2 - Database - Fundamentals

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Chapter 6 Database Fundamentals
Objectives
! In this chapter you will:
! Consider the widespread use of databases ! Take a brief tour of database development history ! Learn basic database concepts ! Be introduced to popular database management software ! See how normalization makes your data more organized
Objectives (contd.)
! In this chapter you will (contd.):
! Explore the database design process ! Understand data relationships ! Gain an understanding of Structured Query Language (SQL) ! Learn some common SQL commands
Why You Need to Know About... Databases

! Data must be organized ! Effective computer professionals know correct database design
! Normalization
! Ensures an accurate and reliable database
! Structured Query Language (SQL)

! Describes how information is retrieved from relational database
Database Applications
! Database
! Data logically related and organized into a file or set of files to allow access and use
! Database applications
! Student grading and library inventory ! Genealogy studies and Social Security payments ! Real estate sales, video store rentals, and retail sales ! Space shuttle missions
! Database development
! Essential part of computer professionals daily life
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Brief History of Database Management Systems

! 1970 to 1975
! Work of IBM employees E. F. Codd and C. J. Date
! Created theoretical model for designing data structures ! Model became foundation for database design
! Software for organizing and sorting data

! ! ! ! System R by IBM and Ingres by UC-Berkeley Structured Query Language (SQL) SQL: database standard Database management system (DBMS) for PCs
! 1978
! C. Wayne Ratliff of Martin Marietta develops Vulcan
Brief History of Database Management Systems (contd.)

! 1980 to the present
! Vulcan renamed dBASE II (no dBase I) ! Popularity of dBASE II inspires other companies
! Paradox, Microsoft Access, and FoxPro
! Databases become essential for business

! Corporate decision making ! Systems: inventory management to customer support
Brief History of Database Management Systems (contd.)
Table 6-1, Popular database management systems

Database Management System Fundamentals

! Six main DBMS functions
! Manage database security ! Manage multiple users access to the database ! Manage database backup and recovery ! Ensure data integrity ! Provide an end-user interface to the database ! Provide a query language allowing users to modify and view database information easily
Database Concepts
! Basic database elements
! Database: collection of one or more tables (entities) ! Table or entity: divided into rows and columns ! Row (record or tuple): collection of columns ! Column (field or attribute): represents specific information ! Domain: set of possible column values
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Database Concepts (contd.)
Figure 6-1, A database table consists of rows and columns
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Indexes
! Special files occupying their own space
! Specify columns determining how information stored in a table can be accessed more efficiently
! Examples: music database and the telephone book
! Advantages
! Flexibility: many different columns to sort against ! Searching and retrieval speeds up
! Disadvantages
! Extra storage space ! Updating takes longer
An Example of Indexing
Figure 6-2, You use database concepts in your everyday life
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An Example of Indexing (contd.)

! Each database row has similar attributes ! Sort key: one or more columns used to determine the datas sort order
! One key or a combination of keys determines sort order
! Database information is stored in natural or sequential order

! Order of records displayed equals the order records are entered
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Figure 6-3, Database records sorted by using the UPC column as a key
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Figure 6-4, Database records sorted by Brand_Name and Description
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Normalization
! Set of rules dictating database design
! Eliminates duplication and inconsistencies ! Process: sequence of stages called normal forms
! Five normal forms ! Third normal form provides sufficient structure
! Three database design problems solved

! Representation of certain real-world items ! Redundancies (repetitions) in data ! Excluded and inconsistent information
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Preparing for Normalization: Gathering Columns

! Make a list of all pertinent fields (columns or attributes)
! Source of fields: end-user reports or song inventory ! Write fields on the column list
! Review user-specified input forms

! Convert each field from the report to column in table
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Preparing for Normalization: Gathering Columns (contd.)
Figure 6-5, End-user report with table columns highlighted

Figure 6-6, Additional table columns can be gleaned from input forms

! Reconcile fields in report to column list ! Create tables of columns by combining associated fields
! Logically group related information
! Example: information on artist and song files
! Gather data to create physical music database
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First Normal Form

! Unnormalized table
! Row-column intersection with two or more values
! First normal form (1NF) eliminates redundancies

! Create new record for duplicated column ! Fill in blanks so all columns in record have a value ! Columns with duplications: Album_Num, Album_Name, Artist_Code, Artist_Name, Media_Type, and Genre_Code
! Remaining redundancies are addressed later

Second Normal Form

! Next steps:
! Assign a primary key to the table ! Identify functional dependencies within the table
! Primary key (PK)

! Column or combination of columns (composite) uniquely identifying a row within a table
! Examples: Student ID or Artist_Code
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Second Normal Form (contd.)

! Determinant: column(s) used to determine value assigned to another column in the same row
! Example: Artist_Code determinant for Artist_Name
! Functional dependency: columns value dependent on another columns value

! Each value of first column is matched to single value in second
! Example: Artist_Name functionally dependent on Artist_Code
! Composite key: primary key made up of more than one column


! Second normal form (2NF)
! First normal form and non-PK columns functionally dependent on PK
! Creating 2NF
! Determine columns not dependent on PK
! Remove columns and place in new table
! Default 2NF: table without composite PK
! Primary 2NF benefit: save disk space
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Figure 6-10, 2NF: Remove any columns that arent dependent on the composite primary key and create a new table
Third Normal Form

! Third normal form (3NF)
! Eliminate transitive dependencies
! Column dependent on another column not part of PK ! Example: Genre_Desc depends on Genre_Code
! Each nonkey field should be a fact about the PK
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Third Normal Form (contd.)
Figure 6-11, Songs table with the Genre_Desc column added
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! Creating 3NF
! Remove transitive dependencies ! Place removed columns in new table
! Primary 3NF benefit: eliminates repetition and saves disk space
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Figure 6-12, Songs and Genre tables in 3NF

Figure 6-13, Eliminating repetition saves storage space

The Database Design Process

! Six steps to designing a normalized database ! Example:
! Creation of student-grading system
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Step 1: Investigate and Define

! Investigate and research modeled information ! Define purposes and uses of the database ! Use any documents end users work with to complete tasks ! Involve end users in design process
! Example: student-grading system based on a course syllabus
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Step 2: Make a Master Column List

! Create list of fields for information ! Possible field properties:
! Field name ! Data type (char, varchar, number, date, etc.) ! Length ! Number of decimal places (if any)
! Review users documents for fields

! Forms and reports good source for fields
! Example fields: Student ID, First Name, Last Name, EMail, Grade Level, Grade Level Description, Homework Average, Quiz Average, Test Average
Step 3: Create the Tables

! Logically group defined columns into tables
! Heart of design process ! Relies heavily on normalization rules
! Main rules in database design: 1NF 3NF

! Table in 3NF: well defined
! Normalizing databases
! Like cleaning a closet
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Step 3: Create the Tables (contd.)
Figure 6-14, Tables created for the student-grading system
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Step 4: Work on Relationships

! Relationship: defines table relations
! Two types of relationships discussed in this chapter
! One-to-many (1:M) ! One-to-one (1:1)
! Primary and foreign keys are defined in each of the tables

! Primary key (PK): determinant discussed earlier ! Foreign key (FK): column in one table is PK in another
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Copy editor:! Chg. multiple to zero to many?!
Step 4: Work on Relationships (contd.)

! Most common relationship ! Each record in Table A relates to multiple records in Table B ! Requires that FK column(s) in many table refer to PK column in one table
! Example:
! Grades Table to Student Table
! One-to-many (1:M)
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Figure 6-15, The relationship of Student to Course Grade is one-to-many (1:M)


! One-to-one (1:1)
! For every record in Table A, there can be one and only one matching record in Table B ! Consider combining tables in 1:1 relationship ! Normally the two tables can be combined into one table
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Figure 6-16, The relationship of Student to Grade Level is one-to-one (1:1)
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Step 5: Analyze the Design

! Analyze work completed
! Search for design errors and refine tables as needed ! Follow normalization forms (ideally to 3NF) ! Correct any violations
! ER models
! Visual diagram composed of entities and relationships
! Entities represent the database tables ! Relationships show how tables relate to each other
! Cardinality
! Shows numeric relations between entities
Step 5: Analyze the Design (contd.)

! Types of cardinality (and their notation) include:
! 0..1, 0:1 (zero to one) ! 0..M, 0:N, 0..*, 0..n (zero to many) ! 1..1, 1:1 (one to one) ! 1..M, 1:M, 1:N, 1..*, 1..n (one to many) ! M..1, M:1, N:1, *..1, n..1 (many to one) ! M..M, M:M, N:N, *..*, n..n (many to many)
! Example:
! ER model for the student-grading system
Step 5: Analyze the Design (contd.)
Figure 6-17, The student-grading system ER model in Visio
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Step 6: Reevaluate
! Reevaluate database performance
! Ensure database meets all reporting and form needs ! Include the end users ! Explain each table and field being used ! Make sure fields are defined to users requirements ! Manipulate data structure with SQL commands
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Structured Query Language (SQL)

! Structured Query Language (SQL) functions
! Manipulate data ! Define data ! Administer data
! Many different dialects of SQL
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Structured Query Language (SQL) (contd.)

! SQL advantages
! Reduces training time (syntax based in English) ! Makes applications portable (SQL is standardized) ! Reduces the amount of data being transferred ! Increases application speed
! Following sections show basic SQL commands

! Creating tables ! Adding (inserting) rows of data ! Querying table to select certain information
Structured Query Language (SQL) (contd.)
Figure 6-18, A sample SQL statement and results
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CREATE TABLE Statement

! CREATE TABLE statement: make a new table
! NULL/NOT NULL
! Optional property indicates whether data required
! Syntax:
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CREATE TABLE Statement (contd.)

