CRYSTAL STASIS I'ICS

a rough value of the current amplitude at resonance. Ke find for the current at resonance

I= 2~el (s'' a
Ep)
I

O. O4cos

(3m
(

&

I.

cos~r.

(III-25)

The current is in phase with the impressed electromotive force in the two extreme thirds of the antenna, but out of phase in the middle third. As the current amplitude at the center of the antenna is only some 4 percent of that at first resonance, the second and higher order resonances are evidently of little importance as compared with the first resonance.

P H YS ICAL

REVIEW

VOLUME

65, NUMBERS

3 AND

FEBRUARY

AND

15, 1944

Crystal Statistics.

I. A Two-Dimensional
Sterling Chemistry Laboratory,

Model with an Order-Disorder

Transition

LARs ONsAGER Yale University,

mHaven,

Connecticut

(Received October 4, 1943)

"ferroThe partition function of a two-dimensional magnetic" with scalar "spins" (Ising model) is computed rigorously for the case of vanishing field. The eigenwert problem involved in the corresponding computation for a 1ong strip crystal of finite width (n atoms), joined straight to itself around a cylinder, is solved by direct product in the special case n = ~ an integral decomposition; replaces a sum. The choice of different interaction energies (&J, &J') in the (01) and (10) directions does not complicate the problem. The two-way infinite crystal has an order-disorder transition at a temperature T= T. given by the condition
sinh(2

The energy is a continuous function of T; but the specific heat becomes infinite as log [T T, ~. For strips of finite width, the maximum of the specific heat increases linearly with log n. The order-converting dual transformation invented by Kramers and Wannier effects a simple automorphism of the basis of the quaternion algebra which is natural to the problem in hand. In addition to the thermodynamic properties of the massive crystal, the free energy of a (0 1) boundary between areas of opposite order is computed; on this basis the mean ordered length of a strip crystal is
(exp (2 J/kT) tanh(2

J/kT, ) sinh(2 J'/kT, ) = 1.

INTRODUCTION

J'/kT))".

HE statistical theory of phase changes

in

solids and liquids involves formidable mathematical problems. In dealing with transitions of the first order, computation of the partition functions of both may be phases by successive approximation adequate. In such cases it is to be expected that both functions will be analytic functions of the temperature, capable of extension beyond the transition point, so that good methods of approximating the functions may be expected to yield good results for their derivatives as well, and the heat of transition can be obtained from the diR'erence of the latter. In this case, allowing the continuation of at least one phase into its metastable range, the heat of transition, the most appropriate measure of the discontinuity,

may be considered to exist over a range of temperatures. It is quite otherwise with the more subtle transitions which take place without the release of latent heat. These transitions are usually marked by the vanishing of a physical variable, often an asymmetry, which ceases to exist beyond the transition point. By definition, the strongest possible discontinuity involves the specific heat. Experimentally, several types are known. In the n Pquartz tran sition, ' the specific heat becomes infinite as (T, T) i; may be the rule for a great many structural transformations in crystals. On the other hand, supraconductors exhibit a clear-cut finite discontinuity of the specific heat, and the normal state can be continued at will below the transition

this-

' H.

Moser, Physik. Zeits. 37, 737 (1936).

LARS ONSAGER
point by the application of a magnetic field. ' Ferromagnetic Curie points' ' and the transition of liquid helium to its suprafiuid state' are apparently marked by essential singularities of the specific heats; in either case it is dik. cult to decide whether the specific heat itself or its temperature coe%cient becomes infinite. Theoretically, for an ideal Bose gas the temperature coefficient of the specific heat should have a finite discontinuity at the temperature where "Einstein condensation" begins. In every one of these cases the transition point is marked by a discontinuity which does not exist in the same form at any other temperature; for even when a phase can be continued beyond its normal range of stability, the transition in the extended range involves a finite heat
eH'ect.

Whenever the thermodynamic functions have an essential singularity any computation by successive approximation is dificult because the convergence of approximation by analytic functions in such cases is notoriously slow. When the existing dearth of suitable mathematical methods is considered, it becomes a matter of interest to investigate models, however far removed from natural crystals, which yield to exact computation and exhibit transition points. It is known that no model which is infinite in one dimension only can have any transition. The two-dimensional "Ising model, originally intended as a model of a ferromagnetic, ' is known to be more properly representative of condensation phenomena in the two-dimensional systems formed by the adsorption of gases on the surfaces of crystals. It is known that this model should have a transition. ' Recently, the transition point has been located by Kramers and In the following, the partition funcWannier.

tion and derived thermodynamic functions will be computed for a rectangular lattice with diferent interaction constants in two perpendicular directions; this generalization is of some interest and does not add any difficulties. The similar computation. of the partition functions for hexagonal and honeycomb lattices involves but relatively simple additional considerations. A general form of the dual transformation invented by Kramers and Wannier together with a rather obvious "star-triangle" transformation are used in this connection, and the transition points can be computed from the transformations alone. While these were a great help to the discovery of the present results, the logical development of the latter is best relieved of such extraneous topics, and the subject of transformations for later will be reserved communication.
OUTLINE OF METHOD

"

''

"

2W. H. Keesom, Zeits. f. tech. Physik 15, 515 (1934); H. G. Smith and R. 0. Vjfilhelm, Rev. Mod. Phys. 7, 237 (1935). 3 H. Klinkhardt, Ann. d. Physik f4(, 84, 167 (1927}. 4W. H. and A. P. Keesom, Physica 2, 557 (1935); J. Satterly, Rev. Mod. Phys. 8, 347 (1938); K. Darrow, ibid. 12, 257 (1940). ' E. Montroll, J. Chem. Phys. 9, 706 (1941). 6 K. Herzfeld and M. Goeppert-Mayer, J. Chem. Phys. 2, 38 (1934). ~ E. Ising, Zeits. f. Physik 31, 253 (1925}. R. Peierls, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 32, 471 (1936). ~ R. Peierls, Proc. Camb. Phil. Soc. 32, 477 (1936). H. A. Kramers and G. H. Nannier, Phys. Rev. 60,
252, 263 {1941).

As shown by Kramers and Wannier, the computation of the partition function can be reduced to an eigenwert problem. This method mill be employed in the following, but it will be convenient to emphasize the abstract properties of relatively simple operators rather than their explicit representation by unwieldy matnces. For an introduction to the language we shall start with the well-known problem of the linear lattice and proceed from that to a rectangular lattice on a finite base. For symmetry we shall wrap the latter on a cylinder, only straight rather than in the screw arrangement preferred by Kramers and Wannier. The special properties of the operators involved in this problem allow their expansion as linear combinations of the generating basis elements of an algebra which can be decomposed into direct products of quaternion algebras. The representation of the operators in question can be reduced accordingly to a sum of direct products of two-dimensional representations, and the roots of the secular equation for the problem in hand are obtained as products of the roots of certain quadratic equations. To find all the roots requires complete reduction, which is best performed by the explicit construction of a transforming matrix, with valuable by-products of

"

CRYSTAL STATISTICS
X

" -X -- X ~

depends position

FiG. 1. Linear crystal model. Spin of entering atom Q statistically on spin of atom in previous end

~.

The partition function of this one-dimensional crystal equals e E/k T Q ( T)

(() (&) . . .
identities useful for the computation of averages pertaining to the crystal. This important but formidable undertaking will be reserved for a It so happens that the later communication. of maximal dimension, which representations contain the two largest roots, are identified with ease from simple general properties of the matrices. operators and their representative The largest roots whose eigenvectors satisfy certain special conditions can be found by a moderate elaboration of the procedure; these results will suffice for a qualitative investigation of the spectrum. To determine the thermodyn'amic properties of the model it suffices to compute the largest root of the secular equation as a function of the temperature. The passage to the limiting case of an infinite base involves merely the substitution of integrals for sums. The integrals are simplified by elliptic substitutions, whereby the symmetrical parameter of Kramers and Wannier" appears in the modulus of the elliptic functions. The modulus equals unity at the "Curie point"; the consequent logarithmic infinity of the specific heat confirms a conjecture made by Kramers and Kannier. Their conjecture regarding the variation of the maximum specific heat with the size of the crystal base is also confirmed.
THE LINEAR ISING MODEL

(k/)

Following Kramers and Wannier, ' we express this sum in terms of a matrix whose elements are
(/k
l

/k&)

u (p, ga') r e
//

u( Then the summation over (/k(') is equivalent to matrix multiplication, obtain

") in

(2)

and we

where X is the greatest characteristic number of the matrix U. Since all the elements of this matrix are positive, X will be a simple root of

the secular equation

and the identity

will

p(/k)

be satisfied by a function (eigenvector) which does not change sign. In the present case we have

"

=2 cosh(J/kT).
It
will be convenient

to use the abbreviation

J/kT= II.
The matrix V, written explicitly
//'es,

As an introduction to our subsequent notation we shall consider a one-dimensional model which has been dealt with by many previous authors.

e
eH

")
)
p(k)), which

'"

(e

'i

(See Fig. 1.)

Consider a chain of atoms where each atom (k) possesses an internal coordinate p, which may take the values &1. The interaction energy between each pair of successive atoms depends on whether their internal coordinates are alike or different:
&~&

represents an operator on functions has the effect

(I 4(u)) =e"4(u)+e "0(

u)

(9)
(10)

This operator is therefore a function of the "complementary" operator C which replaces p by p

Preuss. Akad. Wiss. pp. 514 518 Duke Math. J. 0, 357 (1940). reference 5. See also E. Montroll,

1, u(1, 1) = u(
or

u(1, 1) = 1) = J, 1, 1)= u(

1) 1)) Ju(k)u(k u(/k(k) u(k

(1909); R. Oldenberger,

S. B.

Frobenius,

120

LARS ONSAGER
given by Kramers and Wannier.
t'

sinh 2H sinh
0 0~0 -~ ~ -- I o-, ]~X X
I t
I
~

2H*= cosh 2H tanh 2H*

=tanh 2H cosh 2H*=1. (17)

X
/

~~X
1

X
I

we can express the hyperbolic Alternatively, functions in terms of the gudermannian angle

X X~X
I

gd

'~=2 u=2 tan '(e") ,

.

tan ' (tanh!, u),

(18)

tier

rIG. 2. Cylindrical crpstal model. Configuration of added whereby 0 0 0 depends on that of tier ~ ~ 0 in previous marginal position. smh u cot(gd u)

and whose eigenfunctions powers of p

are the (two) different

= coth u sin(gd u) = cosh u cos(gd

u)

= 1. (19)

(C
with

1)=1

(C, j)= j

(11)

Then the relation between written in the form

gd

II and

H* may be
(20)

the characteristic numbers +1 and respectively. The linearized expression of U in terms of C is evident from (9), which is now written more compactly ~C. U= e~+e (12)

2H+gd 2II*= ~~.

THE RECTANGULAR ISING MODEL

The eigenfunctions of U are of course the same as those of C, given by (11); the corresponding characteristic numbers are

= X+ e~+e-~ = 2 cosh H =e~ e ~=2 sinh IX. X

We shall deal frequently with products of many operators of the type (12). It is therefore a matter of great interest to linearize the logarithm of such an operator. Following Kramers and Wannier, we introduce the function of II

We consider n parallel chains of the same type as before. We shall build up these chains simultaneously, tier by tier, adding one atom to each chain in one step (see Fig. 2). With the last atom in the jth chain is associated the variable p, ;, capable of the values &1. A complete set of values assigned to the n variables describes a configuration (p) = (u~, . , u ) of the last tier of atoms. The operator which describes the addition of a new tier with the interaction energy

ui((u),
is now
U

(j'))= Z Jjjjj =
2=1

&T~&Zj jj j

(21)

"

H*= ',log
and obtain

coth H = tanh ' (e

's)

( 1 4)

jj P (s + s

jj C

= (2 sinh 2II) "I~ exp(H*B),

j)
=2 &
n

(22)

U=e (1+e 'sC) =es(1+(tanh II")C),

which may be written

whereby
C~

(23)
C~,

j= 1

U= (e /cosh IZ*) exp (H*C)

= (2 sinh 2')"* exp (H*C). (15)

The first, less symmetrical form serves to keep a record of the sign when H is not a positive
real number. For example,

and the individual the effect

(Cjt

operators
' ' '~

-, Chave

4(j

' '

't j ji
'

8&))
' ' 'i jjj~ ljj+ p~)

=0'(jl

'i ljj

(24)

= H*a-,'s.i H)*) = &i sinh H~. cosh((

"'

H) (

(16)

For reference, we tabulate

here the relations

Next, let us assume a similar interaction between ' adjacent atoms in a tier, only with an independent value J' for the pairwise energy of interaction. For symmetry, let the nth atom be neighbor to the first; then with the convention

CI' YSTAL STATISTICS

that the atones in a tier are numbered modulo n,
Pj+n

= Pj7
energy will be

the total tierwise interaction

+2(gl& '
tr

Pn)
n

I' Q =

j= l

p, p;+, =

I' p IJ,IJ;+i. kTF

j= 1

(25)

The effect of this interaction is simply to multiply the general term of the partition function, represented by one of the 2" vector components factor P(p&, , p ), by the appropriate . , p )/kT); the corresponding exp( N2(p&, operator U2 has a exp diagonal matrix in this representation. It can be constructed from the simple operators sq, , swhich multiply g by its first, nth as follows argument, ,

This 2"-dimensional problem we shall reduce to certain sets of 2-dimensional problems. So far, we have expressed A and 8 rather simply by the generating elements sl, Cl, . , s, C of a certain abstract algebra, which is easily recognized as a direct product of n quaternion algebras. However, the expansion (27) of A is not linear. Following a preliminary study of the basis group, we shall therefore construct a new basis for a part of the present algebra, which allows linear expansions of both A and 8 in terms of its generating elements.
QUATERNION

ALGEBRA

(s;, 4 (1

,
.
U2

We have introduced two sets of linear operators si, , C by the definitions , sand Cl,

(s, p(p~
(Cji 0(pii

'''
' ' '
i

p~

'''
' '
'
~

p))
' ' '~ IJ j, '

P)) = PA (I i,

P)

(26)
pji

=PA'(I&)
pn))
'

'i

Pa)~

A=+ s,s;+
V2

(27) (28)

4'(0

'

'
~

Pi)

' '1

4)

(FI'A ) .

