1.Language and its three parts.

Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflexions of reality and exchanging them in the process of human communication. Language is social by nature. It develops together with the development of society. Language includes 3 parts: 1. The phonological system 2. The lexical system 3. The grammatical system Only the unity of these systems forms a language without any of them there is no human language. 2.The grammatical system of language. The grammatical system is studied by the science o grammar which gives the grammatical description of language. This system is the whole set of regularities for forming the combination of naming means into utterances which are the embodiment of thinking process. 3.The place of theoretical grammar in the system of language studies.4.The aim of theoretical grammar. Grammar may be practical and theoretical. The aim of practical grammar is the description of grammar rules that are necessary to understand and formulate sentences. The aim of theoretical grammar is to offer explanation for these rules. Generally speaking, theoretical grammar deals with the language as a functional system. The aim of theoretical grammar of language is to present a theoretical description of its grammatical system that is too scientifically analysed and define its grammatical categories and to study the mechanisms of grammatical phonation of utterances out of words in the process of speech making. The main aim of theoretical grammar is to present a theoretical description of the grammatical system of the English language. language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality. Grammatical system of the language consists of morphology and syntax. Grammatical elements of language preserve unity of meaning and form in the formation of utterances. The main notions of theoretical grammar are grammatical form, grammatical meaning and grammatical categories. 5.The grammatical meaning and the grammatical form. Notional words possess some morphemic features expressing grammatical (morphological) meanings, which determine the grammatical form of the word. The grammatical form is not confined to an individual word, but unites the whole class of words, so that each word of the class expresses the corresponding grammatical meaning together with its individual, concrete semantics. Thus, the grammatical form presents a division of the words on the principle of expressing a certain grammatical meaning. The grammatical meaning is the most general and abstract meaning which units words or phenomena into the same class. The peculiarity of the grammatical meaning is that it is never named in the word itself.

6.The difference between the grammatical meaning and the lexical meaning. The Lexical meaning is the individual meaning of the word (e.g. table). The Grammatical meaning is the meaning of the whole class or a subclass. For example, the class of nouns has the grammatical meaning of thingness. If we take a noun (table) we may say that it possesses its individual lexical meaning (it corresponds to a definite piece of furniture) and the grammatical meaning of thingness (this is the meaning of the whole class). Besides, the noun table has the grammatical meaning of a subclass countableness. Any verb combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of verbiality the ability to denote actions or states. An adjective combines its individual lexical meaning with the grammatical meaning of the whole class of adjectives qualitativeness the ability to denote qualities. Adverbs possess the grammatical meaning of adverbiality the ability to denote quality of qualities. There are some classes of words that are devoid of any lexical meaning and possess the grammatical meaning only. This can be explained by the fact that they have no referents in the objective reality. All function words belong to this group articles, particles, prepositions, etc. 7.Categorial grammatical meanings. There are also the so-called categorical grammar meanings which are connected with the grammatical categories of parts of speech. Ex: boy-boys (sing-pl); boy-boys(nominative-possessive). The grammatical categories can be vividly seen on the basis of the grammatical oppositions of the different grammatical forms of the same word. For example: the category of tense of English verbs is exposed by the opposition of free forms: go-went-gone; big-bigger-biggest. 8.Dependent grammatical meanings. Sometimes a grammatical meaning does not possess a grammatical form of its own. In such cases the grammatical meaning is expressed through the form of some related category. For example: the grammatical idea of countability and uncountability is expressed through its relation to the category of number of nouns. Such grammatical meaning are called dependent and they dont constitute a grammatical category. The grammatical form is realized through morphemic composition of the word. For ex.: played-2 morpheme. The dependent grammatical meaning is the meaning of a subclass within the same part of speech. For instance, any verb possesses the dependent grammatical meaning of transitivity/intransitivity, terminativeness/non-terminativeness, stativeness/non-stativeness; nouns have the dependent grammatical meaning of contableness/uncountableness and animateness/inanimateness. The most important thing about the dependent grammatical meaning is that it influences the realization of grammatical categories restricting them to a subclass. Thus the dependent grammatical meaning of countableness/uncountableness influences the realization of the grammatical category of number as the number category is realized only within the subclass of countable nouns, the grammatical meaning of animateness/inanimateness influences the realization of the grammatical category of case, teminativeness/non-terminativeness - the category of tense, transitivity/intransitivity the category of voice.

