Social Problems as Collective Behavior Author(s): Herbert Blumer Source: Social Problems, Vol. 18, No.

3 (Winter, 1971), pp. 298-306 Published by: University of California Press on behalf of the Society for the Study of Social Problems Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/799797 . Accessed: 24/09/2013 15:50
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at . http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp

.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.

University of California Press and Society for the Study of Social Problems are collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Social Problems.

http://www.jstor.org

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

298

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

S. New York: Har- Stryker, Relations. group ArnoldM. Rose 1968 "In memoriam: per and Row. (1918-1968)." The AmericanSoThe Studyof Human 1969 Sociology: ciologist3(February): 60-61. Relations,Third Edition. New R. F. Westie, A. York: Alfred Knopf. An emDilemma: 1968 "The American Rose,A. M., andH. R. Stub test."Pp. 127-141in Raypirical on inciof studies the 1955 "Summary mond W. Mack (ed.), Race,Class In dence of mentaldisorders." New York: American and Power. Rose, 1955a: 87-116. Book Co. Rose,A. M., and L. Warshay Young, K. of migrants to 1957 "Adjustments Di1944 "Review of 'An American cities." SocialForces lemma.'" American 36(October): Sociological Review9(June): 326-330. 72-76.

SOCIAL PROBLEMS AS COLLECTIVE BEHAVIOR

HERBERT BLUMER Berkeley University of California,
in objective in locating socialproblems conditions. haveerred Instead, Sociologists of collective definition. This process havetheir socialproblems beingin a process social problems whether will arise,whether determines theybecomelegitimated, how they in official in discussion, cometo be addressed areshaped howthey policy, in putting are reconstituted and how they plannedactionintoeffect. Sociological must thisprocess. and study respect theory

in contrast to a normal or standing My thesisis that social problems ture In sociologof a pro- socially healthful are fundamentally society. products of ical jargonit is a stateof dysfunction, instead definition cess of collective of as a set obor devidisorganization, pathology, existing independently an inThe ance. task of the with is to social sociologist arrangements jective the harmful This condition or thesis artrinsic challenges identify makeup. thetypical soci- rangement and to resolveit into its thepremise underlying The essential elements or parts. of socialproblems. This analyologicalstudy sis of the for a call drastic would if thesis, true, objectivemakeupof the is usually of sociological theory socialproblem reorientation accompanied of the conditions in thecaseof socialprob- by an identification and research whichcause theproblem and by prolems. be Let me beginwitha briefaccount posalsas to howtheproblem might In which handled. the obin of thetypical sociologists havinganalyzed way of so- jectivenatureof the social problem, and analysis thestudy approach its causes,and pointedout The approach cial problems. presumes identified couldbe handledor existsas an ob- how theproblem thata socialproblem the solved the believesthathe in or condition sociologist arrangement jective condi- has accomplished his scientific The objective mission. ofa society. texture an The knowledge is seenas having and information which tion orarrangement nahas he on the or one harmful can, hand, gathered malignant intrinsically

