in the
plane;
::
therefore,
DF
:
DE
triangles
DEF, ABC) AB
AC.
Con. 1. Since the accelerating force, on the (250.) same plane, is in a given ratio to the force of gravity, it is an uniform force.
(251.)
plane,
CoE.
2.
If
L it's
by
represented by
L;
IT
.
(252.)
inclination
:
CoR.
3.
Since
::
jr
the radius,
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
(253.)
135
inclined plane,
it
Cor.
TT
4.
If a
body
fall
is
down an
uniformly over
where
m= l6^.
the
by the
force of gravity
::
the product of
former case
them
in the latter*;
being repre-
sented
is
by
unity,
TT
,
in \" is
TT
2m;
therefore,
2m
::
~r x
/.
and
x2mTt.
Ex.
will,
Thus,
it"'s
if
as great as
height, a
body which
falls
down
this plane
per second.
(254.)
Cor.
is
5.
The
a state of rest,
x>
TT
x mT^^
In general,
l"
SocFT"
falls
by
the space through which it falls down the inclined plane in T" :: the product of the numbers which represent the the force and square of the time' in the former case
:
t In
this,
Articles,
136
ON THE RECTILINEAR
latter
product of the numbers which represent them in the or, if S be the space described upon the plane,
m
Ex.
falls in
'
S
1.
::
ixl''
^x
Li
T\
and
^=
^ x mT\
Li
If
is
L = 2jff,
x l6^ x
9,
body
3"
2.
or 72 feet.
Ex.
12 feet
To
which a body
will
descend
down
this plane.
Since
^=
H - x mT^
L
1.49;
T^
= LX S = HXm
1.2,
(in
this case)
X 12 X --r l6
(255.)
and
T=
rest,
nearly.
Cor.
6.
The
space through
which a body
must
fall,
from a state of
IS
L V X feet. 4W
^
In general,
S oc -
by
it
falls
down
and
the plane
::
is
V"
in
72
in the latter;
if
(l6^) be the
F^
by the
action of gravity, 2
the
hence,
H
and a body
900 r = 64i
fall
4^m
state of
Ex.
rest
till
1.
If
Z = 2/f,
2
is
from a
it
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
Ex.2. down this
If a
137
state of rest
body
fall
12 feet
from a
Since 6^
this
V~
we have
386
;
V^^^mS
V=
J-f
(in
case)
64^ x 12 x
hence,
second, nearly.
CoR.
as
7.
if
by any uniform
which
is
1,
and
the
time in seconds,
V=2mFT; S = mFT^;
and V^ = 4.mFS.
Prop. LXII.
(256.)
The
velocity
down
an inclined plane,
varies as the
*.
is
uniform,
V^oc FS (Art,
243.);
in
this
case.
Foe,
and
S = L,
by the sup-
position; therefore,
V^oc^ xLocH;
(257.)
their
and Foe
^Jl
CoR.
1.
When
down
(258.)
in falling
CoR.
2.
The
velocity which a
body acquires
is
down
equal
* Bodies, in this,
fall
to
from a
state of rest.
2.
t See
also Cor. 6.
138
ON THE RECTILIKKAIi
it
would acquire
in
falling
down
perpendicular height.
Pkop. LXIII.
(259.)
The
down
the whole
length of an inclined plane, varies as the length directly, and as the square root of the perpendicular height inversely.
In general,
*S'oc
TF
(Art. 239.)
therefore,
Toe-;
and
in this case,
Foe a^
H (Art. 25^.)
S
L
consequently,
...
Toe
(260.)
velocity,
^h""^
the last acquired
Cor.
l.
If the height, or
be given, TocL.
(261.)
Cor.
2.
HocL,
then
T^oe ocL,
down
and
T oc ^ L.
That
is,
the times
of descent,
Cor.
3.
The
time of descent
down an
inclined
down
it's
it's
perpendicular
height.
Prop.
(263.)
LXIV.
circle
If chords be drawn in a
tremity of that diameter which is perpendicular to the horizon, the velocities which bodies acquire by falling
down them
and
the
2.
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
Let
139
ACB
be the
circle,
AB it's
diameter perpendicular
to the horizon;
BC
CD
perpendicular
to
AB,
Then
CB may
down
it
be
DB, and
sj DB
varies
as
(Art. 256.).
Now, from
V.
the
similar triangles
DBC, ABC,
DB
CB
CB
AB', therefore,
DB =
consequently,
fore
CB
AB
CB
^^Y^^
and
= 7^^
is
Foe
;=; sjAB
AB
invariable,
there-
Foe CB.
Again,
is
S Tec-
CB, which
therefore
T oc
CB CB
or the time
of descent
(264.)
is
invariable.
Con.
1.
The
time of descent
CB,
is
down
the diameter
(265.)
Cor.
2.
is
descent
down
^C
In the same manner, the time of equal to the time of descent down
140
ON THE RECTILINEAR
therefore the time of descent
AB;
down
AC is
equal to the
time of descent
(266.)
down CB.
3.
CoR.
The
times of descent
down
the chords
thus drawn, in different circles, are proportional to the square roots of the diameters.
For, the times of descent down the chords are equal to down the diameters which are perpen;
as the square
(2670
vity,
When
body
it
every particle in
equally accelerated
that
is,
every particle descends towards the horizon with the same velocity ; in this descent, therefore, no rotation will be given to the body.
said
when a body
a perpendicular
to the plane, drawn from the center of gravity of the body, cut the plane in a point which is in contact with the body. If
be not sustained by the plane, the body and partly slide, till this force is sustained and afterwards the body will wholly slide. When the lateral motion is entirely prevented by the adhesion of the body to the plane, we have before seen on what supposition the body will roll (Art. 186.); if the adhesion be not sufficient
this part of the force will partly roll
this
body
and partly
time of
it's
roll;
and
On
by the
force of gravity^
body (Arts.
moving
force,
on
MOTIONS OF BODIES.
141
moved.
In
all cases,
moving
force directly
;
(Art. 24.)
and the quantity of matter inversely and when the moving force and quantity of
is
uni-
effects
may be
estimated
by the
rules laid
down
Ex. If two bodies, whose weights are and Q, be connected by a string, and hung over a fixed pulley, to
find
how
will
descend in
is
T"
The moving
weight
;
force of gravity
proportional to the
if
therefore
body when it descends freely, Q will moving force of the latter, and will represent the moving force when the bodies are connected hence, neglecting the and oppose each other's motion inertia of the string and pulley, the accelerating force of
force of the former
represent the
PQ
gravity
^""^
16^ X
X T^
SECTION
VIII.
