Basic principles of heat treatment Heat treatment of a metal or alloy is a technological procedure, including controlled heating and cooling

operations, conducted for the purpose of changing the alloy microstructure and resulting in achieving required properties. There are two general objectives of heat treatment: hardening and annealing. Hardening Hardening is a process of increasing the metal hardness, strength, toughness, fatigue resistance.

Strain hardening (work hardening) strengthening by cold-work (cold plastic deformation).

Cold plastic deformation causes increase of concentration of dislocations, which mutually entangle one another, making further dislocation motion difficult and therefore resisting the deformation or increasing the metal strength.

Grain size strengthening (hardening) strengthening by grain refining.

Grain boundaries serve as barriers to dislocations, raising the stress required to cause plastic deformation.

Solid solution hardening strengthening by dissolving an alloying element.

Atoms of solute element distort the crystal lattice, resisting the dislocations motion. Interstitial elements are more effective in solid solution hardening, than substitution elements.

Dispersion strengthening strengthening by addition of second phase into metal matrix.

The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the material strength. The strengthening effect may be significant if fine hard particles are added to a soft ductile matrix (composite materials).

Hardening as a result of Spinodal decomposition. Spinodal structure is characterized by strains on the coherent boundaries between the spinodal phases causing hardening of the alloy.

Precipitation hardening (age hardening) strengthening by precipitation of fine particles of a second phase from a supersaturated solid solution.

The second phase boundaries resist the dislocations motions, increasing the material strength. The age hardening mechanism in Al-Cu alloys may be illustrated by the phase diagram of Al-Cu system (see figure below) When an alloy Al-3%Cu is heated up to the temperature TM, all CuAl2 particles are dissolved and the alloy exists in form of single phase solid solution (-phase). This operation is called solution treatment. Slow cooling of the alloy will cause formation of relatively coarse particles of CuAl2 intermetallic phase, starting from the temperature TN. However if the the cooling rate is high (quenching), solid solution will retain even at room temperature TF. Solid solution in this non-equilibrium state is called supersaturated solid solution. Obtaining of supersaturated solid solution is possible when cooling is considerably faster, than diffusion processes. As the diffusion coefficient is strongly dependent on the temperature, the precipitation of CuAl2 from supersaturated solution is much faster at elevated temperatures (lower than TN).This process is called artificial aging. It takes usually a time from several hours to one day. When the aging is conducted at the room temperature, it is called natural aging. Natural aging takes several days or more. Precipitation from supersaturated solid solution occurred in several steps:

Segregation of Cu atoms into plane clusters. These clusters are called Guinier-Preston1 zones (G-P1 zones). Diffusion of Cu atoms to the G-P1 zones and formation larger clusters, called GP2 zones or phase. This phase is coherent with the matrix . Formation of phase which is partially coherent with the matrix. This phase provides maximum hardening.

Annealing Annealing is a heat treatment procedure involving heating the alloy and holding it at a certain temperature (annealing temperature), followed by controlled cooling. Annealing results in relief of internal stresses, softening, chemical homogenizing and transformation of the grain structure into more stable state.

Annealing stages:

Stress relief (recovery) a relatively low temperature process of reducing internal mechanical stresses, caused by cold-work, casting or welding.

During this process atoms move to more stable positions in the crystal lattice. Vacancies and interstitial defects are eliminated and some dislocations are annihilated. Recovery heat treatment is used mainly for preventing stress-corrosion cracking and decreasing distortions, caused by internal stresses.

Recrystallization alteration of the grain structure of the metal.

If the alloy reaches a particular temperature (recrystallization or annealing temperature) new grains start to grow from the nuclei formed in the cold worked metal. The new grains absorb imperfections and distortions caused by cold deformation. The grains are equi-axed and independent to the old grain structure. As a result of recrystallization mechanical properties (strength, ductility) of the alloy return to the precold-work level. The annealing temperature and the new grains size are dependent on the degree of cold-work which has been conducted. The more the cold-work degree, the lower the annealing temperature and the fine recrystallization grain structure. Low degrees of cold-work (less than 5%) may cause formation of large grains. Usually the annealing temperature of metals is between one-third to one-half of the freezing point measured in Kelvin (absolute) temperature scale.

Grain growth (over-annealing, secondary recrystallization) growth of the new grains at the expense of their neighbors, occurring at temperature, above the recrystallization temperature.

This process results in coarsening grain structure and is undesirable. Furnaces for heat treatment Batch furnaces

Car bottom furnace

Furnaces of this type have a movable bottom (car). The car goes out of the furnace and may be loaded or unloaded with treated parts. The heating method may be either electric resistance or fuel/gas. Car bottom furnaces are suitable for various heat treatment operations of large and heavy parts.

Bell type furnace

Furnaces of this type have a movable vertically heating bell and a stationary bottom with the treated parts. The heating method may be either electric resistance or fuel/gas. Bell type furnaces are suitable for coiled strip annealing and other heat treatments including operations in controllable atmosphere.

Vertical pit furnace

Furnaces of this type are used for heat treatment of shaft like parts (generator rotors, steam turbine rotors) which are loaded vertically through the top of the furnace. The heating method may be either electric resistance or fuel/gas. Continuous furnaces

Belt furnace

Furnaces of this type have a mesh belt conveyor moving through a long tube like furnace. The heating method may be either electric (resistance or induction) or fuel/gas. Belt furnaces are suitable for heat treatment of relatively small parts.