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Behavior Collective

299

be added to the store of scholarly scene, was of peripheral sociological and,on theother hand,be concerna few years back. Without knowledge of policy makers drawing on other I merely illustrations, placedat thedisposal and the generalcitizenry. assertthatin identifying social probhaveconsistently taken This typicalsociologicalapproach lemssociologists cue from whathappensto be in seemson its faceto be logical, reason- their This conable, and justifiable. Yet, in myjudg- the focusof publicconcern. further is clusion it reflects a by the ment, supported grossmisunderstandand of the indifference of the nature of social sociologists ing problems and is veryineffectual in public, alike,to many and, accordingly, questionable of modernlife. dimensions for theircontrol. To give harmful providing Such dimensions an initialindication of the deficiency maybe casinjurious their noted but of theapproach, let me indicate gravity despite briefly ually of socialproblems the falsity or unproven character of are giventhestatus A few instances that several of itskeyassumptions orclaims. by sociologists. come to mind are: the vast overcurrent and First, sociological theory that is developing in modin themselves, knowledge, just do not organization the unearned increment ern in enablethedetection or identification of society, social problems.Instead,sociologists land valueswhichHenry Georgecamof a discern socialproblems onlyafter they paigned against three-quarters social the effects are recognized as social problems century injurious ago, by the and in a society. system, Sociological recogni- of our nationalhighway of an social consequences tion followsin the wake of societal pernicious the unsavory withthewindsof ideologyof "growth," recognition, veering business codes;and thepublicidentification of socialprob- side of established lems. Illustrations are legion-I cite mayI add formyStateof California, onlya fewof recent memory. Poverty a statewaterplan withhiddensocial character. of a repelling was a conspicuous social problem for consequences I think that recordis the a to empirical sociologists half-century ago, only of social the clear that the from sociodesignation practically disappear is derived logicalscene in the 1940's and early problemsby sociologists of social in our fromthe publicdesignation 1950's, and thento reappear current time.Racial injustice and.ex- problems. to the Let me add that,contrary ploitationin our societywere far of in the and than 1920's 1930's sociologists, sociological pretensions greater has been conspicuby itself, they are today; yet the sociological theory, to detector identify concerntheyevokedwas littleuntil ously impotent This can be seen in thechainof happenings the social problems. following the of the three mostprestigeful case Court decision on school deSupreme used to in and the riot Watts. Encurrently sociological concepts segregation of social the vironmental and emergence probexplain ecological pollution of "devithe concepts destruction are socialproblems of very lems, namely, and "structural late vintagefor sociologists although ance," "dysfunction," are uselessas theirpresence and manifestation date strain."These concepts social problems. backovermany decades.The problem meansof identifying noneof them has a set of the inequality of women'sstatus, For one thing, our that so on current of benchmarks enable the scholar emerging vigorously

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

300

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

in theempirical to identify worldthe ologists treat a socialproblem as if its so-calledinstances of deviance,dys- beingconsisted of a series of objective or structural strain. such as ratesof incidence, the function, Lacking items, such clear identifying kind of people involved in the probcharacteristics, the scholarcannottake up each and lem, theirnumber, theirtypes, their social condition or arrangement social characteristics, and the relation every in society and establish thatit is or is of theircondition to variousselected not an instance of deviance, societal factors. Is it assumed thatthe dysfuncor structural But thisdefi- reduction strain. of a socialproblem intosuch tion, howeverserious,is of lesser objective elements catches theproblem ciency, in the matter I am con- in its central and constitutes character importance Of fargreater In myjudgment is its scientific sidering. significance analysis. the inability of the scholar to explain thisassumption is erroneous. As I will of deviance, showmuchclearer a socialproblater, whysomeof theinstances or structural strain noted lemexists in terms of howit dysfunction, primarily and conceived in a society by him fail to achievethe statusof is defined socialproblems whereas other of beingan objective instances instead condition Thereareall kinds with a definitive do reach thisstatus. The objective makeup. of deviance thatdo not gain recogni- societal and not the objecdefinition, tionas socialproblems; we are never tive makeupof a givensocial conditoldhow or whendeviance determines thecondition whether a tion, becomes social problem.Similarly, as a socialproblem. The societal there are exists or definition the social structural its many allegeddysfunctions gives problem strains thatnevercome to be seen as nature, how it is to out be lays apsocialproblems; we are not told how proached,and shapes what is done and when so-calleddysfunctions thesedecisiveinor about it. Alongside structural strains becomesocial prob- fluences, the so-calledobjectiveexislems.Obviously, tence or makeup of thesocialproblem deviance, dysfunction, and structural strain on one side and is very indeed.A sociologist secondary social problems on the otherside are may note what he believesto be a not equivalent. condition in a society, but malignant If conventional is the society its mayignorecompletely sociological theory so decisively in which the of event condition incapable detecting presence, social problemsand if sociologists will not existas a social problem for makethisdetection of its asserted and thatsociety regardless by following of social objective breakOr,theobjective usingthe publicrecognition being. it would seem logical that down made by a sociologistof a problems, students of social problems oughtto societallyrecognizedsocial problem from how theprobstudythe processby whicha society maydiffer widely comesto recognize its socialproblems. lem is seen and approached in the The objective have conspicuously madeby failed society. Sociologists analysis himmayhaveno influence to do this. on whatis: A seconddeficiency of the conven- done with the problemand consetionalsociological relationto is the as- quentlyhave no realistic approach thata socialproblem These few observations exists the problem. sumption in theform of an identifiablesuggesta clear need to study the basically condition in a society. Soci- processby whicha society comesto objective