We now imagine that we build the crystal in alternate steps. We first add a new tier of atoms (see Fig. 3), next introduce interaction among atoms in the same tier, after that we add another tier, etc. The alternate modifications of the partition function are represented by the product
~

We shall see that the group generated by these operators forms a complete basis for the algebra of linear operators in the 2 -dimensional vector space of the functions g(p~, p). Their abstract properties are

~,

s;sl, sj,s;,

CjCI, = CA, C;;

(31)

Vl V2 Vl V2 Vl

Cps, ; (jWk). s;Cg

with alternating factors; the addition of one tier of atoms with interaction both ways is represented by (V2V~) = V. The eigenwert problem which yields the partition function of the crystal
is accordingly

The algebra based on one of the subgroups (1, s, , C;, s;C;) is a simple quaternion algebra. The group of its basis elements includes ( 1, s;, C;, C,s;) as well; but this completion of the
group adds no new independent element for the purpose of constructing a basis. If we disregard

Xp= (U, p)

= (V2 V&, p)
(29)

= (2 sinh 2FI)""(exp(II'A) exp(II*8), P).

Vis. , in the more explicit matrix notation used by previous authors"

gP(p~

. L.
C
I

o ~
~ 0 0 o ~

X
X
X

.p) =exp~
X
P]
0 ~

x
I

0
X

X
X
X

Q Q

FI' Q p, p, +g
exp~

0
I

OP

+]

II Z

~J

'

11k(~~'

~-').

J. Chery.

"See H. A. Kramers and G. H. Wannier (reference 10). E. Montroll (reference 5); E. N. Lassettre and J. P. Howe,
Phys. 9, 747 (1941),

Fro. 3. Two-step extension of a two-dimensional crystal. (a) A new tier of atoms p is added ( Vi); their configuration depends on that of atoms ~ in previous marginal position. (b) Interaction energy between marginal atoms p is introduced (V2), which modifies the distribution of configurations in &his tier of atoms,

122

LARS ONSAGER
of any 2"X2n our quaternion algebra is equivalent to the complete matrix algebra he choice between the two of 2" dimensions T. forms is a matter of convenience; the quaternion description seems more natural to the problem in hand. One of the main results obtained by Kramers and Wannier will be derived below; the comparison with their derivation is instructive. In the following, the entire basis group will not be needed. Since our operator A involves only products of pairs of the generating elements does not involve any of these $1, ~, sn and but only Cz, , Cn, we shall have to deal only with that subgroup of the basis which consists of elements containing an even number of factors $;. This "even" subgroup, which comprises half the previous basis, may be characterized equally well by the observation that it consists of those basis elements which commute with the operator
will suffice for the construction

the sign, each element is its own inverse. Except for the invariant element ( 1) and the unit proper, each element together with its negative constitutes a class. This algebra has just one irreducible representation

matrix

by linear

combination;

D2)

= (1 01I; 1) EO
I

D2(s, )

(1 0 ) i) (0

(0 11 (1 0&

ii

Our algebra of operators in 2n-dimensional space can be described accordingly as the direct product of n simple quaternion algebras, which is still referred to as a (general) quaternion algebra. Each one of its 4" independent basis elements can be expressed uniquely as a product of n factors, one from each set (1, s, , C;, s,C;). Still, each element furnishes its own inverse and, except for ( 1) and the unit, each element with its negative constitutes a class, which immediately characterizes all possible representations of the algebra: The characters of all basis elements with the sole exception of the unit must vanish. This of course is a consequence of the direct product construction. Another is the recognition that the algebra has only one irreducible representation

C= C1C2
which reverses all spins

(32)

at once
,

(C 4'(

~-)) =4 ( pl,

p. )

(3 2a)

The representation (30) is now reducible because the 2" ' even functions satisfying

D2X D2X
which

D2n X D2

(C
(30)

4)=4
as are the

is of 2" dimensions; our definitions describe an explicit version of it.

are transformed among themselves odd functions satisfying

With the customary restriction that the elements of the basis group are to be represented by unitary matrices, the representations of the 4" independent basis elements must be orthogonal to each other (in the hermitian sense) on the 2'" (or more) matrix elements as a vector basis. For the vector product in question is nothing but

(C

4)=

The corresponding algebras are both of the san&e 1) pairs of generating type as before, with (n
elements
SZSn& $2$n&

'

'
&

Sn 1$n

&

Cz~ C2s ' ' '

&

Cn 1

D(Qi).*D(Q2)-

= Tr. (D(QiQ2 )) = Tr. (D(Qi)),

and if Qi and Qm are independent elements of the basis group, then their quotient Q3 is an element different from the unit and ( 1), so that its character vanishes. Since orthogonality guarantees linear indereprependence, the irreducible 2n-dimensional 4" elements basis independent sentation of our

and either algebra is equivalent to the complete matrix algebra of 2" ' dimensions. The previously independent operator C is now expressible by 1, the others because either C= 1 or C= according to whether we are dealing with even or odd functions. This choice of sign determines the only difference between the two versions of the algebra in question. Moreover, the operator

A=Ps, s,+,

CM.

YSTAL STATISTICS
or, compactly

123

is the same in both versions, but obviously

B=Q C;
j=l
is not; here the interpretation of C makes a di6'erence. The arbitrary elimination of one of the sets of into the operators which enter symmetrically problem causes much inconvenience. The symmetry can be retained if we start with the two series of operators
sls2i s2s3i '
'

f(~, &)~f( ~),

all in the algebra of even functions. Similarity can be inferred from the additional observation that the characters. of all representations are determined by the commutation rules, or equally well from the theorem that every automorphism of a complete matrix algebra is an internal automorphism. When we return to our original mixed algebra of even and odd functions, our result takes the form

'

snsl

Cli

C21 '

'

'

Cii

(33)

(1+C)f(~ I3)-(1+C)f(&, ~)
Application
(sinh

(3&)

required to satisfy the identities

to the operator

U given

by (29)

shows that the two operators

C1C2

=C= 1; 1;

(even functions)
(odd functions).

(34)

2II) "~'(1+C) V(H', H)

The commutation

rules are simply described when the two sets' are arranged in the interlacing cyclic sequence
C2, ' '

(sinh

=2 ""(1+ C) exp(H'A) exp(H*B), 2II')" '(1+ C) V'(H*, II'*) = 2 ""(1+C) exp(H'8) exp(H*A)

s st, Ct, s1se,

', sys, C,

(s

sy, ' '

').

(35)

Here each element anticommutes with its neighbors and commutes with all other elements in the sequence.
Dua1 Transformation

are similar, so that the part of the spectrum of U(H*, H'*) which belongs to even functions can be obtained from the corresponding part of the spectrum of V(H', H) by the relation X+(H*, H'*)

= (sinh 2H sinh

2H') "'9+(H', H).

(38)

The fundamental algebraic reason for the dual relation found by Kramers and Wannier is now readily recognized: In the representation which belongs to even functions, the two sets (33) are alike because the starting point of the sequence (35) is immaterial. Neither does it matter if the sequence is reversed, so that the general rules of computation remain unchanged if each member of the sequence (35) is replaced by the corresponding member of the sequence
Ck) SkSk+1) Ck~l) Sk+1Sk~2) ' ' '
~

This result applies in particular to the largest characteristic numbers of the operators in question because both can be represented by matrices with all positive elements so that, by Frobenius' theorem, the corresponding eigenvectors cannot be odd. In the "screw" construction of a crystal preferred by Kramers and Wannier, ' the addition of one atom is accomplished by the operator (K in their notation)

"

exp(Hs&s) (sinh 2H) exp(H~C ) T = (sinh 2H) ' exp(Hs~s) T exp(H*C~),

&

Accordingly,

the correspondence
Cka j

SjSj+1

Cj~sk+&j 1)sk&j

(36)

describes an automorphism of the whole algebra. Under this automorphism we have in particular

is a permutation operator which turns where the screw through the angle 2 / sTnhey indicate which in explicit matrix form a transformation effects one of the automorphisms (36), namely,

sjsj+1
whereby naturally

Cj ~sn j+1sn j

A~8
+A 8

i24

L A R. S

0 ih SAGER
The explicit representation of a transformation which leads from one of these systems to the other is obtained from the expansion of the identity
~(ua
ui&

The equivalent of (38) follows. In consequence, if the crystal is disordered at high temperatures (small II), a transition must occur at the temperature where the equality

H= II* = -';
is satisfied.

log cot ir/8

(39a)
fails

'''&un

un)

=2 "(1+u,'ui)
our simplified
derivation

(1+u'u). (42)

Unfortunately,

(~') crystal models, it large two-dimensional always converts order into disorder and vice versa; this result is readily obtained by detailed
inspection of the matrix representation. The consequent determination of the transition point for the rectangular crystal by the generalization

to exhibit one of the most important properties of the "dual" transformation: When applied to

This product description of a 8 function is often more convenient. The two systems (40) and (41) of the operators yield diagonal representations A and 8, respectively. The construction of the latter is a little simpler. With a slight variation of the notation we find
(&i (ujiuj2'
'

'uia))

= (& 2k)(ujiuj2'

' 'uJ'1~)
~
~

(43a)

of (39a)

H'=H"",

(kT=kT, )

(39b)

so that any homogeneous function of (ui, ~, u) is an eigenvector of B. With no repeated factors allowed, the number of independent homogeneous functions of degree k is the binomial coeffi-

by other means. On the other hand, the given results are still but special applications of a transformation which applies to all orientable graphs, not just rectangular nets. Except for its "order-converting" property, this transformation is best obtained and discussed in simple topological terms. The properties of the "dual" and certain other transformations will be given due attention in a separate treatise; it would be too much of a digression to carry the subject further at this
will be verified in the following

cient
1s

(n&
)

gk

). Accordingly,
~a ~~
n

t:he

secular polynomial

= II (n 2k l )(i).

(43b)

the degree of a function the A simply counts operator P(u&, , u), alternations of sign in the configuration (ui, u). The analog of (43a) is now
Whereas
measures
i

point.
Fundamental

A,

II (1+.,) Ir E
I.
71

72

1&+1

(1-.;)
72

II (1+.;) j ),q+i

Vector Systems

We shall give brief consideration to the vector basis of our quaternion algebra, as described by the operator formulation (30). The systems of eigenvector which belong to the two sets of operators (si, , s) and (Ci, , C ) are easily identified. The representations (30) of the former are already diagonal, so that their eigenvectors are b functions

=(~-4k)l (II (1+u,) II (1-u;)". 7'1+1

&

(1+,) II 2k+1

(44 )

The alternations of sign are located arbitrarily behind j&, j2, - j, but their total number must be even = 2k. On the other hand, the result (44a)
is equally valid when p, ; is replaced throughout by p, so that the spectrum of A repeats in duplicate that part of the spectrum of 8 which and its secular belongs to even functions,

(sj, b(ul

=u

'~(ui - ui'

ul

'''

uj
u

uj

''
u'

)) u. u. ')
u

-(40)(41)

The eigenvectors of (Ci, , C) are the different products of p~, ~, y, with the normalizing n~' factor 2
~

polynomial

is
[n/2]

IA-1

=I

II

-4k-~)"").

(44b)

(C (

i"'

u-"")) =( ) "(ui"'

u-"")

By an obvious transformation,

one-half of the

CR Ys I AL S'rA
paired characteristic numbers of A may be assigned to even functions and the other, identical half to odd functions. We note again that the three operators
C)A (1

TISTICS

(1+C)A

are similar, structure.

whereas

(1+C)B (1 C)B has a different

is 2n, it is evident from (46) that the period of the commutation rules will be just n; for the factor C commutes with all the operators P, b. For this reason we shall need a modified Kronecker symbol with the period n, as follows

D(0) =D(n) =1, D(m) sin(ms/n)

=0.

(50)

Some Important Elements of the Basis

As a preliminary to the simultaneous reduction of the representatio'n of the operators A and 8, we shall consider certain elements of the basis group which will recur frequently in the process and introduce a special notation for them. We have already encountered
Paa
Cas

Pa, a+l
b

~a~a+i.