9.Units of language. Six levels of language. Units of language are subdivided into segmental and suprasegmental. Segmental units consist of: Phoneme the smallest phonetic unit in a language that is capable of conveying a distinction in meaning, as the m of mat and the b of bat in English. Morpheme is the elementary meaningful part of the word. A morpheme is built up by phonemes. Word a sound or a combination of sounds that symbolizes and communicates a meaning and may consist of a single morpheme or of a combination of morphemes. Phrase two or more words in sequence that form a syntactic unit that is less than a complete sentence. Sentence a grammatical unit that is syntactically independent and has a subject that is expressed and a predicate that contains at least one finite verb. Text is the combination of separate sentences.

Suprasegmental units do not exist by themselves, they are realized only together with the segmental units. For example: Intonation Stress Pause Patterns of word order

10.The morphemic level of language as compared to the phonemic level. The phonemic level... The phoneme has no meaning. Its function is purely differential. It differentiates morphemes and words as material bodies. The morphemic level. The smallest unit of a word is the morpheme. In the word un/fail/ing/ly we have 4 morphemes. The morpheme is built up by phonemes. It expresses the abstract meaning which is used as a part for more concrete nominative meaning of the word. 11.The lexemic and phrasemic levels of language in comparison. Lexemic level. The smallest unit is the word. It is a naming unit of language it names things and their relations. For ex: terra; terrible; terrific; terrify; though these words more than one morpheme each, still they are the smallest units which name respectably a certain feeling, properties action. Phrasemic level. The smallest unit is the phrase. The phrase is a combination of 2 or more words. It has a nominative function to like the word. For ex: 1.a beautiful village the thing with its quality given; 2.to start suddenly the action with its properties given; 3.extremely difficult a quality with its degree given.

12.The proposemic level as compared to the phrasemic level. The textual level of language. Phrasemic level. The smallest unit is the phrase. The phrase is a combination of 2 or more words. It has a nominative function to like the word. For ex: 1.a beautiful village the thing with its quality given; 2.to start suddenly the action with its properties given; 3.extremely difficult a quality with its degree given. Proposemic level. The smallest unit is the sentence. The peculiar character of the sentence is that it combines 2 functions: 1. Nomination because it names a situational event; 2. Predication because it shows the relation of this event to reality. It may show if the event is real/unreal, desirable/undesirable, stated as a truth. For ex: 1. To receive an action 2. To receive a letter a phrase 3. In June I received a letter from Peter a sentence Textual level. The smallest unit is the text. The text is a combination of separate sentences. 13.Morphology and Syntax. The subject of their study. The 2 main notions of grammatical description are: The notion of the word which is analysed by Morphology The notion of the sentence which is analysed by the Syntax

14. The study of the morphemic structure of the word in traditional grammar. In traditional grammar the study of the morphemic structure of the word was conducted in the light of the two basic criteria: positional (the location of the marginal morphemes in relation to the central ones) and semantic or functional (the correlative contribution of the morphemes to the general meaning of the word).

The combination of these two criteria in an integral description has led to the rational classification of morphemes that is widely used both in research linguistic work and in practical-lingual tuition .In accord with the traditional classification, morphemes on the upper level are divided into root-morphemes (roots) and affixal-morphemes (affixes). The roots express the concrete, "material" part of the meaning of the word, while the affixes express the specificational part of the meaning of the word, the specifications being of lexicosemantic and grammatico-semantic character. The roots of notional words are classical lexical morphemes. The affixal morphemes include prefixes, suffixes, and inflexions (in the tradition of the English school grammatical inflexions are commonly referred to as "suffixes"). Of these, prefixes and lexical suffixes have word-building functions, together with the root they form the stem of the word; inflexions (grammatical suffixes) express different morphological categories. The root, according to the positional content of the term (i.e. the border-area between prefixes and suffixes), is obligatory for any word, while affixes are not obligatory. Therefore one and the same morphemic segment of functional (i.e. non-notional)status, depending on various morphemic environments, can in principle be used now as an affix (mostly, a prefix), now as a root