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Collective Behavior

301

forthe emergence of social see, to define,and to handle their sponsible social problems.Studentsof social problems, for the way in whichthey problems notoriously ignorethisproc- are seen, for the way in whichthey enters into socio- are approachedand considered, for ess; and it scarcely thekindof official remedial logicaltheory. plan that There is a thirdhighlyquestion- is laid out,and forthe transformation able assumption thetypical of theremedial underlying plan in itsapplication. orientation of sociologists in thestudy In short, the process of collective of socialproblems. determines the careerand It is thatthe find- definition fate of social from theinitial from their of the ings resulting problems, study to whatever objective makeupof a social problem pointof theirappearance with thesolidand effec- may be the terminal provide point in their society tive meansfor remedial of course.They have theirbeing fundatreatment thatproblem. in this processof collective All thatsociety has to mentally instead of in somealleged do, or shoulddo, is to takeheedof the definition, and to respect the lines of objectivearea of social malignancy. findings and respect to whichthefindings treatment point. The failureto recognize This assumption in is largely the nonsense. It thisfact constitutes,myopinion, weakness fundamental in the or sociohow a ignores misrepresents society of socialproblems actsin thecase of its socialproblems. logicalstudy and in A social problemis always a focal sociological of socialprobknowledge of divergent lems. Let me proceedto developmy point for the operation and conflicting interests, intentions,thesis. To lodgetheemergence, and objectives. thecareer, It is the interplay of theseinterests in a and objectives thatcon- and the fateof social problems of collective stitutes definition thewayin which callsfor a society deals process with any one of its social problems. an analysis ofthecourse of this process. of the objec- I findthattheprocess account The sociological passesthrough I shalllabelthese:(1) the tivemakeup of theproblem stands far five stages. of a socialproblem, outside of suchinterplay-indeed, emergence (2) the may of the problem, to it. This distant legitimation be inconsequential (3) the of actionwithregardto removal of thesociological from mobilization study of an the real process throughwhich a theproblem, (4) the formation official of and acts towards its social action, plan (5) the society problem of the official is a majorexplanation of the ineffec- transformation plan in I propose tiveness of sociological studies of social itsempirical implementation. to discussbriefly each of these five problems. The threecentraldeficiencies that stages. I havementioned areonlya sketch of a of Social Problems needed full fledgedcriticism of the The Emergence treatment of social Socialproblems arenottheresult of sociological typical serveas a clue and an intrinsic But they of a society problems. malfunctioning hence as an introduction to the de- but are the resultof a processof of thesis that social definition in whicha givencondition velopment my lie in and are of a is out as a social products problems picked and identified The problem.A social problemdoes not processof collectivedefinition. definition is re- existfor a society unlessit is recogprocessof collective