ON
THE
LXV.
inclined
(269.)
on the supposition that no motion is lost in passing from one plane to another , is equal to that which would be acquired in falling through
the perpendicular height of the system.
Let
ABCD
AG
produce CB,
DC,
till
they meet
143
AE
in
and
E; and draw
EF
perpendicular to
DF.
by a body in falling from A to B, is equal to that which it would acquire in falling from G to B, because the planes AB, GB, have the same perpendicular height (Art. 257.) and since, by the sup-
Then
position,
no velocity
is
lost in passing
another, the
body
will begin to
it
descend down
fall
down
AB
will
be the same on
is
EC
to
down
whether
it fall
from
through
CD B
and
to
D;
in falling
D, or from down ED
E
is
EF
in
acquired in falling
velocity
down
is
equal to the
acquired
falling
Prop.
(270.)
LXVI.
equal
from
rest
When
5C,
is
AB
to another
diminished
radius
ABG
ABG is
diminished
lost is
and
if
inclination
ABG, BCE, be continually diminished, the system approximates to a curve, as it's limit, in which no
velocity
is lost
;
144
is
ON THE OSCILLATIONS
degrees that
(272.)
will
in ifs descent.
If
BAb
A
lowest point
is
AB, Ab,
are similar
and
When
is
diminished without limit with respect diminished without limit with respect
:
to the
the chord
::
the chord
the versed
and consequently,
is,
than the ratio of the diameter to the chord. Let BC be one of the evanescent planes, F the velocity of the descending body at B, V+v it's
velocity at
produce
CB
to
G, and
let
GB be the
V
and when
GB
F+v BC
:
::
\/GB
\/gbTBC
:
::
the radius
an evanescent chord,
V:
F^v
::
GB
V
:
G5 +
::
therefore,
^ GB ^
:
::
2GB
BC.
Also,
::
radius
ABG.
from
Hence
B,
is
the descent
B to
B is indefinitely less
C; in the same man-
B to
;
is
down
that plane
whole descent
is
whole velocity
acquired.
OF BODIES.
equal, a
145
will acquire a velocity
body
in falling
it
down
BA
and since the velocities at all equal altitudes in the ascent and descent are equal, the whole time of the ascent will be equal to the time of
will
which
carry
to 6;
descent.
CoR. 3. The same proposition is true, if the (273.) body be retained in the curve by a string which is in every point perpendicular to it. For the string will now sustain that part of the weight which was before sustained by the
curve (Art.
117.).
Prop.
(274.)
LXVII.
down
similar systems of
is lost
The
times of descent
of their lengths, on the supposition that no velocity in passing from one plane to another.
Let
::
ABCD,
cd; the angles ABC, BCD, respectively equal to the angles abc, bed; and the planes AB, ah, equally inclined to the horizon. Complete the figures as in the last
:
CD
AB
and
::
::
ah
::
-\-
::
146
plements,
angles
of
the
angles
ABC, ABG,
to
are
equal;
and the
are
inclination
the
horizon
BAG, hag,
similar,
::
:
ABG,
:
ahg^ are
and
:
AB BG
:
::
ab
bg;
:
alter.
consequently,
:
BG
bg
::
AB ah BG BG + BC (GC)
::
bg
:
BC
be;
{gc)
bg^bc
:
AB ab. In the same manner, ab. :: ed :: AB Then, because the planes AB, ab, are equally inclined to
:
ED
down
ab
::
^ AB ^ ab
:
AB
if
the time
down
::
(Art. 26l.);
and
:
sj AB sj^h', also, the time down GB the time down gb >/j^ ^ab; the whole time down gc hence the whole time down GC :: the time down GB the time down gb; therefore, the the remainder, the time remainder, the time down BC down be, in the same ratio, or as sj AB yj ab (Euc. 19- v.) and since, by the supposition, no motion is lost is passing from one plane to another, the times of descent down BC
:
the time
::
down
:
GC
:
the time
down gc
::
^^B J^
:
:
::
and be are the same, whether the bodies descend from A and a, or from G and g; consequently, when the bodies
descend down the systems, the time down
BC
the time
it
down be
::
sj AB
a^ ab.
may be
:
down cd:: /y/^ZS down ab :: the time down be :: the time down the time down BC CD the time down cd; therefore, the time down AB + BC + CD the time down ab-^bc + cd :: the time down AB tj AB ;^ ah (Algebra, Art. 183.) :: the time down ab
:
CD
the time
^ ah.
:
AB
the time
::
-.
CoR.
1.
angles of inclination
ABG, ACE, he
be continually
di-
(Art. 270.)
vill
down
these curves
OF BODIES.
147
(276.)
Cor.
2.
The
times of descent
down
similar
(277-)
Def.
If a circle be
made
to roll in a given
U8
ox THE OSCILLATION'S
Prop
(280.)
LXVIIL
a point
If a line
C
is
in the
circle,
described
upon the
axis, in
equal
CG,
Let the generating circle HCD touch the base in when the generating point is at C draw perpendicular to AB, and it will be the diameter of the circle HCD
;
DH
;
(Euc. 19. iii.), and therefore equal to FE join CH, GE; and since = FE, and DI = FK (Euc. 34. i.), the
DH
is
remainders
IH
and
KE
are
equal;
consequently,
which
Cor.
is
HI
a
and
ID
CI, (Euc.
8. vi.),
KG,
which
is
mean proportional
OF BODIES,
Proi',
149
LXIX.
(281.) If a line LM, drawn from L parallel to the base AB, meet the generating circle described upon the axis in M, and />e joined, the tangent to the cycloid
EM
at the point
is
EM.
ZJ/;
join
Draw
SR
parallel
;
and
indefinitely near to
EM, RM, SL produce EM till it meets SR in P; draw EN, MN, touching the circle in E and M, and meeting
each other in N,
Then,
since
RM
is
tangent
MN (Newt. Lem.
and because
6.),
the angles
RMP, EMN,
(Euc.
18. iii.)
are
equal
EN
is
parallel to
;
RS
the
angles
MPR^ MEN,
are equal
RMP,
and
EN MN
EMN,
:
::
RP
since
7.).
