DUKE

UNIVERSITY LIBRARY

FRANK BAKER COLLECTION

OF

WESLEYANA
AND

BRITISH METHODISM

NEW EXPERIMENTS
o N

ELECTRICITY.
W
THE CAUSES OF
AS

R E

THUNDER

AND

LIGHTNING

WELL

AS

THE CONSTANT STATE OF

Pofitive or negative Eledricity in the Air

or

Clouds, are explained^

WITH
Experiments on Clouds of

Powders
IN

and

Vapours
AIR.

ARTIFICIALLY DIFFUSED

THE

ALSO

DESCRIPTION OF A DOUBLER of ELECTRICITY,

A
AND OF THE MOST

SENSIBLE

ELECTROMETER YET CONSTRUCTED.

WITH OTHER

New

Experiments and Difcoverles

in the Science,

ILLUSTRATED BY EXPLANATORY PLATES.

By

the

Rev.
Curate of

A.

B E

NN

E T,

F. R. S.

Wirksworth,

Derhyjbire,

DERBY
PRINTF.n BY JOHN DR EWR Y.

M,DCC,I.XXXrx.

Digitized by the Internet Archive

in

2011 with funding from

University Libraries

Duke

http://www.archive.org/details/newexperimentsonOObenn

TO THE

REVEREND
Dr.

RICHARD KAYE,

F. R.

S. 6c

F.

S.

A.

DEAN OF LINCOLN,
AND

TRUSTEE
OF THE

BRITISH MUSEUM,
THIS

WORK
IS

DEDICATED,

BY
HIS OBLIGED

HUMBLE SERVANT

ABRAHAM BENNET,

nTHE AUTHOR
and

takes this

opportunity of ex-

prejjing his moji Jincere thanks to his fuhfcribers^

efpecially to the following ladies
liberally

and gentlemen who

have

encouraged his work^ and recommended

it to their

numerous and refpeiable friends.

Mr. ADAMS, MATHEMATICAL INSTRUMENT MAKER TO

Sir

HIS

MAJXSTY, ANJ>

OPTICIAN TO HIS ROYAI. HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES.

JOSEPH BANKS,

Baronet, F. R. S.

Mr. G. BLADON. Mr. J. CHATTERTON.

ERASMUS DARWIN, M.D.

Mr. FOX, Surgeon. PHILIP CELL, Efq.
Mrs.

F.R.S.

THE REV. THE DEAN OF LINCOLN.

CELL. GELL. PHILIP GELL, Efq. Wirkhvortii. Rev. Mr. GREVILLE.
Captain

CHARLES HURT,
Mr.
Mifs

Efq.

JACKSON.
JONES.
Efq.

SAMUEL LANKFORD,
Mr.

MORE,

Sec. S.

A.

THOMAS PERCIVAL,
J.

M. D.

F. R. S.

H. PIGOT, M. D.

Rev.

JOSEPH PRIESTLY, LL. D.

F. R. S.

5:c.

Mr. Mr.

JOHN SOUTHERN. WILLIAM STRUTT,

Jun.

JOSIAH

WEDGWOOD, Efq.

F.R.S.&F./i.S.

LIST

LIST
A.

OF

SUBSCRIBERS.
Mr. Brant.
John Blackburne, Efq. M. P.

Rev. Mr. Achefon. Mr. James Adam. Rev. Dr. Adamchwaite. Dr. Aldrich.

Mr.

Allen.

Sir John Anftruther, Bart. Sir Richard Arkwright.

Mifs Arnold. Francis Afliby, Efq. Mr. William Atkinfon. Mr. Ifaac Atkinfon. Alexander Aubert,Efq. F. R. S. and F. 8. A.
B.

T. P. Bonnell, Efq. Mr. Burman, Surgeon. Mr. Brock. M,. Brigham. Mr. Boot. Mr. Johh Beaumont. Mr. Jofeph Boden. Mr. John Birtles.
Dr. Blagden, Sec. R. S. R. H. A. Bennet, Efq.

Mr. A. B. Mr. John Bailey.

Jof. Bainbridgc, Efq.

Mr. Blount, Surgeon. Mr. Brooke. Rev. Thomas Bingham. Mr. F. Burton. Mr. William Bakewell. Mr. Biddulph. Mr. H. Brown.
Rev.
Blackwall, M. A. Francis Bradfhaw, Efq. Mr. Beaumont, Surgeon.

Wm.

Barr, Surgeon. John Barker, Efq.

Mr.

Thomas

Barker, Efq.

Mr. Barker. Mr. H. Barlow.

John Barnard, Efq. Rev. Benj. Barnard.

Mr. Miles Barnard. Rev. T. Barnes, D. D.

Sir Brooke Boothby, Bart.

Right Hon. Lord G. Cavendifh Henry Cavendifli, Efq. F.R.S. Rt. Hon. Lady Ann Margaret
Coventry.

Rev. William Becher, B. D. Mrs. Becher. Sir Richard Brooke, Bart.

Rev. Archdeacon Clive. Mrs. Clive.

Lady

Sir Fofter Cunliffe, Bart. Cunliffe.

Lady Brooke.
Brooke, Efq. M.P. Mrs. Brooke. Mifs Bird Matthew Boulton, Efq. F.R.S. Mr. Matt. Robinfon Boulton. Mr. Beard. Rev. Theophilus Buckeridge, Principal Surrogate of the Diocefe of Lichfield. Rev. Charles Buckeridge. Mr. Ch. Broad. J. Buxton, Efq, Brooke Boothby, Efq. Mr. John Birch.

Thomas

Dr. Crompton. Mr. John Cox. Rev. James Hadley Cox. Mifs Cox. Mifs J. Cox. Mr. William Cantrell. Samuel Crompton, Efq.

Mr. Peter Clare. Mr. Samuel Cooper.

Thomas

Charleton, Efq.

Rev, Mr. Chapman. James Chadwick, Efq.

Mr. Caldwell.
Rev. Benjamin Clay, Mr. Cropper.

M. A.
Rev.

LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
Rev. Mr. Cuffon. Rev. James Cooke. Robert Cheney, Efq. Mr. Clapham. Rev. T. Clarke.

Mr. Hollis Clay. Mr. Cockfhutt. Rev. D'Ewes Coke. Mr. Clarke.

Mr. Edward Fox. Mr. William Fox. T. Ferriar, M. D. Mr. Robinfon Foxley. Mr. Field. Mr. John Fell, Surgeon. Mr. Chrift. Fuller, Attorney. Rev. Mr. Freeman. Mr. W. Frankland.
Mifs Fletcher. Samuel Frith, Efq.

D.
His Grace the Duke of Devonfhire.

G.
Samuel Galton, Efq. F. R. S. Sam. Galton,jun. Efq. F.R.S.

Alexander Dalrymple, Efqulre, F. R. S. F. S. A. Ac. R.

Sc.

Holm. Soc.

Mr. Goodwin, Surgeon.

Mrs. Goodwin. Robert Grimfhavv, Efq. Thomas Gould, Efq.

C. Dagfon, Efq,

Mr. Jennings, Deritend.

Mrs. Darwin.

Mr. Darwin, Attorney. Mrs. Dawfon. Mr. Thomas Dobbs. Mr. John Dovafton. Rev. Mr. Darwall. Mr. William Dobinfon.
C. Davies, Efq.

Mr. Thomas Mr.

Gell.

Robert Greaves, Efq. Mrs. E. Grimfhavv.

Gill, Jun. Attorney.

William Dewis, Efq. Mr. Thomas Dicken, Jun,

E.

Right Hon. Henry Grattan. Rev. Edmund Gregory, M. A. Mrs. Temperance GsJl. Mrs. Gould.

Mr. Graham. Mr. F. Geaft.

The Hon. & Right Rev. Lord

BirtiopofEly.

George Errington, Efq. T. W. Edge, Efq. Mrs. Edge. Dr. Eafon.

Francis Evans, Efq. Mr. John Eginton. Mr. Francis Eginton.

Mr. William Evans. Mr. Elliot.

Right Hon. Lord Harrington. Right Hon. Lady Harrington. Sir Henry Harpur, Bart. Lady Frances Harpur. Henry Harpur, Efq. John Hatfell, Efq. Mr. James ilatfcll. Mr. Hands. Mrs. Hands. Robert Holden, Efq. Mr. Hadley, Surgeon.

Mr. Haden, Surgeon.

His Royal Highnefs Ferdinand Archduke of Aullria, Governor of Milan, &c. Sir William Fitzherbert.
Francis Hurt, Efq. Mann Horsfield, Efq.

Dr. Hunter. Rev. John Le Hunt.

Lady Fitzherbert. Mr. Finch.

Richard French, Efq. Samuel Fox, Efq.

T. H. Hodges I'^fq. Mr. Thomas Henry, F. R. Mr. Cli. Hey wood. Mr. Rich. Hall, Surgeon. Mr. Thomas Hadficld.

S.

Rev.

LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
Rev. Bcnj. Holland.

John Leacroft, Efq.

Mr. William Harrifon, Surgeon Mr. Jof. Hart. Mr. John Holmes. Rev. George Holcombc.
Rev. William Hodfon, Fellow ofTrin. Coll. Cambridge. Rev. Chrift. Hunter, Fellow of Sidney Coll. ^Cambridge. Mr. Horrocks, Attorney. Mrs. Hurt,, fen. Mr. Harding. Mr. John Hunt. Rev. Mr. Hurft.

Mr. Thomas Lomas. Mr. J. A. de Luc.

John Loyd, of Hofoclunos, F. R. S.iF. A. S. Mr. Sampfon Lloyd, Jun. Mils Sarah Longden. Rev. C. Laurence.

Mr.

Lattufiere.

M.
Edward Mundy,
F.

Efq.

M.

P.

Rev. Mr. Holmes. Mrs. Hopkinfon. Rev. Mr. Hudfon.

Right Hon. Lady Middleton.

N. C. Mundy, Efq.

Mrs. Mundy.
Francis

Mr. Holland. Mr. James Hulme.

Mr.JofephHall. Rev. E. Heathcote. Mr. Heberden. C. G. Hudfon, Efq. Rev. C. S. Hope.
ISc ].

Mundy, Jun.

Efq,

Mr.

Ince, Attorney.

William Johnfo^^, Efq. Dr. Johnlon. R. A. Johnfon, Efq. F.R.S. Mrs. Johnfon. Mifs Johnfon.

Mr. P. Johnfon. Mr. James Jones.

Mr, Auguftus Jackfon. Nathan Jackfon, Efq.

K.
tames Keir, Efq. F.

S.

Mr. Thonias Kerfhavv.

L.

Maior-General James Murray. Sir William Mufgrave, Bart. Mr, Mofcati, General Direftor of the Hofpitals at Milan. William Milnes, Efq. Rev. Mr. Moore. R.ev. John Moore, Mrs. Moore. Rev. Thomas Manlove, Rev, S. Murthwaite. Mr. Macniven. John Mitchel, M. D. ivlr. Richard Marriot. Samuel Martin, Efq. William Middlcmore, Efa. Mr. William Matthews. Mr. William Mott, Dep. Reg.. and Proctor. Richard Molefworth, Efquire, F. R. S. & F. A. S. Wm. Marfden, Efq, F. R. S. and F. A. S. FiCC-Mafon's Lodges, No. 47, and No. 189, Macclesfield. Mr. R. Mather.

N.
Chevalier Landriani. Shcrbrooke Lowe, Efq.

Mr. John Little. Mr. Penny Lloyd. Robert Lowe, Efq. Mrs. R. Lowe. Mr. Leaper, Attorney. Mr. Locket, Attorney. Edward Leacroft, Efq.

His Grace the Duke of Northumberland.

Mr. Nairne,

F.

R.

S.

John Need, Efq, Richard Norman, Efq. Mrs. Norman. Robert Newton, Efq.
S.

W.

Nicoll, Efq.

The

LIST OF SUBSCRIBERS.
O.
Mifs Sutton, Rev. T. Salmon.
Oliver.

The Honourable Mr.

goons,

Mr, Stanley.
Philofophical Society, Derby. Union Society, Derby. Book Society, Derby.

John Ofborne, Eiq. Mr. Oglc> King's Light Dra-

New
His Graee the Duke of Portland.

Society,

Nottingham.

Univerfity of Pavia. Rev. William Pickering. Rev. Edward Pole.

Mr. George Philips. Mr. Polehill, King's Light

Dragoons.

T. B. Parkyns, Efq. Mr. Partington. Mr. Parkinfon, Surgeon. Mr. Pratt.

Sacheverell Pole, Efq. Meflrs. Pcarfon and Rollafon,
Printers.

Jedediah Strutt, Efq. Mr. V/illiam Strutt. Mr. Stevenlon, Surgeon. Mr. James Simpfon, Attorney, E. S. Sitwell, Efq. Robert Shuttleworth, Efq. Rev. Charles Shuttleworth, Mr. John Simpfon. Mr. Samuel Simpfon. William Sherbrooke, Efq. Mifs Coape Sherbrooke. Samuel Smith, Efq. George Smith, Efq. Mr. John Snape. Mifs'Stamford,
Caitcl Sherwood, Efq. William Sheldon, Elq. Mr. Robert Small. Mr. William Sherwin.

Mr. Jofeoh

Prieftley.

Richard Pcarfon, M. D. Rev. Nathaniel Philips. Rev. R. Peryn, M. A.

Henry

Sykes, Efq.

e. A. Quift, Efq.

R.
Right Hon. Lord Rawdon. Lieutenant-GeneralRainsford. Hayman Rooke, Efq. F. S. A. Mr. Edward Rigby.

William Tillard, Efq. Mrs. Tillard. Mifs Tillard. Rev. Richard Tillard, Mr. JohnThackcr. John Topham, Efq. F. R, John Toplis, Efq.

S.

Mr. H. Richardfon, Jun.

George Robinfon, Efq.

Mr. Henry Travis. Mr. Tibfon, Mr. Toonc. Rev. Robert Thorp.
R^. Vv'.

Mr. Radford, Surgeon.

Charles Roe, Efq.

Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr.

Difney Thorp, M. D. Gervafe Thorp. Twemlow, Surgeon. Taylor, Surgeon. Trevor.

S.

Right Hon. Earl of Scarborough Richard Smallbrooke, LL.D.

Chancellor of the Diocefe of Lichfield and Coventry-

v&u.
Mr. Volta,
Profeffor of Nat. and Exp. Philofophy. Charles Upton, Efq. Right

Mrs. Sherbrooke.

LIST OF SUBSCIBERS.

W.
Right Hon. Lord Willoughby de Broke. Right Hon. Lady Willoughby
de Broke.

Mifs Wright. Mifs Ann Wright. Mifs S. Wright. Mifs Lucy Wright. Ichabod Wright, Efq.

George Wyndham, Efq.

Efq.

Wm. Wilberforce,

M.

P.

Mifs

Wyndham.

Mrs. Wilberforce. Mifs Wilberforce. James Watt, Efq. F. R. S. Sec. Mr. James Watt. \Y. Withering, M.D. F.R.S. Sir John Warren, Bart. Rev. W. U. Wray, M. A. Mr. Cecil Bromley Wray. Mifs Webb. Mr. George Whceldon. Rev. Robert Wilmot. Rev. John Ward. Charles White, Efq.

Mr. Ch. Wyat. Mr. Th. Willmore, Jun. Mr. Robert Weir.
Mrs.

W.

Whitaker.

Mr. John Walker. Mr. Thomas Wheeldon.

Paul Webller, Efq. Mr. WoUey, Attorney. Mr. Ward, Attorney. Rev. Mr. Willey.

John Wightwick, Efq. Dr. Wilfon. Mr. William Wilfon.

Mr. Wynne. Mr. Edmund Wheeldon. Snowden White, M. D. Rev. G. Walker.

John Wright, Efq.

Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr. Mr.

Worral.
S.

Woodford.

Wilfon.

George Wilkinfon. John Wilcockfon.

Thomas Wright,

Efq.

Captain Wright, King's Light Dragoon?, John Wright, Jun. Efq. Mr. Wright. Mrs. H.Wright,

Mr. Nicholas Yarburgh, Mr. W. Young.

CONTENTS,

CONTENTS.
Introdu^ion,
containing a flicrt theory of elelricity.

SECTION
Defcription of a gold leaf ehBrometer.
Slips

I.

of tinfoil increafe the fenfbility of the eleSlromeKr,

off the influence

Exp.

sups of tinfoil take

of

the cap.

Exp.

2.

SECTION
Poxvdered chalk
blo-zvn

II.

upon the ele5Irometer.

Some of its
Experiment

varieties explained
to Jheiu the effeii
brufl?.

Exp.

to

"j

Exp.

of influential atmofpheres.
_ .

Exp. 8
Exp. 9

Chalk projeSled from a

The brujh

electrified contrary to the

cloud of poi-vder.

Exp. 10

EleQrometer charged poftively by the influence of a negative cloud of po-uoder.

^ ^

Exp.

II

Chalk and
jill

dufl

proje8ed fe^veral u-ays.

Exp.

12^13

poxvders negative except flour, oatmeal

eleSlricity

and minium. Exp. 14

Exp. 15/5 17 Exp. 18
ivould

The

ofpoiuders not oiving tofritilion.

eleSlrifcd

Chalk fnoreftrongly

than flour.

Flame colleils

eleflricity in circumflances

nvhere
-

it

not otherivije become fenfihle.

Exp. 20

to

24

PoftiiJe

and negative

ele^ricity

produced by evapmation
-

in fc'TJeral nenju methods.

Exp. 26/030 Exp.

.

Atmcfpheric

eleclricity collelled by
-

a Lantern.
_
-

31 /o ^2

By

vjatci' fpouted upiuards.

-Tx-ithcut

Exp.
Exp.

3-^

Heat

effiwvium does net diflipate eleSlricity.

too

Charge of the gold leaf eleiiroTueter

fmall
edges.

to
-

bt

diffl-

pated by the jharpeft points or

Exp. 36

to

38

SECTION
Foivderd chalk
'vqaySf

111.
eleSlrcJ'Loyus.

Neiv experiments luith M. Lichtenhurg' s large

projeil<d
-

.--...A
3

upon the flgures in various

Exp.

to

zi.

Miniutn

vl.

CONTENTS.
are feparately attraSIed by
-

Minium and fulphur mixed

pofitive

and negative figures.

-

Exp. 22.

Ramifications

and fioades explained

Exp. 23/0 27. Exp. 28.

Exp. 20. Exp. 30.
-

The figures

indelibly fixed on fealing ivax.

The figures taken

off on paper t leather,

callico,
-

cr linen.

The figures fixed

on porcelain.

The figures prefernjed by framing

the eleSirophorus.
.

Exp.

More

njoays

of varying the figures.

A convenient box for projedingponuders ivithout

An
eledricalpen.
circles

-----conveniently.
_

Exp.32?5 35. Exp. 36. lofs.

Exp. 37. Exp. 38.
Exp. 40.

To make

and other figures more

_

Imitation of Fairy rings

SECTION
Both fiates of eleSlricity in one experiment.
Green vegetables burnt.
-

IV.

Eledricity excited by evaporation.

-

Exp.

i,

Several metals heated and plunged in vjater.

Exp.

to \o.

Dry

a.vood,

hay and cinders.

oil

...
-

Exp. 11.

Exp. 12/0 15.

Salts,

acids,

and

viater.

Exp. 16/0 22.

Exp. 23
to

Various fubfiances dropped upon a hot iron.

46.

Upon Bell metal.

Exp. 47

/o 4b'.

A more convenient
were tried.

iron, voith
-

vjhich more fubfiances

-

The afcending vapours examined,

Exp. 49 to 63. Exp. 64/070.

E C

O N

V.

Defcripiion of a doubler of eledricity.

SECTION
Improvements of the doubler.

VI.

A convenient method of depriving the doubler of

The plates of the revolving
vohen touched in a parallel pofition.
-

its

charge.

doubler abforb more eleLiricity

-

Exp.
Exp.

1^2.
3 to 6.

XJninfulated approximating plates of different fubfiances

abforb

elei^ricity,

The

CONTENTS.
The
condenfer in its original Ji ate produces a Jlrong fpontaneotts

vii.

charge of eleSlricity,

Exp.

7,

SECTION
By
the double contaSi
ore

VII.

Experiments on adhejive ele^ricity.

of hardenedJieel and foft

-

iron,

Exp.

?if

z.
i.

Lead

and lead,
iron ivire,
iron 'Wire,
'vjire.

.
-

Table
-

Lead and

Lead ore and

...
. .

Table
Table
Table

2.

3.

tinfoil and iron

4.
5.

Zinc and iron

--wire,

,
-

Table

By fingle
Lead

contaSi of lead ore andzi?ic alternately.

to

Table 6.
Table 7, Table 8.

Zinc applied

B feparately. ore applied to A and B feparately,

and
douhler,

Suggef ions for impro'ving the accuracy of the revol'ving

Adhejive eleSricity explains the excitation of rubbed

eleilrics,

SECTION
AJhort theory of atmofpheric
eleSir icily.

VIII.

Defcription of a con'venient apparatus for obfernjing the

Jiate of atmofpheric eleSlricity
in
all forts

of

iveather.

Convulfve motion of the gold leaf eleiirometer,

ed by a thunder cloud.
Pojitive
-

occajion-

Obf.
2

1.

and

negatinje Jiate

ofJho^wers.
1

Obf.

5.

A thunder cloud <^hich caufed

in the fpace of an hour

o changes of
half.
.
-

eleSlricity

and a
-

Obf. 6.

Clouds and rain,

Serene fky,
-

Obf. 7/012.
-

Clouds and rain.

Mif.
Thundercloud.

...
-

Obf. 13,
Obf. 14/016.
-

Obf. 17,

_
-

Obf
Obf
ig
to to

18.
zi,

Rain and

mijl,

Snoiu, mifl
Sleet

and rain.
-

Obf. 22

25.

and rain.

Obf. 26

^ 27.
Snoiv

viii.

CONTENTS.
-

Snoiu.

Obf. 28.

Miji, fnonx) andjliet.

Obf, 29 /031.
-

Wind and hail.

Thunder
cloud.

Obf. 32
-

33.

Obf. 34.

Serene iveather-

.
-

Obf. 35^038.
Obf. 39.
-

Heavy Jhoxver luhoUy pojitivt,

Experiment in dry air,
-

Obf. 40.

Thundercloud.

Obf
Obf.
-

41.

Aurora

Eorealis.

42^43.
Obf. 44.

Ten changes of tle^ricity during a Jhoiuer* A fevere fl}ock from a kite firing.
Aurora
Eorealis.
-

Obf 45.
Obf. 46.
tff

Several clouds pofttive and negative luithout rain, Obf. 48

49.

Snow,

Obf. 50.

INTRODUCTION.

ix.

INTRODUCTION.

BY
I ft.

the

defire

of fome of

my

friends

am

induced to prefix a concife theory of Eledri-

city, that the reader

may more

eafily

comprehend
fubtle

the intention and ufeof the following experiments.

Eledricity

is

an extremely

fluid,

which pervades metals with aftonifhing

alfo

facility.

It

pervades water,

moift vegetables,

animals,

and many other fubftances more imperfedly.

fubftances
ductors.
are

Thefe
and

termed perfed and imperfed: conglafs,

filk,
oil,

But amber,

dry

air,

fome other bodies are impervious to the

fluid
-,

eledlrical

and becaufe

when rubbed they (hewed

it

figns

of eledricity adhering to them,

fed, that they
eledlricity,

was once fuppo-

were the only bodies which contained

eledlrics.

and were therefore termed

are

That fome bodies

eledlrics or

conductors and others

non-condudlors does not appear to de;

pend on

their fpecific gravity

for gold

is

the beft
,

condu(5lor,
air,

and of the greateft

is

fpecific gravity

and

which

fo
is

much
a

lefs

denfe, does not condu6l-,

lighter than

but charcoal
glafs,

good condudor, and

It is

which
this

is

an eledric.

not improbable the chemical

but that
affinity

property

may depend on

of

their

component

parts with the eledlrical

their

fluid.

If eledrics are fuppofed to have in

compofition a large quantity of fixed eledricity as

Hmeilone contains fixed

air,

they

may

be impervi-

ous

X.

INTRODUCTION.
it,

ous to any additional quantity of

faturated.

becaufe already

2dly. Eledricity adheres to the

trics

furface of elec-

much more

ftrongly than to the furface of

condudtors, and hence

when two fuch

fubftances

are rubbed together, part of the natural quantity of

fluid

belonging to the conductor adheres to the

elecftric.

Without

this

property of electricity

its

exiftence
firft

might never have been difcovered,

eleftrics

but

on rubbing amber and then other

effedls

fome

of its

were obferved, and after gradual imelectrical

provements the prefent

machines were

conftru6led, and various other difcoveries made.