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

302

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

nized by thatsociety to exist.In not problems would almostautomatically thisprocessby aware a need to study of the social see a being problem, conditions or arsocial not which does address it, it, given society perceive as come to be recognized discuss aboutit. The rangements it,or do anything is just not there. It is neces- social problems.But by and large, problem see theneed do not either to considerthe sociologists sary, consequently, it. of how or detour around social arise. Sociological platiquestion problems of this tudes,such as thatthe perception Despite its crucial importance on social has been ideologies depend essentially ignored problems question tellus practior on traditional beliefs, by sociologists. what about a society It is a grossmistake to assumethat cally picks nothing and how it or harmful out as its social problems any kind of malignant social condition in a comes to pick them out. We have or arrangement becomes a social scarcelyany studies, and pitifully society automatically of such relevant forthatsociety. The pagesof limitedknowledge, problem the role of as the following: are repletewith instances of matters history for a in dire social conditions unnoticed and agitation getting recognition in gaintherole of violence in the societies in which problem; unattended the play of inobservers,ing such recognition; they occurred.Intelligent of one society, usingthestandards may terestgroupswho seek to shut off the role of of a problem; harmful in recognition conditions abiding perceive who maforesee other interest not another that do groups society just appear a condiof the terial to themembership as problems gainsbyelevating given with tion to a problem(as in the case of latter individuals Further, society. own society, police with the current of their keenperceptions problemof and drugs); theroleof political ex- crime or who as a resultof distressing withcerin fomenting concern givensocialcon- figures mayperceive perience the tain and as in their ditions problems putting damper society harmful, may the withother in awakening be impotent conditions; anyconcern on concern and withtheconditions. Also,givensocial role of powerfulorganizations the at one time corporations conditions doingthesamething; maybe ignored to of in their without groups gain yet, change makeup, impotency powerless for whattheybelieveto be of grave concernat attention becomematters the role of the massmedia another time.All of thesekinds of problems; and the social problems; as in selecting instances are so drearily repetitive of adventitious influence The not to require documentation. happenings We have sensitivities. shock and reflectionthat mostcasual observation public which beckons vast field here a a thattherecognition showsclearly study by is a highly and whichneedsto be studiedif we of itssocialproblems society thesimplebutbasic so- are to understand harmful with selective many process, of howsocialproblems not matter and arrangements cial conditions emerge. if they that don'temerge, and And I repeat a bid for attention even making don'tevenbegina life. in they withothers falling by the wayside a fierce whatis frequently competitive of SocialProblems recog- Legitimation Manypushforsocietal struggle. to a Societalrecognition butonlya fewcomeout of the nition givesbirth But if thesocialprobsocialproblem. end of thefunnel. and of social lemis to movealongon itscourse that students I wouldthink

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Behavior Collective

303

have to fight their notdie aborning, others social are avoided, it must acquire It may seem strangeto wayto a respectable and others status, legitimacy. to be- are rushedalong to legitimacy by a having speakof socialproblems come legitimated. Yet aftergaining strongand influential backing.We initial recognition, of this selective a social problem knowvery little process socialproblems haveto mustacquiresocial endorsement if it through which is to be taken seriously and move pass in order to reach the stage of It mustacquire a legitimacy. forward in itscareer. such passage is Certainly ofrespectability which not due merely to theintrinsic necessary degree gravity in therecog- of thesocialproblem. it to consideration Nor is it due to entitles In merely the prior state of public innized arenasof public discussion. nor to the soour society such arenasare the press, terestor knowledge; the called ideologiesof the public. The other media of communication, civicorganizations,selective theschool, church, processis far more compliis suggested and the assembly catedthan chambers, legislative bythese simple, If a socialprob- commonplace ideas. Obviously, many placesof officialdom. of of the factors whichoperate to affect lem does not carry the credential of socialproblems confor entrance therecognition necessary respectability Do not tinueto playa partin thelegitimation it is doomed. intothese arenas, Butitseems evident think becausea givensocialcondition ofsocialproblems. facor arrangement is recognized as grave thatthereare othercontributing the in tors which elusive some a through by society-by people people quality comes to be to it by of social respectability who indeedattract attention to social problems. We just this means that attached theiragitation-that into do not have muchknowledge about will breakthrough the problem To thisprocess, sinceit is scarcely studied. the arenaof publicconsideration. a cardinalmatter that theasserted thecontrary, may It is certainly problem as not should be engagingthe concernof be regardedas insignificant, of socialproblems. as in the students worthyof consideration, and thusnot orderof things accepted to Mobilization of Action to be tampered with,as distasteful the or as merely codes of propriety, If a socialproblem to pass manages subversive or of the of societal shouting questionable through stages recogniin a society. elements it enters Any of these tionandof sociallegitimation, canblocka recognized conditions The problem prob- a newstagein itscareer. If the now becomes lem fromgaininglegitimacy. theobjectof discussion, it of controversy, failsto getlegitimacy socialproblem of differing depictions, of the and of diverse outside and languishes flounders claims. Thosewho seek arenaof publicaction. changesin the area of the problem thewide clash with those who endeavorto that I wantto stress among or arrange- protect vested interests in the area. of socialconditions variety claimsand distorted as harmful Exaggerated thatare recognized dements are of there sets vested people, interests, subserving differing pictions, by few thatachievelegitimacy.becomecommonplace. less Outsiders, relatively witha involved, Here again we are confronted and bringtheirsentiments to bearon their so to speak, images in which, of the selective process framing are social evaluaDiscussion, problems problem. budding advocacy, many others tion, falsification, are ignored, others chokedoff, diversionary tactics,