Lem.
and
fore,
EN=NM, RP = RM=ihe arc RM (Newt. Again, since the arc EMR = RS (Art. 280.),
the remainders,
RM
RM = RP,
PS,
right line
PS = ML;
(Euc,
consequently,
to
PM
is
33, i.*);
and since
EM,
is
(282.)
CoR.
perpendicular to
or A,
The
Proposition
justly applied,
between
LM
and
SP h
Mi%
or
LS.
15Q
OK THE OSCILLATIONS
Prop.
(283.)
LXX.
the cycloidal
arc
EL
Join
zs
EM
generating
circle described
upon
the ams.
ER,
and
in
when
the arc
MR,
EP take Eo=zER% join Ro. Then, and consequently the angle MER, is
the
sum
of the
angles
it's
ERo,
and
EoR,
them
is
limit;
therefore, each of
RMo, RoM,
is
the triangles
also.
common
to
MP = 2Mo;
Mo (ER EM)
increases,
it
the quantity
EM
LS; and
Proposition that
therefore, the arc
MP = LS = arc LS
LS = 2Mo;
at
or,
(Newt. Lem.
7.)?
EL EM;
EL is
(284.)
double of
circle.
EM,
generating
CoR.
semi-cycloidal arc
EB
is
Prop.
(285.)
LXXI.
To make a
Let A VB be the given cycloid, placed with it's vertex downwards, and it's axis DV perpendicular to the horizon. Produce VD to C, making DC = VD complete the
;
rectangles
DE, DF; upon AE describe AGE, and with A as the generating point,
semi-circle
describe a semi-cycloid
ATC
this
will
OF BODIES.
point C, because the semi-circumference
151
AGE = DIIV =
AD = EC
in the
cycloid between
'Q
from C by a string whose length is CF or CTA (Art. 284.), and made to vibrate between the cycloidal cheeks CA, CB, it will always be found in the cycloid AVB.
Let the string be brought into the situation CTP, and it is constantly stretched by the gravity, and the centrifugal force of P, it will be a tangent to the cycloid at the point T where it leaves the curve. From T and P draw TGW, PHR, parallel to AD; join AG, GE, draw ,vKy perpendicular to DH, HV; and through TG or PH. Then, since the chord JG is parallel to TP (Art. 281.), and TG is parallel to AK, the figure GK is a parallelogram, and AGTK, GT=^AK; and because
since
is
equal to
or
CTA,
common
to the string
CT TP = AT =
tri;
2AG
angles
also,
(Art. 283.)
= 2 T^;
TK = KP;
hence, the
TKx, PKy, are similar and equal, and Kcc = Ky Koo=^AW SiX\& Ky = DR., thereioYe AW=DR, and
hence, the arc
angle
AG = the arc DH; and the HVD; or, the angle GAK = the angle KDH (Euc. 32. iii.) consequently, AG is parallel to DH; and therefore, TP is parallel to DH, and the figure KPHD is a parallelogram hence, KD = PH.
GEA = the
angle
; ;
AE DV;
152
OK THE OSCILLATIONS
AG=GT
DF, and
Since
(Art. 280.)
= AK,
is,
the arc
DH = JK
cycloid,
DHV =
P
is
AD;
VH=KD = HP;
is
that
in the
whose axis
Cor.
l.
vertex
(Art. 280.).
(286.)
DH
TP TP
is
parallel to
TP, and
to the tangent at P, the angle contained between and the curve, is equal and tlie tangent, or between is, is always perpendicular that to the angle
VH
TP
DHV;
to the curve.
(287-)
CoE.
2.
If
and
Pp may
TP.
(288.)
the
cycloid
is
CoR.
3.
An
may
radius
CV.
(289.)
Def.
If a
body begin
time in
to descend in a curve,
till
it's
velocity
is
deis
the
performed
an
Prop.
LXXII.
to
(290.) If a body, vibrating in the cycloid AVB, begin descend from L, the velocity acquired at any point
varies as
^VL" VM";
is
of a circular
equal
VL, and
versed sine to
LM.
From
angles to
the points
and
DV, meeting
the circle
OV, QV; with the radius VI = VL, describe the semi-circle IZp, and take hn = LM; draw m.r, VZ, at right angles
to
Va;.
OF BODIES.
153
from
The
to
My
is
and therefore
it
varies a s
oc
JRV - SV
is
oc
^ DV x
oc
^^RV
(Art.
to
(Art. 241.);
(because
DV
invariable),
^ VO^
:
DV x SV VQ^ oc
283.),
^^VO^
-. 4 "rQ^ oc:
J VU - VM^
velocity at
:
oc
oc ^^wa?' oc wa?.
CoR.
:
The
mou
the velocity at
::
mo)
VZ
::
Va?.
Prop.
LXXIII.
The time of an oscillation in the arc LVP, is (292.) equal to the time in which a body would describe the semicircumference IZp, with the
velocity/
acquired at
con-
tinued uniform.
; ;
154
ON THE OSCILLATIONS
be a very small arc, and take mn = MN; Let draw nt, wr, respectively parallel to mx and VI; and suppose a body to describe the circumference IZp with the Then, when velocity acquired at V continued uniform.
MN
MN
it
::
is
is
described
:
a)t is
described
mo!
:
VZ
(Art. 291.)
^
,
MN
.,
MN
oct
v.
:
moG
xt
wr
::
VZ
mx
set
Vx
(Art. 15.).
similar,
Now,
:
the triangles
Vxm, xrt
are ultimately
and Vx
mx
::
xt
xr; therefore
mx
is
= Vx
equal to
down
MN,
VZ
all
continued uniform.
Prop.
(293.)
LXXIV.
The time of an oscillation in a cycloid is to the time of descent down ifs axis, as the circumference of a
circle to ifs diameter.
If a
at
body
fall
down
the chord
equal to the velocity in the cycloid at V (Art. 270.); and with this velocity continued uniform, the body would describe 2 OF, or VL, or VI, in the time of descent down
V is
OV
is
is,
down
DV
(Art. 264.).
IZp with
;
(Art. 292.)
down
:
the axis
DF
is
an oscillation
down
the axis
::
the
OF BODIES.
155
VZ
::
IZp
VI (Art.
:
13.)