! SQL statements to create table called Songs:
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INSERT INTO Statement

! INSERT INTO statement: add new rows of data
! Requires a table name ! Square brackets ([]) specify optional columns ! Columns are on separate lines for readability
! Syntax:
INSERT INTO table_name [(column1,column2, . . . )] VALUES (constant1, constant2, . . . )
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INSERT INTO Statement (contd.)
Figure 6-19, SQL INSERT INTO statement to add a record to the Songs table and its result
SELECT Statement
! Retrieves data from one or more tables ! Syntax:
! Specified order determines order of retrieval/display
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SELECT Statement (contd.)
Figure 6-20, SQL SELECT statement to return the name, media type, and track number for songs
WHERE Clause
! Specifies additional criteria for retrieving data
! Fields should be included in fields selected
! AND and OR keywords

! Allow specification of multiple search criteria ! AND indicates that all criteria must be met ! OR indicates only one criterion needs to be met
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WHERE Clause (contd.)
Figure 6-21, SQL SELECT statement with a WHERE clause and the results
Figure 6-22, More descriptive SQL SELECT statement with a WHERE clause
Figure 6-23, SQL SELECT statement with a WHERE clause and AND versus OR
ORDER BY Clause
! Permits user to change how the data is returned
! Makes for a more meaningful presentation
! Default: data returned in sequential order ! User can specify the ORDER BY column name(s) ! Also returns data in ascending (default) or descending order
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ORDER BY Clause (contd.)
Figure 6-24, SQL SELECT statement with an ORDER BY clause and the results
Figure 6-25, SQL SELECT statement, using an ORDER BY clause with the default ascending option
Figure 6-26, SQL SELECT statement, using an ORDER BY clause with the DESC option

! Many more options
! Specified on SELECT statement
! Many more SQL commands used

! Maintaining, defining, and administering data found within a database
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One Last Thought

! Poorly organized database
! More of a hindrance than a benefit
! Careful planning required

! How data will be structured and stored ! Applying normalization rules ! Using the right SQL statements to extract the kind of information desired
! Database
! Powerful tool used in many areas
! Including business and computing
Summary
! Database
! Collection of logically related records
! DBMS
! Software used to design, manage, and interface with databases
! Indexes
! Files that revise default sequential order of data
! Normalization
! Process of removing data redundancies
Summary (contd.)
! Data is normalized with five normal forms
! First three normal forms most important
! Primary key
! Uniquely identifies table entries
! Foreign key
! Primary keys in other tables
! Entity relationship model

! Visual diagram of tables and relationships
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Summary (contd.)
! 1:M and 1:1 notations indicate cardinality ! Six-step database design process ! Structured Query Language (SQL)
! Manipulates, defines, and administers data
! Basic SQL statements

! CREATE TABLE, INSERT INTO, SELECT
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2 - Database - Fundamentals

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Connecting with Computer Science, 2e

Chapter 6 Database Fundamentals

Connecting with Computer Science, 2e

Connecting with Computer Science, 2e

Why You Need to Know About... Databases

! Structured Query Language (SQL)

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Brief History of Database Management Systems

! Software for organizing and sorting data

Brief History of Database Management Systems (contd.)

! Databases become essential for business

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Brief History of Database Management Systems (contd.)

Table 6-1, Popular database management systems

Database Management System Fundamentals

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Database Concepts (contd.)

Figure 6-1, A database table consists of rows and columns

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Figure 6-2, You use database concepts in your everyday life

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An Example of Indexing (contd.)

! Database information is stored in natural or sequential order

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An Example of Indexing (contd.)

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An Example of Indexing (contd.)

Figure 6-4, Database records sorted by Brand_Name and Description

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! Three database design problems solved

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Preparing for Normalization: Gathering Columns

! Review user-specified input forms

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Preparing for Normalization: Gathering Columns (contd.)

Figure 6-5, End-user report with table columns highlighted

Preparing for Normalization: Gathering Columns (contd.)

Preparing for Normalization: Gathering Columns (contd.)

! Gather data to create physical music database

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First Normal Form

! First normal form (1NF) eliminates redundancies

! Remaining redundancies are addressed later

Second Normal Form

! Primary key (PK)

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Second Normal Form (contd.)

! Functional dependency: columns value dependent on another columns value

! Composite key: primary key made up of more than one column

Second Normal Form (contd.)

! Default 2NF: table without composite PK

! Primary 2NF benefit: save disk space

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Second Normal Form (contd.)

Third Normal Form

! Each nonkey field should be a fact about the PK

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Third Normal Form (contd.)

Figure 6-11, Songs table with the Genre_Desc column added

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Third Normal Form (contd.)

! Primary 3NF benefit: eliminates repetition and saves disk space