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

304

SOCIAL PROBLEMS

and advancing of proposals takeplace to thegiven It consists of the problem. in the media of communication, in hammering of an official together plan casual meetings, suchas takesplace in legisorganizedmeetings, of action, and committeelative chambers, chambers, committees, legislative legislative All of this The official constitutes a mo- and executive boards. hearings. plan bilization of the society foractionon is almost a product of bargainalways the social problem. It seemsscarcely ing, in whichdiverseviews and into pointout thatthe fateof terestsare accommodated. necessary Comprothesocialproblem deference on mises, tradeoffs, concessions, depends greatly what happensin thisprocessof mo- to influence, to power,and response bilization. How theproblem of whatmaybe workable-comesto judgments be defined, how it is bentin response all playa partin thefinal formulation. to awakened how it is de- This is a definingand redefining sentiment, form-the vestedinterests, and processin a concentrated pictedto protect how it reflects the play of strategic forming, and the rethe re-working of the and power-all are appropri- castingof a collective position picture ate questions thatsuggest so thatwhat emerges the impor- social problem, how theprobtance of the processof mobilizationmaybe a farcryfrom foraction. lem was viewedin theearlier stageof career. its official The I as far as can students see, plan that is Again, in theofficial enacted of socialproblems concern with itself, constitutes, by-pass it represents of theproblem; and consideration of thisstageof the definition its official collective defining process.Our best how the societythrough the of this has perceives problemand knowledge stage comefrom apparatus students of publicopinion.Yet their intendsto act towardthe problem. are commonplace. contribution is fragmentary and woe- These observations of a becauseof Yet, they pointto the operation fullyinadequate, primarily that has telling a lackof detailed of defining signifiprocess analysis empirical theprocess. The students of thepublic cance for the fate of the problem. of and relevant effective tell little us abouthow Surely, study opinion process social should embrace what come to social survive problems given problems in theprocess to theproblem in theirconfrontations and how they happens on official action. are redefined in orderto achievesuch of agreeing survival. tellus nextto Similarly, they Plan of theOfficial social prob- Implementation about how other nothing lemslanguish, or justfadeaway To assumethatan official perish plan and in thisstage.That students of social its implementation in practice are the thiscrucial sameis to flyin thefaceof facts. shouldoverlook Inproblems to somedegree, to stage in the fate of social problems variably frequently seems to meto be extraordinarily short- a large degree,the plan as put into is modified, twisted and resighted. practice and takeson unforeseen accreshaped, Formation of An Official tions.This is to be expected. The imPlan of Action of the plan ushersin a plementation new of inthecareer ofsocial collective It definition. Thisstage process probof new the decision of a setsthestagefortheformation lems represents as to howitwillactwithregard lines of actionon the part of those society