::
2lZp
2Vl
::
the circumference
of a circle
(294.)
it's
diameter.
1.
Cor.
The
body
down
(295.)
circular arc
CoR.
2.
The
whose radius
CF,
is
down ^ CV,
diameter.
is
AVB
(iVrt. 288.).
156
(296.)
Coil.
ON THE OSCILLATIONS
3.
The
when
given,
down
it"'s
that
is,
as the
whole length.
Ex.
vibrate,
1.
To compare the times in which two pendulums whose lengths are 4 and 9 inches.
Toe J~L, we have
If a pendulum,
:
Since
7"
::
/4
I/9
::
3.
Ex.
2.
whose length
time will a
is
39.2 inches,
pendulum vibrate
whose length
is
L
.2
inches
"i
JL::
T = \/Ji
39.2
Ex. 3. To compare the lengths of two pendulums, whose times of oscillation are as 1 to 3.
Since
Tocy/% T\ocL;
CoR.
4.
therefore,
-i
l.
(297.)
The number
of oscillations, which a
pendulum makes
length.
oscillations, t the
time of one
then,
is
nt
is
which, by the
Art, 206.),
supposition,
given;
therefore,
w^:
i^^g-
and
(oc^L,
consequently,
noc
^.
OF BODIES.
157
is
Ex.
1.
39.2 inches,
often will
how
is
Since
oc
,^ s/L
''
we have
60
s/^O
the
^39'^
60 X
^3.92
118.8, nearly,
number of
Ex.
2.
oscillations required.
is
39.2 inches,
pendulum which
Since
(30)"
:
n oc -=^
::
we have,
:
-L
oc
-r,
(60)-
39.^^
L =
4 X
39.9.
inches,
the
length required.
Ex. 3. To find how much the pendulum of a clock, which loses one second in a minute, ought to be shortened.
Since the pendulum vibrates b9 times, whilst a pen-
dulum of
39.2 inches vibrates 60 times, it'*s length may be found as in the last example ; {^9Y ^9-2 40.5, (^^Y kngth; and it ought to be 39.2 inches; therefore, it''s
'
''
40.5
to
39.2,
or 1.3 inches,
is
the quantity
by which
it
ought
be shortened,
(298.)
in order that it
may
vibrate seconds.
Cor,
5.
down
and in general,
(Art. 241 .)
\/
r
case,
aS"
J Z.
therefore
S oc L,
158
ON THE OSCILLATIONS
of descent
ex.
y ~
oscillation,
OC
sAi
(299.)
given,
^1 T
OC
;
Cor.
6.
pendulum be
and
F oc
The
as
it is
to a less
latitude decreases.
The force of gravity at the equator Coil. 7. (300.) the force of gravity at any proposed latitude :: the length
pendulum which vibrates seconds at the equator the pendulum which vibrates seconds at the pro:
of a
length of a
posed latitude.
For,
or
Toe
if
therefore
T be given, ^Tc<z^,
BV*
:
F OC L.
(301.)
CoR.
8.
If the chord
of descent
down
BV
down
the chord
DB
BV.
down
the arc
BV
;
is
equal to
therefore, the
down
the arc
BV;
::
of a circle
of descent
it's
dia-
::
down
DV
down
the chord
BV
:
::
DV
down
the chord
::
DB
BV; arc B V
:
The
line
BF
is
wanting
in the figure.
OF EODIES.
159
Prop.
(302.)
LXXV.
falls by the
force of gravity in the time of an oscillation in a cycloid, or small circular arc, is to half the length of the pendulum,
as the square of the circumference of a circle to the square of ifs diameter.
The
by the
:
action of
and
the time
::
of descent
down
pendulum
the
circumference of a circle
the
:
it^s
pendulum
::
the square of
it's
diameter.
Ex.
To
find
how
far a
body
will fall
by the
force of
is
39.2 inches.
:
The
:
circumference of a circle
it's
diameter
::
3.14<159
30.2
:
(3.14159)^
1'
is
19.6 X (3.14159)"
= 193
air's resistance is
diminished; and
when
affect
By
we determine
body would
all
practical purposes.
Prop.
LXXVI.
The time of descent to the lowest point in a (303.) small circular arc is to the time of descent down ifs chord, as the circumference of a circle to four times the diameter.
160
Let
the arc
ON THE OSCILLATIONS
AB
be the arc,
C
;
it's
center,
BD
the diameter
T
it's
down
AEB,
down
the chord,
the
is
circumference of a
diameter.
Then, 2
pendulum
CB
therefore.
the time
down
CB
::
D
'
(Art. 295.)
CB
:
time
down DB,
or
AB,
' ::
::
the time
down
AB (t)
and Tit'.-.C
4.D.
Prop.
LXXVII.
(304.) The force, which accelerates or retards a body's motion in a cycloid, varies as the arc intercepted between the body and the lowest point.
Let
circle
DV represent the
from
in
in p. 151.)
draw
-,
PH
parallel to
AD meeting
the
DHV
join
DH, HV.
Then, the whole force DV, which acts upon the body P, may be resolved into the two DH, HV; of which is in the direction of the string, and therefore neither accelerates nor retards the motion of P; and is in the direction of the tangent at P (Art. 281.), and therefore wholly employed in accelerating or retarding the motion
at
DH
^F
OF BODIES.
the curve
161
ill
consequently,
:
::
DV HV
:
and
HVoc2HVoc PV
body move body
in
Cor.
l.
If a
any
and be
be similar to the
be taken equal to the line, and the accelerating forces, in the line and the cycloid, at these equal distances from the
lowest points, be equal, they will always be equal, because
they vary according to the same law ; and the bodies, being impelled by equal forces, will be equally accelerated, and
describe equal spaces in any given time.
(306.)
CoR.
2.
The
body begins
CoR.
3.
to fall.
(307.)
made by
the the
is
by
Prop.
LXXVIII.
a circular arc, the force (308.) If a body vibrate which accelerates or retards ifs motion varies as the sine
of ifs distance from the
loicest point.
whose radius is draw CB, AE perpendicular to the horizon, and take AE to represent the force of gravity draw AD perpendicular
AC', from the center C, and
Let a body
162
to
ON THE OSCILLATIONS
CB, and
EF
perpendicular to
AF, which
is
a tangent
to the circle at A.