In general we define
Pab

P,

as the product

= SaCa+1Ca+2 '

' Cb

1Sb',

(a,

b=1, 2,

Indices which diifer by 0 or (mod =2n) will be called congruent; (in the former case we call them equal). Only the congruence of correspond indices matters; no important identity results from the accident that a front index coincides with a rear index. The distinction between front and rear indices represents the distinction between the opposite directions of rotation (1, 2, 3, ~, 2) around the base 1, , n) and (1, n, n of the "crystal. The eEect of simultaneous congruence is evident from (47) together with (46); one obtains either the unit (1) or the invariant basis element C). More generally, a product of the form (

i'

"

2n)

(45. )

Paa'Pbb' '

'

'PjcIc'

These operators are elements of the "even" basis and commute with C. They satisfy the recurrence
formula
P~, 1+i = P~~PP~, ~+i=

P.~s~Ct st+i

(45a)

The period of this recurrence

formula is 2n; increasing either index by n has the effect of a multiplication by ( C)

Pa, b+n
Pa+n,
b

with any number of factors equals one of the invariant elements ~1, ~C if both front and rear indices congruent to each of the possible values 1, 2, (0, 2, 4, , n occur an even number ) of times. This rule can be obtained from compare the (48) by simple manipulation; derivation of exchange rules below. In addition, thanks to the relation
~
~

CPab

Pab C.

(46)

PgrP22

' '

P. = ( ) "C'gC2

The product (45) obviously may be written in and =by (46), this reverse order when (b a) n, result is easily extended to all (a, b). Accordingly,
2

C~

=( ) "C,

(51)

Pgp

S~Cg~g '

'

' CQ

(sees/&CD

' '

'

Cg+ysg

(47)

More generally, we thus obtain the "rule of the

wild index"
PacPbc
PadPbds

PacPad

PbcPbd

(48)

The analogous

result for indices congruent (mod =n) is obtained immediately by combination with (46)
PacPb, c+n
PadPb d+n
PbcPb+n,
d

= PadPb+n,

ds

PacPa+n,

(49)
d

PbcPb, d+n.

an invariant element also results if both front and rear indices congruent to each of the numbers -, n occur an odd number of times. A 1, 2, count of the group elements shows that there can be no further identities of this sort; accordingly, if a product satisfies neither of the given conditions, it must be a basis element different from ~1 and ~C. The commutation rules for the operators P, b can be broken up into rules which govern the exchange of indices between adjacent factors in a product. These in turn can be obtained by the rule of the wild index from the commutation rules which involve P = C, . We first consider the product
PabPbb

While the period of the recurrence formula (45a)

PabCb

= SaCa+l'

' ' Cb lSJ)Cb.

126

LA RS ONSAGE R

character of the When c= b, the commutative multiplication is trivial. Otherwise, there is only one factor sb in P, b, so that this operator anti commutes with Cb Pbb. Accordingly,

The given formulas describe the effect of P b in terms of the vector basis (40). The effect of this same operator on a vector which belongs

P bPbb+

PbbP

In view of (48) this may be written equally well

)D( -')Pb, P=O. P, .Pb, +(

to the fundamental system (41) can be described conveniently with the aid of functions which introduce a change of sign once in a period these functions have (1, 2, , n). Individually, the period 2n. We shall use the standard notation
sgn

However, the result does not depend presence of a wild index, because
PacPbd

on the

x='

x&0
0
1

x=o
x&0.

PacPadPadPbd

PbcPbdPadPbd

( )D(a b)p

P~

Then the function

sgn

The same reasoning applies to the exchange of rear indices, and we obtain the general rule
(
)D(a b)p

(sin( jar/n) )

=(
Accordingly,

' )'(
P

)D(c d)P

P
(-52)

changes sign at =0 and =n and vanishes for these values of j, while the function

"+

"'Pbdp. .

sgn(sin(j

') s/n)
,

the exchange of indices between adjacent factors in a product takes place with change of sign unless the trivial exchange of congruent (wild) indices is involved. The product Pbd is seen to be commutative when neither (a d) divides n, and in b) nor (c the trivial case when both do. When one and only one congruence exists, the factors anticommute. For future reference we give here the direct operational definition of P b. In the case

the absolute value 1, with has everywhere changes of sign between 0 and 1, and between n and n+1. With this notation we obtain
(Pab, jjj]jjjb ' ' ' jbjb)

P,

= SgnLSin((b ') s/n) a

,

a ))r/n Xg (sin(jh
-',

sin(jh

h=1

b+ &) s'/n) ) X jb.jbbj j) jjb .(54)

This formula can be verified by direct count of the sign changes caused by the operator
Ca+lca+2 '
'
'

cot(a
we have
(Pab, '(i'(jb(, ' '

')vr/n) -cot(b )s/n ,

-',

Cb 1

', j(a)) = jjajhb4'(jb), ' ' ', jba, +) )' (5) jb-) jb (sin ((b a ) )r/n) 0) = (P.b, 0(j ), , j -)) j j b4 ( j (, ' ' ' ' ', ' (53b) j(b ) jbac jhayz jb ); pb s. ') . a (sin((b /n) (0) When cot(a ')s/n~ cot(b ')s/n, substanti-

acting on each factor of the product

PbgigV2' ' 'g~a

j.

',

j.

THE BASIS OF

REDUCED REPRESENTATION

Some Important Commutators

The operators

+ =Q &j&j+l=g Pa, a+)q B=Q Cj= Q

1 1

Paa

ally the same formulas apply, only the changes of sign are arranged ( jbb ), jb), . ,
jhb,

are invariant

, j(a,

j(a+),
j b,
,

j() in

the case (a)

against the dihedral rellection) group of transformations

jb,

(rotation-

and

(j b,

j b-),

j.,

j.+),

) in the case (b).

,)

)jbb~j, (j=1, 2,

n).

From the operators P.b we can form 2n linear combinations which exhibit the same symmetry,

CR YSTAL STAT
most simply as follows:
Ara

I STI CS
also valid in the commuown commuexpressed in

a=1

g Pa,

Irar--

(56)
(56a)

whereby
Ap

J3,

A i A.

With the convention (58a) this is m. Conversely, the trivial case k= tators of Ai, A2, , A2n with their tators G1, G2, , Gn 1 can be terms of the former as follows:

In view of (46) we have

2[G, Ak] =

A +n CA
From the commutators
[Paar Pbd]

= A

C.

(57)

a,

([P.,P.+Pb,b+b] P b=1

[PxaPx. a+m,

Pb kb-]),

PaaPbd

PbdPaa

which vanish unless exactly one congruence between the indices is satisfied, we can form 1 independent linear combinations of dihedral n symmetry, which may be written most compactly
n

Again if we exclude the trivial case m= 0, the b= b= will satisfied not be congruences a+m a, simultaneously. Hence,
2LG, Ak] = E
a=1

([P. P.+, P. +k]

[PxaPx, a+mr Pa k, a]

+,++], + [P.,P,+,P.
[P gP, ,+, P,
Here
[PaxPa+m,
xr
i,

Gm=

a~1

P ([Paar Pa+m, x]
n

[Paar Px, abm])

x

(PaxPa+m,
a=1

PxaPxa+m)

(,

58)

+,,+]).

While the definition of G1, G2, will be extended conventionally to the complete period m = 1, 2, ~, 2n, they satisfy the identities
G

Pa, a+k]

2Pa. a jkPaxPa+mx,
a+@

2+a, a+&+a, a+IrI a+m,

[PaxPa+ra,
xr

2+a+m, a+I'1

= G;

GQ

G=O

Pa+m, a+k+m]

(58a)

1 independent operators so that there are only n included in the set. The analog of (57)

2I agI a+mf
etc. , and we obtain
2[Gmr

s+a+m, a+0+m

2-pa, a+a+m j

G +n CG

= G, C

(59)

Ak] = Q (
a=1

2Pa+m, ayk+2Pa, a+k+m

is valid. The commutators of Ai, A2, A2n with each other necessarily can be expressed in terms of the set (58). By definition

+ 2Pa a+m
k,

2Pa k+m, a)
+i;

=Z (4P..
a=1

+i+- 4P..

[A, A]=0.
By (57) we have also

or, siinply

[A, A
a = b;
not be satisfied compute
will
n

+.]=0.

2Ak, [G, Ai, ]=2Ai, +

If we exclude these trivial cases, the congruences

rb+ k = bi+

rrb
when

which is also valid in the trivial case m= 0. It is easily shown from (60) and (61) that the ~, G 1 commute with each commutators G&, other. We have generally

(61)
[G, AQ]].

simultaneously

we

[G, [Ak, AQ]]= [[G,Ak], AQ]+[Ak,

2Ak ,), AQ] [G, Gk]= [(2Akg 2A +[Ak, (2A

[Ak, A]= Q [P.

,

a, b=1
n

Using this together with (60) and (61) we find

+.k, Pb,

b]
n

= P [P,P.. +]+kg [P. . P. +k,]

whence
c=1

a=1

= 8GI:+m 8GI:
+8Gi,

)]
(61a)

[AiA, ]=4Gi, ,

(60)

0. 8Gi, +

LARS ONSAGER
A

Set of Generating Basis Elements

X,

The commutation rules (60) and (61) suggest the introduction of the operators Xp, X1, I'1, ~, F~ 1, Z1, , Z 1defined as follows:
~ ~

Conversely, the operators (62) can be constructed from A and 8 by means of (60), (61), and (63a). The relations (57) and (59) now become

X, = (4n) '-P cos((a b)rpr/n)P.

a, b=1

2n

b,

=(1+( ) C)Z, =O
(62)

(64)

Y= (4n)

sin(((b 'P b)r)r/n)P. b=l

a,

b,

Z= ( i/ Sn)

a,

sin((a b)rpr/n) P b=l

2n

X (Pa,Pb,

PP,b).

Again these definitions will apply conventionally for the entire period r = 1, 2, , 2n, whereby

X =X,
Yp

Y=0,

(62a)

so that the operators (62) belong to the algebra of even functions when r is odd, and vice versa; they annihilate even functions for even r and odd functions for odd r. We could deal with each set independently, but the two have many properties in common, and it is often convenient to keep them together. The commutation rules for the operators (62) are easily obtained from (60) and (61). Thanks to the orthogonal properties of the trigonometric coefficients, we find

Z
Comparison directly

= Z; Zp=Z=O.

of (62) with (56) and (58) yields

]=I Y'Y,]=[Z,Z.7=0, [XX, [XY, ]= [YZ,]= [ZX,]= 0;

cos(rpr/n) icos(spr/n)

(65a)

X, = (2n) '

P cos(mrpr/n)A,
2n

The only commutators

which do not vanish are

Y, = (2n) '
2n

P sin(mr)r/n)A,
sin(mrpr/n)G.

= 2iZ [XY]
(63a)
[Yrr Z,

Z= (i/2n) Q

]= 2iXrr 2i Yrr [ZX,]=

(r=1, 2 ,

,n

1)

(6 5b)

Conversely, from the orthogonal the coefficients

A

properties

of

. = g (X, cos(mr)r/n)
,

2n

We shall show next that the operators (XYrr Z), which commute with the members of other sets ), anticommute among themselves. For this purpose we compute

(XYZ,

Ysin(mr pr/n)),
(63b)

(X

+i Y)2 (4n) g
2

C(a+b c

d)rci/nP

a, b=1

G= i Q Z , sin(mr)r/n).
In particular, A and

8 admit

the expansions

X= 2X) Xp 2X1 X, 2n A =A& Y, sin(rpr/n)) (X, cos(rpr/n) P 1 = Xp+ 2(Xb cos(ir/n) (63c) Y) sin()r/n)) + 1))r/n) + 2 (X)cos((n X. Y)sin((n 1))r/n))
1

B= A() Q

by the definition (62). In the given expansion we may interchange ((b, b) and (c, d) independently without disturbing the coefficient. Taking the mean of the four alternatives we obtain
(8n)

a, b=1

S(a+b c

d)rrri/n

X (P Pbd+P, dPb. +Pb, P d+PbdP, )

and by the exchange rule (52), this equals

(8n)

2n

C (a+b

c d) r c i

/n
(

X (1 ( )

' ")(1 )'

"')P -Pbd

The only products which contribute to this sum

are those for which 0, =b as well as according to (46) and (47)

c= d, whereby

P, = PP +,,+ C I; P,P,+=P,P,+,.=
and we obtain

For r=o and r=e the operators Yand Z vanish; in either case we obtain a commutative algebra with a degenerate basis (Ro, Xo) or

(R, X);cf. (66).