Roller furnace

Furnaces of this type have heat resistant steel rollers moving the parts through a long tube like furnace. The heating method may be either electric or fuel/gas. Roller furnaces are suitable for heat treatment of sheets, tubes and other long parts.

Pusher furnace

Furnaces of this type have a pusher located at the furnace end and moving the parts through the furnace. The heating method may be either electric or fuel/gas. Pusher furnaces are generally used for heating parts before hot deformation.

Continuous strip annealing furnace

Coled rolled strip in uncoiled state passes through the long tube like or looped furnace with controlled reducing atmospere (commonly a mixture of Hydrogen and Nitrogen) preventing oxidation of the steel surface.

The heating method may be either electric or fuel/gas. Salt bath heat treatment Salt bath heat treatment is a heat treatment process comprising an immersion of the treated part into a molten salt (or salts mixture).

Benefits of heat treatment in salt baths Compositions of salt baths Heat treatments conducted in salt baths

Benefits of heat treatment in salt baths

Fast heating. A work part immersed into a molten salt is heated by heat transferred by conduction (combined with convection) through the liquid media (salt bath). The heat transfer rate in a liquid media is much greater than that in other heating mechanisms: radiation, convection through a gas (e.g., air). Controlled cooling conditions during quenching. In conventional quenching operation either water or oil are used as the quenching media. High cooling rate provided by water/oil may cause cracks and distortions. Cooling in molten salt is slower and stops at lower temperature. Low surface oxidation and decarburization. The contact of the hot work part with the atmosphere is minimized when the part is treated in the salt bath.

Compositions of salt baths No. Composition Approximate melting poing Work temperature range NaOH 75% 1 KOH 19% 284F (140C) 320-752F (160-280C) H2O 6% KOH 50-60%% 2 572-752F (300-400C) NaOH 50-40% 3 KNO3 100% 639F (337C) 662-930F (350-500C) KNO3 50-60% 4 275F (135C) 320-1022F (160-550C) NaNO2 50-40% NaNO3 50-60% 5 293F (145C) 311-932F (150-500C) NaNO2 50-40% KNO3 50-60% 6 437F (225C) 500-1112F (260-600C) NaNO3 50-40% 7 NaNO3 100% 698F (370C) 752-1110F (400-600C) NaCl 10-15% KCl 20-30% 8 752F (400C) 932-1472F (500-800C) BaCl2 40-50% CaCl2 15-20% NaCO3 45-55% 9 842F (450C) 1022-1652F (550-900C) KCl 55-45% BaCl2 50% 10 1004F (540C) 1058-1652F (570-900C) KCl2 30%

NaCl 20% BaCl2 70-96% 11 1112-1472F (600-800C) NaCl 30-4%

1292-2282F (700-1250C)

to top Heat treatments conducted in salt baths

Quenching of steels. Quenching is rapid cooling from the temperature above A3 (upper critical temperature). Relatively slow cooling rate provided by molten salts prevents the work part from cracking and distortion. Austempering. Austempering is the isothermal hardening method in which a part is quenched in a quenching medium (molten salt) and is left in it reaching uniform temperature distribution. The part is removed from the quenching medium after the complete bainite formation. Tha austempering temperature range is 400-750F (204-399C). Nitrate salts No. 4-6 are used for austempering treatment. Martempering. Martempering is the isothermal hardening method in which a part is quenched in a quenching medium (molten salt) and is left in it reaching uniform temperature distribution. The part is removed from the quenching medium before the bainite formation. Martempering is performed at a temperature above the the temperature of martensite formation (austenitemartensite transformation), which is 400-480F (200-250C). Nitrate salts No. 4-6 are used for martempering treatment of most alloys. Sodium nitrate (No.7) a potassium nitrate (No.3) are used for martempering tool steels (hot-work and high speed steel). Hardening. Hardening is performed at 1400-2300F (760-1260C) in chloride salts (No.8-11). Nitriding. Liquid nitriding is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with Nitrogen provided by a molten cyanide base salt (extremely toxic substance). The process is carried out at the temperatures 950-1075F (510-580C) for about 4 hour. Carbonitriding. Liquid carbonitriding is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with carbon and nitrogen provided by a molten salt containing 20-25% of sodium cyanide (extremely toxic substance). The process is carried out at the temperatures 1500-1580F (820-860C). Carburizing. Liquid carburizing is the process of diffusion enrichment of the surface layer of a part with carbon provided by a molten salt containing 10-25% of sodium cyanide (extremely toxic substance). The process is carried out at the temperatures 1562-1742F (850-950C). Solution treatment of Aluminum alloys. Solution treatment is the operation of heating the work park to a temperature at which the hardening second phase particles dissolve in the matrix. Solution treatment of heat treatable aluminum alloys is carried out at 900-1025F (482-551C). Fast solution heat treatment may be achieved by heating an aluminum alloy part in a molten salt bath. Nitrate salts No.4,5,6 are used for solution treatment of aluminum alloys. Deep brazing. Brazing is a method of joining two metal work pieces by means of a filler material at a temperature above its melting point but below the melting point of either of the materials being joined. Dip brazing is a brazing method in which the work pieces together with the filler metal are immersed into a bath with a molten salt. The filler material melts and flows into the joint. Chloride salts with addition of reactive agents are used for deep brazing. Cleaning. Polymeric contamination on metal parts surfaces may be effectively removed by immersion of the part into a molten salt. Polymers decompose and burn at the temperature of the molten salt. Mixtures of hydroxides and nitrates at a temperature within 650-950F (343-510C) are used for cleaning operation.