AE
is
equivalent to
perpendicular to the
the radius
AF,
is
and
is
wholly
employed
that
is,
motion;
:
::
AE
:
AF,
AEF, CAD,
gravity x
::
CA AD;
and consequently,
.
AD
;
in
AC
are in-
variable
AD.
CoR. 1. If the accelerating force were pro(309.) portional to the arc, the oscillations, whether in greater
or smaller arcs,
would be performed
arc
is
in equal times
(Art.
306.); but, since the sine does not increase as fast as the
arc, the force in the greater
less
would be
sufficient to
make
than in the
OF BODIES.
(310.)
then, since
Coil. 2.
163
in the direction
Call
F the force
JiJ;
AC is
invariable,
cuYveocFxAD;
and
if
FxADoc AB.
AB, and
Foa
AB
,
AD'
the
SCHOLIUM.
of a simple
In this Section we have considered the vibrations pendulum only, or of a single particle of matter, suspended by a string, the gravity of which is neglected.
(311.)
The
when
body
is
it is
from the consideration that two particles of matter, at different distances from the axis of suspension, do not vibrate in the same time (Art. 296.); and consequently, that when they are connected together, they affect each other's motion thus, the time of vibration of the two particles when united, is different from the time in which either would vibrate alone.
this case, is evident
;
The method
compound pendulum
of Fluxions, Art. 65
to
which place he
is
(312.)
To
monstrations in
professedly
geometrical,
Sir
I.
Newton
to inde-
L2
164
finitely small or
SCHOLIUM.
evanescent increments, which continually approximate to the true increments of the quantities whose This method may be applied finite values are required.
all cases where the differejice between the assumed and the true increments continually decreases, and at length vanishes, with respect to the increments themselves; or, which amounts to the same thing, when the ratio which the sum of the differences bears to one of the increments, does not exceed a finite ratio for, by observing; the limit to which the sum of the assumed increments approaches, when their number is increased and their magnitudes are dimished in infinitum, it is evident
with success in
sum of the real increments is obtained. In the same manner, when there are two ranks of quantities, in which the assumed increments continually approximate to the real increments, as in the former instance, and the limiting ratio of the sums of the assumed increments in these cases, when their numbers are increased and their magnitudes diminished without limit, is obtained, the exact These proratio of the quantities themselves is obtained.
that the
positions
are laid
the
first
the same
BVA,
IZp
In
continued uniform.
tliis
is
time of describing
is
MN,
mx,
Vxm,
;
is
it
the increment
is
of the latter
these
assumed increments,
true
consideration
but when
by
quantities which are evanescent with respect to the whole increments, and therefore by determining the limiting
ratio of the
; ; ;
SECTION
IX.
Prop.
LXXIX.
direction^ 7iot per-
(313.)
A
to
pendicular
on
supposition that the force of gravity is uniform, and acts in parallel lines, and that the motion is not affected by
the resistance of the air.
Let a body be projected from A in the direction JE, from which point draw ABF perpendicular to the horizon also, let AE be the space over which the velocity of projection
would carry the body in any time, T, and the space through which the force of gravity would cause it
to descend in the
AB
AC;
will
body
be found in
at
For, the
(Art. 29.)
will
AE
body
BC
body
be
in
the line
BC
and,
will
will
appears that
consequently,
at
it
it
Now,
since
AE
is
the space
166
ON THE MOTION
in the
time T,
Avith
the velocity
JEoc T
BC=AE; therefore BCozT, and BC^<ycT\ Also, since AB is the space through which the body would fall by the
force of gravity in the time
T,
ABocT^,
(Art. 241.);
hence,
in
AB oc BC" which AF is a
AB.
Cor.
(314.)
and
this is the
property of a parabola,
diameter, and
BC
and
an ordinate to the
abscissa
1.
The
axis,
all
the diameters of
AF,
are perpen-
(315.)
Cor.
2.
AE
is
tangent
to the curve at A.
(316.)
Cor.
is
3.
The
the arc
^C
would
fall
from
to
hy the
AE
with the
first
(317)
Z EAb, the
CoR.
line
4.
If the Z
will pass
EAf
Af
parabola described.
OF PROJECTILES.
(318.)
167
always be found in
Cor.
5.
The body
will
the
plane
ACB
Cor.
(319.)
6.
AE be
Prop.
(320.)
LXXX.
at
The
any point
is such as would be acquired in falling through one fourth part of the parameter belonging to
in the parabola,
that point.
Let
ABhe
A
body must
fall
by the force of gravity to acquire the velocity of the projectile at : the space described with that velocity and
AE
then ; continued uniform, in the time of falling through parallelogram the 2AB (Art. 236.) ; and, completing
AB
= AE
AC,
2AB = BC;
hence,
^AB' = BC\
Also, since
is
BC
AB
(Art. 313.),
if
to
the
point A,
PxAB^ BC ^ iAB'
J5 = l P.
168
(321.)
ON THE MOTION
Cor.
1.
If the velocity at
be given, the
whatever be the
CoR.
2.
If
AB
a body must
fall to
AB,
;
the
in the circumference
since
is
(323.)
Cor.
3.
The
is
it
such as would be
varies as
acquired in
or
through ^ P,
sj ^ P
(Art. 241.),
as
^.
(324.)
Cor.
;
4.
The
at
velocity
is
of a parabola
and
is
the least
at equal distances
Prop.
(325.)
LXXXI.
must
he
To find
projected
from a given
projected,
be the point from which the body is to be the given mark; join AC, and from A draw
AB AP
parallel, and perpendicular to the horizon; take equal to four times the space through which a body
fall to
AP
must
Case
3.);
then will
AP
be the
; ;
OF PROJECTILES.
parameter belonging to the point
scribed
(Art. 320.).
169
of the parabola deto
Draw
AK
perpendicular
AC
IM
bisect
PA
in
G, and draw
in
KGH
or
perpendicular to
AP,
meeting
AK
K;
join
KP;
KA,
KGP,
KGA,
AHP,
to
KP KA.
KP,
From
as
describe a circle
KGH in H;
or Af,
it
through
draw
C/ parallel
AE, AI
C.
AP, and
if
E and
/; join
and
the direction
AE
mark
in the direction
AE
join
PE, and
is is
AECX;
then
AX
an
XC,
which
the tangent
AE,
is
in the direction of
AX;
if
then
XC
be the length
Now,
C is a point in the parabola. AEC, EAP, are alternate angles, EAC ihe angle EPA, because AC is a
17^
0^'
i'HE
MOTIUX
iii.),
EPA, EAC,
are similar;
the triangles
::
AE
is
AE
a
EC;
or substituting for
AE
:
and
EC
that
their equals
is,
^C and AX,
mean proand
AP
JTC
it
::
XC
is
JX;
XC
portional
therefore
hence,
scribes.
body de-
In the same manner it may be shewn that, if the body be projected with the same velocity in the direction AI, it
will hit the
mark
C
1.
(326.)
CoR.
Join
AH, HP;
HAP
= the
angle
(327.)
Because
KH
it
is
to
and consequently
iii.)
;
bisects
IHE
angle
(Euc.
SO.
therefore,
the
angle
IAH
the
HAE.
That
is,
angles with
AH,
CoR.
equal
(328.)
then,
3.
Draw
AE, AI,
coincide with
AH.
(329.)
CoR.
4.
If the point
AL, beyond L,
the
the line
CEI
will not
meet the
circle.
In
body
to the distance
AC
AC
in r,
(330.)
to
CoR.
5.
Bisect
parallel
AP;
is
then tvr
is
which
AC
if
a double ordinate.
Also, rt
is
is in
the parabola.
OK PROJECTILES.
171
is
(331.)
Cor.
is
6".
AC;
parabola which
(332.)
from
AC*.
CoR.
7.
The
the
direction of gravity,
and Tf
= ^EC;
therefore,
rv
= ^EC.
Prop.
(333.)
LXXXII.
the
velocity
Having given
and
direction of
projection, to find
where the body will strike the horizontal plane which passes through the point of projection.
Let
AC
AB;
then
AK
AG;
and
PHA
is
a semi-
circle;
also,
HAC
is
AE, AI,
are
equally inclined to
AH.
to,
*
in
The
may be found
172
ox THK MOTIOX
From
it
appears, that
if
the velocity
^ PA^ and AE^ or AI, be the direction of From E draw ED parallel range is AC.
pendicular to
is
projection, the
to
AC^
;
or per-
AP
join
EK
then
ED^
or
it's
equal
AC,
the radius
therefore,
;
KA AC is
and the
the sine
and the
sine of a
given
angle
is
KA
hence,
EAC AC ^^ = sm.^AEACxKA AC
::
sin.
2 Z
rad.
If
V be
the
parameter
AP, and
I
7n
= \6^,
then
2 ^
^^ AC=
sin. 2
EAC xP =
sin.
EAC x
^
V~
(Art. 248.).
2 rad.
2 rad.
sin. 2
2 rad.
2 rad. x
m
V-.
(334.)
CoR.
1.
Hence, ^Cocsin.
2 z
^JC x
(335.)
Cor.
2.
EAC.
when
sin.
(336.)
2 Z
r
Cor.
is
3.
The range
;
is
the greatest
the z
EAC
1
.
the greatest
that
is,
,
when
EAC is
45".
In
this case,
^ = AC
.
rad X
P ~ = iP.
^
2 rad.
(337.)
sin.
Cor.
4.
If the angle
2Z
EAC AC = I P.
may
be
1.5,
or 75,
(338.)
be found.
OF projectti.es.
sin.
173
For,
AC =
sin. 2
2 z
EAC X P
2jCxrad.
2 rad.
therefore
EAC =
(339.)
Cor.
2
-
6.
If
JC and
.
the angle
2 rad.
P=
X rad. ~ AC
sin.
2^ EAC
The same
^z..; and
,^
V~=
EAC be known, x m x ^C
z
sin. 2
J5JC
Prop.
(340.)
LXXXIII.
of
flight.
The
F",
would
is
2m
"
descent
down PA,
" m
(Art. 241.);
which
is
also the
A
time of descent
down
EA
(Art. 264.).
Let
bo the time
174
of descent
ox THK MOTION
down PA,
or
EA,
down
EC,
then
that
is,
T T
t t
::
EA
rad.
EC
sin.
(Art. 262.);
::
EAC,
and
sin.
EAC X T
rad.
sin.
EAC x rad. x m
z
(341.)
CoR.
1.
of flight
oc
sin.
EAC
flight is the great-
(342.)
est,
CoR.
sin.
2.
when
EAC
'
the greatest.
In
this case,
the
ran x
time becomes
flight is
'J
'z
or
that
is,
rad.
down
Prop.
(343.)
LXXXIV.
being given,
projectile
to
The same
things
find the
above
the
greatest height to
which the
rises
horizontal pla7ie.
The
greatest height
is
^ EC,
or 2 z
or
^ AD
and
AD is
the
AKE,
EAC,
to the radius
AK\
AK
(IP)
::
Hence,
AD
EAC EAC x P
AD.
2 rad.
and
\AD,
ver. sin. 2 z
EAC
ver. sin. 2 z
jE^C x
x
V"
8 rad.
m
height
ex:
(344.)
2 z
Cor.
l.
The
greatest
is
ver.
sin.
EAC
X r^
z
and when V
oc ver.
sin. 2
EAC.
OF PROJECTILES.
(345.)
175
Cor.
z
2.
The
height oc
(sin.
EACf x
3.
V\
(346.)
locity,
CoR.
plane,
when
EAC
2 rad.
is
a right angle.
2 rad.
X
;
altitude
IS
EAC = P P =
z
4
8 rad.
Prop.
LXXXV.
The velocity and direction of projection being (347.) given, to find where the body will strike a given inclined
plane which passes through the point of projection.
It appears
if
a body be projected
from A,
in the direction
AE,
;*
176
of elevation
triangle
;
ON THE MOTION
EAP,
and the
the Z
:
EAC Z the angle EAP. Then, in the AE AP sin. Z EPA sin. z AEP; z EPA = the z J5JC = E; also the z AEP JECJ = the supplement of the Z ACS; hence,
:
::
AE AP
::
sm.
cos.
/; therefore,
AL
COS.
EAC,
(sin.
AC AE
:
::
sin.
AEC
Z)
sin.
Z^C^
(cos.
/);
therefore,
AC=
COS.
sin.
and
by
substituting
for
AE
E
cos.
AP
it's
value
AC =
sin.
E X sin. Z x AP
(cos.
sin.