In the original quaternion algebra described by (31) the operators Ro, R&, . , Rq, Rare projections. It remains to enumerate the dimensions of these projections [in the irreducible representation (30) g. By (66), Ro and Rare 2" ' dimensional. By (64), the others have at most that many dimensions, because R is contained in Ro or in (1 Ro) as r is even or odd. Further information can be obtained from suitable explicit expansions of R in terms of the basis elements P, ~. A very compact expression is obtained by evaluating

' P 88'~'-'}" ""(1 (X+oY)'=(8n) )"C) (

a,

c=l

whence, observing

(62a)

Xo'=-', (1 C) =Ro,
Ro, (n even) )"C) =R. = X.'=-', (1 ( 1 Ro, (n odd)

(66)

(X,. +iF,)'=0; (r=1, 2,

,n

1) . (67)
(67a)

The latter result implies that X, , Fanticommute

and that their squares are identical

'(X'+ F,') R, =-,

directly from the expansions

(62), which yields

X'= Y'=R.
Now (65b) implies

(67b)

b cosL(~ c+d) r~/n

a, b, c, d=1

j&. &o'

(69)

and since the product in turn must anticommute with either factor, e.g. ,

To obta1Il an 1Iltefest1ng modification of th1s formula we interchange the pairs of indices (a, b) and (c, d) independently. By (52) the mean of the four alternatives equals

X(YX) = (XF)X= (FX)X,

we have similarly

R=2 'n-'

a, b, c, d

(cos((u

c)dr +

o r)n /

FZ= Z, F= iX, ;
These results together its extension

ZX= XZ= i F,.

imply

b+c d)r~/n)) P &= cos((~

g (1+(
-

)D(0, +D(c

+ d))P o&

(67b) as well as

Z, '=iXFZ,=X'= Y'=R,.

The anticommuting product terms in which either a= b but not c= d, or vice versa, cancel out. The terms for. which neither congruence is

The operator R thus defined satisfies the rela2-'n-' Q sin((u b) ror/n) sin((c d) ror/n)P. &r ~. tions appropriate to the unit of a quaternion algebra with the hermitian basis (RX,FZ), sos. , the real basis (R, XF',oZ, ) because The terms for which both congruences are )'C yield either the identity or satisfied ( RX=PYX=i PZ=X, and add up to o(1 ( )"C). Accordingly, etc. , and R' = R,XX= X'= E.. )"C) R=(1 ( The multiplication table is accordingly X (o'+ (Sn) ' Q sin((a b) ror/n) A=R'=X'=

satisfie yield

F'=Z', a, b, c, d=l X=RX= R=i FZ= iZ, F, X, d)ror/n)P. Po~). (70) csin((c (68) F', =RF=YR,=iZX= iXZ, The dimensions (character) of the projection R~ Z=RZ=Z, R, =iXY= i PX. are simply enumerated from (70). When n)2,

I A

14

0 N SA G I

I'

we have

1/P, Pg~/1
= 2" ';

that the dimension total 2".

Dim(R)

= d, so unless c= b; c of R, is one fourth of the

,

(r = 1, 2,

1 );

(I & 2).

(71)

For the case n = 2; r = 1 we have from (63c) and (64) B(1+C) = 4X, ; (n = 2) .
By (43a), the even eigenvectors of are the two possible even homogeneous functions: (1) and (pig2); the corresponding characteristic numbers of are 2 and 2. Neither vanishes, so that in this case R contains all of 1 Ro, and we have the "exceptional" result

Ri=1 Ro, Dim(Ri) =2; (n= 2). (71a)

Irreducible Representations

In the previous section we have completed the abstract theory of the algebra generated by the operators A and 8 defined by (2/) and (23), which are involved in the eigenwert problem (29). Apart from illustrative references to the representation (30), our main results have been derived from the abstract commutation rules (31). Now the task before us is to apply these results to the solution of problems such as (29),
which can be formulated explicitly in terms of A and B. For this purpose we shall again thinl. . , s, C, C2, of the abstract numbers s, s~, 2"-dimensional linear in a Cas operators , vector space, defined by the matrix representa-

To answer the main questions dealt with in the present communication it will suf6ce to find the largest solution to the problem (29). The identification of the corresponding irreducible representation of the operators (62) is an easier task than the complete reduction, which we shall leave aside for future attention. We shall go a little further and identify separately for the vector spaces of even and odd functions the representations of maximal dimensions. By (64) we may consider the sets of even and odd functions separately. The former are annihihilated by (R, ) for even r=(0, 2, 4, . ), the latter for odd r=(1, 3, 5, ). By (66), the space of even functions is formed by , '(1+ C), that of odd the projection 1 Ro functions by Ro C). (1 In the representation (30) the operator of (29) has a matrix whose elements are all positive. Accordingly, by Frobenius' theorem" the components of the "maximal" eigenvector must be all of one sign in this representation. It follows immediately that the vector in question cannot be odd. More precisely, it cannot be orthogonal to the even vector

XFZ,
',

yo(pi,

p.) =const=2-""

(normalized), which happens to be the only function of degree zero. By (43a), this is an eigenvector of 8 corresponding to the simple characteristic number n

(&, xo) = (&(1 Ro), xo) =iixoSince by (63c) and (64)

tion (30). Essentially, the problem of reduction consists in finding the vector spaces which are invariant towards A and 8, in the sense that neither A nor B operating on any member of an invariant set can yield anything but a linear combination of the vectors which belong to the same set. Since the set of operators (62) can be constructed from A and 8 and vice versa fcf. (63c)), it is evident that the invariant sets in question must be invariant towards all the operators (62). In view of the commutation rules (65), we may specify for added convenience that the matrices representing the operators (62) and their products shall be direct products of irreducible representations of the factor groups (R, X, F, Z).

& = X+X2+ . +X2n, 8(1 +X2 i Ro) =Xi+X3+

2X+2X3+
2X+2X3+
+2Xgm',
(n = 2m)

+2X2m

and Xo, X, other, they commute with B. Accordingly, operation with X, on xo will either annihilate it or convert it into some function of the same degree. But xp is the only function of degree zero. Hence, xo is a common eigenvector of Xo, X, Xsatisfying

+X2.,pi, (I = 2m+1) . , X commute with each

(Xxo)=f.yo,' (r=0, 1, . ',

n)

CRYSTAL STATISTICS
By (68) and (66) the operators Xall satisfy the
identity
alone. Accordingly, the vectors which we can obtain by operating with various combinations of (I'~, Fq, ) on xo at most once apiece form an invariant set. The vectors thus obtained can be distinguished from each other by their different sets of characteristic numbers; when necessary we shall designate them individually

X,' X, = X,(X, 1) (X,+ 1) = 0,

so that $0, $~, numbers 0, 1, we have
$o

(74)

1.

~, $

are to be selected from the Since +0 ls an even vector

= $2 = $4 =
with (73)
'
'

and by comparison

x($i,

4,

, &2

i,'(p));

(~=2'=n 1 ).

$1+$8+ '

+ $2nI.
=4m-~=

There is just one way to satisfy this requirement

hi=$3=

-1,
(75)

xo. (X., xo) = , (r=1, 3, , 2L(n 1)/2j+1).

In the case of odd m we have $= 1 for every vector in the set ' there is no Y . For the rest every combination occurs exactly once, as is expressed by the following formulation of the relations derived above

(Xx(f&, b,

, P2

(q)))

Having identi fied one common eigenvector xo of others X~, X3, , we proceed to construct which belong to the same invariant set by operations with Y~, Y3, . - . In general if satisf es

= r, x(&~, &3,

(I;, x(ki, b,

b, -~; (~)))

(Xx)=$x; (r= 1, 3,
then by (68) and (65)

),

=x(h, &., , h--i; (~)), ' ' ' 2' (p))) (X x(6, b 4 = E. 2; (~)). x(b,

r~. ;(~)),
(76)

YX,x) (X, ( F, x)) = (X, Yx)= (

A more explicit description of the functions x is not necessary. The relations (76) in conjunction with the verified construction of the one vector

= -~.(~, x),

= (X, F, x) = (I Xx) (X(Fx)) = t, (I , x); (swr)

so that the operation with Ygives a new common eigenvector; the sign of the corresponding P, is reversed and the others are unchanged. If &, vanishes, Ywill only annihilate x because by

1, 1, x(

1; (p)) =2 ""

(76a)

(68)

suffice for de finition. From the one given vector, the construction is in effect completed by means of the formal relations (68). The representation (76) is analogous to (30); but it has only m = [n/2] factors and the number of dimensions is 21""', if we denote by Lx] the greatest integer which does not exceed x. Moreover, denoting by Qa general function of the

For this reason it is useless to operate with . on yo. It is equally useless to operate Y2, Y4, more than once with any one Fbecause by (68) P,. is its own inverse in the subspace R

factor basis (R, X, F, , Z, ), the representation (76) is a direct product of the two-dimensional
representations

D~.~=D2(Qg) XDg(Qg) X
D,

XD2(Qg);
(n =2m)

Y'=X'=R,,
so that the second operation at best undoes the effect of the first. Finally, since

...

=D2(Qi) XD2(Q3) X

the operation eigenfunctions

Z=iXY with Zcan only

of

Xas we

give us such can obtain with FD+(X, ) =(1); D

XD2(Q2) XD (Q ); (m=2m+1) t'-1 01 t'0 D2( I",) = I ' EO 1) 0)

(77)

(X,) =( 1)

LARS ONSAGER
represupplemented by the one-dimensional sentation D (Q) wl1en II ls odd. An lnvarlant vector spRCC IIlRy be constructed by the same procedure from any comInon elgenvector of (Xo, XI, ' ' ', X ). Tile cl1RIRcters of the representation mill be determined by the initial $o and $, which are common to all members of an invariant set, together with the
values (0 or 1) of fP, $~', , $~ 1. For the signs ~, can be changed independently of &I, b, $1 . with operation Vl, I2, , F~, excepting by those which vanish in the 6rst place. To put, it in geometrical language, the general type of the representation is determined by an intersection
~

X, (r~/II)+ F, sin(r~/II); X.'=

we shall construct
~
~

others by operations with, , Z 1, which anticommute with the say, Zl, corresponding Xg . Then instead of 8 wc consldcr
A
ROA

=+ sos;~I X. Q X*=XO P 2X,*

=-, '(1 C)A

2n

(79)

of projections

2X -2 X.;(&=2III) * * 2X, Xo 2X, 2X I, (n = 2m+1)

Lcf. (63c)

2Xu* 2X4' . Xo

P Og I

j. By (68) the operators

(78) satisfy
(80)

where for f = f; 2, ' ', s 1, . z ls elthel Ror subdivided into -I, (Ro+Xo) is while R, 1 &, is and similarly subdivided. R Rnd ,(R, Xo), Th. e vcctol spRCC constructed Rbove from Xo js the only intersection common to all of the projections R1, R3, R~J2~ j. For every such lntersectlon must contain an even elgenvector of corresponding to the characteristic number is odd, in n when n is even or II 1 $ when either case an even function of degree less than 2, and the only function that satisfies this speci6cation is const. = xo. We have already pointed out that by Frobenius' theorem, that eigenvector which corresponds to the largest solution of (29) cannot be orthogonal to xo. Therefore, this eigenvector belongs to the invariant set constructed above, which contains yo. The expectation of a simp/e largest characteristic number is in accord with our 6nding that the invariant vector space which corresponds to the maximal representation (77) ls umque. of In connection with the considerations Lasscttre and Howe, it ia a matter of interest of to identify not only the largest solution

X,*' = 8, = X,'; X,*' X,*= 0.

The matrix which represents the operator
exp(H'A)

~,

= II (cosh H'+sp +, sinh H')

9

in terms of the vector basis (41) which renders 'j3 diagonal consists of two 2" '-dimensional

matrices which transform even functions among themselves and odd functions among themselves, respectively. In either matrix all elements are positive (provided H'&0), so that Frobenius' theorem applies in the vector spaces of even and odd functlons scpR1 Rtcly. Thc mod i6cation by the factor exp(H*B) in (29) does not affect this conclusion because this factor is represented here by a diagonal matrix whose elements are all posl tive. By (44) tile IRI gest cl1RrRcterlstlc number II of A is double and belongs to the two con6gurations

(+i
Xo

+~

''

+)i (

&

'''i

)~

whIch Rre

"

free from alternations of sign. %hen the corresponding even Rnd odd elgenvectors

X,

(29), but in addition the largest solution ), As which belongs to an Odd eigenvector. happens, this solution is the second largest in magnitude. We.shall prefer a slight variation of the above procedure. From one common eigen-

=2 '(2 "II (1+~1) " ~2 "II it

Xo'

(1 u;))

(81)

"E.N. Lassettre

and

J. P. Howe,

reference 12.

are expanded in terms of the vector basis (41), their components are all positive, so that the represcntatio'ns which correspond to the characteristic numbers and X, (29) must

)I,

of

C R YSTA L

STAT I ST I C S

$33

belong to unique invariant vector spaces which contain go* and xo& &*, respectively. The former has been constructed above from go. The odd vector xo& &* is a common eigenvector of all X,* and satis6es

interesting question which mill arise, we shall complete the discussion of those n vector spaces which contain the n functions of degree one

xi(2r; pi,

. , p.) =I

&Q exp(2rksi/N)pg.
&~1

(83a)

e& =-Z(&~x~'-")= ] Z h, ') I'-"

which requires

=$ *= 1; (n=2m),
&~

so that the vector go( pl o]ection

is included
' ' ' ~2[n/2)

in the

2 (+0+XO)~2~4

These functions may be classi6ed according to of the dihedral symmetry the representations identical representation of To the group (55). belongs (55) xi(0; {g)); the corresponding representation of the algebra (68) is (82). For even n, xi(s; (p)) belongs 'to another one-dimensional representation of (55) and to the representation (82a) of (68). The remaining functions (83a) representabelong pairwise to two-dimensional tions of (55). To show that the pair of similar which representations belong to the pair xi(+2r; (p)) are described by

and in 2(R X)when n is even. The "maximal odd" representation is therefore

D-(Q.)XD.(Q")XII D.(Q"); (

dd)

(83b)

D. =D, (Q.) XD

D (Q.) XD {Q. ) XD.(Q,) Xn D.(Q. );

(Q, ) X

XD, (Q. ,); (n= 2nz+1)

(I even}
(82)
one may verify that the vectors in question are annihilated by Xgt

D-*=D+(Qo) XD~(Q2) X. XD.{Q. )XD (Q.); { =2~)

is odd, D with the notation of (77). When has 2&" '&" dimensions, the same number as , and there can be no further representation with this number of dimensions, for there is only one pair of configurations mith less than two alternations of sign. For even e the representa-

(X,x, (2r; (p))}= (X,x, (- 2r;

(p))) = 0;
(83c)

D,

(0 &2r &n).

tion it is still x has only 2|:" ')" dimensions unique. However, one other representation with the same number of dimensions is compatible with the known spectrum (44) of A, namely,

D,

The direct calculation by means of {62) and (54) is not too laborious; since Xmcommutes with 8, only the terms of first degree have to be computed. The remaining factors in (83b) are then determined as before by the relation

2)xi ( xi) = (ri

SOLUTION OF THE EIGENVfERT PROBLEM

D.ii = D-(Qo) X Dm(Q2) X

X D~(Q--~) X D+(Q.)
The count of configurations
(82a)
with n (even) alter llatlolls yields oile pail'' ) reasoning analogous and ( to the above shows that exactly one invariant vector space belongs to (82a). The identification of the remaining invariant vector spaces involves more elaborate calculations; the complete theory mill be given in a later publication. However, in order to settle an

+);

(+

It is a simple matter now to compute those solutions of the eigenwert problem (29) which belong to the representations {77), (82), and (83); we only have to solve a set of quadratic equations. As to the "physical" significance of the solutions, we recall that the characteristic number itself yields the partition function and with it fun'ctions of the crystal. the thermodynamic Moreover, as shown by Kramers and Kannier, ~, p) of the the individual components P(pi,

134
eigenvector

LARS ONSAGER
also valid if X, , Y, Zare replaced throughout

which belongs to X, describe the statistical distribution of configurations of the last On the tier of atoms added to the crystal. other hand, if we know in addition the eigenvector P'(pq, , p) which belongs to X, for V& V2, then the the adjoint operator V'= V~'V2' component products

by

"

X, cos(rs. /n) X,*=

Y*= X, si n(r s/n)

+ F, sin(re/n),
(86)
the

z. z.*=
(dual transformation). expansions
A

+ F, c os(r s/n),
We
now

recall

4(~i,

~-)4'(

i,

~.)

describe the statistical distribution of configurations in the interior of the crystal. With the latter result in mind, we first transform V to self-adjoint form by operation with V~&; then

"

= X* 2Xg* X()* 2Xg . X 8= 2Xg 2Xi Xp

I

=X0"+2
Substitution

(cos(rs. /n)X*

sin(r~/n)

X*. Y*)

V = Vg& VVg

&

= Vi' V2 Vg'
(84)

in (84) yields

= (2 sinh

2H)~"

V = (2 sinh 2H)
n

""exp((H* H') Xo*)

(87)

Xexp(-', H'A) exp(H*B)exp(2H'A)

(H*+H')X*) g (U,) exp(

has the same characteristic the squares

numbers

as V, and
U, =exp(

P(1 i

~-) =f(~~ .

~-)

of the components of its principal eigenvector of configurations will describe the distribution of the crystal. interior in the To solve the eigenwert problem we may transform t/' into a function of the operators Xalone, or equally well into a Xp, X~, X*. The latter function of Xp*, X~*, procedure involves slightly simpler relations; either result is readily converted into the other by means of the real orthogonal operator" 1 n

~,

H'X*) 2H*X,) exp( H'X*) exp( = (1 R,)+ (cosh 2H' cosh 2H* sinh 2H' sinh 2H* sco(r /sn)) R (sinh 2H' cosh 2'* cosh 2H' sinh 2H* cos(rs/n)) X* sinh 2'* sin(r7r/n) F*. (87a)

exp~

By inspection of the factored form we note that with (1 transformation R, +iZ, ) changes U, into U', which differs from U in the signs of the coefficients of X,.* and F*.Adding the two together we obtain
U,

P ((n

r)/2n)~iz,

R+(cosh 2II' cosh 2'' + U, '=2(1

n=l

r=1

sin (r~/2n) ) R+cos (r~/2n) iZ, ) . (1 (1

sinh 2II' sinh 2FI* cos(r~/n))R) = 2(1 R)+2 cosh yR

whence the characteristic numbers of Ubelonging to the subspace Rare e& and e &, of (Those which belong to equal multiplicity. all equal to unity. ) Accordtrivial, are R) (1 ingly we may write
sinh ycos b*X' R+cosh yR U, =1

For reference we observe here the somewhat

more general rule

exp(inZ, ) (X, cos

inZ, ) P+ Ysin P) exp(

(85)

=Xcos(2cx+P)+ Y, sin(2n+P)

which is easily verified by means of the multiplication table (68). The latter and (85) are

is not exactly the dual transformation; it takes R, +X,) to obtain a further transformation with II(1

"This

sinh y, sin 6*F* = exp( sin y, (cos 5,*X*+

where

8*Y*)) from

(88)

(86).

yand

b* can be computed

2II',

CRUSTAL STATISTI CS
2H*, p&, =rir/n by the rules of hyperbolic trigonometry, as indicated by Fig. 4. We note in particular the trigonometric relations'
cosh y = cosh 2H' cosh 2H*

135

sinh

2H' sinh 2H* cos

Ip,

(a)
F1G. 4. Hyperbolic triangle. Stereographic projection, conformal. Circles are represented by circles, geodetics by circles invariant towards inversion in the limiting circle C~ of the projection. See F. Klein, reference 15, pp.

sinh y cos b*=sinh 2II'cosh 2H*

sin pI/sinh

cot

cosh 2II' sinh cos pI, y = sin 8*/sinh 2HP = sin 8'/sinh 2H', V = (sin h 2H' coth 2H* cosh 2H' cos M)/sin

2'

(b)

(89)

293-299.

(c)

p&.

(d)

With the aid of (85) and (86) we find immediately the transformations which reduce U to diagonal form with regard to the eigenvectors of either X*or X, as a vector basis,

The spectrum of V is now known to the extent that the common eigenvectors X of (Xp, XI, X I, X) and the corresponding sets of characteristic numbers (pp, &I, , t I, g) are known. For every solution x to that problem V has an eigenvector P with characteristic number
X

given by

U= exp(

pI

exp( fIPiZ )

yX,*) exp(-,'b, *iZ),

(90a)
',

P=

cp, U, = exp(-', (Ir

exp(

'(Ir 8*)iZ, (, y (, cp,

)'

b*)iZ) exp( Ip, 8, *)iZ,), y, X,) exp( (Ir (r=1, 2, ~, n 1) (90b)

and by substitution
in (87)
', b, *iZ-) V

(V k)=lid I n X=-, log(2 sinh 2H)+(H' log

n 1

(92)

H*)pp

E ~.~, -(H'+H*) ~'

In the previous section we were able to show that the largest characteristic number of V belongs to the representation (77). In view of (76) and (76a) we must put $p= $p=$p= . . =0. All the others may be taken negative, which calls for g = yo, and obviously this is the best choice. Accordingly,
log
X

exp)
E

=I

exp(
E

'b*iZ, ( P , =I

= (2 sinh

II')Xp" 2H) "i' exp~ (H"

P ~X,*
r=l

1 n

(H'+HP)X* ~,

exP

I ( IP, P p(Ir
n

B*)iZ,

V exp(

I (n

'(Ir cp, b*)iZ)

yI+Vp+ . +VI I, (n=2m) (93) yI+yp+ . +y& I+(H'+H ); (n=2m+1).

These two results can be combined if we adopt the natural conventions

'n log (2sinh 2II) ,

= (2 sinh 2H)"" exp~ (II'

n 1

H*)Xp
(91b)

&=21I'+2H*.
'n X,
,

(94)

(H'+H*)X~. Q yX
r=1

Then (93) takes the compact form

log

log(2 sinh 2H) =-',

of hyperbolic trigonometry are obtained from those of spherical trigonometry by the substitution of imaginary lengths for the sides. See F. Klein, Vorlesungen uber Nicht-Euklidische Geometric (Springer, Berlin, 1928), p. 195.

"The formulas

r=1

g yp,

' =-,

P cosh

'(cosh 2H'cosh 2H*

sinh

2H' sinh 2H* cos((2r 1)s/2n)).

(95)

136
180'

LARS ONSAGER
of more tangible quantities. Moreover, the result (96) fails to describ'e the statistical correlation of configurations in diff'erent rows of atoms. Methods of dealing with these two tasks have been perfected to a considerable degree; but the algebraic apparatus involved is elaborate enough to make a separate publication advisable. One quite tangible result is readily obtained from (96b): The probability of a configuration free from alternations is

135'

'l 5'

90

13 5'

180'

FIG. 5. Variation of 8* with co for the quadratic crystal, at various reduced temperatures (k/J) T=1/H. 1/H gd 2H

2F(++

+)=2K(--

-)
= g(cos'(2 622)).

42' 45' 48' 66'f 77'f

t By mistake marked 60o on figure. f By mistake marked 75 on figure.

30'

0' 1. 5'

00

3.641
1.29 0.92

7.551

2.472 2.269 2.089

Similarly, when n is even so that a configuration free from persistencies of sign is possible, the probability of such a configuration is

-+) 2P(+ -+ + -) =2+(-+ = g(Sin'(2bzr i)). 4 rePresumably, the probabilities of the 2"
maining configurations are intermediate between the given limits. One can show from the commutation rules that the probabilities of configuraalternations of sign can be tions with 2, 4, 6, computed successively from those terms in the expansion of (96b) which contain, respectively, factors of the type (Zsin 8*). 2, 3, . However, the labor involved increases rapidly with the number of steps. Of greater interest is the fact that the description (96) brings out a striking qualitative dilference between those distributions which occur for H*)1 and those which occur for n(FI' H'))) 1. n (II* The variation of b with cv=rzr/n is given analytically by (89d); but a qualitative inspection of Fig. 4 is even more convenient. Let us keep the side OD*=2H' of the triangle OD*D' fixed; then the positions of the vertex D' for co=2r/n, id=3zr/ZZ, are equidiStant pOintS On a circle of radius OD'=2H*. Now if 2H*)2H', then b*=~ for co=0, and 5* decreases from x to 0 as co increases from 0 to x. On the other hand, if 2H*&2H', then 8~=0 for co=0. As co increases, 8* increases to a maximum value
2,

-+.

The corresponding eigenvector can be described by either of the two formulas

lt'

Pmsx=

eXPI

0 &2r &n

2(2r

+2r

82,
1l', =
Here

i)iZ2, i I,

x&

I,

(96a)
(96b)

(
l

eXpl

E0&2r(n

2522ZZ2r i I, Xo*

I.

with omitted operations because these 2, ), have no effect on yo or any other even vector. The somewhat simpler form (96b) involves construction from the even 8 function xo* given by are all (81); one easily verifies that pi*, $2*, negative for this vector.
we

have

exp((const)Z2); (r=1,

The Principal Eigenvector

The result (96) describes explicitly the distribution of configurations (P) of one row of atoms in a crystal. The terms of the description are quite unfamiliar. We should not regret this; for among the main objects of the development of this theory is the invention of more suitable methods for the description of such distributions. Even so, we must try to establish the connection with more familiar types of description in terms

sin '(sinh 2H*/sinh 2H')

= 5, (22r

given by (89c) for 5'=-'22r; with further increase of co, 8* decreases again until 6*=0 for co=a.

C RYS I A L

S 'I' A T I S T I C S

137

As regards
in

the angle the axiom (96a),

~2(v.

6"' cu)

which occurs

8'+ 8*+co (m
of hyperbolic geometry implies
m

6*&0. (u

A graphical representation of b~ as a function of ~ at various temperatures is given in Fig. 5 for a quadratic crystal (H'=H). As regards the variation of 8* with the' temperature for a fixed co, we note that as the former increases from 0 co. For small to ~, 8* increases from 0 to m values of co, nearly all of this increase takes place over a small interval of temperatures which includes the critical point. A detailed inspection of the operators Zcan be made to show that those for which r is small are the most effective in introducing pairs of alternations far apart, which is just what it takes to convert order into disorder. Concerning the extreme cases of low and high temperatures, one sees easily that in the former b~ will co case b* and in the latter case m remain small for all cv. This is neither new nor surprising; it means that the low temperature distribution consists mostly of configurations which resemble the perfectly ordered arrangement represented by go*, while the high temperature distribution resembles the completely random distribution described by po.

point bears a relation to the type of the singularity. A survey of the solutions which belong to the representations (77), (82), and (83) will answer the most important questions. To obtain all the solutions which belong to 'b&*, -', 83*, in (96) may be (77b), the angles , 'bg +g g83 +g7l, replaced independently by , the corresponding characteristic numbers are given by the formula
~

~,

log

'n
,

log(2 sinh 2H)

(n = 2m)

(97)
(n = 2m+ 1)

&+1&+3&

'

' '

&'y2~ g+ 2+2~+/

where the optional signs are independent and each combination occurs once. That part of the spectrum of V which belongs to the representation (82) is obtained similarly. The result is
log
X

'n
,

log(2 sinh 2Ii)

(H

H ) +72~74~ '

' '

Y2ns

2+ g'r2mi

(n = 2m)

(II' Ii~) +y2 + y4&

(n = 2m+1).

(98)

For the largest of these we find the counterpart of (95)

log

'n X,
,

log(2 sinh 2II)

Propagation

of Order

=(H'

H')+
n

The principal characteristic number (95) of the eigenwert problem (29) yields, the partition function, and the principal eigenvector determines the distribution of configurations. Never1 characteristic numtheless, the remaining 2" bers are of some interest. In general, these describe the propagation of order. In particular, if long-range order is present, at least one of the subsidiary characteristic numbers should be very nearly equal to the principal. Moreover, at the transition point where long-range order appears, one may expect a phenomenon analogous to the branching of multiple-valued analytic functions such as s"", whereby the order of the branch-

-',
~

go

sgn(Ii'

Ii*)+ P ym,

(99)

with the natural notation

yo
. cosh

"

'(cosh 2II' cosh 2ii~

sinh

2H' sinh 2II*) = 2

II' IP ).

(100)

"

First of all, this differs from (95) in the substitution of yo, y2, for yi, y3, Moreover, the
'yo is mandatory and changes at the sign of -, -critical point. This leads to a most remarkable limiting result for large values of n. The two
sums

10, 61 (1942).

"See reference 13. See also E. Mpntroll, J. Chem.

"F.Zernike,

Physica 7, 565 (1938).

Yl+73+ '
Phys.

' '

go+&2+

1 v(v/n)+r(3s/n) +72 + V2. 2 = v(0)+ v(2s/n)+

138

LARS ONSAGER
quad-

may be considered as different numerical ratures of

2x

(n/2s)
0

y(o))des

by the trapeze rule. For periodic, analytic functions the approximation to the integral improves very rapidly (exponentially) with increasing number of intervals. Hence, with rapid convergence

lim(X
n=oo

. . )=
/X

(IX') II*) 2H'); exp (2II*

1

(IZ' & H*) .

(101)

In regard to the "propagation of order, " the mean distance to which a local disturbance in the crystal is propagated is inversely proportional to log(X, /X). We note that this "range" of the "short-range order" becomes infinite at the critical point. Since the functions (83a) belong to different representations of the dihedral group (55), and the same is necessarily true for their respective invariant vector spaces the result (102) ought to contain information about the anisotropy of the propagation of order. A tentative computation leads to the implicit formula

The distribution of the logarithms of the remaining characteristic numbers which belong to (77) and (82)
log
Xmax

sinh 2H cosh(P sin y) cosh 2H cosh 2FI' sinh 2FI' cosh(P cos p) =0

(104)

2pi, log

Xmax

) ( 1Og ~max

( ) 2'Y2y 1Og ~max

2p .
2+4

-, log
10g

Xmax

2p& 2p3, 2/2 2+4

for the mean range (1/P) of the short-range correlation in the direction p, when II'&II*.
THERMODYNAMIC PROPERTIES OF A LARGE CRYSTAL

' ' '

) ( X ax

+~. These "continua" rebecomes dense as n main distinct from the two largest characteristic numbers as long as H'/II*. However, for H'&H* the representations (83b) give rise to a continuum
log A=log X

To compute the partition function per atom

X=X=lim(X
n=oo

. )""
0

(105)

for an infinite crystal we repla. ce the sum (95) by the integral

log

as a superior limit. Further complications due to representations which we have not investigated here are excluded by (43) and (63c). At the critical point IX=II*, we have F0=0; ) ( y=O(r/n) In this excep. tional case both X, and itself are limits of "continua. The following scheme summarizes the results
which contains

X,

) (

. +go

y~. ;

(H'&H*)

(102)

X=2

log(2 sinh

2H)+

21l

p(ra)da&

(106)

where

cosh y(co)

= cosh

2H' cosh 2FI* sinh 2H' sinh 2H* cos |d.

X,

"

X= X,-)(continuum); (FI') FI*) , = X,=lim (continuum); (IS' = lI*)

-

There are several ways to show that (106) actually describes a symmetrical function of H and H'. For example, with the aid of the useful identity

(103)

X, )X, =lim
At

(continuum);

(II'&II*).

f
0

2'

2 cos co)des= 2sx log(2 cosh x

(107)

temperatures below the critical point (H')H*), we have "asymptotic degeneracy" of order 2, as a symptom of long-range order. Above the critical point, there is no degeneracy of the principal characteristic number. At the critical point we observe branching associated with an "asymptotic degeneracy" of infinite order.

we can convert

(106) into the double integral

log(cosh 2H cosh 2H'
0
~

log(X/2)

' 's. =-,

0

sinh

2H cos

&v

sinh

2H' cos

cv')dcod&o'.

(108)

It seems rather likely that this result could be derived from direct algebraic and topological considerations without recourse to the operator

CR YSTAL STATI
method used in the present work. Such a development might well amount to a great improvement of the theory. A generalization of the expansion whose initial terms were given by Kramers and Wannier is easily obtained from (108). With the notation
2a = tanh 2H/cosh

STI CS

139

For a crystal of N atoms

F= U TS= NkT
LJ= F

log P,

T( dF/dT) =XkT'd(log X)/dT,

(110)

C=d U/dT.
it will be For the purpose of differentiation convenient to consider X, given by (106), as a function of two independent variables H= J/kT and H'= J'/kT. In this notation we have

2H'

= sin

g cos g',

2~' = tanh 2H'/cosh

2H= cos g sin g'

(109a)
K'

we expand the logarithm

in powers of ~ and

and integrate term by term to obtain

' log X log(4 cosh 2H cosh 2H')

U= XJ(8 log ) /BH)

NJ'(8 log X/BH')

log 7/BH'))

1VkT(H (B log X/BH)

+H'(8
2I(. cos log 1
0
co

(111a)

2K

cos

dG0JN'

C = Xk(H'(8'

log X/BH') log X/BAH')

' =

+ 2HH'(r/'
(2r+2s
'r!) '(s!) '~'"~"' 1)!(
a

r+s+0

(109b)

+H" (8' log X/BH")).

(111b)

Specialization to the case H = IE; quadratic symmetry yields

log
X

= ~'

of

log(2

cosh 2H)

The two terms of (111a) are separately the mean energies of interaction in the two perpendicular directions in the crystal (remember the interpretation of temperature as a statistical parameter). the integral of (106) we In diiferentiating consider H* as a function of H which satisfies

Iog(1
0

4K

cos co& cos G)2)dtozd&dg

[cf. (17)]
dH*/dII=
(109c)

sinh 2H*= 1 jsinh

2H.
are are the by

= log (1 274520 z 29m 265m 4K . .) 30773'&2 364315'&4 .

which confirms the result given previously to the order K by Kramers and Wannier. These expansions converge for all values of H and H' because
~

The following formulas, wherein y, 8', and b~ considered as functions of H', H*, and or, from easily obtained by differentiation formulas (89); some of them are obvious inspection of Fig. 4.

By/BH'=2 cos 8*, By/BFI*=2 cos 6',

8 'y/BH"=4 sin'
f/~

2~

cos ra+2~' cos

cu'
~

=2~+2~' = sin(g+g')

~ 1.

co-th y,

(112)

The limit of convergence of the series is given by the transition point, ' and it converges even at the limit. Of course it is not very suitable for computation in the critical region; much better formulas for this purpose will be obtained. The partition function (106) yields directly the free energy F of the crystal; the energy U and the specific heat C are obtained by di8erentiation with regard to the temperature T.
Kramers and %annier might well have inferred this much from the uniform sign of the terms, which locates the nearest singularity on the real axis.
s

8'y/BH*'= 4 sin' h' coth y, 8'y/BH'BII*= 4 sin 8* sin 8'/sinh y.

Comparison
with (106) yields for substitution
i

(111)
8 log X/BH'=
8 log X/OH=cosh

cos 5* der/s.

(113a)
2H* sinh 2H* I cos f/'d~/m.
0

and
8

ill/BH"=2'Josi ~ 'tl'cothyd

140

LA RS ON SAGER

8' log h/BAH'

= 2 sinh 2II*
(113b)

and for the specific heat C,

(sin 6* sin 6'/sinh 'r)d~/ir,

C= Nk

8' lo~ X/RIP

= 2 sinh'
~

d' log dH'

= Nk(H

coth 2H)'(2/x')

2FI"
cos 8'der/ir
Q

ki") (-, 2Ei 'ir+ki "Ki)). (117) X (2Ki (1

In these formulas X~ and E~ denote the coniplete elliptic integrals

t
i

1+coth 2II*
lr

+
Q

sin' 8' coth y dry/ir

)~.

Ki K(ki) =
~
Q

~/2

p)ldll kP sin' p) ldll, (1

The reduction of these integrals by means of an

uniformizing elliptic substitution for the hyperbolic triangle of Fig. 4 is dealt with in the appendix. The qualitative behavior of the integrals is easily seen from Fig. 4: The integrals (113a) are continuous functions of H' and H (or H*) for all values of these parameters, even for II'=H* (critical point). The three integrals (113b) are infinite at the critical point, otherwise finite. The singularity results from a conspiracy: In the case H'=H* we have r(0) =0 and at the 8'(0) = 8*(0) = 2ir, although at all same

(118a)

Ei E(ki) =
Q

~/2

ki2 sin' (1

The integral (115) cannot be expressed in closed form; but rapidly convergent series can be given. With the notation

Ki' K(k i'),

log pi
G
$

= glrive =
7

il

K'i /Ki,

(118b)

te

other temperatures
'r(&s)
~

2 2 2+5 3

2+ . .

sin

=r(0) = 2 II' IZ*~ 0, 8'(0) = sin 5*(0) = sin 0= sin s = 0.

=0.915 965

594 (Catalan's constant),

symmetry the computation of the thermodynamic functions can be simplified considerably. The most convenient starting point is the double integral of (109c), which is converted into a single integral with the aid of (107). Using the notation

For the special case of quadratic

one or the other of the following expansions (derived in the appendix) will be found suitable for

H'

=H

computation:
log X = , log(2 sinh

'

' log gi 2II)

,

+P ( )"(2n 1) log(1 gP" n=

1

'),
00

(119a)

4x = 2 sinh 2II/cosh' 2II, ki ki" kP)'= 2 tanh' 2II &(1 1;

we obtain
log(l~/2 cosh 2H)
1
27/
Q

log
~

i2

log(2 sinh 2H)

)" + (2/7r)G+ P (

(114) ki" = ki'

~

(1+(2n+ 1) (vari/ri) X '

exp (2n+ 1)vari/ri])

t
-',

(2 m+ 1) sinh'((m+

) vari/)

(119b)

'(1+(1 log(-, kP sin' y) l))dy.

(115)

Differentiation under the integral sign yields for the energy U,

U=

d log NJ

A singularity occurs for H=H*=-', log cot ~/8, x', E~ 1. in which case k~ = 1; E ~ = ix); .K~' 2 The specific heat becomes infinite at this critical 0. point; the energy is continuous because k~" The analytic nature of the singularity is evident from the approximate formulas

dH

NJ coth

2H~

ki"Ki (116) 1+

H I) K -log(4/k ')-log(2'/IH 1 4ir) G/Ii7k (2/ir) (log cot ir/8)'(Ki

(120)

CR YSTAL
The critical data are

STATISTI CS
Now if n is even, the reversal of has the same trivial effect as a redefinition of the sign of every other p;. The interpretation of the result is a little different in that the type of order which occurs below the transition point is now a superlattice with the ideal structure indicated by Fig. 8. However, let us choose an old value of n. Now a perfect alternation of signs around the polygon. of n atoms is impossible; in one place at least the given superlattice must be adjacent to one of opposite order. As we build a long crystal on the odd polygonal base, we build it with one misfit "seam. The free energy difference due to this seam will equal that of a boundary between regions of opposite order. The formula (93) is still valid, only now

J'

' loge-ot s./8=0. 440 686 8, H. = J/kT, = , F,/ItIkT, =log X, =-' , log 2+(2/n. )G
=0.929 695 40, (121) 2*' = = 1.414 213 56, U, /X J 2i II, =0.306 470 S,/a=log X. = log 1.358 62i.
The critical temperature
and energy were given already by Kramers and Wannier. In addition, their estimate of "about 2.5335" for X, was very close to the exact value

"

"

A,

, = 2&e'

'~ = 2.533 737 28.

The specific heat of a quadratic crystal is represented in Fig. 6 as a function of 1/IS = (k/J) T; the result of the best approximate computation in the literature" is indicated for comparison. Figure 7 represents the specific heat curve of a highly anisotropic crystal (J'/J=1/100), computed from Eq. (6.2) in the Appendix. The corresponding curves for the case of quadratic symmetry (J'/J=1) and for the linear chain (J'/J=0) are also shown. The abscissa is J'), so that the three 2/(H+H') = 2k T/( curves have the same area.

I'/kT=
whence

II')IS*)0
2FI)
i (~H
~

log

X, 2n log (2 sinh
=vi+v3+ = vi+ v3+
+v~

IS

+ v2~

i+-', v2~+g

2(

) Ho)
H'
~

where

cosh

y= cosh 2II' cosh 2II*

J+

2H') sinh(

sinh 2H* cos(7r io).

SOME PROPERTIES OF FINITE CRYSTALS

1 he partition function of any finite crystal is an analytic function of the temperature. Perfect order and a sharp transition point occur only when the extent of the crystal is infinite in two directions. It is a matter of interest to study the approach to complete order and the sharpening of the transition point with increasing size (width) of the crystal.
Bound. axy Tension

The replacement of co; by m. cohas no appreciable effect on the sum; the modification of the partition function due to the seam is therefore practically equal to

2 H'I+
~

2H".

the effect of a lengthwise This represents boundary for our original model as well, and we obtain

o'/kT= log Xi'= 2(IS' H*),

o.

(122a)

First, let'us compute the "boundary tension" between two regions of opposite order below the transition point. This we can do by a slight variation of the model. We simply chose a negative interaction energy between adjacent same tier: atoms in the

'=2J'

kT log

coth(J/kT)

for the boundary tension o' (per atom) of a longitudinal boundary. The transverse boundary tension 0- is similarly given by
o/k

T= log

H'.*). 4 = 2(FS

(122b)

+ J Z iliPi+&
1

The boundary tensions both vanish at the critical point, as one should expect. The formulas

LARS ONSAGER
transition point of the infinite crystal; this maximum will be increased and sharpened with increasing size of the crystal. Kramers and Kannier" computed the specific heats at the transition point successively for From the 22=1, 2, , 6 (screw arrangement). results they inferred the asymptotic rule that the height of the maximum increases linearly with log e. We shall verify this remarkable conjecture. The maximum of (C/IiI) for a finite crystal does not occur exactly at the asymptotic critical point; but the di6'erences in location and magnitude are only of the order n ' log n. This order of accuracy will su%. ce. To compute the specific heat we substitute the exact partition function (95) of a 6nite crystal in (111b), whereby the relations (112) are useful. The specialization to the critical case

Fio. 6. Properties of quadratic crysta1.

Boundary
o between regions of opposite order. ApSpeci6c heat C. proximate computation of C by Kramers and %'annier.

tension

for the boundary entropies and energies follow

d 0'/d T = 2k((H/sinh 2H) +H*), = 2k((IZ/sinh 2H')+II'*), s2= do/d T u2' 0 '+ Ts2' (2/sinh 2H) I+ 2 I',
s2'=
&o= &r+Ts2=2J+(2/sinh

Ig
(123)
simplifies

II

'

gd

2II+gd 2II
in several

sinh

2II sinh 2II'=1

respects;
22~1

2II') I'.

the computation the relations

&22'=
C/Xk

2H'ln

The variation of quadratic crystal cally in Fig. 6.

a.

with the temperature for a (J= I') is represented graphi-

are valid in this case. We write the result in the form

H'+ 2II2 sinh' 2

(H'+ H sinh 2H') '

2)2r/n )

Mean Ordered Length

In a crystal. of moderate width n, we may expect to find sections of rather well-defined order similar to that of an infinite crystal, with occasional transitions to opposite order. The result (122b) allows an estimate of the "mean ordered length" $o between such interruptions. By the general theory of fluctuations
f2=br,

&(sinh 2H&& cosecL(r ~ r=l

+ g $(H'+II sinh 2'')2 Q

g

X (2 sill

h2p

l cotll

p2p l

cosech

2'Y2r 1)

4IIII' sinh 2II' sin' +H' sinh

iI
i

82g tanh ~y2g 4H' cos 62, 2]. (125)

~

"= expL222(II-H'*)]
= (e2" tanh H')".
(124)
l,

Evidently, when n is large enough we have

~o)&n.

o
I

The estimate

(124) is significant

when

this

/
2

condition is fulfilled.

The Syeci6c Heat of a Finite Crystal

Since the partition function of a finite crystal is an analytic function of the temperature, its specific heat will be finite at all temperatures. However, a maximum will occur near the
g/(H-H'}

FIG. 7. Specific heats for varying degrees of anisotropy. 7'j 7= 1. J'jJ=1j100; J'=0 {linear chain). {quadratic crystal);

CRYSTAL STATlSTICS
The second suand, when considered as a '=(2r periodicfunctionofthevariableco2, 1)~/ quotient of bounded 2n, has a differential variation. Its sum may be replaced accordingly by the corresponding integral, with an error of
the order n ' Ke have purposely split off the first suni
~

5'= P cosec((r
n r=1

', ) m/n)

F&G, 8. Superlattice at low temperatures in crystal foi which the interaction energy between neighbors of opposite J'&0 0 lengthwise and transversely. spin is

J)

The corresponding integral diverges. For an asymptotic estimate of the sum we expand the cosecants in partial fractions; the result is easily arranged in the form

to D and II'; neither was such symmetry to be expected. Interchange of the two leads to the replacement
log(n/cosh 2H')

4(1 Sg=
i

E1

+ 3

+. +
4n

go(n/
&1

csoh

2H).

2n

1 2n+1 2n+3
1

For the case of quadratic symmetry

FI=II'=-',

log

2" =
whereby

+4N+1 + 1

cot m. /8

&m=o

P(mn+-,')) Q ( ) "(P((m+ 1)n+-', )

the coefficient We find

C/Nk

of log n attains

a maximum.

(2/~)(log cot m/8)'

&&(log n
+1

o(g2"'/~)+Cz

'n)-
(127)

P(z) = I"(z)/I'(z) =log(z

From the given together with

')+0(z-').
,

=0.4945 log m+0. 1879.

asymptotic

estimate

of P(z)

The estimate indicated graPhically by Kramers and Wannier" may be described by the equation

') = P(-,
log~

2 log 2 Cz, Cz 0.577 215 665,

C/Nk=0. 48 log n+0. 21.

(Euler's constant)
APPENDIX

(2244
&1335
r
~

(Wallis' product) =log , 2'

we obtain

S, =(2/x)(log(8N/~)+Cs)+O(n

')

Substitution of the given estimates in (125) yields the asymptotic formula for the specific heat maximum
C/Nk

We shall deal here with the evaluation of various integrals which occur in the text. Most of these can be reduced in straightforward fashion to complete elliptic integrals; only the partition function itself is of a type one step higher than the theta functions, and involves a little analysis which is not found in textbooks.

1. General Notation
One of the main reasons for setting this material apart is that the notation must be specified because there are severa1 systems in common use. We shall adopt the notation used by Whitaker and Watson.

(2/~) [sinh 2H(H'+H sinh 2H')'

)&(log m+1
o(g8n/cosh 2H. ')+Cz)

+sinh 2H(H'

Hsinh

2H')'

2(H'sinh

2H)' gd 2H' 2(Hsinh 2H')'gd 2FIj. (126)

"

The result is not quite symmetrical

T. Whitaker and G. N. Watson, Modern Analysis University Press, 1927), fourth edition, (Cambridge with regaChapters 20 22. Referred to in the following as WW.

"E.

144
Theta Functions

LARS ONSAGER
Elliptic Integrals of the Second Kind

Ihese involve

the following

definitions

and

=P
~&,

relations.
exp (n'sir) cos 2ns,

Z(u)

=8 '6 '(0
7r/2
e

'u)/8 (8 'u),

(sl r) =6p(e)

'm. =8)(e+-, )

F=
p

k' sin' q) ld p (1

expl

(n+-,')'~ir] cos(2n+1)e,

(1.7)
e

=
8(0); 6"=6"(0); (r=2, 3, 4).
Periods, Modulus, Comodulus

( dn'
p

u du = ( A"/8g&3') s /2,

E(u) =Z(u)+(E/K)u=
p

dn'o dv.

2X = 6/m" 6 'm7. , k=sin 8=82/6q', k'=cos 0=84'/6P,

log g = 7rir

2''=

Complete Elliptic Integral of the Third Kind

(1.2

KZ(a)=
p

k'snacnadnasn'u
k' sn' a sn' u) ' du. X (1

= mK'/K.

(1.8)

We shall only have to deal with "natural" cases in which ir is real (not negative); k'(1. The ratio r of the periods 0(k 1; 0 will be specified when necessary. Tables of log q are available.

2. Uniformizing

Substitution

"

Jacobian Elli ptic Functions

= (8g/62) 8g(s)/@4(s), cn(& 's) = (~ /~ )~ (s)l/~ (e) dn(832s) = (84/83) 83(s)/64(z), am u = sin '(sn u) = cos '(cn u).
sn(PPs)

(1.3)

We shall use Glaisher's notation for the quotients of the Jacobian elliptic functions

scu=sn u/cn u;
cn' u+sn'

nd

u=1/dn u; etc. (1.4)

sn'

The trigonometric functions of the angles and sides of a spherical triangle with two fixed parts can always be expressed in terms of single-valued functions by a suitable elliptic substitution. The same is true for hyperbolic (and plane) triangles. In any case the determination of the modulus is suggested by the sine proportion. For the triangle of Fig. 4, with two given sides 2H' and 2H*, the simplest uniformizing substitution depends on which side is longer. For temperatures below the critical point we choose the modulus k, the imaginary parameter ia, and the new variable u as follows

The Functional Relations

u=dn'u+k'

u=1

(1.5)

are important for the unifornsization algebraic functions.

of certain

= ko= sin 00 sinh 2I$%inh 2II' = 1/sinh 2II sinh 2II'(1, am(ia) = am(2iKO'y, ko) = 2iII', am u=5'.
k

'

(2. 1a)

Elliptic Integrals of the First Kind

d(sn u)/du=en
u dn u;

Then the trigonometric, vis. , hyperbolic functions of 6*, b', 2'* and 2H' are given by the formulas

etc.
rp)

u=F(k, am
~

u)

=
0

am u

k' sin' (1

ld

rp,

(1.6)

K(k) = F(k, -', n); K'(k) =K(k').

Four place tables of log g by 5' intervals of the modular angle are given by E. Jahnke and F. Emde, Tables of Functions (B. G. Teubner, Leipzig and Berlin, 1933), second edition, p. 122.

6'=sn u; sin 5*=k sn u cos 5'=cn u; cos b*=dn u tan g'=sinh 2H'= i snia
sin

i k sn ia cot g = sinh 2H* = sec g'=cosh 2H'=cnia cosec g = cosh 2H* = dn ia.

(2.2a)

CR YSTAL STATI STI CS

We are using the abbreviation
modulus and periods given by
'pr g=gd 2II= , gd 2H*

g'=gd 2H';

(2.3)

k&'=cos Oi=coth(H'+H*) tanhIH'

I

Hp
I

for the gudermannian angles, which can often be employed to advantage in numerical computations. For temperatures above the critical point the starred and the primed quantities exchange roles:

= cos(g+g') I/cos(g g') = (1 ko)i(1+ko), = = k~ sin 0& 2 (sinh 2H sinh 2II') &/
(1+sinh 2H sinh 2H'),
Zg (1+kp)Ep, ' (1+kp) Zp' Eg' Zp'/(1+ kg'), ', r. ', r rg pEg /Eg
,

(3 1)

k=kp=sm

O~p=smh 2H'/smh

2II
&1,
(2.1b)

=sinh 2H' sinh

am(ia) =am(2iEp'y,
am
kp)

2'=

=2iH*,

The parameter
ia&

u= 8*
sin

2yiZ&' (1+kp) iap

',

(3.2)

and explicitly

and the variable u~ are given by

5'= k sn u;

cos 6'=dn
tan

I; g'= sinh 2''= ik sn ia

g= cosh

sin 6*=sn I cos 8*=en u

am(iag, kg)
am(ug,

=i(H'+H*), '(B'+5*) kg) =-,

(3.3)

cot g=sinh 2II*= i sn ia 2II'=dn g'=cosh ia sec

cosec

(2 2b)

and the following relations hold

am(Z,

2'*= cn I,.

'~ iIa' H*I, ia, ) =-, 8' 8* = am(E~ u, ) I,

p pr p
I

(3.4)
are

am(ug+iag)

= ', (pr

a-)

The formulas for co and y are the same in the two cases. The abbreviation

ai y)

M=dnia
will be convenient;

dn

I k cn ia cn u
cn u)/M

Here the functions of the double parameter of some interest

sc(2ia~)

then

cosh
sinh

y= (cnia dn u k dn ia ia/3f y = ik" sn

pp

g'), (3.5) nc(2ia~) =nc(4iyZq') =sin(g g'), dc(2$ay) =dc(4'LJEg ) =sin(g+g ).

= sc(4zyZ~') =i cos
(g

cos = (dnia
sin pp=k" sn

cn u k cn ia dn u)/M

(2.4)

u/3L
y are considered

Moreover, when co and functions of u and a

B(o/Bu

as

This substitution shows up the analytic nature of the parameter through the critical point, and (2. 6) is replaced by a simpler equivalent in (3.4). Moreover, formulas valid for all temperatures can be constructed by furnishing a sign for the
comodulus

By/Bu

= By/Ba = k "/M, = Bcu/Ba =ik "k sn ia

sn u/3L

(2.5)

k~" coth(H'+H*) tanh(H'

k, '= Ikg" [;

II*).

(3.6)

The conformal mapping indicated by (2.5) may

That advantage together with the previous usage

of Krarners and Wannier'0 decided the choice of elliptic substitution in the text.

cot

', (a)

iy)= (1+k) sc -, '(u+ia)

nd

'(u+ia)(2. 6), ,

4. Discussion of the Parameter

The imaginary

3. Alternative Substitution
Khile the substitution given above is preferred for most purposes, there are certain advantages to be gained by a Landen transformation to

parameter ia given by (2. 1) as a real elliptic integral of the first kind. For that purpose we use Jacobi's described by the transformation, imaginary
can. be evaluated

LARS ONSAGER
relations

i cs(iu,

k) sn(u, k')

= cn(iu, = dn(iu,

k) cn(u, k') k) cd(u, k')

= 1 (4.1)
by the

and the parameter formula

am (a p, k p')

can be determined

One or the other of the two formulas (4.5) and (4.6) will yield at least 3 significant figures per term of the theta series. When a table of log g is available (a table of complete elliptic integrals will do), it is not necessary to evaluate 8p or 0 ~

= am (2yK p', k p') = gd 2Ii' = g', ap= 2yKp = F(cos Op, g ).

(4.2)

explicitly. As regards the variation of the parameter a with the temperature, we note first of all that
y = ap/2Kp' =a&/2K)'

In tables this elliptic integral is often denoted by can be formulas whereby obtained by Landon transformations, the "elliptic angle" pry is invariant. From (3.4) and (3.5) we obtain, respectively,

F(90' Oo, g'). Alternative

am(a&, cos 0&) = am(2yK&', k&')

= gd(II'+II*), (4.3)
am(2a~, cos O~)

is analytic at the critical point. This is evident from (3.1) and (3.3); the elliptic integrals which determine a& and E&' are analytic functions of cos' O~, which has no singularity there. In this sense the singularities of the various functions at the critical point are completely described by the degeneration of the period parallelogram

= am(4yK~',

k~')

i/r

=K/K'=;
H= J/kT;

(FI'=II*).
with

= o~ g+g'

(4 4)

For extrenie temperatures,

are best deFurther Landen transformations functions. The the of theta scribed by quotients not too for suitable temperatures are following far removed from the critical point

H'= I'/kT

the asymptotic estimates

lim (2y)
F=O

=H'/(H+H') = J'/(J+ J').

lim (2y)

tan' -'O2 sin

r

Oy

= (tan
Bg(2pry
(

g'), 2g tan 2g') **/cos(g

= ',
-.

(4 7)

(4.5a)
can be derived from (2.1). The parameter is an unsymmetrical function of II and II'; the nature of the asymmetry is evident from either of the formulas (4.4) and (4.5c), which involve the double parameter: Interchanging the roles of II and II' replaces y by ~ y, and the parameter iao is replaced by ap). Thus (2. 1a) its elliptic complement i(Kp' have the counterparts and (2.1b)

(cos Op) sn(ap, cos

0.)
sinh
)

4/r)
4/r)

H'

H*(
p~)
~
~

Bo(2 pry

Ii*) cosh(H'+

=
(cos

tan l(g+g'

0.)& sn(2ap,

cos

0.) = V, (4~y 4/. ) a4(4~y

I

4/r)
I

(4 5b)

g') cot(g+") I. =n(g

For teniperatures
point we may take
k

not too close to the critical

am(iK'

~=sin

tan' 0
~

-', Op,

(4.6a)

ia, kp) = am(iKo'(1 2y), ko) 2iH; (H') Ho) 2iH'* (H' & II*).

(4 8)

and the theta series involved in the following will converge formula (imaginary argument)

It

is evident that if

J'(J, we shall

have

rapidly:
ik
r

', a&~K'; y&-,

for all temperatures, quadratic symmetry

(I'&J)

(4.9)

sn( iyK

&',

~(prry k, ) = ia, (~,

2r)
~

and in the special case of

'a

2,) (Ii') II*)

y

y=-',

a=-', K',

(J= J').

(4. 10)

tanh

H';

(H'&H*).
~

(4.6b)
~

This is the reason why the results for that case

~
~

ear

k Y S T A L S 'I' A T I 8 T I C S

can be expressed by the complete integrals and B(k) alone, as given in the text.

E(k)

follows:

S. Reduction of Integrals

Z(iu, k) = dn(iu, k) sc(iu, k) i Z(u, k')

i (s u/2KE')

.(5.2)

By the substitution (2.2), the integrals of (113) For substitution in (113) it is convenient to make use of the function in the text are readily evaluated as complete elliptic integrals. For example, dn ia cs ia Z(iK ia i(7r/2K) Z (ia) (5.3) )=

f
0

cos

8'des

=
0

k" cn

u(dn ia dn u

If

we replace

k cn ia cn u) ' du I by 2E I, the sign

(H'

)H")
I

together with Z{ia); this leads to more symmetrical formulas. The connection between the corresponding functions of real argument is

of cn u is

Z(a, k')+Z(E'

changed; that of dn u is preserved. Accordingly, that part of the integrand which is odd with regard to cn u may be omitted, which yields

a, k') =k"( i) scia ndia

Functions

(5.

4).

6. Derived Thermodynamic

dn'ic sn' cni0, cn' n k cn =k cn vu k' sn'ia sn' u k' sn' ze sn'u 1 1
k

I,

In assembling the terms of the formula (113a) for the energy it is best to deal with the cases II'&H* and 11'&II* separately. The results are

U=
cos 8'dec = 2K(k cn ia

NJ'(8

/BH') log X

k' ds i a Z(ia) );
(H') II').

r3

The other integrals The results are

cos b~d~=
~

(113) are treated similarly.

~

X/BH), (6.1a) X/BII'= coth 2II'(2y+ {2K/s)Z(2yE', k')), log (II' H~ ) (6.1b) 8 log X/OH= coth 2H 2y)E' k')) &&(1 2y+(2E/x)Z((1

XJ(8 log

f
0

2iK(k sn ia coth 2H* Z(ia) coth 2H'), cos 8'des = 2iE(k sn ia coth 2II' Z(ia) coth 2II*),
(5.1)
~

valid for temperatures below the critical point; above the critical point we have instead
8 log X/BH'=coth 2H'

8 log X/BH=coth
&&

2y)K', k')) X (2y (2K/x)Z((1 ) . (6.1c) (H' (II*

2II

(sin b" sin 8'/sinh y)da&

~

(2K/x)Z(2yE', k')) (1 2y

=2(K F)(i/k
sinh2

sn

ia) ,

The energy is continuous

at the critical point because, when u is real Lcf. (5.4)

O=Z(u, k')

2H

sin2 6

coth p

dM

=1 k.

= sinh'

2H*
e

sin' 8' coth y da) = 2iEZ(ia) .

0

For the specific heat we obtain from (113b) and (5.1), in mixed notation valid for all temperatures
C

The mixed notation is designed to throw the distinction between the cases (2.2a) and (2.2b) entirely into the choice of modulus and parameter; so that the formulas (5.1) are equally valid for II'&H* and for II'&H*. The Z function of imaginary argument which enters into (5.1) can be expressed in terms of the tabulated functions of real argument Z(a, k') as

4P

Xk

iKZ(ia) ]

H'
2H')

&sinh

FEZ {iK' ia)

~
( H
L,

sinh

2H)

Z) + 2(E

( snia
]

4i slnh 2H

(HII'

j.

LARS ONSAGF
term is positive. The specific heat is infinite at the critical point, where k=1. This is caused by the factor K; the general case is substantially like the special case of quadratic symmetry treated in the text.

Every

conditions for development in partial fractions qua function of cos(zru/K). The residues (7.3) together with the condition
C

k"=0 (K)+C (K+iK') =k"

the expansion
8

suffice to determine
'7.

The Partition Function

C'(u)

To compute
terms of ~ integral sign

the partition function (106) in and y we first differentiate under the

2K

= (zr
I

&2K)

)z( E
I I

)"n (

X
I

(q" cos(zru/K)

q'")

Ba

md~=
p

I) p

Bp BM (
4

C2M

2q" cos(zru/K) (1

+ q'") )

(7 4)

Ba Bu

BaBu)

The integration
performed,

Integration

by parts yields with the aid of (2.5)

required by (7.1) is readily and the formula (106) of the text

1

f
0

By B(o Bp Bco) + ldu

BaBu BuBQ)

NkT
I

' log(2 sinh 2H)+ =log X=-,

=
-',

2zr. J g

yd
s&

=
~

2K

I0

( (By) + (By/ 2)ldu

2

log (2 sinh 2H)

00

y log q
-'.

EBa)

EBu)

'x / dn' ia dn' u+ 0' cn' ia cn'- u) dzz. k'sn' jg sn'~ 1 ) &p (

).n log ( 1 P (
I

qn+zy)

q" (1

'&)

l. (7.5)

The integral is easily evaluated; then considering that

y(0, u)
for

= cosh '(1) = 0
a

a=0,

we have

Specialization to the case y = ~ yields the formula (119a) of the text, where qP=q. The series of (7.5) converges rapidly except in the immediate neighborhood of the critical point. To obtain an expansion suitable for computation in that region we note from (7.2) that

I (iu) (zru/2KK')i
C(iu)du,

csiu dn iu
k') ns(u, k')Z(u, k')
k'-"

yd(a=2K
e

(7.1)

= 2dc(u,
is a periodic function

4 (u)

k" = 2 dn' u 2 dn

u cs u Z(u)

The function 4 (u) is even and periodic with the period 2X. Its singularities are poles at the points

of with the real period series is easily derived with the aid of the identity

2E'. Its Fourier

u=2mK+niK';
Jacobi's imaginary
yields

(m, n integers;

n/0)
(4.1), (5.2)

k') K(2 dc a ns a Z(a)

K k
0

transformation

(sn(u

a") sn(u

cn(u a) cn(u+a))du +a)

k" +dc(u, 4 (iu) =

Accordingly, residues are

k') ns(u, k')

X (2Z(u, k')+ (zru/KK')).

(7.2)

the poles of 4 (u) are simple; the

R(2mK+niK') = R(niK') = ( ) "nzri/K

(7.3

It

is easily seen that C(u) satisfies the standard

).
I (iu)

from those of the Jacobian elliptic functions. The result is

"

2'' i

7rQ

cs iu dni u

=2I

(, ' " cos((2n+1)zru/K') 2 sinh'((2n+1)zrK/K') . &K')

zr &
I

=o

"W&V, reference 19, 22. 6.

CIC

YSTAL STATI STI CS

8. Critical Data

Moreover,
0u

"
dQ

csiu dn iu

ikl (u log(
""+"

sn 0u))

j. he transrtion condition

temperature

is given

by the

= log(kl

sc(u, k'))

= log cot(iru/2E')
' ' cos((2m+1)iru/Z')

sinh

2II sinh 2H'

+2

" 2s

=sinh(2J/kT) sinh(2J'/O'I')
Then

=1; (I'= T,). (8.1)

(8.2)

(2n+1) sinh((2n+1) irX/X')

v=o;

-'x E ~ E' 2

Termwise integration of the Fourier series yields the alternative for the partition expansion function

xy =a=gal

'x 2II'=-, gd 2II.

I'/NkT

' log(2 = log X = -,

sinh

2')

The formula (6.1) for the energy becomes U. = (2/ )ir(N I' gd 2H' coth 2H'

+ 7rso

+NJ gd

2H'coth 2H)

(8.3)

4(0u)du=y log(2 sinh 2H')

sioh

and the formula (7.6) for the partition simplifies to

function

S) log('2 +(s
1

2El)+2f

log ooS ( s)ds

I/ NkT=l

' 2y) log cot iry os. =-', log 2+(-,

+2
t

" (1+(4n+2) (0ri/r) +Z

& os=0

(4m+ exp[ 2) 0r0/r]) 1)' nh'((2++ (2N+ 1)&0/&)

(y 6)

log cot irsds.

(8.4)

The specific heat becomes infinite; the approxilllate foilllula

The formula

(119b) of the text is obtained by specialization to the ease II'=II; y=~, with 7 =2~ whereby

C/Nk

(4/ir)

(Z(IX+H' sinh 2H)' sinh 2'' 2IIII IP slnh2 2II gQ

H" sinh'2H
where

2'

v/4

log cot x dx= 1

3 ~+$ 2 7 2+

=6

log(4/k')

' [log(4T/ T T, coth 2H+H' log(H

~
~

)
d 2H' )

(8.5)

coth 2II')

'2

KW, reference 19, 22.5, example 3.

is valid for temperatures

near the critical point.