3dly. Eledricity
it
is

a very elaftic fluid, fo that

may

be condenfed or accumulated upon any fub-

fl:ance,

whofe connection with the earth

interpofltion of an eledlric.
Electricity,

is
is

cut

ofl^

by the

This

termed

infulation.

thus

accumulated, repels
air,

the natural eleCtricity of the furrounding

dif-

poflng
trical

it

to recede,

which

is

then termed an elec-

atmofphere, whofe denflty according to the

demonftration of the Earl of Stanhope, in his learned

principles of eleCtricity
ratio
is

proved to be

in the inverfe

of the fquare of the diftance.

accumulation of eleCtricity which difpofes
is

An

that of the furrounding air to be repelled

termed

a pofitive eleCtrical atmofphere.

infulated

But

if the

fame of

body be deprived of
it

its

natural quantity

this fluid,

difpofes the furrounding air to

abforb

more

eleCtricity,
is

and

this

alfo

produces an atmof-

phere which

termed negative.
If

INTRODUCTION.
be brought within an
eledlrical

xi.

If light condudling fubftances as bits of gold leaf

atmofphere, they be-

come

attracted towards the eledrified

body

for the

denfity of the electrical atmofphere increafes towards

the centre, and the power of its attra(5lion being pro-

portionate to
fubftances are

its

denfity, whatever light conducting

in the
till

immerfed

extreme parts

will

move
fied

towards the centre

they touch the eledri-

body and receive

a part of its eleCtricity.

When
it

the gold leaf has touched the eleCtrified

attraifled
it,

body, which thus

a part of
its

and has received from

;

eledricity

it

becomes repelled

be-

caufe the fuperinduced eledricity will attract a quantity

of

air to

form round
it

itfelf

another atmofphere,

whofe eledricity

tends to repel like the body which

was

firft

eledlritied,

and therefore either the light

off
till

fubftance will

move

it

comes

into air

whofe
firft

eledtricity is not repelled

electrified

by the influence of the

air

body, or a double quantity of

muft be

attracted into the

fame fpace, or

lafl:ly

the intenfity

of the

electrical

atmofphere between the two bodies

muft

diminifti,

which always happens when the two

electrified
will

bodies are immoveable.

The fame

effeCls

take place whether the atmofphere be pofitive or

negative, for every fubftance has as ftrong a tendency

to abforb
its

natural quantity of eleClricity, as

it

has

to emit or diftipate a fuperfluous quantity.

This

explanation of eleCtrical repulfion eafily applies to the

divergency of cork or pith balls or the

ftill

lighter

ihredsof gold leaf ufedin the feveral kinds of fenfible

eleClrometers.

The

xll.

INTRODUCTION.
and repullion of light
by cork
balls or other

The

eledrical attradlon

fubftances

may be
is

illuftrated

light bodies

fwimming on
raifed

water,

which adhering

round them

above or deprefTed below the

the corks to be attradted to-

common level, and caufes

wards or repelled from each other.

balls are equally moiftened
is

When
or

two cork

and the adhering water

raifed

above the

level furface,

when both the

is

corks are dry and the furrounding water

deprefled

below

t'le level furface,

the corks are attracted, which

may not feem

for

to agree with the cafe

of eledrification,
each other,

two equally
if

eledlrified bodies repel

but

two light bodies were eledrified

air

in a perfedlly
it

exhaufted glafs, where the

is

could not interfere,

probable that they would not repel but attract each

other,

from the tendency

in fluids to unite

and form

one globular mafs, as two globules of clean quicksilver unite

when brought

into conta<5b.
in the

Two

light fubftances eledrified

open

air

repel each other, becaufe their eledlricity ftrongly

attrads the

air,

which coming between pufhes them

afunder, and

in like

manner the two corks fwimming

if

on water
to raife

will

be repelled,

one of them be made

Its

furrounding atmofphere of water above

furface,

the

common

and the other to deprefs

it

for In this cafe the level furface

may

be coniidered as

a third fubftance flowing in and attracted by each

cork to complete
corks afunder.
niently tried,

its

atmofphere, which pufhes the

This experiment may be conve-

by prefUng two

bits

of thin writing
in dia-

paper upon

round hole about half an inch

meter

INTRODUCTION.
meter, fo as to

x'ni,

make

the paper concave

will

then let the

edges be pared, and they

form two fmall paper

cups, which are to be placed upon the furface of a

bafon of water

let

little fine

fand be put into thefe

cups that the edges of the paper

may be
laft

deprefTed

below the

level furface
will

of the water, and then the

two loaded cups

approach, and at
then
let

come

into

contad with each other,

the edge

of a

moiftened piece of paper be placed

in the diredlion
will

of a tangent

line

between the cups, and they

fuddenly recede to the diftance of feveral inches.

Every method of condenfing or rarifying the eledrical fluid may be explained by the principle of
adhefive attradion
:

but

fhall

here only mention

the pradical method of rubbing a flick of fealing

wax or

rather a glafs tube about five inches long; co-

vered with fealing wax upon woollen cloth, for the

purpofe of trying the quality of eledricity
nicated to an electrometer. It
fealing
is

commuthat the
is

well

known

wax thus rubbed is

its

excited negatively, that

the natural eleftricity of the fealing

the woollen, and

wax

is left

upon

atmofphere being brought fo

near as to

touch the atmofphere of the eledrometer

the gold leaf will either diverge wider or collapfe

if it

diverges more,

its
,

eledricity

is

negative like
coUapfes,
it is

that of the fealing

pofitive.

wax

but

if

it

4thly. Electricity

may be accumulated

in a

much

greater degree upon one fide of a thin eledlric as a

plate of glafs or a bottle, if the oppofite fide be con-

neded with the earth by means of a condudlor,

for
as

xlv.

INTRODUCTION.
is

as eledtrlcity

condenfed on one
is

fide

of the glafs the

natural eledlricity

rarified

on the other, and the

between the two
(ides,

reftoration of the equilibrium

caufes

the

effe6b

termed an eledrical fhock, and

be more fpeedily difFufed over or
it is

that the fluid

may

difcharged from the furface of the glafs

coated

with tinfoil except near the edges.

P'luid eledrics

may

alfo

be charged, but becaufe the charge might

otherwife foon break throuG;h, the two coatino;s muft

be farther diftant from each other, except when the

quantity of eledricity
is

fmall.

There

is

one refolid

markable difference between the charge of a

and

a fluid eledlric,

which

is,

that the charge prinfolid eledric

is

cipally adheres to the furface

of the

and

not to
it

its

coating

but when a plate of air

:

charged

adheres to the coating

on

this conflderation

was

founded the contrivance of the doubler of eledricity

hereafter defcribed.

That feme
the fluid

quality of

accumulated

eledlrici'ty

fhould a6l through electrics which are impervious to

itfelf,

and caufe their natural

ele6lricity to
;

expand

fo as to

produce an

eleftrical

atmofphere

or

repel the natural electricity

on the oppofite

fide

of

an

electric in the cafe

of charging the leyden bottle,

are facts which have long been admired, and

though
depend

moft of the extraordinary

effects of electricity
it

on

this property, yet I

think

has never been very

fatisfactorily explained.

If the eladicity of fluids in

I

general was clearly underfl:ood,

difficulty

doubt not but this

if

would be furmounted, and

this fubjedl

the opinions

of Des Cartes on

were verified by experiments

INTRODUCTION.
the general fallacy of his principles.

xv.

periments they might gain credit, notwithftanding

" Rara

cor-

pora

ilia fint,

inter

quorum

partes multa inter-

valla exiftunt, corporibus aliis repleta.

Ut cum

videmusfpongiam aquavel alioliquore turgentem.

Etfi
ullos

cum

aer aut aqua

fit

rarefafta,

non videamus

ipforum poros qui ampliores reddantur, nee

illos

ullum novum corpus, quod ad

cedat-,

replendos ac-

non

eft

tamen

ration! tarn

confentaneum,

aliquid

non

Intelligibile effingere,

ad eorum rare-

factionem verbbtenus explicandam,

quam
efse

ex hoc
poros,

quod

rarefiant,

concludere, in

ipfis

five intervalla quae

ampliora redduntur,

& novum
-,

aliquod corpus accedere,

quod

ipfa implet

etfi

hoc

novum

corpus

nullo fenfu percipiamus.

Nulla enim ratio nos cogit ad credendum, corpora omnia quae exiftunt debere fenfus noftros
afficere.'*

Des Cartes

Prin. Philos.

Par. 2.

Se6l. 6.

water
city,
it

What Is here faid of the rarefaction of air and may be applied to the rarefadion of eledlrithat
is

there appears no

way of accounting
and which

for

but by the fuppofition of another fluid ftrongly

it,

adhering to and mixed with

is

fuf-

ficiently fubtle to pafs thro' glafs.

On
mixed

this

hypo-

thefis

It

Is

eafy to conceive fuch

fluid accu-

mulated

in a bottle

by the adion of an eledrlcal

Is
It

machine, and as the charge goes on and the fluid

condenfed by being forced into a
lefs

fpace than

would

xvi.

INTRODUCTION.
fluid

would otherwife occupy, the

thro' glafs
is

which can pafi

all

forced out and would rarify

it,

the

furrounding electricity, by uniting with

difFufed

like heat

amongft colder bodies,

but being every

where
fide

infulated, jt is confined, except

bottle,

on the outis

of the

where becaufe the furface

its

conoff.

ned ed with
Light
trical
is

the earth

electricity

can pafs

fov

conftantly emitted or excited

by

elecit

fparks and fo readily pafTes thro' glafs that

to be

might rcafonably be fufpected

combined with
its

the eledrical fluid and be the caufe of

elafticity,

but fome experiments do not feem to favour this

fuppofition particularly feci. 2d.

Exp. 34.
of
in
elec-

By

thefe few principles the chief efFeds

tricity as far as they are yet

known may be
it
:

fome

meafure explained

but

it is

impoflible to acquire

an adequate knowledge of

without an attentive
for altho' I beheve

performance of experiments
electricity
is

entirely

fubject to the
it

fame laws with

hath fome quaelafliicity

every other fabftance, yet becaufe

lities

in a very high degree as fubtilty,

and
as

adhefive attraction,

and others fcarcely

it

at

all

gravitation and folidity,

is

very

difficult

without

experiments to

become imprefled with

a juil notion

concerning them.
Since the performance of experiments
cefTary to thofe
is

fo

ne-

who wifli

to acquire a
I

more

accurate

knowledge of eledricity,

beg leave here to fuggeft

that the gold leaf eleftrom'"*'er,

tiality to

may

without par-

my own

contrivance, be

recommended, as
the

the

firfl

inflirument to be ufed,

and the contents of

INTRODUCTION.
the following fedions
leflbns as well as

xviL

may

ferve for introduftory

any other.

And

if

the

more

la-

borious and troublefome part of the fcience (hou'd

not he

approved, there
in the

is

fufficient fcope for in-

fl:ru61ive varieties

ufe

of the electrometer

and doubler without more cumberfome machinery,

fo that

the author hopes, that ladies as well as

gentlemen,

who have honoured him with

their

patronage, will here find fome amufement.

SECTION

i8

New

Experiments,

6c\

SECTION
p'^^'^^'i^H
S|
1

I.

Defcription of a gold leaf eU^rometer.

S inftrument principally confifls of

x
The

^
i?

^^^"o

narrow

flips

of gold leaf fufpended

in the
glals.

middle of a hollow cylindrical

foot

plate i,

wood, and about three

out touching the
in

may be made of metal or inches high, that there may

be convenient room to handle the inftrument withglafs.

is

The

cylindrical glafs

which the gold leaf

fufpended

may be

about five

inches high, and two inches in diameter.

The

cap

is

made of

metal, and

flat

on the top, that the

is

various fubftances whofe eleflricity

to be

examined
diameter

may be conveniently placed upon

of the cap
glafs,
is

it.

The

about an inch more than that of the

and

its

rim

D is about an inch broad and hangs

keep
it

parallel to the glafs to

clean

and dry. Within

this

is

another circular rim about half as broad as

the other,

made

to

go over or within the

glafs,

and

is

therefore lined or covered with leather, or

other foft fubftance, to

make

it

fit

clofe,

and thus
the

7^ c4

'

NEW EXPERIMENTS, &C.

the cap

I9

may be

eafily

taken off to repair any accileaf.

dent happening to the gold

Within
is fixed,

this

rim

and in the centre of the cap a tube

the peg

wherein
is

is

placed.

To

the peg, which

made
of

round

at

one end and

flat at

the other, two

flips

gold leaf
varnifh.

are faflened with pafte,

gum

water or

If gold leaf
leaf.

is

ufed

The

gold

is

it may be fhorter than much more fenfible, but the

filver

filver

is eafier
I

to cut

and

lefs liable

to be accidentally torn.
ta-

have moftly ufed gold about two inches long,

pering to a fine point and faftened to the peg at the

broad end.
gold
flips
is

The

breadth of the upper end of the

about one

fifth

of an inch, which keeps the

more
is

cxadlly parallel,
fenfible

and the eledrical repulpoints are narrow, as I

flip

fion

more

when the

have obferved when an accidental very narrow

hung by
always

the fide of two parallel ones, the narrow flip

firft.

moving

Without the
entirely ufelefs,

glafs the

gold leaf would be fo agitait

ted by the leaft motion of the air that

would be

and

if electricity

fhould be

commuand

nicated to the fides, the gold would be attracted

torn, therefore

two pieces of polifhed

tinfoil

are fattened with varnifh

ternal furface
flrike,

on oppofite

fides

of the in-

where the gold leaf may be expected to

elecis
it

and are connected with the foot of the

trometer.

The

breadth of the

tinfoil at

the foot

one fourth of the circumference of the

glafs,

and

terminates in a point towards the cap, about as high

as the

peg to which the gold

leaf

is

fattened

It is

broad

20
broad
at the

NEW EXPERIMENTS
bottom, becaufe there the points of the
liable to ftrike the glafs,

gold leaf are mofl:

ing

and bethe re-

made narrow upwards does not prevent

flips

pulfion from being eafily obferved.

Thefe
ous

of

tinfoil,

not only carry off fuperflu-

electricity,

but ferve other important purpofes,

thefe

as will appear

from

two experiments.

EXPERIMENT
by the
out a
near
tinfoil,
I

I.

Upon a fuppofition that the gold leaf was attracted

fufpended
It

in the
I

open

air,

with-

glafs,
it,

and when

electrified

brought two wires

till

and the gold leaves open'd wider,

they

touched and collapfed, then upon bringing the wires

ftill

nearer they again diverged, which proved that

the two pieces of tinfoil were ufeful to increafe the

fenfibllity

of

tlie

inftrument.

EXPERIMENT
I

11.

faftened the gold leaf to the infide of an iron

mor-

tar

hanging by a

filk firing
I

with the mouth downto

it

wards, and though

electricity as
it

communicated

as

much
caufed

would receive, the gold leaf did not

firft

diverge

till

a wire was introduced, which

the points to open, and then the higher part of the

gold, as the wire

came

nearer to the place where the

gold was faftened.

tinfoil

This experiment fhews that the

takes off the influence of the cap which would

otherwife dlminifli the repulflon of the gold leaf.

The upper end

of the glafs
leaft as

is

covered and lined

with fealing wax, at

low as the outermoft rim,

to

fpcfJ.1
ON ELECTRICITY.
to render
its

21

infulatlon
collect

more

perfeit, for fealingair fo

wax does not

as glafs.

moifture from the

foon

In performing this

operation, the glafs

till it

fhou'd be gradually heated over a candle

caufe the

will

wax

to flow uniformly over the furface,

is

for if it be covered whilft the glafs

cooler than the

wax

it

will

not infulate fo perfectly.

The
may

foot

may
fufii-

be about three inches and an half in diameter at

the bottom, that the inftrument
ciently firm.

ftand

An

electrometer of this kind has been carried

to

from Birmingham

London; another from Wirkf-

worth to York, and a third from Wirkfworth to

Etruria in a portmanteau on horfeback, yet without
injury
lefs
,

it

is

therefore eafy to

make

elecilrometers
in

in

every dimenfion,
is

efpecially

diameter,

whereby their fenfibility

increafed,

and

inclofe

them

in a proper cafe to carry in the pocket, to obferve

the atmofpheric eledricity whilft on a journey, or

on the top of a mountain.

For fome purpofes

it

may be alfo necelTary to make them larger. In many experiments I have ufed one about five inches
in diameter,

which fhew'd the changes in the

at-

mofpheric

eledlricity

more

diftindly than a fmallcr

ftrike the

eledrometer whofe gold leaf would fooner

fides.

The

broad cap of

this large elecflrometer

it

was

alfo

very convenient for placing upon

bles or veflels
tion.

red hot cruci-

of water

in

experiments on evapora-

SECT.

22

NEW EXPERIMENTS

SECTION
ally diffused in the air,

11.

Experiments on clouds of powders and vapours

artifici-

and other experiments

illujira-

ting the principles of ele5lricit)\

fenjibility

andfhewing the great

of the gold leaf electrometer.

EXPERIMENT
POWDER'D
eledrified
it

I.

chalk was put into a pair of bellows

and blown upon the cap of the eledrometer,

placed at the diftance of about
politively.
fix inches,
fig.

which

See plate 3

7.

EXPERIMENT
wards the eleftrometer placed
tively.

If.

Powder'd chalk was blown from the bellows toat the diftance

of

three feet, which caufed the gold leaf to diverge nega-

EXPERIMENT
The
the powder'd chalk blown
fix inches,

III.

cap of the eleftrometer was moiftened, and

upon
it

it

at the diftance

of

which eledrified

negatively,

contrary

to the dry cap at the fame diftance.

EXPERIMENT
Two
eledrometers
Vv'ere

IV.

placed with their caps

about an inch afunder, the one moift and the other

dry, and a ftream of powder from the bellows at the
diftance of fix inches was

made

to pafs

between the

caps, which eledrified the one poiitively, and the

other negatively.

EXP,

ON ELECTRICITY.

23

EXPERIMENT
If a

V.
negatived at

bunch of

wire, feathers, or filk, were placed

in the bellows,

the eledrometer was

the fame diftance which produced a pofitive ftate

without them

alfo

blowing gently with the bellows

without the iron pipe, (by which

means the powder

air)

was more widely diffufed in the

effect.

had the fame

EXPERIMENT
A
fland

VI. an infulating

red hot ftone was

placed upon

conneded with the eledrometer, and when

It
it

powder'd chalk was blown upon

within the diftance of fix Inches,

from the bellows

became ftrongly

and permanently negative,

EXPERIMENT
If the perfon

VII.

who blows

the powder'd chalk into

the air from the bellows be infulated

by ftanding

upon a

ftool

with glafs feet, and after blowing touch

the cap of the eledlrometer, the gold leaf will di-

verge pofitively.

When

the bellows produced pofitive eledlrlcity

on the dry cap, or negative on the moift one, the

cap was permanently eledrlfied
:

but the negative

Hate of the powder, blown at the diftance of three

feet,

was not communicated

the gold leaf collapfinsj

as the

powder paffed away.

of eledricity within

Since the moift cap or hot ftone produce a negative ftate

fix inches,

the one

by
its

detaining the powder, and the other attrading

B 4

eledrlcltv

24
elediriclty

NEW EXPERIMENTS
by means of hot
is

effluvia, it

appears that
:

the whole ftream

properly negative

but the
it

powder continues
way, yet

to depoflt eledlricity as
it

paffes
in its

out of the bellows, and.tho'

it

has

loft

feme

will

elecflrify

the cap pofitively whilft

its ftate.

thus in the adl of changing

To exemplify this
and
let

let

two metal

balls

be infulatcd,
it

one of them receive a fpark, then bring

ball,

near the fecond

cle6lricity

and

it

will caufe the natural

of this fecond
it

ball to pafs off

and

ele6lrify

any fubftance touching

ball is
left

pofitively,
:

and
let

this

fecond
ball

properly negative

but

the
its

firft

approach nearer, and notwithftanding

ftate,

negative
pofttive

the fecond ball will

ftill

communicate
it is

eledlricity.

By

this

example

evident that the

powder may communicate

negative-, this caufe

pofitive eledricity whilft

it

under the influence of fome caufe which renders

I

fuppofe to be thecontacfl: of air,

affinity

which has a greater orlefs

fluid

with the

elc'Strical
it is

than the powder, and therefore when

air,

fud-

denly project ed into the

each particle

is

difpofed

by
it

this contaft

of air to abforb or emit

electricity as

leaves the earth, and in paffing along, the chalk

depofits electricity

upon the dry

cap, whilft the

fame

powder

is

acquiring a negative

ftate.

EXPERIMENT
When
leaf be

VIII.
Vv'hen

the

air is

not too dry, or

the eleClro-

meter has

beer,

kept in a

damp

place, let the gold

made
it,

to diverge

by holding excited

fealing

wax near

and

let it

continue thus diverging about

half

ON ELECTRICITY.

2^

Haifa minute, then fuddenly remove the feallng-

wax and

the gold leaf will

a contrary f\ate

firft

collapfc,

and then

open with

of eledriclty.

This

fuppofed wou'd have explained the pofitive cap

above-mentioned: but when a

fulated
in

ball

of metal was

in-

dry weather by a
it

warm

tube of glafs

cover'd with fealing wax,

flrongly pofltive

became quickly and

when

the chalk was blown

upon

it

within fix inches.

EXPERIMENT
A piece

IX.

of chalk drawn over a brufh {o as to

caufe a cloud of powder to pafs over the cap of the

eledlrometer, produces a negative repulfion of the

gold
ftate

leaf,

but without communicating a negative

of

electricity.

EXPERIMENT
Powder'd chalk
laid

X.

upon

metal plate placed

upon the cap and blown

lows,
eledlrifies
it

off with the

mouth

or bel-

permanently

politive.

EXPERIMENT
If a brufli

XI.
whilft

be placed

upon the cap, and

held with one hand the brufh be rubbed with a

piece of chalk
raifed,
till

a confiderable cloud of
as

powder be
the cloud

and then the hand removed,

gold leaf
will

difperfcs the
if

diverge pofitively.

Or

the cap of the eledirometer be touched by oiie

perfon whilft another proiedls ^ cloud of powder'd

chalk, the fame efFed will take place.

In

26

NEW EXPERIMENTS
In this experiment a pofitive
ftate
is

caufed bv

the influence of the negative cloud.

EXPERIMENT
Powder'd chalk
falling

XII.

from one plate to another

eledtrifies
it

placed upon the eleclrometer,

tively.

nega-

EXPERIMENT

XIII.

A book was chalked upon the edge and fuddenly

clapped together, powder'd chalk was projedled from
a goofe wing, and the eledlrometer was introduced
into the duft raifed

from the road by

negatively
:

travellers, all

which eledrified
ftruck

it

but when duft was

it

up with

a ftick very near the eledrometer

became

pofitive,

which agrees with exp.

and

2.

EXPERIMENT
Wheat,
flour, oat-meal,

XIV.
in
all

and minium, produce

where chalk and
;

every cafe pofitive eledlricity,

other powders yet tried are negative

fuch are red

and yellow okre, rozin,

cus metallorum,

coal afties,

powder'd croblack
lead,

aurum mofaicum,
flour

lamp black, powder'd quick lime, umber,

brown,
filings,

Spanifli

powder'd fulphur,
ruft of iron,

of fulphur,

iron

fand.

Alfo powders

from dried decodlion of dyers woods

tallic calces,

as well as

made me-

on the fuppofition of

their fimilarity to

flour or

minium and other powders not

laft

regifteredj

but none of thefe

were pofitive.

EXP.

ON ELECTRICITY.

2/

EXPERIMENT
The
but
infide

XV.
of the powders

of the bellows pipe was moiftened,

eleftricity

this did not alter the

blown
to

thro', therefore its excitation does not appear

in the pipe.

depend upon fridion

EXPERIMENT
it,

XVI.
eledlrify

Air alone blown upon the cap does not

nor
if

blown thro' a
it is

hole

made

in a

lump of
is

chalk,

whence

not likely that the eledricity

excited

by fridion

againft the air.

EXPERIMENT
A lump of chalk was infulated
a brufh faften'd
this cafe

XVII.
and rubbed upon

to the cap of the eledrometer, in

both

the chalk and brufh were positive,

and the afcending cloud of powder negative.

probably the excitation of the powder
is

Hence

not occa-

fioned by the fridlion of the chalk againft the brufh,

fince the ftates

of the

lump and

brufli

were not con-

trary.

EXPERIMENT
from
a brufh,

XVIII.