E x sin. Z x
(cos. /)'
V~
/)^
sin.
m
V~
(348.)
CoR.
Hence,
ACoc
^ X sin. Z x
(cos.
iy
Prop.
(349.)
LXXXVI.
to
TOe
5ttme
of flight.
Let
descent
T be the time of descent down PA, down EC or the time of flight then, PA EC T^ f
;
:
the time of
::
and
PAE, AEC,
:
PA
therefore
AE
AE'
:
::
AE
PJ
::
EC,
:C
:
PA'
and
::
::
T'
f'
PA
::
AE
Z
z
T
::
t;
sin.
but
::
P^
Z
^
:
sin.
PEA
Z
:
^P^
sin.
sin.
-ECJ
sin.
JE^C
cos.
E;
OF PROJECTILES.
therefore,
177
:
T
sin.
::
cos.
sin.
E,
and
T
sin.
sin.
Ex
I X
COS.
cos.
(350.)
Coit.
Hence,
oc
Ex
/
cos.
sin.
and,
if
V be
invariable, toe
cos.
E
/
Prop.
(351.)
LXXXVlI.
being given,
above
the
to
The same
things
greatest height
of the projectile
The
triangle
greatest height
is
\ EC
::
(Art. 332.)
and
in the
EC sin. E X AE
AEC,
AE
,
,
sin.
,
.
E
.
cos.
/;
therefore,
it
^^.^ AE s value,
347.),
^^ have CE we ^
(sin.
)
'
(sin.
=^
Ef
^
AP
;
COS. 1
,
(cos.
ly
r^o
and
Ef x
X
V
4m
,
the greatest
(cos. /)
height required.
(352.) Cor.
ly
SCHOLIUM.
(353.)
The
;
in this section,
all
theory of the motion of projectiles, given depends upon three suppositions, which are
1st.
inaccurate
the same;
2d. that
it
acts in
motion
is
medium.
of gravity, without
178
SCHOLIUM.
to
which we
from the alteration of the from the center of the Earth, may safely be The direction of the force is every where neglected. and if perpendiculars be perpendicular to the horizon thus drawn, from any two points in the curve which we can cause a body to describe, they may be considered as parallel, since they only meet at, or nearly at, the center
distance
;
of the Earth.
Even
when they
cases,
In other
how-
entirely inapplicable in
From
of cannon-balls,
initial velocity is
20 or 30 times as great
is
often not
^
is
us to expect.
elevation
given,
the time varies as the velocity, and the range as the square
These ex-
made with great care, and by men of eminent shew how little the parabolic theory is to be
in
depended upon,
projectiles.
it's
direction,
whenever
the
For the
the
air,
it is moving. which that side of the body, strikes on which the rotatory and progressive motions
SCHOLIUM.
conspire,
is
179
side strikes
and
will
from the
line of
it's
motion
first
be from the plane of the motion, unless the axis of rotation be perpendicular
this deviation will also
to that plane.
Upon
this principle
Sir
I.
Newton
;
explains the
ir-
been assigned by Mr. Robins for the deviation of a bullet from the vertical plane f. Mr. Euleii, indeed, in his
remarks on the
Theory of Gunnery^ contends that the resistance of the air can neither be increased nor diminished by the rotation of the ball because such a motion can produce no effect but in the direction of a tangent to and the tangential the surface of the revolving body In this instance, force, he affirms^ is almost entirely lost.
; ;
New
by
the
common
must be erroneous.
p.
3078.
Maclaurin's Newton,
p. 120.
t Tracts, Vol.
I.
APPENDIX.
The
by bodies
not usually been introduced into elementary Treatises; but as the theory depends upon the principles already laid down, and may, by the help of the simplest analytical operations, be easily deduced from them, it may not improperly be added, by way of Appendix, here.
Prop.
LXXXVIII.
upon To find what weight x, 'placed at (354.) a machine in motion^ resists the rotation as much as y
placed at B.
Let a and b be the velocities of the weights; then <'va and y h are their momenta and since these momenta produce equal effects on the machine, or, are sufficient to a (Art. 14.9.) yh :: h therebalance each other, xa
;
.
:
fore xa^
= yh^i
and
,t?
=
a
r-
181
Prop.
LXXXIX.
(355.) If two weights acting upon a wheel and axle put the machine in motion^ to determine the velocity acquired by the descending body, and the tension of the string by which it acts.
Let
descends
C
;
CJ,
CB
the radii of
p and
and
q.
CA = a, CB =
j)
to the velocities of
And
let
i^
= the
weight which
op
the weight which placed q would sustain at p ; and w at p would resist the communication of rotation as much
as q resists
it
;
= the
m=l6^
feet.
7
lO
,
Then a
hence,
::
and
.^
= Ar a^
(Art. S54^.)\
=
a
the force at
to
move
/)
+ -^
qb
,
consequently,
the accelerating
182
ACTION OF BODIES ON
and
since v
= 9.mft
qh
a
-^
case,
v=
2m t =
pa' gab
qb"
va-^qb"
-^ x
2mt.
Again, since
p,
pa'
-
jia
^-^ qab
^
is
the
-\-qb'
acceleratins; *
force
at
is
the moving force, which generates ^/s pa^ qab par-qab -r^ X p therefore p x p 1 ^ pa^ ^ pa" + qb~ + qb- ^
;
velocity,
is
that part ^
is
.
^,
that
pqb'+pqab ^^
.,
.,
(a
,
or
-^
pa'~\-qb'
is
AP.
CoR.
1.
The
AP is
;
.
just
BQ,
^
therefore
.
,
aw
(a
+ b).bpq
{a + b).apq =
pa~-\-qbstring
pa^
+ qb
is
BQ.
Coil. 2.
(357.)
The
the
or,
sum
(a
pa~
+ b).b j. + qb.
JPand BQ (Art. (a + b).a (a bf.pq Xpq+ T> '-^xpq= ^ +TT-^J' ^^ pa'-j-qb^ pa" + qb^
101.),
(358.)
Cor.
is
7>
3.
When
on the center
+^
4.
(359.)
Cor.
in
t
Since
s,
descends
Cor.
7.),
from
s
rest
seconds
mft'
(Prop. Lxi.
pa^-qab pa~
qb'
X mr.
-f
* In this operation, the moving force and the quantity of matter are,
respectively, represented
by the weight.
MACHINES IN MOTION.