15. The difference between the grammatical suffix and the lexical suffix. The typical morphemic composition of Modern English Word. Grammatical suffixes form word-changing, or morphological paradigms of words, which can be observed to their full extent in inflectional languages; morphological paradigms exist, e.g., the number paradigm of the noun: boy - boys. Lexical affixes are primarily studied by lexicology with regard to the meaning which they contribute to the general meaning of the whole word. In grammar word-building suffixes are studied as the formal marks of the words belonging to different parts of speech; they form lexical (word-building, derivational) paradigms of words united by a common root, cf.: to decide - decision - decisive - decisively to incise - incision - incisive incisively The morphemic composition of modern English words has a wide range of varieties; in the lexicon of everyday speech the preferable morphemic types of stems are root-stems (one-root stems or two-root stems) and one-affix stems. With grammatically changeable words, these stems take one grammatical suffix {two "open" grammatical suffixes are used only with some plural nouns in the possessive case, cf.: the children's toys, the oxen's yokes). Thus, the abstract complete morphemic model of the prefix + root + lexical suffix+ grammatical suffix. In English there are very few grammatical suffixes: 1.s : - plural nr of nouns; - the possessive case; - the 3rd person singular present of verbs. 2.-ed : -past tense of the verb; -participle II of the verb; 3.-ing : -gerund; - participle I. 4.-er, -est : - the comparative and superlative degrees of comparison of adjectives and adverbs. common English word is the following:

16. The study of morphemes by Descriptive Linguistics: principles, analysis, types of distribution. In the current linguistic research we widely use an approach put forward by the grammar school Descriptive Linguistics .It was founded by professor Bloomfield . The descriptive scholars described lingual units by means of distributional analysis .The aim of which is to identify and study the units of language in relation to their texture environment. The environment may be right and left .It should be noted that descriptive linguistics recognize as the basis category of linguistically morpheme not the phone and the morpheme not like in the traditional grammar. Their study is divided in 2 stages: 1. They have a text and divide it into segments consisting a phonemes .these segments are called morphs: the/boot/s/were/gain/ing/speed 2. They establish environment of features of the morphs. These feature make it possible to discriminate the 3 main types of the distribution of morphs in the text: a) The contrastive distribution b) The non contrastive distribution c) The complementary distribution The contrastive distribution concerns the identical environment of the morphs which have different meanings. Such morphs constitute different morphemes: returned and returning The morphs ed and ing stand in contractive distribution. The morphs are to be in non-contrastive distribution if their environment and meaning are the same such morphemes constitute free variants of the same morphemes. eg. learned and learnt ed and t are free variants of the past tense morpheme. Complementary distribution concerns different environments of formally different morphs which are united by the same meaning. Ex: /s/ /z/ /iz/ these morphs have the same meaning plural nr, they are the socalled allomorphs of the plural morpheme which stands in phonemic complementary distribution The plural allomorphs /en/ in children stands in the morphemic complementary distribution with the other allomorphs of the plural morpheme.

17. The Distributional Classification of Morphemes: If we apply the distributional analysis to the morphemic level, we can discriminate different types of morphemes. The distributional classification in no way avoids the traditional classification. It is rather a supplement to it. In this classification, the morphemes are arranged in pairs, which are distinguished on the basis of five different principles: Principle I: Degree of Self-dependence

We distinguish free and bound morphemes. Free morphemes can build up words by themselves , bound- can not. Ex: handful- hand- free; ful- bound; Principle II: Formal Presentation

On the basis of this principle we distinguish overt and covert morphemes. Cover are zero morphemes, they are not represented in writing. Ex: Clocks - Clock and s are overt; clock- Clock is overt and - is covert Principle III :Segmental Relation

-Segmental morphemes -Supra-segmental morphemes (intonation, word-stress etc.)

Principle IV: Grammatical Alternation

-Additive(outer gramm. Suffixes:look+ed ----ed- is additive) -Replacive ( root morphemes of grammar interchange: drive-drove-driven);

Principle V : Linear Characteristics

-continuous (uninterabtely expressed looks) -discontinuous (two elements having analytical form, can be symbolically exposed: Be ing- continuous Haveen perfect form Be en- passive voice)