Equal Meafures and equal weights of powdcr'd

chalk and wheat flour were mixed and projected

and the

eleftricity

of the chalk pre-

vailed.

EXPERIMENT
Scales of iron were let
fall

XIX.
a plate

from

a confi-

derable height above the eledlrometer, which caufed

a cloud of duft to arile

from the low

plate, this

lower plate was therefore eledrified pofitively, contrary

aS
trary to the ftate

NEW EXPERIMENTS
it

acquired by fifting the pov/der

gently.

or letting

it fall

more

EXPERIMENT
A
very
lighted candle placed

XX.
and
is

upon the eledlrometer

peculiarly
:

much

increafes its fcnfibility,

ufeful in colleding atmofpheric eledlricity

but

if

the communicated eledricity

plied,
it

is

not conftantly fup-

will alfo

foon difTipate

its

charge in the

air.

EXPERIMENT
A fmall tube or
was
atmofphere
it

XXI.
wax
its

glafs

cover'd with fealing

flightly excited,

and the* by the influence of

caufed the gold leaf to diverge conit

iiderably wide,
city

did not communicate

fo

its

eledrij

even when brought

near as to touch the cap

but when a candle was placed upon the eleftrometer,

the electricity was communicated at the diftance

of twelve inches or more, and when {Irongly excited

it

caufed a very fenlible divergency at the diftance

fix feet.

of

EXPERIMENT
The
a
eledtrometer with
juft fwept,
its

XXII.
diffufed in the air

candle was carried into

room

and the duft

caufed a very fenfible negative repulfion of the gold

leaf.

EXPERIMENT
The
a

XXIIL
madoor

eleflrometer with

its

candle was carried thro*

room

adjoining to that wherein the eledirical

chine had been turned for fome time before, (the

ON ELECTRICITY.
door between the

2^
left

Rooms

having been

open,)

and the

air

was found very fenfibly eledrified.

The

fluid being difFufed thro' the air

of both rooms-

EXPERIMENT
Take

XXIV.

a quantity of powder'd chalk, and alfo a

quantity of wheat flour, and put alternately the

chalk and flour into the bellows, and blow the powder into the air a few times.
It
is

then eafy for

its

another perfon bringing the eledlrometer with

candle into the room, to difcover Vv'hether the chalk

or flour was ufed, the chalk being negative and the
flour pofitive.

In like manner if chalk and flour be

projected on different fides of a

room

it

may

be

dif-

covered where the chalk and where the flour were

ufed, or if they were
vails.

mixed

it

will fliew

which pre-

EXPERIMENT
No fenfible eleftricity
water,
fait,

XXV.
allum,

was produced by projecting

or

powder'd

nitre,

nor

by

fmoke, flame, or explofions of gunpowder.

EXPERIMENT
the ftick

XXVI.
made
red
fliick,

If the fmall end of a tobacco pipe be

hot, and the pipe be fixed in a cloven

fo that

may

be

eafily

placed in a fmall hole in the

cap of the elecftrometer, in fuch a manner that the

pipe

may

be direded towards another eledrometer

placed about four inches from the end of the pipe,

'jpon putting

fome

water into the pipe head, the

fteam

30
fteam
will

NEW EXPERIMENTS
fuddenly
firfl:

ifllie

out of the fmall end, and

eleiftrify

the

eledrometer negatively, and the

fecond pofitively.

EXPERIMENT
Spirit

XXVri.

of wine, and ether, were tried with the hot

tobacco pipe, and their eledricity did not differ from

water, but they required
acid produced
lefs

heat.

Oil and vitriolic

electrified.

fmoke which was not

EXPERIMENT
Let
ter

XXVIII.
by
filk,

a cullender or tin funnel be fufpended

in
it.

and put fome hot coals

Upon
vapour

throwing wawill

on the

coals the afcending

be found
falling

electrified pofitively,

and the drops of water

thro'

upon
:

the eledlrometer will be electrified negaif a

tively

but

fecond or third quantity of water.

will

be poured thro', the drops

pofitive, as will

fometimes become

be found more fully tried in another

fedion.

EXPERIMENT
Pofitive eledlricity
is

XXIX.
upon the

produced by blowing with

one's

mouth

thro' a red hot tobacco pipe

cap of the eldrometer, by the rarefaction of moifture

contained in fuch air
:

but dry

air

blown thro' from

it.

clean dry bellows does not eleCtrify

EXPERIMENT
Vapour of water was drawn
bellows and blown

XXX.
thro'

into the valve of the

upon the eledtrometer

the
iron

ON ELECTRICITY.
iroli

pipe, yet

its

pofitlve eleftricity

was not de-

ftroyed by thus pacing thro' the bellows.

EXPERIMENT
upon

XXXI.
it

If a fmali lantern with a candle in

be placed

the cap of the eledrometer, and expofed to

the air in an open place, or not too near high buildings, or trees,
it

feldoni fails to render the atmof-

phcric eleftriclty very fenfible.

EXPERIMENT
The
a field
fniall

XXXII.

eledroineter was carried into the middle of

when the weather was clear and frofty, and a lantern placed upon it, caufed the gold leaf
open with pofitive
eledlricity

to ftand

about an inch
fix

wide, and

when

carried

up

mount about
;

feet

higher the gold leaf ftruck the fides

but

it

gradually

coUapfed as

it

came near

trees or houfes.

EXPERIMENT
A vefiel
ftool in

XXXIII.

of water was placed upon an infulating

air,

the open

when
I

the weather was dry

fiime ftool I

and

clear,

then

ftanding

upon the

fpouted water as high as

cou'd with a

fmall fy-

ringe about fix times, then

upon touching the cap

finger, the gold leaf
eledlricity

of the eleftrometer with

my
air

opened

pofitively

-,

the

atmofpheric

from a higher ftratum of

having charged

my

body

thro' the ftream

of water.

EXP.

32

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
Red
upon the
tion of

XXXIV.
fall

hot glafs was brought very near the electro-

meter and the focus of a concave mirror made to

cap, neither of which haftened the diffipaeledricity.

its

Red

hot iron draws

it

off,

but not

fo far as flame.

EXPERIMENT
An
trified pofitively or negatively,
jTiinifh

XXXV.
it

iron mortar was placed upon the eledlrometef

whilft elec-

and red hot cinders were dropped into

but

this did not dileaf.

the divergency of the gold

Bodies of
in

equal furface but different ih mafs,

when placed

the fame circuroftances are equally charged with

eledlricity,

according

to

the experiments of

M.

Achard, therefore various fubftances may be

intro-

duced into the mortar or other hollow

vcffel placed

upon the cap of

the eledrometer, without adding

to the quantity of eledrified furface, which

may be

ufeful in trying various chemico-elecftrical experi-

ments.

EXPERIMENT
tity

XXXVI.

If the ele6lrometer be charged with a fmall quan-

of electricity, and the fharpeft pointed needle

leaft vifible

or edge of a razor be brought within the

diftance towards the cap,
tricity,
it

will

not draw off its elec-

but flame draws

it

off at a confiderable dif-

tance.

This experiment fhews that fhafp points or edges

need not be avoided
in

the conftru6lIon of this in-

ftrument, or of the doubler, or atmoipheric apparatus

ON ELECTRICITY.
iratus

33

defcribed in the following fedions, and that a

is

flame

better than

a pointed wire for the purpofe

electricity.

of collecting atmofpheric

EXPERIMENT
A very
light pith ball

XXXVII.

was put upon the end of

a very fmall wire, and the wire was fufpended by a

ring to the prime

condudor of the

electrical

ma-

chine

alfo a wire
ball,

of the fame length, but without

in a fimilar
eleCtricity

any pith

was fufpended

manner^

and

both were repelled

by the
i

commuit is

nicated to the conductor

ball

but the wire with the pith

alfo

defcended

firit,

which

fhews that

more

necelTary to

make

the electrometer light than to

avoid points and edges.

EXPERIMENT
A
fmall pin was faften'd

XXXVlII.
ftick

upon the end of a

electricity,

of fealing wax and charged with

which

was communicated from the pin to a metallic infulated conductor, fifteen inches in diameter, and

feven feet long, whofe furface was therefore prodigioufly larger than that of the pin, yet
city caufed a very feniible
leaf.
its electri-

divergency of the gold

fenfibility

This not only (hews the

i

of this

electroriieter

but

affifts

our conception of the

amazing
fluid,

divifibility

and

elafticity

of this wonderful

SECTION

["A defcription of the gold leaf eleftrcmeter and moft of the above experiments, are printed in the philofophical Tranfadlions for the year 1787.]

34

NEW EXPERIMENTS

SECTION
Nc-jj

III.

experiments

ivith

M.

Llchtenburg's large

elelrophoru5.

THE
phial,

following experiments are intended as

improvements on
ful configurations,
firft

M.
it

Llchtenburg's beautia refinous eledro-

made on
the

phorus by drawing over

knob of
fifting

a charged

and rendered

vifible

by

powder'd rofin
according
is

over the plate, which falling

to the circumflances
in

fo differently

which the experiment of eledricity

in a

made,

exhibits the difFuiion

very

pleafing manner.

My

firft

eledlrophorus was

a glafs plate fifteen

refi-

inches fquare, cover'd on one fide with a thin

nous black coating, with

fide;

tinfoil pafted

on the other
one be
eafi-

for if the fide oppofite to the refinous

will

not a conductor, the eledlrical fluid

ly difi^ifed over
tricity
it.

not be

Glafs was ufed that the

elec-

might not be

(o liable to pafs thro' the fmall

holes and

bliftered places

which cannot well be avoid-

ed

if

the refinous fubftance be thinly fpread upon

or metal.
rofin projedled

wood

As powder'd

from a brufh

is

nega-

tively eleftrified, there

appeared no doubt but that

chalk and other powders, which by the fame means

are negatively ele6lrified, would anfwer as well or
better; fuch powders were therefore tried and found
to fucceed remarkably well.

EXP,

ON ELECTRICITV.

35
I.

EXPERIMENT
The
plate

was fufpended by a loop againft a wall

that the grofler part of the

powder might

fall

to the

ground, and no more adhere to the plate than Was

attracted

by the eledricity difFufed thereon.

A fmall

phial was charged very weakly

by one revolution of
its

the eledrical machine, and after

knob had been

of chalk was

drawn over the refinous

plate, a cloud

projeded by rubbing the lump upon a brufK near

the eledlrified furface of the plate, this produced a
plain white line without

any ramifications.

EXPERIMENT
When
plate at a confiderable diftance

II.

the phial was charged by three revolutions

of the machine, ramifications appeared upon the

from each

other.

EXPERIMENT
Five or
to fpread
fix

III.

revolutions caufed the eledrical fluid

plate in ramifications very near

upon the

each other.
left

Clofe to each branch a fmall fpace was

uncover'd with powder,

forming a kind of
this fliade the

fliade to the figure.

Beyond

powder

lay fmooth, foftening off externally.

EXPERIMENT
clofe

IV.

"With a very flrong charge the ramifications were

and broad, refembling white feathers with a

verv broad fhade.

EXP

3^

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
A large jar was charged as
and
its

V.
wou'd hold
plate, the

full as it

knob drawn over the

refinous

middle of the figure was about an inch broad, and

moftly plain and white, the fhades were

now more

confpicuous than the branches, and

dark irregular

ftreaks interfecled the diflant white fpace.

EXPERIMENT
When
a bottle with a large

VI.
in
it

wooden knob
knob

was highly charged,

and

its

carried at the

diftance of an inch from the plate in a diredlion acrofs

it,

the figure produced

had no

ramifications,
;

but

feveral cloudy white ftreaks appeared

thefe ftreaks
is tried.

vary their figure every time the experiment

EXPERIMENT
When
a figure was made upon

VII.

the plate by draw-

ing with a moift finger, and the moifture touched

with the knob of the charged phial, the ramifications darted

from the
direftion
;

fides

of the figure

in a per-

pendicular

whereas the ramifications

plate ifilied

made by Aiding
of a
tree.

the

knob over the

from

the middle of the figure, floping like the branches

The
firft

reafon of this difference

cafe each

is

plainly
at

that in the

ramification

is

made

the fame time, and in the latter the

repels that
it

firft

branch

which

is

made

after

it,

and thus prevents

from darting perpendicularly.

EXR

ON ELECTRICITY.

37
VIII.
plate

EXPERIMENT
A fmall wire was
trical

laid

upon the

and an

elec-

fhock made to pafs thro' the wire, which was

;

then thrown off without being touched

in this cafe,

when

the chalk was projefled, the ramifications ap-

peared very diftindl and long but not fliaded, and

their diredtion

was perpendicular to the

figure.

moderate charge produced longer ramifications than

a very flrong one.

EXPERIMENT
A circular brafs
from the charged
brafs plate

IX.

plate with an infialating handle

was placed upon the refinous plate, and a fpark

bottle was

communicated
its

to the
infula-

which was then taken off by

ting handle, and chalk projected, which produced

a very regular circle of ramifications about four

inches long, proceeding from the circumference of

the fpace cover'd by the brafs plate, and within the

circle

were a number of irregular figures fomewhat

like ftars.

fhock made to pafs thro* the fame

plate generally produced

more diftindl
ftars

ramifications,
;

and fometimes without any and

if

within the circle

the brafs plate was drawn along towards the

edge of the eledtrophorus whilft touched with the

knob of the
duced.

phial a very beautiful figure was pro-

EXPERIMENT
The
pillar

X.
of the

refinous plate was fattened to the top of the

infulates the cuihion

which fupports and

cle(5lrical

SS
ele<5lrical

NEW EXPERIMENTS
machine, and whilft the wheel was turning
plate,

a brafs

knob was drawn over the

figure

which pro-

duced very large and

fine ramifications.

point

dravm over, produced

very

much

refem-

bllng a white oftrich feather.

EXPERIMENT
The
plate remaining

XI.
the
laft

on the

pillar as In

experiment, a candle was brought very near the

middle and immediately again removed.

When

chalk was projedted, a circular fpace about twelve

inches diameter was cover'd with powder, having a

dark fhade round

it,

beyond which the powder

fell

more

thinly.

EXPERIMENT
The
middle
fide

XII.

plate was faftened to the

prime condudlor,

and when the candle had been prefented tov/ards the

as before, the chalk fell moftly
circle

on the out-

of a

of the fame dimenfion.

EXPERIMENT
with chalk
it

XIII.

The phial was charged weakly negative and drawn

over the plate which produced a plain
line,

but

was often black upon a white ground,

line.

contrary to the pofitive

With wheat

flower

the line was as white as the pofitive one.

Projedled
pofitive,

chalk being negative,

and wheat flower

attraded

they wou'd
figures

always

be only
Is

by thofe
Is

whofe eledricity

contrary, but there

reafon to believe that fome of the projeded

powder
Is

ON ELECTRICITY.
is

39

either not eledrified or pofTefTes a ftate contrary

rert,

to the

and therefore

falls into
is

the figure, but

the difference of the powders

very confpicuous.

EXPERIMENT
The
phial

XIV.
was not ramifi-

was charged flrongly negative, and

plate.

drawn over the

The

figure

ed but confifted of a number ofroundifh fpots, the

largeft

about the

fize

of a pea, with fmaller fpots

between the large ones, the figure was fhaded, and

the fpace beyond cover'd with powder as in the pofitive

experiments.

EXPERIMENT
A phial
ftrongly
plate,

XV.

and negatively charged was

drawn over the

and afterwards a pointed wire

held in the hand only, was drawn over the fame

figure, then chalk

was projeded, which produced

a beautiful ramified figure in the

mid4Ie of the

negative one.

EXPERIMENT
A

XVI.
its

conical tin funnel was placed with

bafe

on

the middle of the refinous plate, and a negative

ftrong charge given by connedling the difcharging

rod with the under fide of the plate, then a pofitive charge was given in the fame manner, the funnel

was thrown off and chalk projeded, which produced very beautiful ramifications

both within and

on the outfide of the

circle.

C 4

EXP.

40

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
A
its

XVU.
from the middle
in this fitua-

phial was charged pofitively, and placed with

diftant

knob about half an inch

plate.

of the

Whilft the phial ftood

tion challc to the

was proje6led, which adher'd fmoothly

phial,

knob of the

and

to the furface of the

plate for the

fpace

of about 9 inches diameter,

every where cover'd except a

very

diftindl circular

fpot about three inches diftant from the knob, if

the chalk was proje6led at feveral intervals,

fucceffive projedlions, did not

the

come up

to the edge

of the

firft circle,

but

fell

round a larger circumfirft.

ference and not quite parallel to the

nega-

tive charge produced the fame kind of fpot.

caufe

The
neck

of thefe fpots
air

was found to be

ele6lricity

ftreaming thro' the

from the cork

in the

of the phial,

for a wire placed in the

cork near that

fhape of the

which fupported the knob

ipot.

alter'd the
left

The

reafon that

it

was

entirely without

powder

tho'

occafioned by the communication of

eledricity, will appear in a fubfequent experiment.

EXPERIMENT
A
knob of wood about an inch upon
placed

XVIII.
in diameter

was

the wire of a phial which was charged

highly pofttive, and the knob drawn over the plate

fo as to

touch the furface, this produced a beautiful

figure, the

middle of which was fmoothly cover*d

with

chalk,

and the

fides

finely

ramified with

ihades,

EXP.

ON ELECTRICITY.

4I

EXPERIMENT
A brafs
knob about three inches
a ramified figure drawn with
the plate
;

XIX.
In

diameter was

placed upon the phial inftead of the fmall one, and

It

upon the middle of

then, before chalk was projected, the

knob 'with the remaining charge was placed oppofite

to the figure at the diftance of about half an Inch.

In this cafe the powder

fell

upon the knob, and on

Its

the outfide of the figure, leaving

ramifications

clean and diftind, but entirely without powder.

EXPERIMENT
A fmall candle was
plate, then the

XX.
its

infulated

and

flame placed

about an inch diftant from the middle of the refinous

knob of a

pofitively charged

phial

was fuddenly brought to the flame, and both the

flame and phial inftantly taken away again.
In this

experiment when the chalk was projected a circular

fpace about four Inches in diameter was clean and
free

from powder, the

reft

of the plate was cover'd,

circular or elliptical

except a great
fpots,

number of fmall

which fhews that the

eleftrical fluid pafTed to

the plate in detached balls like feme atmofpheric meteors, or the plate abforbed from the
trary ftate of eledlrlcity,
air a

con-

which produced

this ap-

pearance.

EXPERIMENT
If a pofitive figure be gative one acrofs
it

XXI.
is

firft

drawn and then a ne-

or v. v.

when the powder

projeded

it is

eafy

to diftinguifli which was

firfl

drawn.

42

NEW EXPERIMENTS
firft,

drawn, the fecond appearing to cover the

and

when
reft

the pofitive figure

is

made

laft,

the ramifica-

tions at the place of jundlioii extend fiirther than the

and are

left

without powder.

But
fiirft

if

both the
appear

ftrokes are pofitive or negative the

will

to cover .the fecond.

EXPERIMENT
prevail

XXII.

If powders of different colours are mixed and

proje6led over the figures, fome of the colours will

on the middle and fome on the

two figures whofe
plate,

outiide,

and

efpecially if

eledtricity is contrary-

are

made on the fame

and moft of

all

when

both the

electrical ftates
:

of the figures and powders

are contrary
city
is

for example, if

minium whofe

eledlri-

flrongly pofitive, and fulphur very flrongly

negative be pounded together, and then this mixed

powder put

into the bellows,

and blown upon the and the

a

contrarily ekdrified figures, the powders feparate

and the fulphur

falls

on the

pofitive figure

minium on the negative.

pleafing
eflPedl.

This produces
tried the

very

had often

experiment
:

but the by projeding the powder from a brufli bellows do It much better, which laft method was

communicated

to

me by

the Chevalier Landriani,

who had

(cQii it tried in Italy.

EXPERIMENT
over
it

XXIIf.
by drawing

In fome of the above experiments, when the refinous plate was pofitively eledrified

the

knob of a charged

phial,

and chalk projeded,

ON ELECTRICITY.
jefted, the middle of the figure

43

was covered with a

plain flrealc of powder, or

(if

the charge was wea-

ker) with beautiful white ramifications refembling

flowers
',

round thefc ramifications there appeared a

dark fhade very exadtly defined, whereon no powder

fell,

and next to

this the

powder

fell

fmooth, dimi-

nifhing in thicknefs towards the edge of the plate.

On

the

firft

view of thefe appearances,

fuppofed
the plate

that the pofitive eledlricity depofited

in the

upon

middle of the figure had render'd the fliaded

part of the fpace negative, and that therefore alter-

nate fpaces were pofitive and negative

placing a wire in the cap of

but upon

my

electrometer, and

drawing

it

over the plate in various diredlions, and

fometimes covering different parts of the figure

whilft others were tried I could never difcover any
figns of a negative ftate of eledlricity. plate

The whole
diminifliing

appeared pofitive,

its

intenfity

from the middle of the

figure.

EXPERIMENT
Not perfedly convinced of
ftate

XXIV.
entire pofitive

the

of the

electrified
I

plate

by examining with the

eleftrometer,
glafs

cem.ented a wire to the end of a

tube covered with fealing wax, in fuch manner-

that the two ends extended each

way

like the points

of a pair of compafTes, then taking hold of the

glafs tube,
I

placed

one end of the wire

in

the

middle of

a pofitive figure,

and the other end upon

in the

a clean part of the plate,

and drew the wire

firll

diredlion of the figure, keeping the

point in

the

44
the middle.

NEW EXPERIMENTS

Upon

projedlng

chalk where the

point had touched the clean part of the plate, fhaded

ramifications

appeared which
figure to

plainly

/hewed the
pofitive, as

middle of the

be ftrongly

might be expeded.

EXPERIMENT
A
with
pofitive figure being

XXV.
as

drawn

above, the

white part in the middle was carefully wiped off

my

finger, fo as

to difcharge

its

eleftricity,

then the wire was placed with one point in the fhaded
fpace and drawn along the figure.

Upon

projecfb-

ing chalk over the clean part of the plate pofitive

ramifications were produced as before, but

much

weaker.

EXPERIMENT
The
wiped
ojff",

XXVI.

white ramifications and fhades were both

and the wire placed near the edge of the

fpace,

fmooth white

and with the other point on the

clean part of the plate, and

upon projeding chalk

:

there was no figure produced

but

if

the wire was

drawn

in the

fame manner without wiping off the

fhaded part, a white line appeared with very few

points like thorns, which fijfiiciently proved that
it it

was weakly pofitive

and hence

it

appears that

was the natural eledricity of the plate difpofed to

attrad powder by the influence of that which was

communicated

in the figure,

EXP,

ON ELECTRICITY.

45

EXPERIMENT
The white ramifications
in the

XXVII.
middle of the figure

were wiped off and then more chalk projeded upon

the fhaded part which caufed the ramified points to

extend farther, and by wiping off

fl:ill

more and

projeding chalk again, almoft the whole of the

ihaded part was
fpace
is left

filled,

which proves that this lad

uncover'd, becaufe the ftronger elcdlriall

city in

the middle of the figure attrads

fall

the

pow-

der which might otherwife

in

in that fpace.

And

many

other experiments

it is

found that various

parts of the
left clean,

fame

plate will be filled with

ftate

powder or
but of

where the fame

of

eleftricity,

different degrees of Intenfity, has

been communi17,
18,

cated,

particularly exp. 3, 4, 5,

and 19.

EXPERIMENT
ing wax,

XXVIII.

Glafs plates were cover'd with red or black feal-

and figures drawn upon the wax, then

or other

powder'd fealing wax,

powders which'

wou'd not
jedled

lofe their

colour by heating, were pro-

upon

a plate of the oppofite colour,

fire

and by
till:

holding the plates before a

or over a candle

the furface was foftened, the figures were indeliblv

fixed

EXPERIMENT
I

XXIX.
upon paper

have tried to take

ways, and

off'
firfb

the figures projected

in various

lamp black,

ivory black, powder'd rotten ftone, vermilion, and

many

other powders, fometimes mixing them with

cjun'.

4-6

NEW EXPERIMENTS
arable,

gum

and then laying over the plate a paper

foftened in water, with or without folved in

it,

gum

arabic dlffigures

and

in

fome experiments the

came

off very well, efpecially with vermilion, but

failed.
I

moftly

then tried the dry'd extra(5t of

dyers woods, and fucceeded very well.

feveral

And

fince

of

my
I

friends

have expreffed
I

their defire

to
as

be informed of the procefs,

will

defcribe

it

minutely as

can.