(360.)
183
Cor.
5.
The same
reasoning
may be
applied
when
(361.)
Cor.
6.
resist the
machine
then
is
the
moving
force at p,
gb~
and r-\-p-\
is
moved;
therefore,
ra'+pa^
the
accelerating
unity.
pa~ qab
force
of
is
+ qb'
gravity
being represented by
Prop.
(362.)
XC.
of the string
when
the
a?
Then,
cylinder
is
since the
body the
Sr
A
force
is
G
a
apphed (Art.
182.),
^v
hi
the
moving
force
by
184
ACTION OF BODIES ON
and
a
weight,
or
is
the
accelerating
force,
force.
Again,
at
cc
is
the
moving
which applied
the circumis
and
since
is
unfolded,
X
are always equal,
we have
a
is
X
;
hence,
a?
a
2
;
or
(363.)
CoR.
The
force
accelerating
force
is
the
accelerating
of gravity
being represented by
unity.
Prop. XCI.
To
when
is
attached to
it.
r^
p6
<3
the string;
cylinder.
; ;
MACHINES IN MOTION.
185
Then
force
;
the accelerating
the
rotation
which quantities are proportional to the velocities generated in the same time. Also, the spaces descended by j) and A
are, together,
1
1
P~'^
pa
1
a-OG
=-
w
;
hence
2ap
.
2p-\-a
(365.)
CoK.
2 a?, or
1.
The
pulley
is
2p
(366.)
+ a'
The
accelerating force on
CoR.
2.
=p
X
r
2p a
9.p
-\-
a Cor.
a
3.
(367-)
The
w
2p
(368.)
+a
4.
CoR.
If
;
p = (f,
that
is,
the
(369.)
CoR.
5.
If
^=
vanishes,
and p remains
Cor.
6.
at rest.
(370.)
density,
it
2ap 3p-^a
186
ACTION OF BODIES ON
the cylinder, ^
^
3p
+a
3p a Sp + a'
Prop. XCII.
(371.)
To find
when
the
Let
at the circumference
much
SP,
cc
as the pulley
and
let
= the
P
= the
tension of
SA.
Then
py
= the
accelerating
force on ,
=
a
= the
and a
= the
of the cylinder.
Then,
py
w
a
X
a
p
also,
as fast as p,
p-y ^ p ~
from which equations
yjzZc
'
.%'
=
=
2ap + ac
2p
y
-\-
-\-
2c
(a-{-c).2p
and
Coil.
is
2p-\-a
-\-2c
(372.)
1.
The
force
;
which
accelerates
the
cylinder
-^
a
1
accelerates p^
2p + a-j-2c 2p a Py ~
and
the
force
which
2p-\-a-^2c
MACHINES IN MOTION.
(373.)
187
known,
CoK.
2.
The
may be found
in terms of
7.).
Prop. XCIII.
(374.)
//'
and put
it
in motion,
act
upon a machine
of
m=
x
6^ feet,
then
4m
(Ax + By + Cz)
Aa- + Bb- +
Cc".
Let
AB
AC
perpento
AB = s,
draw
by
in
a very small
time;
BC
parallel
the
horizon, and
which accelerates
Then
and
2mfds= ada
:
F f
::
AC =
AD
::
therefore,
fds
Fdx, and
AB
::
consequently
F=
ada
2m dx
ol'
1
p-ravity,
''
= Aada - 2mdx
and
Aada - is 2mdx
.
that ^ part 01
^s
v,
whole
The
188
ACTION OF BODIES ON
is
;
sustained
that
is,
by the
action
with wliich
In the same
manner,
2mdy
at
is
Bhdh 2may
.
dy
dx
(Art.
149-),
therefore
Bdii -^
Bhdh
is
the
weight at
machme
Bdy
dx
is
^ that part of
,
^ s moving lorce
^,
Cede
which is sustained by B.
is
Cd%
dw
by C;
2mdx
that part of
A\ moving
Bhdh
sustained
consequently
Aada 2mdx
and
Bdy
dx
Cede
Cdz
ax
Cede,
2mdx
\-
2m dx
2m
{Adx
integrals,
2m
or
X (Ax
By-\- C^)
r.
r.
^'
j
^^'
2^
!
^^~
,
4m X (Ax
Cor.
-\-
By-\- C%)
= Aa~-^Bh'-\- Cc" *.
move
in a direction
(375.)
Author
is
indebted ta
M. Peacock.
MACHINES IN MOTION,
Ex.
lever
1.
189
If the weights
and
AB,
Let
then a
:
CA = a, CB = 6,
b
::
= the
velocity acquired
by
therefore,
and
of this quantity, v
is
obtained.
raise q
axle,
OP
Let
CA = a, CB = 6,
and v
V
190
ACTION OF BODIES ON
Then a
'.
= a
q'% velocity,
also
::
=
_
is
raised
thereiore,
A^mps im x
bos
z=:pv
-\-
b-v~
a
,
q x
a-
and V =4?H.9X
pa' qab
-; whence
i'
is
known.
pa-
-\-qb~
Ex. 3. If two equal weights p, p, attached to a string which passes over the pullies A and B^ raise the weight w
through the space
to w.
WD,
communicated
Suppose
AB
to
to
it.
;
perpendicular
;
Take
BC CA =
w
;
WDC WC = b
;
WB = c DC = x
= the
velocity of
y = the velocity
of
DF
WD
::
draw
FG
at right
to angles o
DB.
Then
V
:
y
::
.:
DF
:
DG
DC'
DB
a^
DC,
:
andv-
y"
DB'
::
+ ^v'
h
.^-,
.17'
therefore
?/'
Also,
ar -f
,v-
H^Z), or
x
.v',
is
the space
which
7^
lias
horizon, and
WB DB,
or c
cr -^
is
tlie
space
MACHINES IN MOTION.
through which p has descended
position,
.
191
therefore,
by the Pro-
4'm.2p,(c
^A
a- -\-x')
7,
4<7nw
(h
.v) =
2pos'v" -=
a^
wir,
<p
and
v = ^m. (a" +
is
c*-"^)
^^
r;
whence v
known.
THE END.
DUE
on the
last
MAY 2 4 1984
^^^
JVJ>^
iS,V-'
asA
\.\^
k-l-il-
Fcrm L9-10Cm-9,'52(A3105)444
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