35.The syntactical peculiarities of the predicative constructions with the non finite forms of the English verb. Non finite forms of the verbs are infinite, gerund, past participle (I and II). These forms of the verb express an action like the finite forms. They do not agree with the subject in person and number and they do not show the time of the action directly. For ex: He enjoys swimming. refers to the present. Non finite forms do not show the time directly. One of the peculiarities of the English sentence structure is the use of the predicative constructions with the non finite forms of the verb. A construction is a combination of 2 elements, one which is a non finite expressing an action, the other element is called nominal and it expresses the doer of this expression. For ex: I hated her to work at that house. Her is the doer; to work is the action (the non finite form of the verb). her to work is a predicative construction. Infinitive constructions: 1. Complex object (objective infinitive construction): I saw him enter the house. 2. Complex subject (subjective infinitive construction) the predicate is always modal: He was seen to enter the house. 3. For-to infinitive construction: Here is a book for you to read. what kind of book? Attribute. For him to leave was impossible. what? Subject. He stepped aside for her to pass. for what purpose? Adverbial modifier of purpose. Gerundial construction: He complained about John coming late. Past Participle has 6 constructions: 1. Objective participial construction: I saw him entering the house. 2. Subjective participle construction: He was seen entering the house. 36.The independent elements in the simple sentence. The parenthetical clause. In the structure of complex sentences there are sometime parenthetical clauses which are independent clauses which are connected with the other clauses, neither by coordination nor subordination. They show the speakers attitude towards the sort expressed in the sentence. No question can be asked to them and usually they can be substituted for the expressions: to my mind; in my opinion; etc. For ex: You are1-, I am afraid,2 in need of medical advice1. This is a crisis , as they say .
1 2

P.2

38.The complex sentence. The object and attributive subordinate clauses. The complex sentence consists of a principle clause and one or more subordinate clauses. 1. The object clause: I wish1 you had come earlier.2

I dont know1 where he is.2

2. An attributive clause serves as an attribute to the antecedent in the principal clause. The attributive clause may be: a) Relative. For ex: The fact1- those men wanted to know2 was visible.1

The antecedents of relative clause may be common or abstract nouns. Relative clauses dont disclose the essence of the antecedent. The relative clause may be: Restrictive. For ex: They went back to the house1 where she lived2. (choice) antecedent is restrictive

Restrictive clauses restrict the meaning of the antecedent. Non restrictive. For ex: He went in alone to the dining room1 where the table was laid for one2. (described) antecedent is non restrictive

Non restrictive clauses give some information about it, so they can be removed from the structure of the sentence without changing the meaning. b) Appositive. For ex: The fact1- that her letter didnt require any answer2 disappointed him.1

The antecedents of appositive clauses are always abstract nouns. Appositive clauses directly review the essence of the antecedent.

39.The types of adverbial subordinate clauses. 1) Adverbial clause of time. When? He died1 when I was 8.2 1 when 2 adv.cl of time 2) Adverbial clause of place and direction. Where? I looked1 where she pointed.2 Im comfortable1 where I am.2

3) Adverbial clause of cause. Why? Since he was talented1/ I advised him to write poems.2/ 2 since 1adv.cl.of cause 4) Adverbial clause of purpose. For what purpose? I stepped back1 so that I should not be seen.2

5) Adverbial clause of condition. On what condition? If you do this again1 I will kill you.2

6) Adverbial clause of concession. In spite of what? He kept on walking1 though he was very tired.2

7) Adverbial clause of result. With what result? Darkness had fallen1 and a strong wind was blowing2, so that the streets were deserted.3 1 and 2 So that 3 adv.cl.of result 8) Adverbial clause of manner. How? She did exactly1 as he told her.2

9) Adverbial clause of comparison. In comparison with what? That happened sooner1 than we expected.2

40.The peculiarities of the sentence structure with the subject and predicative clauses. The structure of the sentences with these types of clauses is very peculiar because in the principle clause there may be no subject or only part of the predicate though the subject and the predicate are principle parts. The subject and predicative clauses are supposed to be subordinate. I am a student. am- is a link verb; a student is the predicative. The problem is how to get there. is the link verb; to get there the predicative. What I want to know1 is how to get there.2 is the link verb; to get there the predicative. 2 1(subject clause.) What I want to know2 is3 how I can get there1. what 2 3 how 1

1 subject clause 2 predicative clause

The composite sentence consist of 2 or more coordinate clauses at least one of which has one or more subordinate clauses. For ex: There was a song in every heart1, and2- if the heart was young3, the music issued at the lips2. 1 and 2 if 3 adv clause of condition