To make red figures, take a pound of rafped Brazil

wood, put
will
it

into a kettle with

as
alfo

much
put
in

water as

cover

it,

or rather

more
boil

about an
as

ounce of

gum

arabic and a
it

lump of allum about

ftrain off

big as a large nut, let

till

about two hours, or

;

the water

is

ftrongly coloured

the

extradt into a broad difh,

and

fet it in

an iron oven,

where

it is

to

remain
was

till all

the water be evaporated,

which with
this

me

effecfted in

about 12 hours-, but

depends on the heat of the oven, which ihou'd

fo
I

not be
times

hot as to endanger

its

burning.
till

Someit

have boiled the {trained extract

it

was

confiderably infpiffated before

was placed in the

oven, that

it

might be fooner dry.

is

When

it

quite

dry but not burnt, fcrape

it

it

out of the difh and grind

finely pulverized.

in a

mortar
it is

till

it

be

In doing this

proper to co-

ver the mortar with a cloth having a hole thro' to

prevent the powder from flying away and offending

the nofe, and alfo to do
it

out of doors
air

if the

wea-

ther be dry and calm, that the

may

carry away

the powder

necefTarily efcaping,

and which otherwife

ON ELECTRICITY.
wife
is

47
ground
fine let it

very difagreeable.

When

he

fifted thro'

muilin or a fine hair iieve, returning

the coarfer part into the mortar to be ground again.

When
der
is

the grinding and iifting are finifhed the pow-

ready for

ufe.

The

refinous plate

have

moftly ufed was compofed of five pounds of rofin,

half a pound of bees wax, and two ounces of lampblack, melted together and poured
fixteen inches fquare, with ribs
leall;

upon

a board
at

upon the edges

half an inch high, to confine the compofition

whilft fluid, thus the refinous plate

was half an inch

thick, which
figures being
is

is

better

than a

thinner plate, the

more

difl:in6t.

After the compofition

blift:ers,

cold,

it will

be found covered with fmall

which
the

may

be taken out by holding the plate before

the furface be melted, then let
it

fire,

till

cool

again, and
fire,

upon holding
blifters will

it

a
-,

fecond time to the

more

appear

but by thus repeatit

edly heating and cooling the furface,

will at laft

become perfedly fmooth.

fmaller

Some

plates were

made

and the refinous compofition confined to the

ellipfis,

form of an
of

a circle or efcutcheon,

by a rim

tin half an

inch broad, and fixed upon a board.

is

The
per,

next thing to be done

is

to prepare the pa-

which

to be foften'd in water, either

by lay-

ing the pieces upon each other in a vefiel of cold

water, or
firft

pouring a

little

hot water upon the

bottom of a large
of paper,
fo that

difh, then laying

upon

it

a piece
lie
it

one edge of the paper may

over

the edge of the difh, to remain dry, that

afterwards be

more conveniently taken up.

may Then
pour

4^

NEW EXPERIMENTS
its

pour mof e hot water upon

upper

furface.

Upoii
again,
all

this place another piece in the. fame

manner,

pouring on more water, and thus proceed tiU

pieces are laid
will
in.

the

By
in

uiing hot water the paper

be more foftened

a few minutes than

if it

remains in cold water a whole day.

When
plate

the figures are to be

lie

made

the refinous
is

muft

horizontally whilfl the eledricity

if the

communicated,
to be placed

experiment requires any thing

plate
:

upon the
it

but

it

is

convenient

afterwards to hang

up

in a vertical pofition whilft

left

the powder

is

projeded,
it is

too

much powder

fhould

fall

where

not required.

A
may

little

of the powder

may be

taken between a

finger and

thumb, and projeded by drawing it over

is

a brufti, or which

better, a quantity

of powder

be put into the bellows and blown towards the

plate.

When
let

the figure

is fufficiently

covered with

powder^

the plate be again laid horizontally

upon

a table, then take

one of the foftened papers out of

it

the water by

its

dry edge, and lay

carefully be-

tween the leaves of a book, prefiing the book together, and let
it

lie in this

fituation

about half a

minute.

Then remove
it

the paper to a dry place in

the book, and prefs

again about the fame time,

fufficient to

which

will generally

be

take off the fu-

perfluous moifture. the

Then

take up the paper by

edge a

two corners of its dry edge, and place the wet little beyond the figure on the refinous plate
reft

lowering the

of the piece gradually

till it

covers

the figure without Aiding, then lay over it a piece of

clean

ON ELECTRICITY.
clean dry paper, and prefs
a fhort time, and then rub
it it

49
it

gently, let
clofer to
it

remain

the plate

with a cloth, or which

is

better, prefs

down by
taking
its firfl

means of a wooden
pofition.
let it

roller cover'd with cloth,

care that the paper be not

moved from
is

When

the paper
its

fufficiently prefled

be taken up by
a vefTel
this

dry edge, and laid upon

the furface of

of water with the printed fide

downwards, by
will

means the fuperfluous powder

and the figure
will

fmk

in the water,

not be fo

liable afterwards to fpread in the paper.

After the
a few

paper

has remain'd on
it

the
place

water during
it

minutes, take

up and

between the leaves

of a book, removing
If
it

it

frequently to a dry place.

be defired that the paper fhou'd be fpeedily

it is

dry, let the book-leaves in which

to be placed,
it

be previoufly warmed, and

ral places,
it Vv'ill

by removing

to feve-

be dry

much

fooner than by hold-

ing

it

near a

fire,

and without drawing the paper

it is

crooked.

By

the above procefs

obvious that

leather, callico, or linen, as well as paper,

may be

printed with thefe figures, and the eiFeds of the

difFufion of eleftricity

upon

a refinous plate be exleifure or inclination

hibited to thofe
to

who have not

perform the experiments.

The
are

atmofpheric eledricity with

all its

variation?

of intenfity, and changes from pofitive

to negative

marked
a clock,

on a refinous plate

by an ingenious

machine of the Chevalier Landriani, which moves

bv

and the figures made on the plate du-

ring his abfence will

become

vifible

when powder

is

pro

50
projedled.

NEW EXPERIMENTS
Thefe
figures

may

therefore be taken

off by this procefs,

tricity in Italy

and the

ftate

of a day's elec-

be tranfmitted to England.

EXPERIMENT
Mr. Wedgwood propofed

XXX.
by

to fix the figures

projefting fine powder'd enamel, after the eledlricity

was diffufed upon porcelain, and then to bake the

plate or vefTel (thus

ornamented)

in the ufual

way.

This experiment was

tried at his houfe,

,

and the

figures were very well fixed

but the weather being

then unfavourable, they were not fo beautiful as

might be expedled.
fixing them.

have

fince

made

the figures

with more fuccefs, but had not the opportunity of

In this way the ramifications and fhades

indelibly fixed

may

be

and prcferved, without any diminu-

tion of their beauty.

EXPERIMENT
Another way of preferving the
covered with
glafs.

XXXI.
figures
is

to

make

a refinous plate of a proper fhape to be framed and

After the figure

it

is

made and

the powder proje^Sted,

is

necefiary to hold the

plate over a veffel of hot water, that

by means of

the fteam
ed, for if
will fly

its eledlricity
it

may

be gradually difcharg-

be covered immediately, the powder

In one experiment
I

ofi"'

to the glafs.

paint-

ed a

glafs

black

on

one
leaf,

fide,

then cover'd the

after heating it in
I

painted fide with brafs

and

the funlliine

till all

the moifture was expelled,

made

ON ELECTRICITY.

5I
furface, cover'd
it

made
it

the figures

upon the uncoated

placed

with another glafs; and

glafs
is

in

a frame.
will

When
diftind:

made very dry the figures

as thofe

be as

and beautiful
it is

made upon

a refinous

plate

but

neceffary to perform the experiment

in dry weather,

and to take care that the

glafs

and

knob of
be

the bottle, with which the figures are drawn,

fufficiently

and equally heated, for

if

the

knob

be colder than the plate, moiilure will be condenfcd

and

fpoil the figure.

I

In trying experiments with a

it

glafs plate,

obferved that
ele<51:ricity

was very

difficult to
I

deprive

it

of the

laft

communicated.

rubbed the furface with wet cloths,

water with

then rubbed then

it

my fingers

upon the

eleftrified parts,

dipped the plate

in water,

and

after that held

all

over the flame of a candle, yet found that

thefe

methods were
feen

infufficient,

the figures might

ftill

be

when
I
it

the glafs was dry, and chalk again pro-

jeifled.

then rubbed the glafs with tallow, and

off with powder'd chalk, which fucceeded

cleaned
better.

EXPERIMENT
I

XXXII.
little

placed the above defcribed glafs plate in the

it

funfhine where
oil

was kept hot, and dropped a

upon the middle, and upon touching the

it

oil

with a pofitively charged bottle,

fine ramifications.
oil
I

flowed in very

then touched another drop of

alfo

with a negative bottle, which

I

caufed

it

to

flow in ramifications, which

cou'd not perceive to

differ

?.

52
differ

NEW EXPERIMENTS
from the
pofitlve ones, except that they did
far.

not extend quite fo

EXPERIMENT
I

XXXIII.
the

rubbed a

circular fpace

in

middle of the
it

glafs plate with water,

and touched

with a charg-

ed bottle, then projecfted chalk which cover'd the

moift fpace with a plain fmooth coating of chalk,
I then dried
it

over the flame of a candle, which

its

alfo difcharged

eledricify.

On

the middle of
oil,
it

this white

fpace

dropped fome

and upon
fhew'd
its

touching

it

with the charged bottle

fpreading ramifications
laft

more

plainly than in

the

experiment.

Alfo

this plain

white fpace being

touched with a pofitive bottle, (by chalk thrown off

the furface^ fhews ramifications
filled

more

diftindly
clean

with branches than thofe

made upon

glafs or refin.

EXPERIMENT
The
rough,

XXXIV.
melted and
it

furface of a refinous plate was

fifted

powder'd rofin

upon

it

fo as to

make

very
than

this caufed the figures

to

fpread

lefs

upon a fmooth
fications
off.

plate, fo that the points

of the ramiftriking

came very near the edge without

EXPERIMENT
A
pofitive figure was

XXXV.
a refinous plate

drawn upon

and chalk projected confiderably longer than ufual, and then on examining the figure there appeared
fmall

ON ELECTRICITY.
Tmall ramified vegetations like thofe produced

S3

upon

camphire by
with flour

M.

Mofcati.

Alfo negative figures

produced the fame.

EXPERIMENT
The powders made from
defcribed in exp. 29.
are
air,

XXXVI.

the deco6tion of woods

very troublefome when

projeded in the open

tity
is loft

and a confiderable quanI

in every experiment.

therefore cona circular

i.

trived to projedt the

powder by means of
Its lid

brufli inclofed in a box.

is

A.

plate 3d. fig.

fixteen inches fquare, with edges about

an inch
is

and a half deep.

The
fides

refinous

compofition

poured within thefe edges of the

half an inch.

lid to

the depth of
far

The
at

of the box
fix

as

as the
;

perpendicular part at B. are

inches deep

the

Hoping boards

C. ten inches.

The
is

circular
is

box
fix

D.

in

which the circular brufh

inclofed

inches diameter, and three inches thick.

fmall glafs tube
is

A wire or
at

put thro' the circular box

E.

that the hairs of the brufli

when turned round by

it

the handle F.

may

flirt

againft
at

and projedl the

it

powder
the
air

thro' an

opening

C. and difFufe

into

contained within

the box,

and thus the

figures

made on
is

the refinous plate within the lid

will attract the fineft part

of the powder, or that

with the contrary
reft will fall
little

which
fl:ate

moft ftrongly

eledlrified

to that of the figure,

and the

down
it

again.
will

If the

box contains too

it

powder
and
if

be neceflary to lean

on one

fide,

there

be a large qiantity, the

left it fliou'd

brufli

muft be turned flowly

Smaller refinous
plates

throw up too much.

54
plates

NEW EXPERIMENTS
may be
fupported within the box by bars of
lid

wood

placed acrofs, and cover'd over with the

whilft the

powder

is

projedled.

EXPERIMENT
That
Leyden
I

XXXVII.

might more conveniently draw a variety

as well as try the effed:s of a very fmall
I

of figures

bottle,

made an

eledlrical

pen, by filver-

ing the infide and gilding the outfide of large ther-

mometer

tubes, from three to eight

inches long,,

with and without bulbs, covering the ends with

fealing wax.

In one end was fixed a blunt needle

conne6led with the internal metallic furface.

Some
drawing

were coated on the outfide with

ferved for the internal coating.

tin foil,

and a wire

Whilil:

with them, a charged bottle ftands ready to fupply

eledtricity

by touching

its

knob with

the point of

the needle.
cils,

Small or large knobs, camel hair pen-

thiftle

down, and other fubftances occafionally

point, produce different
effecfts,

fixed

on the

and

with the fmalleft pen lines

may be drawn

as fine as

can be

made with

ink.

EXPERIMENT
For the purpofe of making
volutes,
fide
fip-,

XXXVIII.
circles,
fpiral lines,

&c. an iron pin

lid

is

fixed to the

conducing

of the
I ;

and when

of the projeding box at G. plate 3 eleftricity is to be communicated

is

to the refinous furface, the pin

placed in a hole

made
whilft

in
it

the table, and the plate whirled round,

is

touched with the knob of a charged

bottle,

ON ELECTRICITY.
bottle,

55
fo

or

pen defcribed above,

as

to

produce

the required figure.

EXPERIMENT
The
figure nientioned
at the

XXXIX.
end of exp. 9th,

made by drawing

the brafs plate towards the edge

its

of the eleftrophorus, by

infulating handle whilft

the plate was touched by the knob of a charged

bottle,

fomewhat refembles the pi6lure of

tail
I

comet

but in the

frequently obferved that a circular

or elliptical

fpace was left without powder, which

may

rcafonably be attributed to the abforption of a

the
air,

contrary ftate of ele6tricity from

which
in that

weakens the intenfity of the charge diffufed

fpace; fee plate 3,
fig. 6.

An

electrified

cloud or

ftratum of
fire called

air

emits or abforbs balls of eledrical

ftars,

meteors or falling

to

which

this

experiment

may

bear fome refemblance.

EXPERIMENT
A circular plate of wood
was covered with
tin-foil,
1

XL.
with an

inches in diameter
furniflied
alfo

and
had

infulating handle, this plate

glafs

three feet of

about an inch long, cover'd with fealing wax.

half an inch thick and of
plate,
Vv'as

A refinous plate

lefs dia-

meter than the wooden

laid
it,

upon
its

a table,

and the wooden plate placed over

feet {land-

ing upon the table on the outfide of the refinous

plate, fo that the furface

of the wooden plate ftood

about half an inch higher than the furface of the

refinous ylite.

The knob

of a charged bottle was

applied

50
applied to the
ed.

NEW EXPERIMENTS
wooden
plate which was then

remov-

Upon

projeding powder the furface of the

covered with circular
elliptical

refinous plate was

and irregular fpots and rings.

If the charge was

weak there appeared only

fmall

round

fpots,

but a

ftrong charge produced rings broader or narrower

according to the Hate of the

charge.

air

and ftrength of the

After touching the wooden plate with a

pofitive bottle, I
little

fometimes removed the plate a

pofition,

from

its

firft

and then touched

it

with a negative bottle, and inftead of a fingle powder, the mixture of

minium and fulphur were blown

which diftinguifhed

upon the

plate, as in exp. 22,

the pofitive and negative rings by the yellow and red colours.

Upon

examining thefe rings by the method

it

def-

cribed in exp. 24,

appeared that the whole fpace

included within the rings was covered with eledlricity

,

and yet the powder was only attraded by the

diminifhed by the equally furroundildes.

edges of the fpace, probably becaufe the intenfity

of the middle

is

ing repulfion of the

The

circles

of green grafs called fairy rings are

with great probability attributed to the efFeds of

lightning.
vol. 2.

See Dr. Prieftley's Hift. of Eledricity,

this

page 274, of which

experiment

may

be

efteemed a tolerable

artificial imitation.

SECT.

ON ELECTRICITY.

57

SECTION
Experiments in which
ele5iricity is

IV.

condenfed or rarified

by the evaporation of water from various fuhjlances.

IN
I

a treatife

on

eledlricity

by

M. I'AbbeHauy,

find that fince

M.

Volta's difcovery of eledri-

city

produced by evaporation of water from hot

MefTrs. Lavoifier and

coals,

De

la

Place have refolid or fluid

marked, that bodies paffing from a

ftate into

vapour, give unequivocal figns of pofitive

or negative eledricity.

large veiTel containing

a quantity of iron filings was infulated and conned:-

ed with

M.

Volta's condenfer.

Three

parts

of

water and one of vitriolic acid were poured upon the

filings,

which caufed a brifk effervefcence, and a

air,

rapid difcharge of inflammable

and

in

few

minutes the condenfer became

that
it

(o firongly

charged
eledlro-

gave a very
it

fenfible fpark,

and by the

meter

was found to be negative.

The

producefFeil.

tion of fixed

and nitrous

airs

had the fame

filled

Alfo chafing difhes infulated and

coal
city

with lighted
eleftri-

produced very clear figns of negative

after

the combuftion of the coal.

It

appears

that in thefe experiments, the fubftances evaporated

carry away from the vefiels with which they are in

contadl, a part

of their

natural eledricity.

But

when

water was poured upon red hot iron pans the

elcc-

58
elecflricity

NEW EXPERIMENTS
was no more negative as
in the

former

experiments, but decidedly politive.

Thefe expeof

riments were communicated

fciences in the year 1781.

to

the academy

M.
of

de SaufTure has

alfo tried

many experiments
iron,

this

kind by plunging hot iron and other metals

in water,
brafs,

and pouring water into crucibles of

copper, filver or porcelain.

diftilled water,

Sometimes he
was fome-

ufed

alfo fpirit

of wine and ether,

and

in thefe experiments the electricity

times politive, fometimes negative, and fometimes

neither.

M.

de Sauflure thinks that when the operation

at

which converts the water into vapour,

time decompofes
contad,
it
it,

the fame
it is

or the body with which

in

produces a

new quantity of the

eledrical

matter, and that the veiTel ufed in the operation be-

comes

pofitive, negative,
is

or neither, according as

the fluid produced

that which
is

fuperior, inferior, or equal to

taken from the veflel by evaporation.

is

An

account of thefe curious experiments

con-

tained in the fecond

vels over the Alps,

volume of M. de
page 227.

SaufTure's tra-

The

gold leaf eleftrometer being well adapted to

I

the performance of experiments of this kind,

was

induced to repeat fome of them with variations in

hopes of new appearances.

And

fince almoft every

fubftance in the whole chemical nomenclature

may
its

thus

be

fubjecfted

to

the adion of

fire,

and

affinity

with eledricity in a ftate of vapour examined.

ON ELECTRICITY.
ned, new fads

59

may

yet arife which will produce

new

theories, therefore the following experiments are

placed

ill

the order they were tried without regard

to fyftem.

EXPERIMENT
A
bafon of tinned iron about
fix

I.

inches wide at

the bottom, and eight inches at the top, was placed

upon the cap of a gold

inch deep.

leaf ele(5lrometer.

The
and

bottom of the bafon was cover'd with water about an

An

iron chifTel was heated red hot,

dropped into the water,

one end being immerfed

veffel.

and the other

refting

on the edge of the

The

gold leaf gradually open'd about an inch negatively,

then clofed and open'd pofitively, remaining pofitive to

5.

the end of the experiment.

See plate

5,

EXPERIMENT
The
chifiel

II.
in

was heated more than

the

laft

ex-

periment, and the gold leaf ftruck the fides of the

cle6lrometer
fix

times negatively, then

it

changed

and flood

at half

an inch pofitive to the end.

EXPERIMENT
The
it

III.
it

chifiel

was again made very hot and

fi:rike

caufed

the gold leaf to

often negatively, after which,

clofed, but never open'd pofitively.

EXP.

6o

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
The
fire,

IV.

chiflel
it

was heated very much by blowing the

and

caufed the gold leaf to ftrike fourteen

times negatively but no pofitive eledrlcity appeared, this was repeated above twenty times without

any produdion of pofitive

eledlricity.

EXPERIMENT
Upon
ed upon
in the

V.

obferving that the

its

chifl"el

was

much calcincalx,

furface,

by being
I

fo frequently heated

above experiment,
it

rubbed oiF the

it

and heated
ced
firft
;

again, and found that now

produ-

negative and then pofitive eledtricity, as

before

whence

it

appeared that

its

produdion of
fliate

pofitive electricity

depended upon the metallic

of the

iron.

EXPERIMENT
A
produced
firft

VI.

large bar of copper and a piece of brais were

alfo

heated red hot and plunged in the water, which

negative and then pofitive eledlricity.

EXPERIMENT
Melted lead was dropped
gold leaf pofitively.

VII.

into water contained in

the bafon as above, which gradually opened the

EXPERIMENT
Melted lead being dropped
vefl!el

VIII.

into a

deep narrow
it,

almoft

full

of water did not

eledlrify

fince
it

ON ELECTRICITY.
it

6t

emitted no vapour,

it is

therefore not the

mere

decompofition of the metal but the formation of a

certain kind of

vapour which excites

electricity.

EXPERIMENT
'

IX.

BoiHng Mercury was dropped from an earthen

crucible into a fmall quantity of water in a porcelain

cup ftanding upon the cap of the eledlrometer which

caufed the gold leaf to open pofitively.

EXPERIMENT
tive repulfion only.

X.

Several thin pieces of bell metal were heated red

hot and dropped into water, which caufed a nega-

EXPERIMENT
An

XI.
filled

earthen unglazed flower pot was half

with red hot cinders, then the other half was

filled

with chopped grafs, which caufed the gold leaf to

open with

pofitive elecflricity,

and to continue

ftrik-

ing the fides a confiderable time.

In the fame
lettuces, turnip

manner were

tried

cabbage leaves,

tops and roots, and chick weed, with the fame refults.

EXPERIMENT
hot cinders as above, which fmoked

XII.

Turnings of dry afh wood were thrown upon the

much
till

without

caufing any repulfion of the gold leaf

water was

added, which caufed a

fl:rong pofitive ^ledlricity.

EXP.

62

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
Dry hay was
and then
it

XIII.

burnt In the flower pot, as above,

eledlriclty
till

which produced no

water was added,

became ftrongly

pofitive.

EXPERIMENT
The
flower pot wis placed
into the middle,
tively; then

XIV.
elecflrometer

upon the

with red hot cinders alone, and water was dropped

which open'd the gold

it

leaf nega-

more water open'd

pofitively.

The

cinders were renewed, and water dropped in the

middle open'd the gold leaf negatively, then drop-

ped near the

flde

open'd

it

pofitively,

again in the

middle negatively.

EXPERIMENT
tive with water only,
I

XV.

Since the cinders became both pofitive and negarepeated the above experi-

ments on green and dry vegetables with a red hot

earthen crucible, but without any difl^erence in the
refult.

A fquare piece of brick was

and
all

firft

placed

upon

the eledtrometer, to prevent the heat from injuring

it

in this

the fubfequent experiments, in

it.

which red hot bodies were to be placed upon

EXPERIMENT
A
fpoonful of
fait

XVI.
;

was thrown into the red hot

a

crucible,

which open'd the gold leaf negatively

in,

fecond quantity was thrown

fitive.

and

it

became po-

EXP.

ON ELECTRICITY.

63

EXPERIMENT
The
fait

XVII.

crucible being again heated two fpoonfuls of

in,

were thrown
i

which open'd the gold leaf po-

fitively

then water was dropped into the middle

of the

fait,

which changed

its

eledricity to negative;

then more water dropped near the fide of the crucible open'd the gold leaf pofitively
;

then again in

the middle negatively.

EXPERIMENT
Salt and water were

XVIII.
into the

mixed and dropped

red hot crucible, which caufed a ftrong negative repulfion

;

then after the water was evaporated more

was dropped in the middle, which renewed the negative repulfion

fide,
till

the water was dropped near the

pofitive
i

when

it

became

this

change from

poiitive to negative

was often repeated.

EXPERIMENT
A fmall
gatively
black,
,

XIX.

quantity of

fait

was thrown into the red

hot crucible, which caufed the gold leaf to open ne-

then the

fait

remained

till

it

was burnt
pofi-

and water being added caufed a ftrong

tive repulfion.

EXPERIMENT
The
vitriolic

XX.

and nitrous acids were feverally

dropped upon red hot bricks, which open'd the

gold leaf pofitively.

The

bricks were tried before

and

after the

experiments with water, which caufed

a negative repulfion.

EXP.

64

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
A large red hot cinder was placed
trometer, and olive
oil

XXI.
upon the
it,

elec-

dropped upon
elecftricity,

producing

a copious fmoke, but no

then water was

added, which open'd the gold leaf negatively.

EXPERIMENT
Olive
oil

XXII.
in a phial,

and water were fhook together

and both poured upon a red hot piece of caft iron

about an inch thick, 4 inches broad, and 5 inches
long, which open'd the gold leaf ftrongly negative.

EXPERIMENT
Vitriolic

XXIII.

and nitrous acid were dropped upon

the caft iron, which open'd the gold leaf pofitively.

EXPERIMENT
prefled

XXIV.
iron,
till

Dry hay was placed upon the caft down by a ftone placed upon it

and
was

it

burnt black, then water was added, which open'd

the gold leaf pofitively.
oft",

The hay

was then bruftied

iron,
till

and more water dropped upon the

which

caufed the gold leaf to open pofitively,

face

the fur-

was well cleaned and heated again,

when

it

produced negative.

EXPERIMENT
An
iron,

XXV.
eledlriclty,
till

heap of wheat flour was placed upon the hot which fmoked without any

water was added, which open'd the gold leaf pofitively.

EXP.

OM ELECTRICITY.

65

EXPERIMENT
Sand placed upon the hot
iron,

XXVI.
and water added,

open*d the gold leaf negatively.

EXPERIMENT
Lump
no
fugar placed
ele(5lricity till

XXVII.
iron produced
refi-

upon the hot

water was added to the burnt

duum, which open'd the gold leaf pofitively.

EXPERIMENT
and water dropped upon
pofitively
:

XXVIH.
iron,

Powder'd charcoal was placed upon the hot

it,

open'd the gold leaf

but when water was dropped upon a red

it

hot piece of charcoal

caufed a negative repulfion,

EXPERIMENT
iron produced negative repulfion
fo hot as to

XXIX,
when
the iron was

Red and white port wine dropped upon the hot

produce no
eledtricity

with water alone,

which was tried before and after the wine.

EXPERIMENT
duced pofitive
eledricity.

XXX.
rafberry wine and

Rafberry wine dropped upon the hot iron pro-

The

red port were alternately dropped upon the fame

iron five or fix times fucceffively, which changed the
eledlricity

from

pofitive

to negative each time.

Alfo feveral other fweet wines were tried, which as

well as fugar

and water produced

pofitive eledricity.

EXP,

66

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
ftrong poiitivc eledlricity.

XXXI.

Frefh urine poured upon the hot iron produced

EXPERIMENT
Milk poured upon
negative repulfion, and even

XXXII.

the hot iron caufed a ftrong

when water was added

became weakly

to the burnt refiduum, except in fome inftances

when

it

was burnt very black,

it

pofitive.

EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
Ale produced no
eledricity

XXXIII.

Butter was burnt upon the hot iron, and water

added caufed a ftrong negative repulfion.

XXXIV.
till

water was added

pofitive,

to the burnt refiduum, which

became

EXPERIMENT
Dry
tea leaves were burnt

XXXV.
iron,

upon the hot

and

water added open'd the gold leaf pofitively, alfo

black pepper and tobacco.

EXPERIMENT
Sope
firft

XXXVI.

burnt on the hot iron and then water

added, alfo fope and water mixed produced a ftrong

negative repulfion.

EXP.

ON ELECTRICITY.

6/

EXPERIMENT
melted, then water dropped upon

XXXVII.
it firft

Tin- foil was placed upon the hot iron which foon

open'd the

gold leaf negatively, then weakly pofitive.

EXPERIMENT
Alum
tricity
till

XXXVIII.
elec-

burning on the hot iron produced no

water was added to the burnt refiduum,

which caufed a ftrong pofitive repulfion.

EXPERIMENT
Moift
fait

XXXIX.

of tartar was thrown upon the hot iron

which caufed the gold leaf to open ftrongly negative, its

vapours condenfed

fo

quick upon the tube

it

ufed for trying the eleftricity, that

difficulty that
it

was with fome

cou'd be excited.

EXPERIMENT
ter alone

XL.

Saliva produced pofitive eleftricity.

When

wa-

was producing negative repulfion, fpitting

it

upon

it

wou'd immediately change

to pofitive.

EXPERIMENT
added to the burnt refiduum.

XLI.
till

Yeafl was ftrongly pofitive, but not

water was

EXPERIMEN.T
fion.

XLII.

Cotton and linen rags were burnt on the hot iron,

and water added, produced a weak pofitive repul-

EXP.

6S

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
the hot iron, and

XLIII.
or^'

Sheep's wool, feathers, and hair, were burnt

when

a fingle

drop of water was

added, the gold leaf ftruck the fides of the electro-

meter pofitively.

EXPERIMENT
iron,

XLIV.

Rafped horn and bone were burnt upon the hot

which produced pofitive eledricity when water
fo ftrong as in the laft ex-

was added, but not near

periment.

EXPERIMENT
Powder'd
pit coal

XLV.
upon the
addi-

was placed upon the hot Iron,

eledlricity

which produced pofitive

tion of water.

EXPERIMENT
iron,

XLVI.

Frefh fheep's blood was dropped upon the hot

which produced pofitive eledricity.

EXPERIMENT
and three inches diameter, was

XLVII.
inch thickj

A hollow piece of bell metal about an

caft

on purpofe to

repeat thefe experiments upon, moft of which were

again tried, but

wii-'h

no remarkable

difference, ex-

cept that water produced negative eledtrlcity with

more

certainty.

Upon
bell

the iron

it

was fometlmes

negative, fometimes pofitive,

all
;

but moftly none at

it

whereas on the

metal

was almoft always

negative.

EXP.

ON ELECTRICITY.

69 XLVIII.

EXPERIMENT
Vinegar produced no

eledlricity
till

when dropped

upon the hot

pulfion.

bell metal,

water was added to the

burnt refiduum, which caufed a ftrong pofitive re-

EXPERIMENT
The
fire,

XLIX.
too hot and

bell

metal was at

laft
it

made

therefore broke
I

to pieces as

was taken out of the

therefore again had recourfe to caft iron, and

for the fake

of its holding

fluid fubftances, I

turned

a caft metal weight Co as to have a very fmooth

concave furface

in the

middle, and a concave rim

I

near the edge, fb that

cou'd place upon

it

feveral

fubftances at once without mixing.

The lean
iron,

part of a leg of veal was

chopped

fmall,
cafl;

and a fmall quantity placed upon the red hot

which caufed the gold

leaf to

open

pofitively,

but after burning fome time water was added, which

changed

its eledlricity.

EXPERIMENT
The
fat

L.

of veal was burnt upon the hot iron,

ele6tricity
till

which produced no

water was added,

which caufed a ftrong negative repulfion both before

and

after

it

was burnt black.

EXPERIMENT
without producing
eleftricity
;

LI.

Nitre was put upon the hot iron, which melted

then water was drop-

ped upon

it,

which exploded without producing

anv

70
any
elevftricity
,

NEW EXPERIMENTS
fometimes fmall globules of water
time upon the melted
nitre,

jfloated a coniiderable

and then fuddenly exploded without ever producing

any
is

eledlrical repulfion

or gradual evaporation, as

ufual with other fubftances.

EXPERIMENT
with the addition of water.

LII.
eledlricity,

Bees wax produced ftrong negative

EXPERIMENT
fltive eledcricity.

LIII.

Verdegreafe with water produced very weak po-

EXPERIMENT
EXPERIMENT
water, alfo water added

LIV.
v;hcii

Powder'd antimony fmoked much, and

water was added the gold leaf open'd negatively.

LV.

Carraway feeds dropped upon the hot iron caufed

a ftrong negative repulfion without the addition of

when they were burnt black

open'd the elecftrometer negatively.

EXPERIMENT
Hemp
weak
it

LVI.
iron caufed a

feed thrown

upon the hot

politive repulfion, but

politive.

when water was added

became ftrongly

EXPERIMENT
A tea fpoonful of

LVII.
ron-

water was dropped into the

ON ELECTRICITY.

^1

concave hot iron which did not produce any repulfion,

then fome powder'd

gum

arabic was

added

which caufed the gold leaf to diverge pofitively,

then bees wax was
alfo

added which caufed

it

to be-

come

negative.

EXPERIMENT
Thefe two
laft

LVIII.
on the
produced

fubftances were dropped

firfl:

hot iron in the reverfed order which

negative and then pofitive.

EXPERIMENT
which caufed no repulfion
till

LIX.
ironj,

Muftard feed was dropped upon the hot

water was added to

the burnt reilduum, which open'd the gold leaf

negatively.

EXPERIMENT
Linfeed produced no
electricity

LX.
till

water wa^
elec-

added to the black refiduum, which open'd the

trometer weakly negative.

The

iron was then

made

hotter,

and the addition of water produced

pofitive.

EXPERIMENT
Canary feed
tion of water
it

LXI.

alfo

produced negative by the addiwas burnt very black and then

alfo anife feed,

till it
:

became

pofitive

and fennel feed^

were like the canary.

E4

EXP.

72

NEW EXPERIMENTS

EXPERIMENT
with the addition of water.

LXII.
eledlricity

Burnt millet feed produced pofitlve

EXPERIMENT
Water added
feeds,

LXIII.

to burnt coriander and

till

cummin
it

produced negative eledricity

the refiduum

had continued burning a long time, and then

became

pofitive.

EXPERIMENT
Hitherto
the eledtricity the vapours afcend, has

LXIV.
I

of the apparatus, whence

been only examined.

now

fattened a piece of paper

upon a bent
vapours

wire,

which being placed in the cap of the eledlrometer

hung over the hot

iron, fo that the

in

af.

cending might pafs over the paper, and fhew whether this eledrical ftate wou'd in any inftance be of
the fame kind obferved in the veflel.

EXPERIMENT
The vapour
in exp. 29.

LXV.
ftate

of red port wine was tried as above

and found pofitive, contrary to the

of the iron

EXPERIMENT
The vapour

LXVI.

of rafberry wine was found to be ne-

gative contrary to the ftate of the iron in exp. 30.

Alfo wine made from bilberries, and fugar and water

xmixed, produced negative vapours.

EXP.

ON ELECTRICITV.

73

EXPERIMENT
The vapour
negative.

LXVII.
pofitive, but the
it

of pure water was

addition of a fmall quantity of faliva changed

to

EXPERIMENT
The vapour
examined.

LXVIII.
firft

of

raifin

wine was

pofitive

and

then negative, and the reverfe when the iron was

EXPERIMENT
As
out any
vifible

LXIX.

carraway feed produced negative electricity

without the addition of water, and therefore with-

vapour except

little

fmoke, the

paper fixed upon the eledrometer was feveral times

placed at different diftances above the hot iron,
whilft the carraway feeds were burning,
tricity

but no elec-

appeared.

EXPERIMENT
The
was placed
in the

LXX.
full

fquare brick which fupported the hot iron

middle of an earthen plate

of

water, and ftanding

upon the

eledlrometer, then

the hot iron being laid

upon the brick and out of

the reach of the water, wool was burnt

upon

it,

and a fpoonful of water added

was cover'd with a
glafs jar

lafi:ly,

the whole

with

its

mouth immerfed
no
elec-

in the water that the

vapour might not efcape withj

out touching the water

tricity

in this experiment

appeared.

From

74

NEW EXPERIMENTS
From
thefe experiments
it

appears that various

mineral,

vegetable,

and animal fubftances when

was remarked in the be-

evaporated, caufe a pofitive or negative divergency

of the eledrometer, and

it

ginning of this fedion that

M.

de

Saufilire attri-

buted

thefe efFedts to the generation

:

of a new quanftate

tity o; the eleftrical fluid

but fince the

is

of the

electricity

of the afcending vapour

contrary to
it

that of the infulated veflel whence

it rifes,

now

feems more probable that the vapour thus produced

acquires
its

pofitive or negative ftate, becaufe its

is

affinity with the eledlrical fluid

greater or

lefs

than
is

that of the veflel, and that when a particle of vapour

but
its

juft in conta6l with the furface

whence

it rifes,

capacity to

become
it is

pofitive or negative

is

much

greater than

when

entirely furrounded with air

and thus

if

the vapour becomes pofitive by abforbvefl*el,

ing eledtricity from the

the

vefl'el

will

be*

come

negative and v. v. without the neceflity of

fuppofing a new quantity of the fluid to be generated

in this procefs.

SECT,

N ELECTRICITY.

75

SECTION

V.

A defcription of a douhler of eleBricity by which a very

fmall quantity of ele^ricity may he augmented
beco7nes fenfible by
till it

common ele^rometers^ or

vifible in

fparks.

THE
fuch an
difcoveries

great importance of a machine for the

purpofe of detedling very fmall quantities of

eledlricity has

occurred to
to

many

eleclricians,

as

by

aflirtant it is

be hoped that important

in the atmofpheric eledlriit

may be made

city as well as in chemical experiments, wherein

may

be fuipe6led that elecTricity

is

combined with

other fubrtances.

And many curious and well conmade from

balls,

trived electrometers have been

the time
till

that Mr. Canton

firft

ufed his pith

Mr.

Cavallo fubilituted fine wires and balls fufpended in a glafs

:

but thefe as well as

my gold

leaf electrome-

ter were incapable of difcovering fuch very fmall

communications of eleAricity as were made fenfible

by Mr. Volta's condenfer, which by means of a thin
coated eledric
ter quantity
is

capable of receiving a
elec5trical

much

grea-

of the

fluid

than a

common
and

infulated conductor of the

fluid

fame dimenfion, which

pofitive

becomes

fenfible

by feparating the

negative fides of the charged plate.

nious contrivance

On

this inge-

Mr. Cavnllo made

a very confi-

derabla

76

NEW EXPERIMENTS

derable improvement by transferring the electricity

contained in the upper plate to another condenfer

of fmaller dimenfion,
tranf. vol. 72.

as

explained in the philof.

Yet notwithftanding
this

the very great

fenlibility

of

apparatus, atmofpheric eledlricity cannot alit,

ways be difcovered by

for
is

inftance,

when the
the

negative ftate of falling rain

nearly equal to
it falls.

pofitive ftate of the air thro' which

The
liar

following inftrument (which from

its

pecu-

manner of augmenting fmall

I

quantities of elec-

tricity

have named the

cledlrical

doubler) will

render

much

fmaller quantities of eledlricity fenfible

than the above-mentioned double condenfer, unlefs

the
firft

condenfer exceeds the dimenfion of the

fe-

cond

as

much

as fhall render

its

power equal

to

a
fo

given number of operations of the doubler, and

far they

may

be conftder'd as the fame inftrument,

is

for the doubler

only a condenfer multiplying

:

its

capacity in geometrical progreftion

city

but this capa-

augments
its

fo

quick that a double condenfer

at the

equal to

power
in

twentieth operation muft

if

be 40 yards

diameter

the doubler and fmaller

condenfer be only 2 inches.

The

fenfibility

of the doubler was evinced by

an eledrico-meteorological diary kept for above a

month, during which time

led and
diary
I

never failed to colele6lricity.

dlftinguifti

atmofpheric

This

undertook

at the requeft of

my

friend, Dr.

Darwin, who hoped fome important atmofpheric

difcoveries

might be made thereby, and which

ac-

companied

ON ELECTRICITY.
companled

JJ

my

defcrlption of the doubler prefented

to the Royal Society by the Dean of Lincoln, and

printed in the philof. tranf. vol.

'j^.

This inftrument
tion confifts

in its firft

and (impleft conftruc-

of two polifhed brafs plates with infu-

lating handles.
fide

The

handle of one

is

fixed

on the

of the plate, and the other on the middle, and

ift.

ftanding perpendicularly, fee plate

The

plates are varnifhed

on the underfide, and

fixed

the handles are

made of mahogany, and

to

the plates by infulating nuts of glafs cover'd with

fealing wax.

The method
became
fenfible,

of collecting

eledlricity

from the
it till

atmofphere, and continually augmenting

it

was thus performed.

I

In dry weather

carried into the

open

air a light-

ed torch not liable to be eafiiy blown out, or a fmali

lantern with a lighted candle in
it,

to the bottom of

which was fixed by means of a focket an infulating

handle of
glafs cover'd

with fealing wax.

In the
ele-

other hand was carried a coated phial.

vating the flame a
plied
it

Then
head
it

little

higher than

my

ap-

to the

knob of the

phial, holding

in this

Situation

about half a minute.

eledlricity

have found that more

By this means I may be collected

by F. Beccaria.
I

than by an exploring wire infulated and fixed to the

top of a church

fteeple,

as pradifed

Having thus

collefted a fufl'icient charge

return'd

into the houfe and applied the

knob of

the phial to

the cap of the gold leaf eledlrometer, upon which I

placed the plate (b) touching

it

with the forefinger

ftrctched

y^

NEW EXPERIMENTS
;

ftretched over the infulatlng nut

by

this operation

the eledlricity contained in the phial fpreads upon the cap which ferves as a condenfing plate, and electrifies

the plate (b) contrarily, becaufe

is

it is

conned-

ed with the earth, and the varnifh

charged eledric.

interpofed as a

The
lifted

phial being

now removed
(h)
is

and the forefinger

up, the plate

fepa-

rated from the cap, and the plate (c) placed

its

upon

upper

fide

and touched by ftretching a finger

its

over the nut of

is

infulating handle, this laft plate

then eledrified contrary to (b) and the finger

feparated

being removed, and the plate (c)

(b)
it

from
be of

will

be evident to eledricians that the elec(c) will

tricity

of the cap and that of the plate

the fame kind, and nearly of equal quantity, fo that the original charge
I
is

now doubled.

then apply the edge of the plate (c) to the

fide

of the cap, and placing (b) as before, and

it

touching

again, the eledlricity of (c) as well as

that of the cap, both aft

upon the

plate (h)

and

the intenfity
to both
;

of its

contrary eled:ricity becomes equal

then removing (c) which comes away

;

uneledrified

take off

my

forefingers
it 1

from (b)
proceed as

and

lift it

up, and placing (cj upon

before, thus continuing to repeat this doubling procefs

till

the gold

leaf diverges fufficiently to exaits eleftricity

;

mine the quality of

leaf be
till
firfi;

or if the gold

taken out, the procefs

may

be continued

fparks appear.

In rainy weather the knob of the phial was applied to the infulating handle of an umbrella, or to

ON ELECTRICITY.
a torch carried

79

under

it,

and

in this

manner

contill

tinued to

examine atmofpheric eledricity,

conftrudled a

more convenient apparatus

elelricity is

defcribed

in fedion the eighth.

To

prove that the

doubled,

it

may-

be obferved that the gold leaf opens to about twice

the diftance at each operation, and the application

of the plate
placed in
it,

(c)

to the fide of the cap, or to a wire

does not diminifh the divergency of

is

the gold leaf tho' in this fituation their eledtricity

dilFufed over double the quantity

of furface, and

admitting that the charge

is

doubled every time,

which
is

is

not far

from

the truth whilft the intenfity

will

weak, the twentieth operation

augment the
original
in lefs

iirft

quantity of eleftricity above

300,000 times,
its

and

this procefs even with a doubler in

ftate

and moft imperfed

time than a minute.

may be performed

SECT,

Z0

NEW EXPERIMENTS

SECTION
Improvements of the ele5lrkal

VI.

doiihler^

with expert-

ments made to difcover the caufes and obviate the

inconvenience of its adhering or fpontaneous ele5iri^
city.

SOME time
vol. yy,

after the

conftrudion of

my

doubjer
tranf.

of eledricity defcribed in the philof.

and

in the

above

fedlion,

found that on

performing the doubling procefs a

fufficient

number

of times,

it

always produced eledlricity without pre-

vious communication,
likely to prevent
it

even

after

every method
yet this impe-

had been

tried

diment was not

ufelefs, for the

fo great as to render the inftrument

adherent or Spontaneous eledricity

in the beginning

of the procefs, when the inftrubeing very fmall, was

ment was
eaiily

cautioufly ufed,

overcome by that which was communicated

and
in cafe

in atmofpheric experiments,

of doubt

the atmofpheric eledlricity was diftinguifhable by

applying the bottle which collected

firft

it,

to the

two

plates alternately as mentioned in

my defcription
its

of the inftrument.

However

to

deprive the doubler entirely of

eleftricity,

adherent or fpontaneous
defirable circumftance, as

was thought a

its fenfibility it

wou'd then

be

much

greater,

and confequently

might with

more

ON ELECTRICITY.
Inore certainty be applied to the difcovery of
eledrical fads,

Ol

new
fec-

and which
be
at

in this

and the next

tion

hope

will

fufficiently

proved.

Dr. Darwin,
difh,

the defire of Lord G. A. Caven-

made
to

the

firft

attempt with two plates moving

between two others by a lever, fo as to bring them

exa6lly

the

fame pofition

in

each operation.
in-

This contrivance he foon improved by another

ftrument in which the plates flood vertically and

moved by
wou'd
3.6k

rack work in a direction exa6lly parallel

to each other.

With

this I tried

whether the plates

without any refinous fubflance, and found

that the interpofed air was a

good

fubflitute,

and

hoped

that

now

fince

it

was not neceffary to

varnifli

the plates,

nor bring them Into contadl, the fponarife

taneous eledtricity fuppofed to

from the

acci-

dental fridtion of the plates wou'd not be produced.

This inflrument was

fent

to

Mr. Partington, and

the improvement of placing the plates near together

without varnifli was foon after mentlon'd to him in

a letter.

That

might accurately try whether the

this

inftru-

ment wou'd be improv^ed by

nifh,
I

omiflioii

of var-

made a doubler which confifled of three

and
parallel, the

plates flanding vertical

middle plate

Aiding backwards and forwards between the two

others.

The connexion between

performed by
lifting

the two external

fliding

plates was
dle,

up the

han-

and the diflance of approach was adjufled by

fcrews which flopped the foot of the middle plate

any where between adual contadl and the fpace of

half

82
half an inch.

NEW EXPERIMENTS

When

this

doubler was completed

and

its

infulating pillars entirely deprived of adhe-

ring eledricity by melting the furface of the fealing

wax which covered them, the doubling procefs was

tried,

and

it

produced negative

eledlricity at

about ten

operations, fo that this inftrument tho* free

all

from

accidental excitement was yet poflefled of fpon-

taneous eledricity.

But when

counted the doubfirft

lings and applied an infulated candle to the

and

fecond plates alternately,

cou'd eafily colled and

diftinguiih atmofpheric elecflricity in a fmall

tho' the doors

room,
I

and windows

v/erc fhut, this

tried

upon the
tirely

fuppofition that the air would not be enits

deprived of

eledricity

by pafling through

fmall openings.

The

next improvement

had

in contemplation
I

was a revolving doubler, and before

had

finifhed

my contrivance,
to fend
till

was informed that Mr. Nicholibn

had made one on the fame principles, and intended

it

me,

therefore attempted nothing

more

received his very elegant and ufeful inftrument,

Is

which

much

the beft

mode of

conftrufting

my

doubler hitherto attempted.

This doubler
moveable

confifts

of two infulated and im-

plates about

two inches in diameter, and

a moveable
pafling

plate alfo infulated which revolves in a

vertical plane parallel to the

two immoveable plates,

2.

them

alternately.

See plate

The plate
the
volves,

is

conftantly infulated
eledlricity.
is

and receives
plate

communicated

The

re-

and when

it

oppolite the plate

A, the

conneding

Pl^ltO

11

eN ELECTRICITY.
connecfling wires at

83
crofs piece
at

the

end of the

muft touch the pins of

a wire proceeding

A
is

and

F, and

from the

plate

muft touch
connedion
be
will

the middle piece

G, which

fupported by a brafs,
pillar in

wooden, or other condu(5ling

with the earth.

In this pofition
to

if ele6lricity

communicated

the plate

A, the

plate

acquire a contrary ftate,

wires alfo

and pafling forwards, the

moving with

it

by means of the fame

till

in-

fulating axis, the plates are again infulated

plate

the

is

oppofite to C, and then the wire at

it

touches the pin in C, conneding

with the
ftate

earth,

and communicating the contrary

to that of

of

electricity

B but of the fame kind

the

with

that of

A.

By moving

handle

ftill

further

is

again brought oppofite to

A, and

the connedtadl

ing wires joining

and C. they both

upon B,
and
of

which

is

conneded with the earth as

its

before,

nearly double

intenfity, whilft the eledricity

is

abforbed into

becaufe of the increafed caits

pacity of

A,

whilft

oppofed to B, capable by

connexion with the earth of acquiring a contrary

ftate fufficient to balance the influential

atmolpheres

of both plates.

Thus by
procefs
is

continuing to revolve the plate B, the

performed in a very expeditious and ac-

curate manner.

The

ball

is

made

heavier on one fide than

axis oppofite to the

the other, and fcrew'd

upon the

handle, to counterbalance the plate B, which

therefore be ftopped in any part of
its

may
Yet

revolution.

F2

NEW EXPERIMENTS
Yet notwithftanding the convenience and accualways produced fpontaneous

racy of this doubler

eledricity,
in its

it

even

after all the refinous fubftances ufed

conftrudion had been melted over a candle,

long time with
I

and

after (landing a

its

plates in con-

nexion with the

this

earth.

therefore conjedured that

fpontaneous eledricity was not owing to acci-

dental fridlion, but to the increafed capacity of ap-

proximating parallel plates which might

retain their charge tho' neither of
lated.

attradl

and

them were

infu-

To

prove

my hypothefis

I firft

endeavoured
inftru-

more

effedlually

and fpeedily to deprive the

ment of the
I

eleftricity laft

communicated, and that

fpontaneous charge fup-

might know whether

arife

this

pofed to

from the increafed capacity of the pawou'd be always of the fame kind.

rallel plates,

To

efFe6t this deprivation I

conneded the

plates

and

together by a wire hooked at each end

fmall knobs on the backs of the plates,

upon two

the middle of the fame wire touching the pillar

which fupports the doubler.

Another wire was

which counter-

hooked
and

at

one end upon the back of the plate B, end to the brafs
ball

at the other

balances this plate.

Thus

all

the plates were con-

nected with the earth, and by turning the handle of

the doubler,

it

might be difcharged of eledricity

revolution.

in

every part of

its

After often trying this method of depriving the

doubler, I obferved that
its

fpontaneous charge was

then touched

almoft always negative.

and

with a pofitively charged bottle, and turned the

doubler

ON ELECTRICITY.
doiibler
tlJl it

85
a

produced fparks for

long time to1

gether; and after this ftrong pofitive charge

hooked

on the wires
doubler of

as

above, and revolved the plate

fo

about an hundred times, which

its

deprived the

pofitive eledricity that

it

when the

wires were taken off,

at

produced a negative charge

it

about the fame number of revolutions which

required before.

The
before,

pofitlvely charged bottle

was again applied,

plates,

and the wires being hooked upon the

as

was revolved only

fufficient to

fifty
it

times, yet this

was found

deprive

of

its

pofitive

charge, and in

many experiments
;

five or fix revoit

lutions were fufficient

to fl:op at fo few,

but

never thought

fafe

and have therefore generally turned

the handle forty or fifty times between every expe-

riment.

Left

elecflricity

adhering

to

the

elecflrometer
I

fhou'd obftrudl the above experiments,

let it ftand

did not
its

in

contad with the doubler during

revolutions, but touched the plate

with the cap

its eled:ricity

of the eledlrometer, after

fuppofed
:

was become

fufficiently fenfible

but

left

even this
I

contadl fhou'd communicate any eledricity,

made

a cap for

my

eledlrometer of fhell

lac,

having a

fmall tin tube in the center, to which the gold leaf

was fufpended within the

fixed to the top which
plate

glafs,

and

a bent wire

was

might

eafily

be joined to the

of the doubler, and thus the gold leaf was

infulated,

more perfedly

and the
3

eledlricity

cou*d
not

S6

NEW EXPERIMENTS
The
glafs

not be diffufed over fo large a furface.

which

infulates the plates

alfo

and

crofs
lac.

piece of the

doubler was

cover'd with fhell

The

doubler and
I

ele(5lrometer being

now

well

infulated,

proceeded to try the following experi*

ments to
city

afcertain

whether the fpontaneous

electri-

was attracted by the approximation of uninfu*

lated parallel plates.

EXPERIMENT
The
hooked
doubler was deprived of

I.

ele<5lricity

by

re-

volving the plate

to
all

forty times with brafs wires

the plates, and during this depriva-

tion the electrometer was connedled with the plate

by means of a

brafs wire.

then took off the wires

whilll the plate

flood

between
its

and A,
;

in the

upper part of the plane of

revolution

and turn-

ing the handle towards the right hand, the gold leaf

open'd negatively about a quarter of an inch, with

twenty-one revolutions.

EXPERIMENT
The
plate

II.

doubler was

deprived of eledricity,

as

before, and whilft the plate

flood parallel to the

A, the

brafs wires were taken off, then turn-

ing the handle forwards, the gold leaf open'd a

quarter of an inch negatively at the fixteenth revolution.

Thefe experiments were repeated about

rable difference in the refults

thirty

times, and on difl"erent days, vv'ithout any confide-,

the

number of

re-

volutions

ON ELECTRICITY.
volutions being always greater

87
plates fet

when the

out from a

fingle pofition than

when the
parallel.

wires were

taken off whilll;

A
is

and

were

The
fame

plate

placed at the diftance of i-i6th

plates,

of an inch from the other

and remains the

It

in the following experiments.

may

be ne-

ceflary to note this circumftance, for doubtlefs the

number of revolutions,
afunder.

if

not other refults wou'd

vary, if the plates were placed nearer or farther

EXPERIMENT
A copper plate thirteen inches
ing
its

III.

in

diameter hav-

furface rather convex,

was furnifhed with an

infulating handle of oiled glafs, four inches long

and baked
of the

till

the oil was well hardened.

One end

glafs

was fixed into a copper focket in the

middle of the plate, and the other end into wood,

that
it

might not be neceffary

to

touch the

electric

part of the handle.

This copper-plate was placed

and the doubler being dethe
plate

upon

mahogany
its

table,

prived of
parallel to

electricity,

was

placed

A,

fo that

was connected with the

earth, then the copper-plate was lifted up,

infulating handle,
laftly,

by

its

and applied to vhe plate A, and

being revolved only five times,

the plate

the gold leaf diverged negatively to the diftance of

a quarter of an inch.

EXPERIMENT
Left
accidental fridlion
table fhou'd

IV.

againft the
lifted

mahogany
plate,

be objected,

up the copper-

F4

S8
plate,
I

NEW EXPERIMENTS
and
after
it

touching

it

with the point of a needle,

applied

to the doubler, as before,

its
;

and found

that

the doubler did not produce

fpontaneous

electricity atlefs

than 15 revolutions
I

then touching

the plate again,

lower'd

it till

a part

of its convex

furface touched the furface of

in a large difh,
it

fome water contained

plate,
I

and

lifting

up the

applied

to

the doubler, which

caufed the gold leaf to

diverge negatively at five revolutions, as in experi-

ment

3d.

EXPERIMENT
The
beyond
of
plate
its

V.
little

B of

the doubler was placed a

former pofition,

fo that its wire did not

touch the middle piece, and confequently tho' moft

its

furface was parallel to the plate

yet

it

was

infjlated.
after
it

The
at

copper plate was then applied to

had touched the water

as in the laft experi-

ment, and

the fame time the plate

it

A was touched
About

by

a brafs wire, to conneft

with the earth.

five revolutions

produced a very

fenfible pofitive di-

vergency of the eledrometer, as might be expeded

in confequence

of the negative charge being com-,

inftead of

municated to

A,
VI.

EXPERIMENT
By
ments
tricity
I

a frequent repetition of the foregoing experl-.

was

fully

convinced of the attradion of elecparallel

by approximating

plates

but hi-

therto the charge was negative, and fufpecting that

other fubftances might have a pofitive affinity with

the

ON ELECTRICITY.

89

the fluid, and efpecially if my conjectures concern-ing projected powders

and vapours were true

therefore cover'd the furface of the copper plate

with a mixture of

gum

water and minium, alfo with

gum

water and wheat flour, and found that thefe

fubftances

when

dried

upon the

furface of the cop-

per, changed

its electricity,

fo that

when

it

was apit

plied to the plate

A,
it

as

in

experiment 3d,

pro-

duced

a pofitlve charge,

and when applied to B, as

in experiment 5th,

produced a negative charge,

If

as
its

might be expected

the painted copper plate by

uninfulated approximation to the furface of the

table or water abforbed a poiitive charge,

mahogany

EXPERIMENT
To
more confpicuoufly
fenfible,
1

VII.

render the electricity of approximating plates

ground a
till It

brafs plate

three inches diameter with

emery

would adhere

to the furface of a piece of black marble.

plate
its

This

and marble therefore

ftate.

confliitute a

condenfer in

original
I

The

marble being moderately

warmed

prefled the brafs plate

upon

its
It

furface

with the point of a brafs wire, then llftng

its

up by

Infulating handle I applied

it

to the cap of the

electrometer, which caufed the gold leaf to ftrike

the fide negatively.

I

hope

it

will

now appear evident by

eledricity.

the precau-

tions

and experiments mentioned

in this fecfbion,

and from the known laws of

ift.

That the doubler

In its prefent ftate

may be
':^dly.

deprived of accidental or communicated

electricity.

90
2dly.

NEW EXPERIMENTS
That the
is

principal caufe of its fponta-

neous charge,

the attraction of electricity by the

plates.

approximation of its parallel

3dly.

That

this

charge

may be

pofitive or ne-

gative, according as the plates, or touching wires

are
lefs

compofed of fubftances which have

a greater or

adhefive affinity v^ith the electrical fluid.

4thly.
are

That the caufes of fpontaneous

to the condenfer both in
ftate,

eleclricity

common
all

its

original

and improved
in

and to the doubler, and equal

them
5thly.

as far as they are equal in their

dimen-

fions

and powers.

That

flnce the doubler

may be compofed
power be equal to
fpontaneous eleca

of very fmall

plates,

and yet

its

that of a very large condenfer,

tricity will

its

be more

eafily

overcome by

commu-

nicated charge than that of a condenfer of equal

power, and therefore experiments performed with

it will

be

lefs liable

to equivocal refults

and

laftly

from

thefe confederations I

have ventured to pre-

fume

that the inftrument

may

be advantageoufly

ufed and applied to the difcovery of new and interefting fads in the fcience

of

ele(51:ricity.

SECT.

ON ELECTRICITV.

9J

SECTION
Experiments on the adhefive

VII.

electricity

of metals and.

other conducing fubjlances.

'

AVING

fully

proved by

a frequent repetition

of experiments, that the pofitive or negative

fpontancous charge of the doubler depended upon
the abforption or repulfion of the eledrical fluid by

the approximation of

its parallel

plates,

and that by

applying larger plates covered with minium or flour,

its

eledricity

might be changed

at pleafure, it eafily

occurred, that if the fpontaneous electricity in the

beginning of the procefs was

fufliciently

weak, the

mere contad: of metals or other

fubfta.nces

having a
fluid

different adhefive affinity with the eledrical

might

alfo

change

it,

and a new and interelting emof contadl was confirmed by

ployment for the doubler be difcovered.

This fuppofed

effett

the following experiments, in which the doubler

and eledrometer were deprived of

eledlricity,

and

ufed with the precautions and improvements

tioned in the
laft

men-

fedion,

EXPERIMENT
The
by the ufual method^ the
plate

I.

fpontaneous charge of the doubler having

this

been negative, and being deprived of

charge

was placed parallel

to

9^
to the plate

tJEW EXPERIMENTS

A, but

fo

that

was not conneded

was then touched

with the earth.

The

plate

with the blade of a knife, and the plate

at the

fame time touched with the point of a foften'd iron

wire.

With

fixteen revolutions the gold

leaf di-

verged about one third of an inch pofitively.

EXPERIMENT
The
fore,

II.

doubler being deprived of eledricity as be-

and the plate

placed as in the

laft

experi-

ment, the knife was applied to

the foft iron wire to

inftead of

A, and

inftead of B,

which opened

the gold leaf negatively at 15 revolutions.

Thefe experiments were repeated very

the plate touched

often,

and

the eledricity changed each time, being always pofitive in

by the

knife.

To

diftinguifli fo

minute a difference of adhefive

eledricity, as that which

might be fuppofed between

harden'd
fteel

two metals

fo nearly alike as

and

foft

iron, wou'd appear incredible had not the frequent

repetition of experiments confirmed

it.

Being now well convinced of this fad

tried

many

other fubftances with various fuccefs, fometimes the

charge wou'd change regularly for a long time together,

by applying the oppofed fubftances

above experiments

to
;

and

alternately, as in the

and

fometimes with other fubftances the charge wou'd

be quite uncertain.

But

to

remedy the uncertainty of the

influence

of metals or other fubftances as far as pofTible, and

to

ON ELECTRICITY.

^3

to exhibit the effedls of adhefive eleftricity to advantao-e, I

made

tables

of experiments

in

which the
are

fubftances to be tried as were applied to

A or B

mentioned

in the

firft

and fecond columns,

the

number of

revolutions in the third, and the ftate

in the fourth.

of eledricity

The number
by no means

of revolutions neceflary to caufe a

fenfible,
is

divergency of the gold leaf fufficiently

offer'd as an accurate

meafure of the

ftrength of adhefive electricity, but at prefent I

know of no

better a

way of comparing

its

effeds,

TABLE
3Lead Ore.

I.

Lend.

Revolutions.

Elcdrlcltv^

A.B.

B.

15.

P,

A.
B.

1514.
13-

N.
P.

A.
B. -

A.
B.

N
P,

A.B. ^

14. 1314.

A.
B.

N.
P.

A.B. -

A.
B.

1314.

N,
P.

A.-

A.

TABLE

94

NEW EXPERIMENTS

TABLE
Lead.
Iron Wire.

II.

Revolutions.

Elelrlclty,

A.B.

-B.

N.
15.

-A.
-'B.

P.

A.B.

1315. 16.

N.
P.

-A.
- B.

A.
B.
B.

-A. -A.
-B.

1716.

N. N.
P.

A..
B. B.
-

14.

-A. -A.

20.
18.

N. N,
P.

TABLE
Lead Ore.
Iron Wire.

III.

Revolutions.

Elfdlncity,

A.B. A.B. A.B. A.B,

B.

15.

A.
B.

16.

N.
P.

22.
16. 17-

A.
B.

N.
P.

^A.
B.

15.
16.

N.
P.

~ -

A.
B.
.

16.
17-

N.
P.

A.B.

A..

15.

N.

TABLE

ON ELECTRICITY.

9^

TABLE
Tin-foiJ.

IV.
Eleftridty.

Iron Wire.

Revolutions.

A.
B.

B.

i6.

N.
P.

A.
B.

i6.
13. 12.

A.
B.

N.
P.

A.
B.

A.
B.

13.

A.
B.

21.
12.

A.
B.

N. N. N.
P.

A.
B.

14. 13.

A.
B.

N.
P.

A.

16.

TABLE
Zinc.
Iron Wire.

V.
Elcdtrlcltyv

Revolutions.

A.
B.

B.

16. 17.

N.
P.

A.
B.

A.
B.

15.

N.
P.

A.

21.
15.

A.
B.

B.
^

N.
P.

A.
B.

24.
15.

A.
B.

N.
P.

A.
B.
B.

18.
16. 17.
15.

^ A. 5 A.

(a.
^B. <B.
Cb.

B.

N. N. N,
P.
P.

A.

22. 21.
17.

A.
A-

P.

In

g6
In the above

NEW EXPERIMENTS
five

tables

every experiment was

fince

made by double contad, and

eledlricity

the

ftate

of
few

was evidently changed, (except

in a

inftances)

whenever the two oppofed metals were

applied alternately to

or B, there remained no

doubt of the influence of thefe metals.

not very apparent whether
it

Yet

it

was
flate

was the pofitive

ftate

of the one metal or the negative

other
effedl

of the
the

which

prevailed.

therefore

tried

of Angle contaft, choofing two metals whofe

appeared to be contrary, and touching A,
crofs piece, whilft
its

eledlricity

C, and the

ftood fingle in the

upper part of

plane, with a pofitive metal in one

experiment, and with a negative metal in the next,

or, or

applying the fame metal to A, C, and the

crofs piece in

one experiment, and to

B in

another,
its

but

in this laft cafe

ftood in the lower part of

plane.

The

reafon of varying the pofition of

was, that the plate intended to acquire a contrary

ftate to that

produced by contad, might

;

firft

be

brought into connexion with the earth

thus

when

A, C, and the

crofs piece

had been touched,

came from its higher pofition into connection with the earth when brought parallel to A, and might then become contrarily eledrified ; and when B
had been touched
in the lower part

of its revolution,

became conneded with the earth when

B was

pa-

rallel to it,

TABLE

ON ELECTRICITY.

97

TABLE

VI.

Revolutions.

Eleftricity,

Lead

ore applied to

A, C,7
-

14

P.

and the

crofs piece,

Zinc applied in the fame manner 18

N.
P.

Lead
Zinc,

ore,

13

15

N.
P.

Lead
Zinc,

ore,

16
16 15

N.
P.

Lead
Zinc,

ore,

14

N.
P.

Lead
Zincj

ore,

14
16

N.

By
table,

experiments of fingle contact in the above

it

now

appears that the adhefive affinity of

is

eledricity to lead ore

tive.

pofitive,

and to zinc nega-

TABLE

98

NEW EXPERIMENTS

TABLE
In which zinc
in the
iirft fix

VIL

is

again tried by applying

it

to

experiments, and to
after

in the fix laft,

and

alfo

tried
air

the interval of feveral weeks

dry.

when the

was

much more

Zinc.

Revolutions.

Eleftricity.

A. A.

12.
12. II.
13-

A.
A. A. A.
B.
B.

lO. lO.

N. N. N. N. N. N,
P. P.
P.

13-

B.

1512. 12.

B.

P.

B.
B.

P. P.

13-

TABLE

ON ELECTRICITY.

99

TABLE
Lead ore applied
to

Vlir.

and

alternately.

Lead Ore.

Revolutions.

Eleftricity.

A.
B.
B.

8.

P.

19.
14.

P,

P.

B.

24.
15.
8.
7.

B.

A.

P.

N. N.

A.
A.

10.
7.

--P. N.

A.
A..

7,.

R R

From thefe
iive

experiments

it

appears that the adhefo

eleftricity

of the lead ore was not always

ftrong as to overcome the spontaneous charge of the

doubler.

Gold,

ICO
Gold,
filver,

NEW EXPERIMENTS
copper, brafs, regulus of antimony,

bifmuth, tutenag, mercury, various kinds of wood,

and
ta(5l

ftone,

were tried by this method of fingle con-

and appear'd to caufe a pofitive charge.

a large piece of zinc

Tin
miore

was negative, and

much
I

weakly negative than a thin plate of the fame metal

ufed in the above experiments
;

of thefe

defer

making
feveral

tables

till I

have the opportunity of improv-

ing the accuracy of the doubler.

This may be done

approve and

ways which

I fhall

here defcribe, hoping that

fome more experienced

execute
I ft.

eleftrician will
leifure.

them

before

have

In the courfe of

my

experiments

found

that the force with which the touching wires pafTed

the pins on the back of the plates, had fome influ-

ence on the charge, which was

Nicholfon, and
it

alfo

obferved by

Mr.

may

reafonably be fuppofed that

the adhefive eledricity of thefe wires

efFedl.
I

may have fome

wou'd therefore chufe fome metal which

has the

leaft influence.

Gold wire may probably be

flirt

the beft, and inftead of fmall wires to

againft

the pins,

let

ftronger wires

move

a rowel

like that
is

of a fpur, and let the cheeks in which the rowel

fixed be

made

to hold

it

harder or eafler by means

of a fcrew pafling thro' the center of the rowel. Thus the contad of the touching wires may be regulated by thefe fcrews, and

may perhaps fo

influence

the fpontaneous ele6lricity, that either A or B may

be

made
is

to prevail at pleafure or be exadly balanced.

It is

2dly.

evident that the capacity of the plates

increafed as they approach to each other,

and

this
in-

ON ELECTRICITy.
increafed capacity
will in

lOI
caufe

many experiments

them to abforb that kind of charge which agrees with

their

own

affinities,

or of the touching wires, inftead

to be
axis

of being influenced by the fubllances intended

tried.
tliat it

Let the

plate

be moveable upon

its

may

eafily

be placed at any diftance, between

aflual

contad and the diftance of half an inch from

the other plates, that a diftance

will

may be found which

delicate

produce the
eafily

leaft

fpontaneous charge, and be

more

overcome by an intended
eledtricity.

com-

munication of

It will

be

alfo necefTary

to regulate the diftance

on account of the drynefs or

I

molfture of the

air.

In dry weather

have found
fif-

the fpontaneous eledtricity to

become

fenfible at

teen revolutions or under, and in molft air at about

forty, the diftance

of the plates and contadl of wires

being the fame in both.

3dly.

The
lefs

fpontaneous charge of fmall plates

muft be

than that of large ones, fo that adhefive

fingle

eledricity

communicated by

contaft will be
for

more

likely to

overcome fuch charge,

which rea-

fon principally, as well as for reafons of convenience,

fmall plates are preferable
{hilling
,

perhaps the

fize

of a

wou'd be

fufficient.

4thly.

The

plates fhou'd not

be cover'd with

varnifti or lacquer, left they

fhou'd retain ele6lriclty,

and to prevent tarnifhing, the plates

or

may

be

gilt,

made of the metal

5thly.

ufed for refledling telefcopes.

is

The

fpontaneous charge

produced

at

fewer or more revolutions according to the velocity

or regularity with which the axis cf the doubler

is

turned

I02

NEW EXPERIMENTS

turned, fo that a regular motion wou'd alfo add to the perfe6lion of the inftrument, which might be

efFeded by means of a pendulum, and a vibrating

doubler wou'd perform the procefs as well or better

than any other.

force,

The

wires touching with

equal

and

in regular time,
refpe<5l to

wou'd be a confiderable
the accuracy of experi-

advantage with

ments, and a doubler of this conftrudion might be

made

to

continue

its

motion

like a clock, fo that

infulated veflels containing chemical mixtures or

growing vegetables, might be placed

its

fo as to receive

fuperfluous eledridity, and be kept in a conftant

ftate

of eledrification.
conclude this feftion with obferving that

I will

fince eledricity, like all other

known

fluids,

adheres
it

with more or

lefs

force to different fubftances,

af-

fords a fimple and very

excitation

fatisfadory theory of the

in the

ofglafsand other eledrics, ufed

,

conftruftion of eledrical machines

iilk flap is
it is

for

when the

rubbed by the revolving

clofe

glafs cylinder,

brought into

contad, and eledricity adis

hering more forcibly to glafs

the open
air,

carried forward into

which

air

having not been render'd

negative like the

filk,

does not counterbalance the

its

furface of the glafs,

lefien'd,
it

and therefore
it

capacity being
juft abforbed.

emits the charge

cufhion

had

The amalgamated

affifts

the procefs by

bringing a furface of a conducing quality and in

connexion with the earth into

clofer contad.

SECT.

GN ELECTRICITY.

IO3

SECTION

VIII.

Obfervations on atmofpheric ele^ricity colle^ed by the

Jiame of a candle.

BEFORE
to

defcribe
it

my

obfervations on this

fubjeft of enquiry,

may

be proper to men-

tion fuch theory of atmofpheric elediricity as appears

me

confonant to the general operations of nature,

rational

and deduced from the moft

others,

fyftems of

my own

obfervation, or the contents of the

foregoing fedions, which the intelligent reader will

eafily

apply to this purpofe.

intention of beginning with the theory
is

The

to

give the reader, (who

may

not

have attended to

atmofpheric electricity) an opportunity of feeing to

more advantage the

principles which thefe obferva-

tions tend to confirm or illuftrate,

and thereby ren-

der them more interefting and pleafant.

Atmofpheric
fidered as
it

electricity

may be

principally conair,

appears in two ftates of the

that

is

tranfparent and cloudy.

I ft.

The

tranfparent or clear air always contains a

is

great quantity of water in folution, and

generally

found to be

in

a ftate of conftant poiitive eledtrifi-

cation, yet not always

lity,

of the fame degree of inten-

nor

is

the atmofphere every where in the fame

ftate, for

the higher regions from their

more

perfect
infu-

104
infulation, are

NEW EXPERIMENTS
more
air

ftrongly

ele6lrified
is

than the

lower ftrata of

whence the earth

conftantly re-

abforbing this fluid, and the invifible vapours are

undoubtedly more or

lefs

denfe in different places

according to the quantity of evaporation and condenfation, depending on the variations of heat and
cold, fo that irregular fpaces of air, perhaps in the

form of clouds, yet

fitively or negatively

invifible, will
;

be eledrified po-

and to

reftore the equilibrium,

ftars

the appearances called falling

are produced.

Or

if

the equilibrium between

much

larger trads of

air is to

be reftored, large meteors fuch as that of

the year 1783 fly with aiionifhing brilliance and rapidity

from one region of the

aurora borealis
is

air to

another.

The
yet
is
it is

another eledrical appear-

ance frequently {qqh in a tranfparent atmofphere,

fometimes ken when there are clouds, and

probably owing to the diffufion of electricity in

the higheft and moft rarified part of the atmofphere,

where the
electrical

air

is

not fufficiently denfe to exhibit the

fluid in the

form of corrufcations or

balls

of

fire.

2dly.

When

vapours are

fufficiently

condenfed

to

become

vifible,

the intenfity of their electrificaif

tion increafes,

and

the clouds thicken fpeedily,

their fenfible electrical

atmofphere fometimes ex-

tends to the diftance of feveral miles.

five

This exten-

atmofphere

will

act powerfully

on the lower

firata

of vapour, (which

may be

confidered as hav-

ing an imperfect connection with the earth} and

induce a negative

ftate

whofe intenfity

will

continue
in-

ON ELECTRICITY.

IO5

increafing with that of tKe fuper-Incumbent cloud,

till

the equilibrium be reftored by tremendous claps

of thunder, with vivid corrufcations of lightning.

And

if

the cloud happens to be low, the earth

its

itfelf

becomes

immediate opponent, and

is

fometimes
of
its

violently ftruck to the

injury or deftrudion

vegetable or animal inhabitants.

Thefe
the

are the chief

and moft ftriking

efFecSIs

of

atmofpheric eledlricity, and to account for them on

known

principles of this fluid

is

the bufinefs of

my
tlon

prefent attempt.
firfl

The
is

and moft

difficult part

of this invefliga-

to afcertain the general caufe of fenfible elec-

tricity in the air,

and explain the particular manner

in

which

it is

abforbed from the earth.

But from

the late fatisfadlory experiments of MefTrs. Volta,

Lavoifier,

De

la Place,

and

De

SaufTure, the eva-

poration of water by the fun's heat

may

be confident-

ly afligned as the true general caufe, and this opinion

I

hope the reader

will find in

fome meafure ftrength-

en'd by the experiments contained in fedlion the

fourth.

And

from the experiments on approximawou'd

ting furfaces, and on adhefive eledlricity in the fixth

and feventh
is

fe<ftions,

infer that

when water

raifed into

the air

by means of

heat, eledricity

adheres more copioufly under fuch circumftances to

each riflng particle from the general laws of the attradlion of cohefion, and the very great elafticity

of

the electrical fluid

for a rifing particle of water

may be
plate,

confidered as in the fituation of the copper

fedlion

6th,

experiment 3d and 4th,

that
is

1C6
is

NEW EXPERIMENTS
air

furrounded with

except that

it

is

connedled

with the earth by one point of contadl.

there
is

And

if

a difference between air

and water as to
which from
be admit-

their eledlive attradion

of

electricity,

numerous correfponding
ted,
it

facts

may

eafily

follows that the fmaller the particles of water

are, the
is

more they come

into contact with air, that

their furfaces bear a greater proportion to their

folidity,

and confequently they partake the more of

;

the property of air as to their attraction of electricity

or the furface of

air

in contact with the water, has

in this {ituation, the opportunity of abforbing electricity thro* the

above-mentioned touching point

which

electricity

from the circumftances of approxi-

mation and contact,

ticle

may

be condenfed and the par-

of water be pofitively electrified tho'uninfulated.

is

It
is

for the fake

of perfpicuity that the vapour

here confidered as rifing in the form of fmall glo:

bular particles

but however that

may happen,
:

the

electrical adhefion will

probably be the fame

for if

the procefs of evaporation fhou'd not confift in the

afcenfion
that
air,
it

of globular particles raifed by heat, but

in a chemical

confifts

combination of heat,

and water, which inftantaneoufly form a tran-

fparent fluid, this

compound
rifes,

fubftance

may have

greater adhefive affinity with electricity than the

furface

whence

it

and therefore become

this laft fuppofition
is

pofi-

tively electrified. fiderably illuftrated

feet.

And
it is

conin

by the experiments contained

4th, wherein

(ten that the mixture of va-

rious mineral,

vegetable,

and animal fubftances,

with

ON ELECTRICITY.
with the evaporating water changed
electricity.
its

IO7
adhefive

Vapour thus afcending

combined with
air

eleflrified,

and

being

and heat
is

To as to

form a perfedly
ftate,

tranfparent fluid,
till

in

its

weakeft pofitive

the heat pafles off either by diffufion in the cirair,

cumambient

by two currents of different deatmofphere moving with

grees of rarity paffmg in contrary diredlions, or by

the higher part of the

greater or
lefs

velocity than the lower, each current

lefs

being more or
thefe fituations
increafe

cold than the other.

will

In any of

the vapour

be condenfed and

the intenfity of

its

pofitive charge,

and

fome fuch caufes ading

at all times,

produce aconeven
to

ftant pofitive eledrification of the atmofphere,

before the degree of condenfation

deilroy
its

is

fufficient

tranfparency.
a fpace of fifteen years, F. Beccaria never

During

obferved a ferene atmofphere to be negatively electrified,

except in four inftances,

it

when there was

influ-

great reafon to believe

proceeded from the See his

treatife

ence of

difl:ant

clouds.

on

artificial

eleflricity.

When

this

kind of condenfation happens

in the

higher and more infulated part of the atmofphere,

where no equilibrium can be reftored by an infenfible diffufion

of

electricity,

nor by

fl:riking

fuddenelec-

Jy into the earth,

and when the

intenfity

of this

tricity is increafed

beyond the capacity of the vaattached,

it is

pour to which
of fire
J

it is

formed into

balls

for any fluid will

form

itfelf into a

globular
figure

I08
figure
effecft

NEW EXPERIMENTS
from
its

own attradion of
balls

cohefion, if this

be not prevented by adhefion to other fub-

ftances.

Thefe

of highly condenfed eledricity

then

move

off towards thofe parts of the air which

diffufing eledlricity as they pafs,
dif-

are leaft eleflrified,

till

they are wholly diiTipated and confequently

appear.

This

diifipation
fire

may be

plainly diftinguifh-

ed by a train of

which often follows the meteors

called falling ftars.

The fame
larger
diflipated in

caufes

may be

fuppofed to occafion the

meteors, which being colletfled from and

more

extenfive regions of

air,

are

more

luminous,

and attended

with

one

circumftance

which might be expeded from a very great accumulation of

electricity,

that

is

a divifion of the ball

its

into feveral parts towards the

end of

courfe.

Whoever has
electrical

feen electricity emitted

from

a large

machine, thro' a long and capacious exglafs,

haufled tube of
larity
alis,

may

perceive a ftriking fimi-

between

this

experiment and the aurora bore-

and

may

reafonably conjecture that the electri-

cal equilibrium

being deftroyed in the higheft and

moft
of

rarified part

of the atmofphere

is

the occafion
is

this appearance,

and that

It is

very high

proved
,

by the converging
iince the ftreams

direction of the ftreams

and

fometlmes appear to move about

confiderably, and to indicate an

uncommon

degree

of electrification,

have frequently been induced to

air

examine the

ftate

of the

with a very fenfible elec-

trometer, during a very luminous aurora borealis,

but cou'd not diftlngulih either an extraordinary

quan-

ON ELECTRICITV.
quantity or motion of electricity.
fituations

IO9

Perhaps other
for fuch obfer-

mipht be more favourable

apparatus

vations, and

hence others have more confidently

has been
affected

affirmed that their

by

it.

When

the air has

loft

more of
vifible

its

heat and the

as to

condcnfed vapour becomes

fo

form
into

clouds or mifts, the intenfity of

increafed, becaufe

its electrification is

the water

is

now formed

fmall globules whofe furfaces proportionally

as the globules increafe in diameter,

leflen,

and from Dr.

it

Franklin's experiment of the can and chain

has

been long known that leflening the quantity of furface expofed to air, increafes the intenfity of electrification.

Mifts or fogs which are only thin clouds

near the earth are generally found to be electrified

ftrongly pofitive, fo that a kite having a metallic
ftring

and

raifed in mifty

weather

will

produce pun-

gent- fparks.

But when clouds

ftill

fly

over a tranfpa-

rent air, and are in a

cation,
it

ftronger ftate of electrifi-

often happens that their atmofphere drives

into the earth the electricity contained in the lower

ftratum of vapour, or that contained in fome part

of the cloud which from

eafily

its
its

fituation can

be moft

difcharged thro'

imperfectly conducting

connection with the earth.

part of the cloud thus

rcnder'd negative

is

frequently feparated from the pofitive part,

different currents

by the

of wind, or when the higher part

lefs

of the cloud moves with more or

velocity than

the lower, in this cafe the negatived vapour will

pro-

no
produce a

NEW EXPERIMENTS
feniible atmofphere,

and hence the clouds

appear fometlmes pofitive and fometimes negative.

To illuftrate this
pheres, the reader
feet.

effect

of ftrong

electrical

atmof-

may

try experiment the 8th,

2d.

And
fenfible

that

a negative

atmofphere

will
air

become
phere,

even upon a body floating in

whofe pofitive
is eafily

flate is the

only caufe of Aich atmofcaufing the

air

tried

by

firfl

of a

room

to be flrongly electrified pofitively, and then

flip

a fmail

of gold leaf thrown into the

it

air will ac-

quire a negative flate as

will

leaves

the hand, and

be repelled by the approach of a finger or other

In this experiment the finger has a

conductor.

fenfible negative

atmofphere as well as the gold

leaf,

tho'

it

be not infulated.
altho' the

In
air,

fummer

hygrometer indicates a drier

yet there

therefore

is undoubtedly more evaporation, and more water combined with or diffufed in

.

the atmofphere

The furface of the

earth

is

hotter,

and yet the higher part of the atmofphere, owing

to
its

tranfparency and diflance from the earth

is

not

heated in the fame proportion.

tural procefs
is

In fhort every na-

quickened or retarded by the active

influence of the fun, and if vapours can

more fuddenly

raifed,

they

may

alfo

now be be more fudelectrified

denly condenfed, and under thefe and other favourable circumflances, the clouds

become
till

to a

much

higher degree of intenfity,

the equiis re-

librium of the differently electrified

fl:rata,

ftored by explofions termed thunder and lightning.

Th^

ON ELECTRICITY.

Ill

The

concourfe of two oppofitely electrified clouds

has fometimes been thought the immediate caufe of

thunder, and

it is

certainly pofTible that fuch clouds

may now and

then be driven by oppofite currents

fo as to caufe an explofion,

but

think

it

is

more

agreeable to the moft

common

appearances of the

clouds to account for

ful influence

it

by the extenfive and power-

of electrical atmofpheres, whereby the of the cloud or furface of the earth are

feveral parts

render'd pofitive or negative, as explained above

for
it will

not otherwife be eafy to account for the

quick and frequent fucceiTion of explofions which

are perceived in a Angle

and

diftinct cloud,

every

part of which
rection.

is

apparently

moving

In the

fame diftra-

But on the fuppofition of a negative

tum, occafioned by

a powerful pofitive atmofphere,

as long as a rapid condenfation of water takes place,

fo long

may

a repetition of explofions be expected.

The

following experiment

may

ferve to illuftrate

the procefs of atmofpheric explofions as far as relates

to the influence of powerful electrical atmofpheres.

Let two
metal be
fl:ring,

flips

of gold leaf or rather white Dutch

fufpended by a
filk

faft:en'd to a brafs ball

or other infulating fubfi:ance.

Bring the

brafs

knob of

a charged bottle towards the points

flips
till

of the metallic
electricity,

they become charged with

which

will caufe

them

to be repelled each

way from the knob of the

plate 3d, fig. 3d.

bottle

and ftand as

in
in

Continue to hold the bottle

the fame pofition during a few feconds, and one of

the
flips will

bend towards the knob of the

bottle

112
fig. 4,

NEW EXPERIMENTS
and
ftrike
it

fuddenly, then

it

will ftand re-

pelled

till its

electricity

be again diffipated.

In this

manner

it

will

continue to repeat the ftroke as long

as a fufficient quantity of electricity remains in the

bottle,

unlcfs the air be very dry,

and then

this ex-

periment

may

fail,

which with

me

has only hap-

pened

twice.
this fhort
I

After

account of

my
in

ideas of atmof-

pheric electricity,

now proceed

to defcribe the in-

flruments
tions.

.1

have made ufe of

making obferva-

The

mofl

common

apparatus hitherto ufed has

chiefly confifted

of high pointed and infulated con-

ducting rods, or wires extending from the place of

obfervation to the top of an high building or fteeple,

and conneded with an eledtrometer, or the fmall

and

Infenfible

communications of

eledlricity

have

been colle6led by means of Mr. Volta's condenfer.

But

thefe inftruments are generally either not fufE-

ciently fenfible,

or they can only fliew the ftate of

atmofpheric electricity at intervals, whence the obferver lofes the opportunity of watching the
tary and
ftates

momen-

interefting

change which happens

in feveral

of the atmofphere, efpecially during the paf-

fage of thunder clouds.

In fed. 2d,

exp. 20th,

31^:,

and 32d,

it

was

found that the flame of a candle was very

ufeful in

rendering the atmofpheric eledlricity fenfible when

it

could not be perceived by means of points

this

I believe it

does becaufe the effluvium of the candle,

which

is

of a conducing nature, becomes combined

with

ON ELECTRICITY.
with
air fo

II3

as

to

form

very compleat union, and

phlogiftic efflu-

as the rarified air fo

combined with
it

vium
a

rifes

upwards,

is

continually fucceeded

by
co-

frefli

quantity, and hence the apparatus

has the

opportunity of abforbing eledbricity

pioufly than the fharpefl: points.

much more

Confidering this

advantage
(fee plate

I
iii.

provided a deal rod about lo feet long,

fig.

2d,) and after the fmaller end was

well dried

it

was faftened into'^a long tinn'd iron

funnel with cement, fo that the funnel did no where

come
this

within half an inch of the end of the rod

it

by

means

is

kept dry, and the funnel

if it

is

not fo
in-

liable to

be accidentally broken off as

glafs.

was

fulated

by means of
is

At the

fmall end of the

funnel

fufpended the ring of a chain which fup-

ports a fmall lantern, containing a lighted candle.

To the lower and

brafs wire
is

broad edge of the funnel a foftened

faftened,

which

is

about the length of

is

the whole rod, and at the lower end

hooked

to a

fmall ring near the thick end of the rod, that the

wire

may
is

not be liable to accidents when the inftru-

ments
a

taken down.
is

When

this apparatus

is

ufed,

window

opened
is

in the higheft

room of the houfe,

and the rod

placed upon one ftrong nail and un-

der another, on one fide of the cafement, fo that

the lantern
is

elevated about
is

50 degrees.
is

Near the

place to which' the rod

faftened

a ho'e in the

window frame of
of
glafs
is

fufficient

width to receive a tube

cover'd with fealing wax,

a bent wire.

on the end of
of the brafs wire

which
is

The hook

then taken from the ring, and hooked upon this

infu*

14

NEW EXPERIMENTS
which ftands
at a

infulated bent wire,

proper height

to be connefted with the cap of a gold leaf eledlro-

meter, Handing upon a board under the wire, and

that the brafs wire

may

not be too
is

much
it.

agitated

by the wind a ball of lead

fituation
coL'etfted
it is

hung upon

In this

plain that the atmofpherlc eledricity

will

by the candle

come down
But
as

the brafs wire

and be communicated to the cap of the eledrometer,

or to any other inftrument.
it

very feldom

happens that the gold leaf does not diverge when

this apparatus is elevated, there
is little

occafion to

make
candle

ufe of a condenfer or doubler, nor even of a

when there

are large

clouds paiTing over or

rain falling.

OBSERVATION
May
2\th^
i"]^J.

I.

Several heavy clouds palled

from the N.

W.

and the above defcribed apparatus

being elevated, the gold leaf diverged fometimes

pofitively

and fometimes negatively ;

at laft a
fall,

blacker

cloud approached and rain began to

which

caufed the gold leaf to ftrike the fides of the elec-

trometer negatively with increafing velocity

fialh

till

of lightning and clap of thunder happened, of the

flafh the

and

at the inftant

gold leaf fuddenly

fcarted

open and then

clofed,

and gradually open*d

it

pofitively ftriking the fides about ten times,

then

ilowly clofed and open'd negatively, and again ftruck

the fides with increafing velocity

till

the fecond fialh

caufed the fame convulfive motion and fudden change

of

ON ELECTRICITY.
of
its

II5

eledricity

-,

this

was repeated feveral times

during the paflage of the cloud.

der was

When
at
laft

the thun-

more

diftant the

opening of the gold leaf

the gold

was

lefs

but yet very fudden, and

leaf frequently ftarted

open when no thunder was

heard, or flafh (zzn.

OBSERVATION
May
iSthy

II.

1787.

Several jfhowers paffed over

firfl:

and eledrified the apparatus

cloud approached, then
it

pofitively as the

changed about the middle

of the fhower and ended negatively.

OBSERVATION
May
2Sib,

III.

lySy.

The wind

high and N. W..

fhower of rain came on which eledrified the apfirft

paratus

pofitively,
till

the gold leaf continuing to

it

itrike the fides

the rain abated, then

became
till

negative and

it

continued to ftrike more flowly

the

rain entirely ceafed,

at

when

it

again changed and flood

fl-:y

about a quarter of an inch politive, and the

clear.

became quite

OBSERVATION
June yih, 1787.

IV.

Wind

S.

W.

and

brifk.

A
the

fhower coming on caufed the gold leaf to flrike the

fides
firfl

negatively, then pofitively,

and

at

end of the fhower again weakly negative.

OBSER-

Il6

NEW EXPERIMENTS

OBSERVATION
June
Sib,

V.
which eledri-

lySy.
fell

The

fky was entirely overcaft

and fmall rain

for feveral hours,

fied the apparatus pofitively.

OBSERVATION
June 2Sth, 1787.

VI.

Wind W.
houfe 64

Barometer 29.
little

Thermometer
before the

in the

before one

o'clock in the afternoon, the apparatus was elevated

approach of a

diftindl

and heavy cloud.

The gold
till it

leaf diverged negatively flowly increafing

rain,
till

began to

it

then ftruck the fides and conit

tinued ftriking
to pofitive

the rain ceafed,

then changed
;

and continued ftriking

it

whilft fair

after

fome time

again became 'negative and ftruck

it

quicker whilft

again rained,

and fome

diftant

thunder was heard without moving the eledlrometer.

Expe(5ling

more thunder,
I

the apparatus that

hung up my watch near might note down the time and

I

changes of eledricity, as they occurred during the

paftage of the cloud.
Hour. Min.
I

Raining, eledlrometer ftriking quick negatively.

10
12 13

Eledlrometer ftriking more flowly.

Now changed to pofttive & opening flowly.

Thunder
heard, ftriking flowly pofitive.
pofitive, yet raining.

14
15 17

Very quick

More

flowly pofitive.
to negative.
I

Changing

18

-ON
"Hour. MIn.

ELECTRICITY.

II7

18

20

Quick negative. Thunder at a diftance,

gative.
Still ftriking Still ftriking

ftill

ftriking ne-

23

negative, raining flowly.

26
27

quick negative.

The

gold leaf quite clofed.

271 Striking pofitively, yet raining flowly.

29

More
Rain

flowly pofltive.

^o

ceafed.

Eledrometer opening about

an inch pofitlvely.

34
2^

No

fenfible eledricity.

Some

drops of

rain falling.

Gold

leaf open'd about half an inch pofl-

tive,

but decreafing.
pofltive,

40
43

Suddenly open'd
ly ftriking.

and then flow-

Heavy

drops.

Decreaflng pofitlvely.
Eledricity infenflble.

Raining.

45

Raining flowly.

46
47 48

Slowly opening negatively.

Slowly opening pofitlvely.

An
Still

inch wide pofltive.

49
49z

The

gold leaf agitated and pofltive.

agitated but changed to negative.
ftarts
till it

50
52
53

Opening negatively by
quick.

ftrikes

Raining

faft.

Ceafes to ftrike, decreaflng

faft.

Changed

to pofltive.

54
5S

Striking pofitlvely.

The

gold leaf ftruck the glafs inftead of

the tin-foil.

H3

56

118
four.

NEW EXPERIMENTS
Min.

56
51
59

Striking very quick pofitively.

Slovv'er

and then very quick,

faft.

ftill

raining

very

Diftant thunder.

Changing

to negative.

Striking quick negatively.

I

Decreafing negatively.

i\

Opening
inch.

pofitively to the diftance of an

Then changed
quick.

to negative, and ftriking

4.

Changed
quick.

to positive,

and then ftriking

6
7
S

.^

Changing to negative.
Striking quick negatively,
Striking quick negatively.

Striking quick pofitively.

Still

10

quick pofitively,
ftcy

and raining

faft.

Diftant

brighter.

II

More
Still

flowly pofitive.
pofitive.

12 13

Again quicker

quick pofitive.

Sky

clearing yet

raining.

14
15

Decreafing pofitively.

Opening negatively.
fky clearer.

Rain flower and

16

Standing wide negatively.

i6h Decreafing negative.

18

Rain ceafed.

Juft fenfibly pofitive.

18^

ON ELECTRICITY.
Hour. Mill.

119

i8i

Sun

fliining,

and the gold leaf open'd to

half an inch negatively.

20

A quarter of an inch pof.

Sky

clear.

In this obfervation there are lo changes of electricity in lefs

than an hour and a

half.

OBSERVATION
July 2d, 1787.

VII.

45.
ing.

Wind N. W. Barometer 29, Thermometer 68, Six o'clock in the evenUnequal clouds covering the whole horizon,

which caufed a divergency of the eledrometer of

about half an inch pofitive.

OBSERVATION
Jnly
I4.ib,

VIII.

ternoon.

About two o'clock In the afWind N. E. Heavy Ihowers but clouds

ly^y.

uneven.

The

gold leaf opened negatively, and

till it

moved

irregularly

flowly ftruck the fide,

lefs,

and

as the rain abated

it

opened

but never changed

to pofitive.

OBSERVATION
July istk,

IX.

1787.
S.

About
E.

half paft feven In the

evening.
falling, the ly,

Wind

An
fo

heavy fhowerof rain

fides

gold leaf ftruck the

quick pofitiveit

and continued to do

about 10 minutes;
at half

then became weakly negative, and ftood

inch negative

an

when the

rain ceafed.

H4

OBSER,

I20

NEW EXPERIMENTS

OBSERVATION.
July
15/Z?,

X.
the

1787.

About

eight o'clock in

evening another fhower came on which began to

open the gold

tiil

leaf pofitively, increafing very flowly

it

ftruck the fides whilft the rain increafed, and

rain

when the

came down

quickeft,

it

gradually

changed to negative.

The

clouds then appeared

electricity
till

very uneven, and often changed the

the obfervations were difcontinued.

OBSERVATION
July lyth^
ing.

XI.

^7^7-

About 6

o'clock in the even-

Wind N. W.

fhower of rain eledrified

the apparatus weakly negative during the fpace of

about half an hour without changing.

OBSERVATION
July i^tb,
afternoon.

XII.
o'clock in the

1787.

About one

Wind W.
;

A heavy cloud approached

fome drops
falling

and

electrified the

apparatus negatively a confiderable

at lafl
fides,

time v/ithout rain

the
fo

gold leaf ftruck the

till

and continued to do

the rain ceafed without changing to pofitive.

The

weather had been

r9.iny for

fome days.
XIII.

OBSERVATION
Augujl 4tby 1787.

Ten

o'clock in the morning.

clear,

Wind W. Barometer 29. 15. Sky very The gold leaf opened jufl fenfibly pofitive.

OBSER

CN ELECTRICITY.

121

OBSERVATION
Auguji i2th, 1787.

XIV.
Barometer 29.
i.

Wind W.

Therm. 62

The

fky was overcaft with uneven

it

clouds, and a heavy cloud approaching

rained

flowly, which gradually opened the gold leaf to the

diftance of an inch pofitively, then raining fafter

it

fuddenly collapfed and changed to negative, opening to half an inch whilft the rain ceafed.

Two

other clouds

foon followed, which began

as before.
laft

pofitively

and ended negatively

very extenfive cloud fucceeded the

^nd

open'd the eleftrometer pofitively, which continued

ftriking a fhort time
;

then

it

changed and ftruck ne;

gatively during about half the rain

it

then changed

and ftruck pofitively during the remainder of the lliower, and when the rain ceafed it open'd about
half an inch negatively, where
it

ftood for a few

minutes and then collapfed, the fky clearing.

OBSERVATION
About
N.
five

XV.
The wind
and endo'clock
pofitive
fix

o'clock the

fame day.

W.

A fhower began ftrongly

before.

ed negatively as

About
rain,

fome
diit

uneven clouds paffed over and the eledlrometer

verged negatively without

then rain falling

ftruck negatively a long time, then a heavier cloud

approaching
tively,
till

it

changed and ftruck very quick

pofi-

the rain abated and the cloud was nearly

it

gone, when
tive
till

again changed and was weakly nega-

the rain entirely ceafed.

OBSER.

122

NEW EXPERIMENTS

OBSERVATION
Juguft
i4.ib,

ijSy.

XVI. About noon. Wind

S.

W.

Very extenfive clouds with

continued with very
hour,
tricity
it

fmall drizling rain, the

gold leaf opened about half an inch pofitively, which

little

variation about half an

fafter

then rained fomev/hat

and the

elec-

changed and continued about the fame time

negative.

OBSERVATION
Augujl i6iby 1787.
ing.

XVII.
in the

Nine o'clock

morn-

Wind

quite calm.

thick mift.

Eledro-

meter open'd half an inch

pofitively,

OBSERVATION
Jugujl iSib, 1787.

XVIII.

W^ind
over

S.

W.

Half paft twelve o'clock. Thin white clouds had been paffing

all

the morning.

A
fell

diftinifl

black cloud ap-

proached and fome rain

elevated,

before the apparatus was

the

elec5lrometer open'd pofitively

till

and

continued opening but not ftriking

very heavy

drops

fell,

it

then changed and ftruck the fides nethe rain ceafed.

fair,
it

gatively

till

Its

velocity abated

when
five

it

was

but continued- ftriking for about

minutes,
till

then decreafed but continued open

it

negatively

another cloud approached,

then

open'd pofitively about half an inch, when

to rain flowly, as the rain wider.
fell
it

it

began
little

open'd a

Hour,

ON ELECTRICITY.
Hour. Min.

I23

12

45 47

About an inch

pofitive.

Rain ceafing

'

and gold leaf collapfing.

Eledlricity infenfible.

47i Opening flowly negative.

proaching nearer.

Cloud ap-

48

A few large drops

negative.
Still

falling.

Half an inch

50
51

half an inch negative, but drops ceafed.

Decreafing.

The

clouds pafled off, and

another approaching.
c,"]

Still juft

fenfibly negative.
rain.

Cloud large

and likely to

S9

Beginning to

rain.

Opening

to half an

inch negative, and then ftriking.

Raining

fafter.

Striking about twice in

'

a fecond.
I

Rain abated, yet

ftriking negatively.

4
5

Yet

ftriking negatively, but little rain.

rain.

More

Eledricity decreafing.

Cloud

about half over.

6
61

Eledricity

now

increafing.

Striking negatively.

Striking quick negatively, yet but

rain.

little

'

Still

quick negative.
as to

More
Heavy

rain.

10

So quick

keep the gold leaf trilling

rain.
ftrike,

againft the fides.

12

Rain fuddenly abating.

and decreafing.

Ceafed to

13

124
Hour. Min.
I

^'^"^

EXPERIMENTS

13

Changed
quick.

to pofitive, ftriking flowly then

Few

drops.

14
14*

Trilling pofitively.

Slower pofitive.

Very few drops of

rain.

15

Quite

fair,

yet ftriking flowly pofitive.

Clear fky over.

17
19

Yet

ftriking flowly pofitive.

Ceafed ftriking,
fhining.

and decreafing.

Sun

20
24
25
27

Wide

pofitive divergency, but decreafing

very flowly.

Half an inch
Infenfible.

pofitive.

Juft fenfibly pofitive.

Sky

clear.

Thefe clouds began and ended

therefore
it

pofitively,

and
ftate

may be concluded that

atmofphere.

their
all

proper
fides

was negative, which occafioned on

fluential pofitive

an in-

OBSERVATION
Jugtift 2Sib,

XIX.
o'clock.
all

1787.

Twelve

WindN.
day,

Barometer 28. 63.

Having

rained

the

eledrometer open'd weakly negative, and fometimes

changed to pofitive for a fhort time, but was moftly

negative.

OBSERVATION
Augufi 27/^, 1787.

XX.
3.

Two

o'clock in the after-

noon.

Wind N.

Barometer 2^.

fhower

came

ON ELECTRICITY.

25

came on which opened the gold

the rain
fell,

leaf flovvly pofitive,

which continued opening and clofing whilft

but did not ftrike the
it

mod

of

fide.

When

the rain was nearly over

changed to negative, and

then ftruck the fides for a confiderable time after

the rain had ceafed.

OBSERVATION
Dec. iStb,
ing.

XXI.
hills,

1787.

Eleven o'clock in the mornwhich

it

Mift covering the tops of the

feveral days,

had done for

fometimes defcending

into the valleys.

pofitive
:

The

gold leaf diverged ftrongly

it

but upon the falling of fome fmall rain

was found negative.

20th.

The fame happen'd on

the

OBSERVATION
Dec. i^th^ lySy.
^11 day.

XXII.
Small fnow falling

WindE.

Gold

leaf diverged ftrongly pofitive, tried

feveral times.

OBSERVATION
Dec. lyih,

XXIII.

1787.

Wind N.

E.

Snow

melting.

few white clouds.

Electricity ftrongly pofitive.

OBSERVATION
Jan. i/, 1788.yet
its

Winds.

XXIV. Avery thick

froft

mift,

eledricity was but juft fenfibly pofitive, tho*

whilft the mift

was accompanied with

and with

an

eaft

wind

it

had been for

feveral days fo ftrongly

pofitive as to be very fenfible without a candle.

OBSER.

126

NEW EXPERIMENTS

OBSERVATION
Jan. id^ 1788.
tricity negative.

XXV.
rain.

Wind
Wind

S.

Small

Elec-

Jan. 6th ^ 1788.

tricity negative.

S.

Small

rain.

Elec-

OBSERVATION
Jan. i6ih, 17S8.
paffed over and

XXVI.

High
fleet

weft wind.

cloud

fome

fell.

The

eleArometer

diverged ftrongly pofitive.

it

The

fky then clearing

became ftrongly negative, and decreafing changed

to a

weak

pofttive

when

the fky was quite clear.

OBSERVATION
Feb. Sib,
hills,

XXVII.
Thick mift on the
Eledricity

1788.

Wind

E.

with fmall rain moft of the day.

negative except
it

when the fky appear'd brightening,

became again negative, and conConftant rain feems

then became pofitive a fhort time, and then when

rain fell
it

more

tinued fo

moft of the day.

it

moftly negative, becaufe

probably forms a more

moifture

extenfive connecPcion with the earth by

which weakens the pofitive and higher

eledlricity,

and ftrengthens the

influential negative atmofphere,

OBSERVATION
Feb. igib,

XXVIII.
and gentle fnow

1788.

Wind

S.

W.

continued falling for feveral hours.

The

eledlro-

meter diverged about an inch

pofitively.

OBSER-

ON ELECTRICITY.

llj

OBSERVATION
Feb. 2.0th,

XXIX.

1788.

Wind

E.

No

froft

but a

very thick mift.

tively.

Gold

leaf ftruck the fides pofi-

OBSERVATION
March
5/y??,

XXX.
and gentle fnow

1788.

Wind S. W.

continued falling from noon to

five o'clock, the ap-

paratus was elevated five times, and the gold leaf

ftruck the fides pofitively.

OBSERVATION
March
lain

XXXI.
E.

isth,

1788.

Wind N.

Snow had
froft,
fleet.

on the ground about a week, with hard

it

but now

was thawing and there

fell

fome

The

gold leaf flowly ftruck the

fides negatively.

OBSERVATION
March
caft
i^th.,

XXXII.
E.
brifk.

iy^%.

Wind N.

Over-

but

fair.

Eledlricity infenfible with the candle,

never obfervcd fo weak before.

OBSERVATION
March
iijl,

1788.

Wind W.

XXXIII. One o'clock.

little

fhower of hail came on which caufed the eold

leaf to ftrike violently pofitive.

before the

fhower ceafed

it

changed and ftruck negatively, and

continued negative after the hail ceafed and the fun

fhone for more than half an hour, flowly decreafing,

OBSER-

128

NEW EXPERIMENTS

OBSERVATION
March
lift,

XXXIV.
Three o'clock
laft,
till

1788.

Wind W.

in the afternoon.

large cloud fucceeded the

the negative ftate of the air having continued

the cloud approached, which changed the elediricity

to pofitive,

when being engaged

this

cloud could

not be examined.

At

four o'clock a very large

cloud came with rain, the eleftricity was found

ftrongly negative, the eledrometer could not

come

within 12 inches of

its

ufual poiition without endan-

gering the gold leaf j towards the end of the fhower

it

changed from negative to pofitive

feveral times.

Once
7d\6.

the change only lafted whilft the gold open'd

clofed.

At

laft it

continued to ftrike negative-

ly whilft

the fky cleared, decreafing for about a

it

quarter of an hour,
fair,

then changed to politive now

but a cloud approaching.

Hour. Min.

4
.

30
31

Eledriclty pofitive.
fing.

Half open

decrea-'

Clofed.

The

cloud approaching

faft.

33

Opening

negatively.

The edge of

the

cloud nearly over.

34
38

Still

opening negative very flowly.

very calm.

No

rain,

Little

more opened. Cloud appears more

broken.

41

Slowly decreafing.

43

ON ELECTRICITV.
Hour* Min.

I29

43

A few

drops of rain.

Gold

leaf almoft

clofed.

45
48

Qiiite clofed.

No rain.

Sunfhines thro'

a part of the cloud.

Still clofed.

50
^6

Opening

pofitlvely.

No

rain.

Standing at half an inch pofitively.

Slowly decreaiing.
vier.

Cloud appears hea-

4
9
17

Quarter of an inch
cloud
ftill

pofitlve.

No

rain,

blacker.

Few

drops of rain.

Eledricity the fame.

No

drops.

Eledricity rather increafed.

flowly.

Cloud coming

19

Gold

leaf diverges half an Inch pofitive.

rain.

No
21

Gold
Quite

leaf rather decreafing.

clofed.

23

No

rain.

Cloud heavy.
rain.

25

Opening

negative.

No

26
29

Half an
Clofed.

inch negative.

Rather wider.

No rain.

Cloud

ftill

over.

30
31

Darker.
pofitively.

Opening

32 33

Strikes flowly.

Striking quick pofitively, yet no rain.

34
35

Eledlrometer ftrikes at twelve Inches from

the wire.
'

^6

A A

little rain.

clap of thunder, and fudden ftart of

gold

leaf,

yet pofitlve.
i

37

130
Hour. Mln.

NEW EXPERIMENTS
Raining
Hailing

1^

fafter.
faft,

Still pofitive.
ftill

38

pofitive,

and ftriking

at twelve inches dillant.

39

Remarkable ftrong
twelve inches.

hail,

ftriking quick at

42

Still hailing.

Eledlricity ditto.
Ele6lricity weaker. to negative,

44
45

Still

large hail.

Changed quick
Hail

and ftriking

at twelve inches diftance.

46
47

lefs.

Eledlricity rather weaker.

Hail ceafed.

Eledricity only opens ne-

gatively at three inches diftance.

49 50
52

Fair.

Eledrometer

in

contadl with the

wire

now

pofitive.

Gold

leaf juft ftrikes the fides pofitively.

flafti

of lightning and crack quickly

following.

fudden ftroke of the

it

gold leaf which changed

to negative.

54
^S

Striking negatively.

Eledlrometer removed to the diftance of

1

2 inches,

where

it

ftrikes

quick nega-

tively.

C)()

Striking

more

flowly negative.
ftriking negatively.

Eledrometer replaced
Still fair.

Striking rather flower.

Still flower,

and yet

fair.

Gold

leaf ftands about an inch wide ne-

gatively.

ON ELECTRICITY.
Hour. MIn.

I3I

'

7
8

Clofed, and then opening pofitively.

One

inch pof.

Small rain

falling.

9
II

Strikes the fides pofitively.

Decreafing.
Clofed.

Rain ceafed.
fair.

12

Quite

The
tricity
;

firft

thunder clap did not change the

it

elec-

the fecond changed

from pofitive to ne,

gative, contrary to former obfervations

this

muft

depend

in

fome meafure on the

difl:ance.

OBSERVATION XXXV.
April iph, 1788.

Wind

S.

W.

Nine o'clock in the morning. Sky perfedly clear having been

without clouds fince the evening before.

The gold

leaf diverged about half an inch pofitively.

At

twelve o'clock the fame day the divergency

was only about a quarter of an inch, and the fame

at eleven o'clock at night.

OBSERVATION
April 30/^, 1788,
gentle.
in a fpace

XXXVI.
very

The wind N. E. and

in inches

An hygrometer of whipcord,
of i6 inches, marked

which moved

and eights

moift and dry, reckoning up and down from the

middle of the fpace, ftood

at 6

dry.

The

appa-

ratus was elevated at 3 o'clock, afternoon, and the

gold leaf opened half an inch pofitively.

At

half

pad

8 o'clock the

hygrometer was
I 2

rifen

about an
inch,

i32

MEW EXPERIMENTS
The

inch, and the gold leaf open'd (o wide as nearly to

flrike the fide.

weather

all

the time quite fe-

rene.

The

frilling

of the dew appeared to increafe

the divergency of the gold leaf.

OBSERVATION
A'lay ly?,

XXXVII.
in the

1788.

Seven o*clock

morning.
clear.

Wind N. E. gentle, ferene, and perfedtly The hygrometer 3 ^ dry. The gold leaf
ftruck the fide pofitively.

nearly

About
fitively,

1 1

o'clock the fame day, hygrometer 5

dry, the gold leaf

ftill

now opened cnly

and hot.

half an inch po-

clear

At

12 o'clock the wind changed to S.

W.
lefs

yet

very clear and hot.

quarter of an inch.

The

divergency was
I

than

Hygrometer 6

dry.

At

o'clock, the wind S.

Divergency i-i6th

of an inch.

At

2 o'clock the eleftricity quite infenfible, clear,

and very hot.

Hygrometer

7 dry.

At

3 o'clock

the gold leaf open'd

of an inch

pofitively.

A
I

few white clouds appear'd.

Hy-

grometer 7

dry.

At

5 o'clock, clouds fomewhat darker.

Diver

gency quarter of an inch.

Hygrometer 7

dry.

At

ON ELECTRICITY.
calm. 7 oVlock, fewer clouds, very gency half an inch. Hygrometer 6 i dry.

133
Diver-

At

Hygrometer 5 6-8ths dry. Divergency only quarter of an inch. Sky now clear.
Half
paft 8 o'clock.

Eleven o'clock
dry.

at night.

Hygrometer

5 6-8ths

Clear and calm.

Divergency half an inch.

OBSERVATION
Mny
N. E.
c^th^

XXXVIII.

1788.

'Half paft 4 afternoon.

clear
all

Wind

Having been

day.

Hygrometer

6 4-8ths drv.

Divergency

inch politive.

At
5
I

nine o'clock in the evening,

Hygrometer

dry.

Barom. 29.

3.

Clear and calm.

The

gold leaf flowly ftrikes the fides pofitively.

OBSERVATION
May
6th ^

XXXIX.
o'clock at night.
dry.
a

1788.
2.

Near twelve
5

Barom. 29.

Hygrometer

An

heavy

fliower of rain lafted about half an hour, durino:

which the gold leaf continued ftriking pofitively,

and

after the rain ceafed

it

continued a long time

ftriking pofitively,

and never changed to negative.

it is

Since the weather had been fo long dry,

bable that the
air

pro-

was not

fufficiently

moift to con-

duct away the electricity, which wou'd have been

otherwife repelled

by the atmofphere of the cloud.

OBSER^

134

NEW EXPERIMENTS

OBSERVATION
May-iythy 1788.
Barom.

XL. The wind N. E. whence

rain.
air

it

had blown above a week without

ter 5 dry.

Hygromeundoubtedly

29. 2.

The

very dry. ed
in the

The

flips

of Dutch metal were fufpend-

middle of a room as before defcribed, and

bottle

when the charged

ftrike the

was prefented the

flips

of

metal flood diverging and cou'd not be made to

knob

as ufual,

which

fliews that a certain

degree of moifl:ure in the

periment.

air is neceflary to this ex-

OBSERVATION
May
i^th^

1788.

Barom. 29.

XLI. Hygrome15.
o'clock

ter 5 dry.

Clouds moving flowly from the north

in the fouth.
at half paft 2

and thickening

the apparatus was elevated, and the eledrometer

ftruck the fides flowly pofitive for fome time, then

ftood

flill

at

about an inch wide, and then flarted

feveral

clofer or wider

times, which was probably

occafioned by diflant thunder.

Hour. Min.

45

fudden change to negative,

which

open'd half an inch, and then clofed

50

and became pofitive. Opening and clofmg pofitively.

in the fouth.

Darker

p,^

About

quarter of an inch pofitive.

56

4
ON ELECTRICITY,
Hour MIn

J35

.2

56

Suddenly ftruck the

then ftood at
\

fide pofitlvely.

and

of an inch.

SI
>

Clofed.

58

Very

jflowly

opening negative.

More

clouds.

59
3

An

inch wide negative.

Suddenly collapfed, and then ftruck the

fides negatively.

Strikes flowly negative.

Suddenly

pofitive,

then clofed and open'd

negative.

.-

4
5

Clofed fuddenly, and then again open'd

negative.

Suddenly changed
clofed

to pofitive,

and then

and open*d negative.

pofitive,

Suddenly changed to
ftriking negatively.

and then

Diftant thunder heard, and the changes

of eledricity were fo quick that they

could not be dldindlly noted,
15

A flafh

of lightning.
flafii,

17

Another

and change from negative

to pofitive, and at the

fame

inftant a

loud clap.

18

flafli,

and

Inftant

change from negative

to pofitive.

19

Flafh and inftant change.

Flafii

20

and clap, fudden

to pofitive.
1

clofing,

but no

change

''-3

136

'

NEW EXPERIMENTS
Sudden change
tinued

Hour. Min.

25

to

pofitive,

which congradually

fome

time,

then

changed
rain.

to negative.

Darker but no

27

Sudden change

to pofitive.

30
31

very flow change from negative to po*

fitive.

Beginning to

rain.

Striking quick pofitively.

32

Thunder
Flafh.

heard.
pof.

Clofing,

then fuddcn

opening

Rain
cloie

ceafed.

^5

Sudden
rain.

without changing,

more
37

Negative.

Flafn and fudden change to pofitive.

45

Heavy

rain.

Slowly opening pofitively.

46
50

Striking flowly pofitive.

Raining

faft.

Sudden change
heard.

to negative,

and thunder

^5

Standing negative, then fuddenly ftriking

negative, and prefently again flopping

without changing.

Diftant thunder.

Rain

ceafed.

o
10

Opening flowly negative with

motion
Still
till it

waving

ftrikes.

waving negative.

No

rain.

Sky

cover'd with cloud.

15

little rain.

Changing

flowly to pofi-

tive.

22

Rain ceafed,
motion.

ftill

pofitive without a

waving

30

ON ELECTRICITY.
Hour. Min.

I37

30

Changed

{lowly to negative, without any

perceptible charge of weather.

2^
38

Several changes without rain, except at

the diftance of two miles.

5
-

Another change
Small
rain,
ftill
,

to negative.

43
48

negative.
ftriking negative
,

Slowly raining

then

waving and

ftarting.
ftill

50
52

Raining

fafter,

ftriking negatively.

Diftant thunder,
eleftricity.

without changing the

54 o
I

Raining
Still

faft,

ft-ill

negative.
electricity negative.

raining

faft,

and

Suddenly changed
abating.

to

pofitive.

Rain

Rain
Fair,

ceafed,

ftill

pofitive.

4
10

and gold leaf ftriking

clearing.

pofitively.

Sky
-

Still

clearer.

Politlve

eledlricity

de-

creafins^.

OBSERVATION
Mi-y 24/^,

XLII.
Badry.

1788.

Ten

o'clock at night.

rometer 29. 05.

Hygrometer 6

Very calm

and

clear, with a

very bright aurora borealis.

field,

The
and

atmofpheric

apparatus was carried into a

the ele(5lrometer confifted of a needle and a fpider's

thread, with a very fmall bit of gold leaf faften'd
to oiie end and both the needle

and

fpider's thread

were

138

NEW EXPERIMENTS
of gold leaf were ufually fattened.
alfo

were fufpended by means of the peg to which the

flips

The fame

apparatus was

elevated in

its

ufual place, but

tho' the fpider's thread open'd flowly and ftruck the

fides pofitively,

yet no agitation or other motion

happened, by which the eledricity of the aurora

borealis could be diftinguifhed
eledlricity

from the common

of ferene

air.

OBSERVATION
May
Barom.
2Sth,

XLIII.
at night, quite

1788.

Eleven o'clock

calm and

clear, a little

appearance of aurora borealis.

7
1.

29. c6.

Hygrometer

The

fpider's

thread flrikes the fide, but not fo often as the evening before.

OBSERVATION
July 4tb,
rizon, and

XLIV.

1788.
it

large cloud cover'd the ho-

continued raining about two hours,

its

during which time the funnel without

lantern

was elevated, and the gold leaf changed

city ten times,

its ele(5tri-

beginning and ending pofitively,

OBSERVATION
July ^th^
pafTed over
\

XLV.

1788.

Large dark clouds frequently

therefore about 2 o'clock in the after-

noon a

kite was raifed, with a foften'd brafs wire in

the firing about 200 yards long.

When

the kite

had been

flying about an hour, a dark cloud ap-

peared at a great diftance, and changed the eledri^

city

ON ELECTRICITY.
city

13^
till

from

pofitlve to negative,

which increafed

the cloud

came

nearly over, and fome large drops

ftring

of
I

rain fell,

and to fecure the

tie it

from being wet

fide

endeavoured to
it

on the oppofite
;

of a poll

to which

was before faftened

firing
I

but when

my hand

came near the

that

received fo fevere a fhock

my arm

was deprived of fenfatlon during a few

I

feconds, and
firfl

was obliged to

let

the firing go,

terrified at

the fuppofed lofs of

my

left

arm,

and then gratefully rejoicing

fenfibility after

to feel the returning

rubbing with the other hand.

The

explofion was heard at the diflance of about

like the loud cracck

40 yards

of a whip.

The

kite was raifed

often before and fince this time, but without any

remarkable appearance.

OBSERVATION
July 30//^,

XLVI.
Badry.

1788.
5.

Ten

o'clock at night.

rometer 29.

Hygrometer 4 6-8ths

The
made

fky clear and very calm.

bright.

The

aurora borealis very

The

apparatus with an eledrometer

of a

fpider's thread,

was elevated, but no irregular

motion, or extraordinary quantity of eledricity was

perceived.

OBSERVATION
Jugujl i6ih, lySS.
S.

XLVII.
o'clock.

About 12

Wind

W.
as
i

A large and well defined cloud

it

pafTed over,

which
tively

approached open'd the gold leaf pofihalf over

it

when about

changed and be-

came

140

NEW EXPERIMENTS
whilft

came negative

very heavy drops of rain

fell.

The

gold leaf continued ftrlking negatively to the

fhovver,

end of the

and then continued dimlnifhing

about 20 minutes after the rain ceafed.

OBSERVATION
Auguft 2^th, 1788.
afternoon.

XLVIII.
i

Between

and 2 o'clock,
62".

Barometer 29. 02.

dry.

Thermometer

Hygrometer 6

Two

clouds pafil-d over, but

not quite perpendicularly, and the eledricity was

wholly negative, and continued negative during the

intervals
;

a third pafied

fome what nearer and began

;

negatively, but ended pofitively

ftill

a fourth

came

nearer and blacker, which began and ended

wholly pofitive.
the
firft

No

rain

fell

during the pafTage of

whilil;

iaft,

and only a fmall quantity

the two

were pailing.

OBSERVATION
Auguft
in the
2i^th^

XLIX.
Therm.
60.

1788.

Between 10 and 12 o'clock

morning.

Barometer 29. 02.

Hygrometer
one
fide,

5 6-8ths dry.

Two

clouds pafTed on
;

which eledrified the apparatus negatively

fell,

a fmall quantity of rain

and more

at a diftance

a third cloud

came

diredlly over,
till

and then the gold

leaf open'd pofitively

It

was about half over,

rain.

and then

it

became negative without

OBSER.

ON ELECTRICITY.

I4I

OBSERVATION
Jan. i^th^
ing.

L.
in

1789.

Eleven o'clock
8.

the morn-

Wind
I
J"

E.

Barometer 28.

Thermometer

on

the north fide of the houfe

26 degrees.

Hy-

grometer

dry, having been fro fly and the

ground

cover'd with fnovv for feveral weeks.

The wind
Another

now

ftrong and fnowing

faft.

The
a

gold leaf con-

tinued llowly ftriking the fides pofitlvely.

obfervation was
I

made during

fhower of fnow which

omitted to note down, but found feveral changes

as in fliowers

from pofitive to negative

of

rain.

FINIS.

^-

L.