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

Collective Behavior

305

a new perspective involvedin the social problemand developing and apthosetouched in thesociolgical of social bytheplan. The people proach study whoarein danger oflosing It seems to me to be inadvantages problems. strive to restrict the plan or bend its dubitablynecessaryto place social in the context of a process Those problems operationto new directions. who stand to benefit It is this fromthe plan of collective definition. process new opportunities.whichdetermines whether socialprobmayseekto exploit Or both groupsmay work out new lems are recognized to exist,whether accommodative unforehow for consideration, arrangements they qualify seen in the plan. The administration are be is to to what considered, they and theoperating are prone be doneaboutthem, are and how they personnel to substitute their policies for the reconstituted in the efforts undertaken official have them.Social problems theplan.Fre- to control underlying policy various kinds of and their fate subterranean their their career, being, quently, are in To this which leave this adjustments developed process. ignore process intact central areasof the socialprob- can yieldonlyfragmentary knowledge lem or transform other of its areasin and a fictitious of socialprobpicture in- lems. ways that were never officially The kind of accommodations, My discussion tended. should not be conand to theconvenvalue as strued accretions, blockages, unanticipated denying transformations of which tional way in which sociologists unintended apcan be seen abundantlyproach the topic of social problems. I am speaking in the case of manypast attempts to Knowledgeof the objective makeup into actual official put practice. of socialproblems plans aim) (whichis their wereconspicuous in should be soughtas a corrective Suchconsequences for of theprohibitionignorance theimplementation concernor misinformation in the ing this objective amendment. Theyare notorious makeup.Yet, such in our knowledge case of the regulatory with is grossly agencies inadequate of social to thehandling either country. They are to be seen in the regard caseof most newlaw enforcement of pro- problemsor to the development to combat theproblem sociological In the of grams designed theory. handling knowof anyfacet socialproblems, I scarcely of crime. of theobknowledge area of socialproblems jectivemakeupof the social problem of thegeneral less under- areais of significance that is more important, to theextent only than that of the less studied and into the that the enters stood, knowledge restructurand unintended unforeseen which collective definition of process that determines thefateof socialproblems. ingof theareaof a socialproblem of an In thisprocess arisesfromthe implementation theknowledge maybe unable I am of treatment. official or smothered by plan ignored,distorted, of social other to understand For me,it is selfconsiderations. whystudents in both theirstudiesand evident whowishtheir that sociologists problems, can afford studiesof social problemsto bring of theory, their formulation to ignorethiscrucial conditions had better stepin the life- about improved social of the and understand being problems. study processof which collective definition five of the discussion I hopethat through my of changesare made. On the side of discernible stagesin the fullcareer outtheneedfor sociological of the socialproblems brings theory, knowledge

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions

306

PROBLEMS SOCIAL

of socialproblems is functions, breakdown of socialnorms, objective makeup useless. It is useless clash social of or deviation values, because, essentially as I havesought to show,socialprob- from social conformity, is to unlemsdo notlie in theobjective areasto wittingly transfer to a suppositious which of social structure what belongsto the they pointbutin theprocess seen in of and defined the collective definition. As I being society. process All the empirical evidence thatI can havesaid earlier, no one of theseconfind to thisconclu- cepts is capable of explainingwhy pointsindubitably sion.I wouldwelcome to someof theempirical instances covered anyevidence the contrary. who seek to bytheconcept become socialproblems Sociologists on and othersdo not. This explanation of social problems developtheory in theprocess are must be sought of collecthe premise that social problems is If sociological social tivedefinition. theory lodgedin somekindof objective in knowledge of the structure theirworld. to be grounded are misreading it to pre- empirical worldof socialproblems, To attribute social problems of in the must and nature heed sumedstructural the strains, respect upsets world. of the social system, dys- thatempirical equilibrium

STABLE WORKERS, BLACK AND WHITE*

CornellUniversity JOHN M. GOERING University Washington
of stableworking and middle-class shows A study men,bothblackand white, on job aspirations and tendencies: two comparative 1) the two racesare similar bothracesindicating economic a senseof personal ambition, security satisfactions, on the job and in consumption, and high in employment, adequateadvancement in politicalperspectives, with the 2) the two races differ hopes for children; blacksindicating a senseof partial to thesystem discriminamarginality reflecting

JOSEPHA. KAHL

to protest. thetwotendencies it is and a determination Putting together, tion,

blacks are associated withhighlevelsof personal that stablejobs among concluded sinceawareness of groupdeprivabut notwithpolitical conservatism, satisfaction are independent of personal achievement and are not tion and desireto protest ambition. to blocked frustrated responses Munoz, HermanNoah, William Pollard, RobertSheak,Glaucio A. Dillon Soares, Lee Rainwater served and MichaelWright; as consultant. We were supported by a to The grantfromthe Ford Foundation Interamerican SoGroup for Comparative administered ciology, by the Social Science * This articlereports a small segment Institute, St. Louis; Washington University, endeavor. In the by N. S. F. grant research of a cooperative G22296 to thatUniverand analysis fieldwork, stagesour sity's design, and bythe Center Computer Center; were:Mrs.Martha L. for International co-workers Batt, John Studies and theOffice of Eduardo Computer Brown,Charles K. Cummings, Cornell Services, University.

in reTherehas beenmuchinterest cent yearsin sociologicalstudiesof Mostof thisinterAmerican Negroes. at the directed has been however, est,

This content downloaded from 200.10.244.100 on Tue, 24 Sep 2013 15:50:48 PM All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions